UNIT-III

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
AND TESTING
If failure is considered as change in desired performance - which could involve
changes in properties and/or shape; then failure can occur by many mechanisms as
below.

Mechanisms / Methods by which a can Material can FAIL

Elastic deformation
Creep Chemical / Physical
Fatigue Electro-chemical degradation
Plastic Fracture
deformation degradation
Microstructural
Twinning
changes Wear
Slip Twinning
Corrosion Erosion
Phase transformations
Oxidation
Grain growth

Particle coarsening

2
 Plastic deformation in the broadest sense means permanent
deformation in the absence of external constraints (forces,
displacements) (i.e. external constraints are removed).
 Plastic deformation of crystalline materials takes place by mechanisms
which are very different from that for amorphous materials (glasses).
 Though plasticity by slip is the most important mechanism of plastic
deformation, there are other mechanisms as well. Many of these
mechanisms may act in conjunction/parallel to give rise to the observed
plastic deformation.
Plastic Deformation in Crystalline Materials

Slip Twinning Phase Transformation Creep Mechanisms

(Dislocation
motion) Grain boundary sliding
+ Other Mechanisms
Vacancy diffusion
Grain rotation
Dislocation climb
3
 Tension / Compression

Modes Bending
 Tension/Compression of
Deformation Shear
 Bending
 Shear Torsion

 Torsion
Bendin
g

Deformed configuration
Shea Torsio
r n

Tensio Compressio
n n

4
 In addition to the modes of deformation considered before the following
modes can be defined w.r.t fracture.
 Fracture can be cause by the propagation of a pre-existing crack (e.g. the
notches shown in the figures below) or by the nucleation of a crack during
deformation followed by its propagation.
 In fracture the elastic energy stored in the material is used for the creation
of new surfaces (when the crack nucleates/propagates)

Mode I
Modes
of Mode II
Deformation

Mode III

5
The Uniaxial Tension Test
(UTT)
 One of the simplest test which can performed to evaluate the mechanical
properties of a material is the Uniaxial Tension Test.
 This is typically performed on a cylindrical specimen with a standard ‘gauge
length’. (At constant temperature and strain rate).
 The test involves pulling a material with increasing load (force) and noting the
elongation (displacement) of the specimen.
 Data acquired from such a test can be plotted as: (i) load-stroke (raw data), (ii)
engineering stress- engineering strain, (iii) true stress- true strain. (next slide).
 It is convenient to use Engineering Stress (s) and Engineering Strain (e) as defined
below  as we can divide the load and change in length by constant quantities (A0
and L0). Subscripts ‘0’ refer to initial values and ‘i’ to instantaneous values.
 But there are problems with the use of ‘s’ and ‘e’ (as outlined in the coming slides)
and hence we define True Stress () and True Strain () (wherein we use
instantaneous values of length and area).
 Though this is simple test to conduct and a wealth of information about the
mechanical behavior of a material can be obtained (Modulus of elasticity, ductility
etc.)  However, it must be cautioned that this data should be used with caution
under other states of stress.

6
The Tensile Stress-Strain Curve

Load →
Tensile specimen

Stroke →

Gauge Length → L0
Possible axes

s →
e →
Initial cross sectional area → A0

 →
Important Note

We shall assume cylindrical specimens (unless otherwise

stated) 7
 →
True Stress () and Strain ()
 The definitions of true stress and true strain are based on instantaneous values of
area (Ai) and length (Li).

L
P dL L
    ln
Ai L0
L L0
 Ai → instantaneous area

P L
s e
A0 L0

8
  These are simplified schematics which are close
Schematic s-e and - curves to the curves obtained for some metallic materials
like Al, Cu etc. (polycrystalline materials at room
temperature).
 Many materials (e.g. steel) may have curves
which are qualitatively very different from these
schematics.
 Most ceramics are brittle with very little plastic
deformation.
 Even these diagrams are not to scale as the
strain at yield is ~0.001 (eelastic ~10–3)
[E is measured in GPa and y in MPa  thus
giving this small strains]
 the linear portion is practically vertical and
stuck to the Y-axis (when efracture and eelastic is
drawn to the same scale).

Schematics: not to
ormation gained from the test: scale
Young’s modulus
Yield stress (or proof stress)
Neck
Ultimate Tensile Stress (UTS)
Fracture stress

S- Ultimate Tensile Strength

bscripts:
y- yield, F,f- fracture,
uniform (for strain)/ultimate (for stress)
9
Sequence of events during the tension test
 O  unloaded specimen
 OY  Elastic  Linear Region in the plot (macroscopic linear elastic region)
 Y  macroscopic yield point (there are many measures of yielding as discussed later)
Occurs due to collective motion of many dislocations.
 YF  Elastic + Plastic regime
 If specimen is unloaded from any point in this region, it will unload parallel to OY and
the elastic strain would be recovered. Actually, more strain will be recovered than
unloading from Y (and hence in some sense in the region YF the sample is ‘more
elastic’ than in the elastic region OY).
 In this region the material strain hardens  flow stress increases with strain.
 This region can further be split into YN and NF as below.
 YN  Stable region with uniform deformation along the gauge length
 N  Instability in tension  Onset of necking
True condition of uniaxiality broken  onset of triaxial state of stress (loading remains
uniaxial but the state of stress in the cylindrical specimen is not).
 NF  most of the deformation is localized at the neck
 Specimen in a triaxial state of stress
 F  Fracture of specimen (many polycrystalline materials like Al show cup and cone fracture)

Notes:
 In the - plot there is no distinct point N and there is no drop in load (as instantaneous area has been taken into account in
the definition of ) in the elastic + plastic regime (YF) 10
 The stress is monotonically increasing in the region YF  true indicator of strain hardening
Where does Yielding start?
 Yielding can be defined in many contexts.
 Truly speaking (microscopically) it is point at which
dislocations leave the crystal (grain) and cause microscopic
plastic deformation (of unit ‘b’)  this is best determined from
microstrain (~10–6 ) experiments on single crystals. However,
in practical terms it is determined from the stress-strain plot
(by say an offset as described below).
 True elastic limit (microscopically and macroscopically elastic
→ where in there is not even microscopic yielding)  elastic
Microscopic

 ~10–6 [OA portion of the curve]

 Microscopically plastic but macroscopically elastic →
 elastic
[AY portion of the curve]Macroscopic

 Proportional limit  the point at which there is a deviation from

the straight line ‘elastic’ regime
 Offset Yield Strength (proof stress)  A curve is drawn parallel
to the elastic line at a given strain like 0.2% (= 0.002) to
determine the yield strength.
 In some materials (e.g. pure annealed Cu, gray cast iron etc.) the linear portion of
the curve may be limited and yield strength may arbitrarily determined as the
11
stress at some given strain (say 0.005).
Important Note

 y is yield stress in an un-axial tension test and should not be used in other
states of stress (other criteria of yield should be used for a generalized state
of stress).
 Tresca and von Mices criterion are the two most popular ones.

12
What is meant by ductility?
 Slip is competing with other processes which can lead to failure.
 In simple terms a ductile material is one which yields before failure (i.e. y < f).
 Ductility depends on the state of stress used during deformation.
 We can obtain an measure of the ‘ductility’ of a material from the uniaxial tension
test as follows (by putting together the fractured parts to make the measurement):
 Strain at fracture (ef) (usually expressed as %), (often called elongation, although
it is a dimensionless quantity)
 Reduction in area at fracture (q) (usually expressed as %)
L f  L0 A0  Af L  L0
e f (%)  100 q (%)  100 eu (%)  u 100
L0 A0 L0

‘q’ is a better measure of ductility as it does not depend on the gauge length (L0);
while, ‘ef’ depends on L0. Elongation/strain to necking (uniform elongation) can also
be used to avoid the complication arising from necking.
Also, ‘q’ is a ‘more’ structure sensitive ductility parameter.
 Sometimes it is easier to visualize elongation as a measure of ductility rather than
a reduction in area. For this the calculation has be based on a very short gauge
length in the necked region  called Zero-gauge-length elongation (e0). ‘e0’ can be
calculated from ‘q’ using constancy of volume in plastic deformation (AL=A 0L0).
q
e0  L A0
 
1
e0 
L  L0 A0
  1
1 13 q
 1
1 q L0 A 1 q L0 A 1 q 1 q
What happens after necking?
Following factors come in to picture due to necking:
 Till necking the deformation is ~uniform along the whole gauge length.
 Till necking points on the - plot lie to the left and higher than the s-e plot
(as below).
  s( 1  e) ε ln ( 1  e)
 After the onset of necking deformation is localized around the neck region.
 Formulae used for conversion of ‘e’ to ‘’ and ‘s’ to ‘’ cannot be used after
the onset of necking.
 Triaxial state of stress develops and uniaxiality condition assumed during
the test breaks down.
 Necking can be considered as an instability in tension.
 Hence, quantities calculated after the onset of necking (like fracture
stress, F) has to be corrected for: (i) triaxial state of stress, (ii) correct
cross sectional area.

14
What happens after necking?

Nec
k
Fractured surfaces

15
Important Note

 y is yield stress in an uniaxial tension test and should not be used in other states of stress
(other criteria of yield should be used for a generalized state of stress).
 Tresca and von Mices criterion are the two most popular ones.

16
What is meant by ductility?
 Slip is competing with other processes which can lead to failure.
 In simple terms a ductile material is one which yields before failure (i.e. y < f).
 Ductility depends on the state of stress used during deformation.
 We can obtain an measure of the ‘ductility’ of a material from the uniaxial tension test as
follows (by putting together the fractured parts to make the measurement) :
 Strain at fracture (ef) (usually expressed as %), (often called elongation, although it is a dimensionless quantity)
 Reduction in area at fracture (q) (usually expressed as %) Note: this is ductility in
L f  L0 A0  A f Uniaxial Tension Test
e f (%)  100 q (%)  100
L0 A0
 ‘q’ is a better measure of ductility as it does not depend on the gauge length (L 0); while,
‘ef’ depends on L0. Elongation/strain to necking (uniform elongation) can also be used to
avoid the complication arising from necking. L  L0
eu (%)  u 100
Also, ‘q’ is a ‘more’ structure sensitive ductility parameter. L0

 Sometimes it is easier to visualize elongation as a measure of ductility rather than a

reduction in area. For this the calculation has be based on a very short gauge length in the
necked region  called Zero-gauge-length elongation (e0). ‘e0’ can be calculated from ‘q’
using constancy of volume in plastic deformation (AL=A 0L0).
q L A0 1 L  L0 A0 1 q
e0  L0
 
A 1 q
e0 
L0
  1
A
 1
1  q 171  q
1 q
What happens after necking?
Following factors come in to picture due to necking:
 Till necking the deformation is ~uniform along the whole gauge length.
 Till necking points on the - plot lie to the left and higher than the s-e plot (as below).
 After the onset of necking deformation is localized around the neck region.
 Formulae used for conversion of ‘e’ to ‘’ and ‘s’ to ‘’ cannot be used after the onset of
necking.   s( 1  e) ε ln ( 1  e)
 Triaxial state of stress develops and uniaxiality condition assumed during the test breaks
down.
 Necking can be considered as an instability in tension.
 Hence, quantities calculated after the onset of necking (like fracture stress, F) has to be
corrected for: (i) triaxial state of stress, (ii) correct cross sectional area.

Neck

18
Fractured surfaces
‘True’ values beyond necking
Calculation of true strain beyond necking:
 ‘True’ strain values beyond necking can be obtained by using the concept of zero-gauge-
length elongation (e0). This involves measurement of instantaneous area.

 q   1 
ε ln ( 1  e) Beyond necking ε0 ln( 1  e0 ) ε0 ln  1   ln  
q  1 q   1 q 
e0 
A0  Ai 1 q
q
A0

Note: Further complications arise at strains close to fracture as microvoid nucleation &
growth take place and hence all formulations based on continuum approach (e.g. volume 19
constancy) etc. are not valid anymore.
Cotd.. ‘True’ values beyond necking
Calculation of true Stress beyond necking:
 Neck acts like a diffuse notch. This produces a triaxial state of stress (radial and transverse
components of stress exist in addition to the longitudinal component)  this raises the
value of the longitudinal stress required to case plastic flow.
 Using certain assumptions (as below) some correction to the state of stress can be made*
(given that the state of stress is triaxial, such a correction should be viewed appropriately).
 Assumptions used in the correction*:  neck is circular (radius = R),  von Mises’ criterion
can be used for yielding,  strains are constant across the neck.
 The corrected uniaxial stress (uniaxial) is calculated from the stress from the experiment
(exp=Load/Alocal), using the formula as below.
The Correction

 exp
 uniaxial 
 2R    a 
1   ln  1  
 A    2 R  

20
* P.W. Bridgman, Trans. Am. Soc. Met. 32 (1944) 553.
Fracture stress and fracture strain
 The tensile specimen fails by ‘cup & cone’ fracture
 wherein outer regions fail by shear and inner regions in tension.
 Fracture strain (ef) is often used as a measure of ductility.

Calculation of fracture stress/strain:

 To calculate true fracture stress (F) we need the area at fracture (which is often not readily
available and often the data reported for fracture stress could be in error).
 Further, this fracture stress has to be corrected for triaxiality.
 True strain at fracture can be calculated from the areas as below.

Pf  A0   1 
f   f ln   ln  
Af  Af   1 q f
   

21
Unloading the specimen during the tension test
 If the specimen is unloaded beyond the yield point (say point ‘X’ in figure below), elastic
strain is recovered (while plastic strain is not). The unloading path is XM.
 The strain recovered (  elastic
Y
) is more than that recovered if the specimen was to be
unloaded from ‘Y’ ( elastic
X
)  i.e. in this sense the material is ‘more elastic’ in the plastic
region (in the presence of work hardening), than in the elastic region!
 If the specimen is reloaded it will follow the reverse path and yielding will start at ~X.
Because of strain hardening* the yield strength of the specimen is higher.

* Strain Hardening is also called work hardening →

The material becomes harder with plastic deformation
(on tensile loading the present case)
 We will see later that strain hardening is usually caused
by multiplication of dislocations.

If one is given a material which is ‘at’ point ‘M’, then the

Yield stress of such a material would be ~X (i.e. as we
don’t know the ‘prior history’ of the specimen loading,
we would call ~X as yield stress of the specimen).

22
The blue part of the curve is also called the ‘flow stress’
 Variables in plastic deformation  ,  ,  , T
 In the tension experiment just described the temperature (T) is usually kept constant and
the sample is pulled (between two crossheads of a UTM) at a constant velocity. The
crosshead velocity can be converted to strain rate (  ) using the gauge length (L 0) of the
specimen.  v / L0
 At low temperatures (below the recrystallization temperature of the material, T < 0.4T m)
the material hardens on plastic deformation (YF in the - plot  known as work
hardening or strain hardening). The net strain is an important parameter under such
circumstances and the material becomes a partial store of the deformation energy provided.
The energy is essentially stored in the form of dislocations and point defects.
 If deformation is carried out at high temperatures (above the recrystallization temperature;
wherein, new strain free grains are continuously forming as the deformation proceeds),
strain rate becomes the important parameter instead of net strain.

Range of strain rates obtained in various experiments

Range of strain
Test
rate (/s)
Creep tests 10–8 to 10–5
Quasi-static tension tests (in an UTM) 10–5 to 10–1
Dynamic tension tests 10–1 to 102
High strain rate tests using impact bars 102 to 104 23
Explosive loading using projectiles (shock tests) 10 to 10
4 8
 In the - plot the plastic stress and strain are usually expressed by the expression given
below. Where, ‘n’ is the strain hardening exponent and ‘K’ is the strength coefficient.

Usually expressed as (for plastic)  plastic  K  plastic n 

 ,T

 Deviations from this behaviour often observed (e.g. in Austenitic stainless steel) at low
strains (~10–3) and/or at high strains (~1.0). Other forms of the power law equation are also
considered in literature (e.g.   y  K  plastic n ).
 An ideal plastic material (without strain hardening) would begin to neck right at the onset
of yielding. At low temperatures (below recrystallization temperature- less than about
0.5Tm) strain hardening is very important to obtain good ductility. This can be understood
from the analysis of the results of the uniaxial tension test. During tensile deformation
instability in the form of necking localizes deformation to a small region (which now
experiences a triaxial state of stress). In the presence of strain hardening the neck portion
(which has been strained more) hardens and the deformation is spread to other regions,
thus increasing the ductility obtained.

 For an experiment done in shear on single crystals the equivalent region to OY can further
be subdivided into:
 True elastic strain (microscopic) till the true elastic limit (E)
 Onset of microscopic plastic deformation above a stress of A.
 For Mo a comparison of these quantities is as follows: E = 0.5 MPa, A = 5 MPa and24
0 (macroscopic yield stress in shear) = 50 MPa.
Variables/parameters in mechanical testing

 Process parameters (characterized by parameters inside the sample)

 Mode of deformation, Sample dimensions, Stress, Strain, Strain Rate,
Temperature etc.
 Material parameters
 Crystal structure, Composition, Grain size, dislocation density, etc.

25
 Variables in plastic deformation  ,  ,  , T
K → strength coefficient
  K  n   ,T
n → strain / work hardening coefficient
◘ Cu and brass (n ~ 0.5) can be given large plastic strain more
easily as compared to steels with n ~ 0.15

When true strain is less than 1, the smaller value of ‘n’ dominates over a larger value of ‘n’

 ln   
‘n’ and ‘K’ for selected materials n 
 ln     ,T

Material n K (MPa)
Annealed Cu 0.54 320

Annealed Brass (70/30) 0.49 900

Annealed 0.5% C steel 0.26 530

0.6% carbon steel
0.10 1570
Quenched and Tempered (540C)
26
 At high temperatures (above recrystallization temperature) where strain rate is the
important parameter instead of strain, a power law equation can be written as below
between stress and strain rate.

  A m   ,T
The effect of strain rate is compared by performing tests to a
constant strain
 ln   
m 
A → a constant  ln     ,T
m → index of strain rate sensitivity
◘ If m = 0  stress is independent of strain rate (stress-strain
curve would be same for all strain rates)
◘ m ~ 0.2 for common metals
◘ If m  (0.4, 0.9) the material may exhibit superplastic behaviour
◘ m = 1 → material behaves like a viscous liquid (Newtonian flow)

 Thermal softening coefficient () is also defined as below:

 ln 

 ln T
27
Funda Check  What is the important of ‘m’ and ‘n’

 We have seen that below recrystallization temperature ‘n’ is ‘the’ important parameter.
 Above recrystallization temperature it is ‘m’ which is important.
 We have also noted that it is necking which limits the ductility in uniaxial tension.
 Necking implies that there is locally more deformation (strain) and the strain rate is also
higher locally.
 Hence, if the ‘locally deformed’ material becomes harder (stronger) then the deformation
will ‘spread’ to other regions along the gauge length and we will obtain more ductility.
 Hence having a higher value of ‘n’ or ‘m’ is beneficial for obtaining good ductility.

28
 Slip systems
 In CCP, HCP materials the slip system consists of a close packed direction on a close packed plane.
 Just the existence of a slip system does not guarantee slip  slip is competing against other processes
like twinning and fracture. If the stress to cause slip is very high (i.e. CRSS is very high), then fracture
may occur before slip (like in brittle ceramics).

Crystal Slip plane(s) Slip direction Number of slip systems

FCC {111} ½<110> 12
HCP (0001) <1120> 3
BCC ½[111] 12
{110}, {112}, {123}
Not close packed
NaCl {110} ½<110> 6
Ionic {111} not a slip plane

C
{111} ½<110> 12 29
Diamond cubic
More examples of slip systems

Crystal Slip plane(s) Slip direction Slip systems

TiO2
{101} <101>
Rutile
CaF2, UO2, ThO2
{001} <110>
Fluorite
CsCl <001>
{110}
B2
NaCl, LiF, MgO
{110} <110> 6
Rock Salt
C, Ge, Si
{111} <110> 12
Diamond cubic
MgAl2O4
{111} <110>
Spinel
Al2O3
(0001) <1120>
Hexagonal

30
More examples of slip systems

Crystal Slip plane(s) Slip direction (b) Slip systems

Cu (FCC)
{111} (a/2)< 1 10> 4 x 3 = 12
Fm 3m
{011} 6 x 2 = 12
W (BCC)
{112} (a/2)<11 1> 12 x 1 = 12
Im 3m
{123} 24 x 1 = 24
{0001} 1x3=3
Mg (HCP)
{10 10} (a/3)<1120> 3x1=3
P63/mmc
{10 11} 6x1=6

Al2O3 {0001} 1x3=3

(a/3)<1120>
R 3c {10 10} 3x1=3

NaCl {110} 6x1=6

(a/2)< 1 10>
Fm 3m {001} 6x1=6

CsCl
{110} a<001> 6x1=6
Pm 3m

(100) 1x1=1
Polyethylene
{110} c<001> 2x1=2
Pnam
(010) 1x1=1 31
Critical Resolved Shear Stress (CRSS) What is the connection between Peierls stress and CRSS?

 As we saw plastic deformation by slip is due to shear stresses.

 Even if we apply an tensile force on the specimen  the shear stress resolved onto the slip
plane is responsible for slip.
 When the Resolved Shear Stress (RSS) reaches a critical value → Critical Resolved Shear
Stress (CRSS) → plastic deformation starts (The actual Schmid’s law)


 Force  F 
Stress     
A  A
 Area 1D

Slip plane Slip direction
 F Cos  normal
    
 A / Cos 
A’
 A 
A'  
 RSS  Cos Cos  Cos 

Schmid factor Note externally only tensile

forces are being32
applied
Schmid’s law

Slip is initiated when  RSS  CRSS

CRSS is a material parameter, which is determined from experiments

 CRSS
Yield strength of a single crystal  y 
Cos Cos

33
How does the motion of dislocations lead to a macroscopic shape change?
(From microscopic slip to macroscopic deformation  a first feel!)

 When one bents a rod of aluminium to a new shape, it involves processes occurring at
various lengthscales and understanding these is an arduous task.
 However, at the fundamental level slip is at the heart of the whole process.
 To understand ‘how slip can lead to shape change?’; we consider a square crystal
deformed to a rhombus (as Below).

Net shape change

34
 Step formed
Dislocation
when dislocation
formed by
leaves the crystal
pushing in
a plane  
b

Now visualize dislocations being punched in on successive planes  moving and finally
leaving the crystal
35
36
This sequence of events finally leads to deformed shape which can be approximated to a
rhombus

Net shape change

37
Stress to move a dislocation: Peierls – Nabarro (PN) stress
 We have seen that there is a critical stress required to move a dislocation.
 At the fundamental level the motion of a dislocation involves the rearrangement of bonds 
requires application of shear stress on the slip plane.
 When ‘sufficient stress’ is applied the dislocation moves from one metastable energy
minimum to another.
 The original model is due to Peierls & Nabarro (formula as below) and the ‘sufficient’ stress
which needs to be applied is called Peierls-Nabarro stress (PN stress) or simply Peierls stress.
 Width of the dislocation is considered as a basis for the ease of motion of a dislocation in the
model which is a function of the bonding in the material.

 2w   G → shear modulus of the crystal

   w → width of the dislocation !!!
 PN G e  b 
 b → |b|

38
Click here to know more about Peierls Stress
How to increase the strength?
 We have seen that slip of dislocations weakens the crystal. Hence we have two strategies to
strengthen the crystal/material:
 completely remove dislocations  difficult, but dislocation free whiskers have been
produced (however, this is not a good strategy as dislocations can nucleate during loading)
 increase resistance to the motion of dislocations or put impediments to the motion of
dislocations  this can be done in many ways as listed below.

 Solid solution strengthening (by adding interstitial and substitutional alloying elements).
 Cold Work  increase point defect and dislocation density
(Cold work increases Yield stress but decreases the % elongation, i.e. ductility).
 Decrease in grain size  grain boundaries provide an impediment ot the motion of
dislocations (Hall-Petch hardening).
 Precipitation/dispersion hardening  introduce precipitates or inclusions in the path of
dislocations which impede the motion of dislocations.

Strengthening mechanisms

Precipitate
Solid solution & Forest dislocation Grain boundary
39
Dispersoid
Applied shear stress vs internal opposition
 PN stress is the ‘bare minimum’ stress required for plastic deformation. Usually there will be
other sources of opposition/impediment to the motion of dislocations in the material. Some
of these include :
 Stress fields of other dislocations
 Stress fields from coherent/semicoherent precipitates
 Stress fields from low angle grain boundaries
 Grain boundaries
 Effect of solute atoms and vacancies
 Stacking Faults
 Twin boundaries
 Phonon drag
 etc.
 Some of these barriers (the short range obstacles) can be overcome by thermal activation
(while other cannot be- the long range obstacles).
 These factors lead to the strengthening of the material.

Applied shear stress () Internal resisting stress (i)

40
 Based of if the obstacle can be
Classification of the obstacles to motion of a dislocation overcome by thermal activation

 Athermal    f (T, strain rate)

 These arise from long range internal stress fields
 Sources:
►Stress fields of other dislocations
►Incoherent precipitates

Long range obstacles (G)

Note: G has some temperature
dependence as G decreases with T
Internal resisting stress (i)

Short range obstacles (T)

 Thermal   = f (T, strain rate)
 Short range ~ 10 atomic diameters
 T can help dislocations overcome these obstacles
 Sources:
►Peierls-Nabarro stress
►Stress fields of coherent precipitates & solute atoms 41
Effect of Temperature
 Motion of a dislocation can be assisted by thermal energy.
 However, motion of dislocations by pure thermal activation is random.
 A dislocation can be thermally activated to cross the potential barrier ‘Q’ to the
neighbouring metastable position.
 Strain rate can be related to the temperature (T) and ‘Q’ as in the equation below.
 This thermal activation reduces the Yield stress (or flow stress).
 Materials which are brittle at room temperature may also become ductile at high
temperatures.

 Q 
 
  Ae  kT 
Q
d
   Strain rate
dt

Equilibrium positions of a dislocation

42
 Metallic Very high temperatures
needed for thermal activation
Ionic
to have any effect
Fe-BCC
Fe
W-BCC
W
450
Yield Stress (MPa) →

Al2O3

300 Si Covalent
18-8 SS
Ni-FCC
150 Ni
Cu-FCC
Cu
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6
RT is like HT and P-N T/Tm →
stress is easily overcome
43
What causes Strain hardening? → multiplication of dislocations

Strain hardening
Annealed material Cold work
Stronger material
   
 dislocation ~ (10  10 )
6 9
 dislocation ~ (1012  1014 )

 Why increase in dislocation density ?

 Why strain hardening ? → X
i n g
en
h ard
in
If dislocations were to leave the surface Stra
of the crystal by slip / glide then the
dislocation density should decrease

 →
on plastic deformation →
but observation is contrary to this

This implies some sources of dislocation

44
multiplication / creation should exist  →
Dislocation sources
 It is difficult to obtain crystals without dislocations (under special conditions whiskers have
been grown without dislocations).
 Dislocation can arise by/form:
 Solidification (errors in the formation of a perfect crystal lattice)
 Plastic deformation (nucleation and multiplication)
 Irradiation

Some specific sources/methods of formation/multiplication of dislocations include

 Solidification from the melt

 Grain boundary ledges and step emit dislocations
 Aggregation and collapse of vacancies to form a disc or prismatic loop (FCC Frank
partials)
 High stresses
► Heterogeneous nucleation at second phase particles
► During phase transformation
 Frank-Read source
 Orowan bowing mechanism

45
Strain hardening
 We had noted that stress to cause further plastic deformation (flow stress) increases with
strain  strain hardening. This happens at
 Dislocations moving in non-parallel slip planes can intersect with each other → results in an
increase in stress required to cause further plastic deformation  Strain Hardening / work
hardening
 One such mechanism by which the dislocation is immobilized is the Lomer-Cottrell barrier.

Dynamic recovery

 In single crystal experiments the rate of strain hardening decreases with

further strain after reaching a certain stress level
 At this stress level screw dislocations are activated for cross-slip
 The RSS on the new slip plane should be enough for glide

46
 Formation of the Lomer-Cottrell barrier
1 
 [ 1 1 0]
2  (111)

1  1 
 [1 0 1]  [0 11]
2  ( 1 11) 2  (100 ) 47
 1  1  1 
 [ 1 1 0] +  [1 0 1]  [0 11]
2  (111) 2  ( 1 11) 2  (100 )

[0 1 1]

Lomer-Cottrell barrier →
 The red and green dislocations attract each other and move towards their line of intersection
 They react as above to reduce their energy and produce the blue dislocation
 The blue dislocation lies on the (100) plane which is not a close packed plane
→ hence immobile → acts like a barrier to the motion of other dislocations

48
Impediments (barriers) to dislocation motion

 Grain boundary
 Immobile (sessile) dislocations
► Lomer-Cottrell lock
► Frank partial dislocation
 Twin boundary
 Precipitates and inclusions

 Dislocations get piled up at a barrier and produce a back stress

49
Stress to move a dislocation & dislocation density

Empirical relation  0 → base stress to move a dislocation in the crystal

in the absence of other dislocations
  0  A    → Dislocation density
 A → A constant

↑ as ↑ (cold work)  ↑ (i.e. strain hardening)

 (MN / m2)  ( m/ m3) 0 (MN / m2) A (N/m)

1.5 1010 0.5 10
100 1014 0.5 10

COLD WORK
► ↑ strength
► ↓ ductility
50
Grain size and strength Hall-Petch Relation

 y → Yield stress [N/m2]

k
 y  i   i → Stress to move a dislocation in single crystal [N/m 2]
d  k → Locking parameter [N/m3/2]
(measure of the relative hardening contribution of grain boundaries)
 d → Grain diameter [m]

51
Grain size

645  d → Grain diameter in meters

d  n → ASTM grain size number
(2 n  1 )1010

52
 Effect of solute atoms on strengthening
 Solid solutions offer greater resistance to dislocation motion than pure crystals (even solute
with a lower strength gives strengthening!)
 The stress fields around solute atoms interact with the stress fields around the dislocation to
leading to an increase in the stress required for the motion of a dislocation
 The actual interaction between a dislocation and a solute is much more complex
 The factors playing an important role are:
► Size of the solute more the size difference, more the hardening effect
► Elastic modulus of the solute (higher the elastic modulus of the solute greater the
strengthening effect)
► e/a ratio of the solute
 A curved dislocation line configuration is required for the solute atoms to provide
hindrance to dislocation motion
 As shown in the plots in the next slide, increased solute concentration leads to an increased
hardening. However, this fact has to be weighed in the backdrop of solubility of the solute.
Carbon in BCC Fe has very little solubility (~0.08 wt.%) and hence the approach of pure
solid solution strengthening to harden a material can have a limited scope.

53
 Size effect For the same size difference the
Size difference smaller atom gives a greater
strengthening effect
Size effect depends on:
Concentration of the solute (c)
~c
y 

200 Sn (1.51)
Matrix: Cu (r = 1.28 Å)

Be (1.12)
150
8)
1. 1 3) 5) Solute strengthening of Cu crystal
y (MPa) →

( . 4 . 2
Si l (1 Ni (
1 by solutes of different sizes
A
100

Zn (1.31)

50
(Values in parenthesis are atomic radius values in Å)

Solute Concentration (Atom %) →

54
0 10 20 30 40
 By ↑ i (lattice friction)
X
↑ y

 →
Solute atoms ↑ level of  -  curve

 →
Often produce Yield Point Phenomenon
 →

55
 →
Relative strengthening effect of Interstitial and Substitutional atoms
 Interstitial solute atoms have a non-spherical distortion field and can elastically interact
with both edge and screw dislocations. Hence they give a higher hardening effect (per unit
concentration) as compared to substitutional atoms which have (approximately) a
spherical distortion field.

Relative strengthening effect / unit concentration

Interstitial Non  spherical distortion field

        3Gsolute

Solute atoms

Substitutional  Spherical
  distortion
  field
 Gsolute / 10
56
 Elastic Interstitial → Edge and screw dl.
Substitutional → edge
Long range
Modulus
(T insensitive)
Long range order
Mechanisms of interaction of
Solute-dislocation interaction dislocations with solute atoms
Stacking fault
Short range
Electrical
(T sensitive)

Short range order

57
The hardening effect of precipitates
 Precipitates may be coherent, semi-coherent or incoherent. Coherent (& semi-coherent)
precipitates are associated with coherency stresses.
 Dislocations cannot glide through incoherent precipitates.
 Inclusions behave similar to incoherent precipitates in this regard (precipitates are part of
the system, whilst inclusions are external to the alloy system).
 A pinned dislocation (at a precipitate) has to either climb over it (which becomes
favourable at high temperatures) or has to bow around it.

Glide through the precipitate If the precipitate is coherent with the matrix
Dislocation
Get pinned by the precipitate

58
A complete list of factors giving rise to hardening due to precipitates/inclusions will be considered later
Dislocation Glide through the precipitate
 Only if slip plane is continuous from the matrix through the precipitate 
precipitate is coherent with the matrix.
 Stress to move the dislocation through the precipitate is ~ that to move it in the
matrix (though it is usually higher as precipitates can be intermetallic compounds) .
 Usually during precipitation the precipitate is coherent only when it is small and
becomes incoherent on growth.
 Small Growth Growth Large
   
Coherent Partially coherent Incoherent
 Glide of the dislocation causes a displacement of the upper part of the precipitate
w.r.t the lower part by b → ~ cutting of the precipitate.

59
Schematic views
 edge dislocation glide through a coherent precipitate

b Precipitate particle

60
If the particle is sheared, then how does the hardening effect come about?

 We have seen that as the dislocation glides through the precipitate it is sheared.
 If the precipitate is sheared, then how does it offer any resistance to the motion of the dislocation? I.e.
how can this lead to a hardening effect?
 The hardening effect due to a precipitate comes about due to many factors (many of which are system
specific). The important ones are listed in the tree below.

Increase in surface area due to particle shearing

Hardening effect
Part of the dislocation line segment (inside the
precipitate) could face a higher PN stress

61
Pinning effect of inclusions Orowan bowing mechanism
 Dislocations can bow around widely separated inclusions. In this process they leave
dislocation loops around the inclusions, thus leading to an increase in dislocation density.
This is known as the orowan bowing mechanism as shown in the figure below. (This is in ‘some
sense’ similar to the Frank-Read mechanism).
 The next dislocation arriving (similar to the first one), feels a repulsion from the
dislocation loop and hence the stress required to drive further dislocations increases.
Additionally, the effective separation distance (through which the dislocation has to bow)
reduces from ‘d’ to ‘d1’.

62
Precipitate Hardening effect (Complete List)
The hardening effect of precipitates can arise in many ways as below:
 Lattice Resistance: the dislocation may face an increased lattice friction stress in the
precipitate.
 Chemical Strengthening: arises from additional interface created on shearing
 Stacking-fault Strengthening: due to difference between stacking-fault energy between
particle and matrix when these are both FCC or HCP (when dislocations are split into
partials)
 Modulus Hardening: due to difference in elastic moduli of the matrix and particle
 Coherency Strengthening: due to elastic coherency strains surrounding the particle
 Order Strengthening: due to additional work required to create an APB in case of
dislocations passing through precipitates which have an ordered lattice

63
Strain rate effects
 We had noted that strain rate can vary by orders of magnitude depending on deformation
process (Creep: 10–8 to Explosions: 10–5).
 Strain rate effects become significant (on properties like flow stress) only when strain rate
is varied by orders of magnitude (i.e. small changes in flow stress do not affect the value of the properties much) .
 Strain rate can be related to dislocation velocity by the equation below.

   d b vd  vd → velocity of the dislocations

 d → density of mobile/glissile dislocations
64
 b → |b|
 In a UTT why does the plot not continue along OY (straight line)?
Funda Check

 When stress is increased beyond the yield stress the mechanism of deformation changes.
 Till ‘Y’ in the s-e plot, bond elongation (elastic deformation) gives rise to the strain.
 After ‘Y’, the shear stress resulting from the applied tensile force, tends to move
dislocations (and cause slip)  rather than stretch bonds  as this will happen at lower
stresses as compared to bond stretching (beyond ‘Y’).
 If there are not dislocations (e.g. in a whisker) (and for now we ignore other mechanism of
deformation), the material will continue to load along the straight line OY  till
dislocations nucleate in the crystal.

65
 Deformation Mechanisms
• (Metals)
Theoretical strengths of perfect crystal were
much higher than those actually measured.
• It was believed that this discrepancy in
mechanical strength could be explained by
dislocations.
• On a macroscopic scale, plastic deformation
corresponds to the net movement of large
numbers of atoms in response to an applied
stress.
• Interatomic bonds rupturing and reforming.66
Edge and Screw Dislocations
• In an edge dislocation, localized lattice
distortion exists along the end of an extra
half-plane of atoms.
• A screw dislocation results from shear
distortion.
• Many dislocations in crystalline materials
have both edge and screws components;
these are mixed dislocations.

67
 Dislocation Motion
• Dislocation motion leads to plastic deformation.
• An edge dislocation moves in response to a shear stress applied in a
direction perpendicular to its line.
• Extra half-plane at A is forced to the right; this pushes the top halves
of planes B, C, D in the same direction.
• By discrete steps, the extra 1/2-plane moves from L to R by
successive breaking of bonds and shifting of upper 1/2-planes.
• A step forms on the surface of the crystal as the extra 1/2-plane
exits.

68
Formation
of a step
on the
surface of
a crystal by
the motion
of (a) edge
dislocation
and (b)
screw
dislocation.

69
 Slip

• The process by which plastic deformation is

produced by dislocation motion is called slip
(movement of dislocations).
• The extra ½-plane moves along the slip plane.
• Dislocation movement is similar to the way a
caterpillar moves. The caterpillar hump is
representative of the extra ½-plane of atoms.
70
When metals are plastically deformed, some fraction (roughly 5%)
of energy is retained internally; the remainder is dissipated as heat.
Mainly, this energy is stored as strain energy associated with
dislocations. Lattice distortions exist around the dislocation line.

71
 Slip Systems
• Dislocations move more easily on specific planes and in
specific directions.
• Ordinarily, there is a preferred plane (slip plane), and
specific directions (slip direction) along which dislocations
move.
• The combination of slip plane and slip direction is called
the slip system.
• The slip system depends on the crystal structure of the
metal.
• The slip plane is the plane that has the most dense
atomic packing (the greatest planar density).
• The slip direction is most closely packed with atoms
(highest linear density). 72
 Slip System – FCC example

Slip Plane {111}:

most dense atomic packing, ‹ ›
Slip Direction 110 :
highest linear density,
73
 Stress and Dislocation Motion
• Edge and screw dislocations move in
response to shear stresses applied along a
slip plane in a slip direction.
• Even though an applied stress may be
tensile, shear components exist at all but
the parallel or perpendicular alignments to
the stress direction.
• These are resolved shear stresses (R).
• Crystals slip due to resolved shear stress.
74
Resolved Shear Stress, R 

R = 0

=90°

R =/2

=45°
=45°

R = 0
=90°

R  cos  cos  75
 Critical Resolved Shear Stress
Condition for dislocation motion:  R crss
 R cos  cos 
• In response to an applied tensile or
compressive stress, slip (dislocation movement) in a
single crystal begins when the resolved shear
stress reaches some critical value, crss.
• It represents the minimum shear stress
required to initiate slip and is a property of the
material that determines when yielding
occurs. y 
crss
(cos  cos  ) max 76
Deformation in a single crystal
• For a single crystal in
tension, slip will occur
along a number of
equivalent and most
favorably oriented planes
and directions at various
positions along the
specimen.
• Each step results from the
movement of a large
number of dislocations
along the same slip plane.77
Dislocation Motion in Polycrystals

• On the surface of a polished single crystal,
these steps appear as lines (slip lines).
• Slip planes & directions (, ) change
from one crystal to another.
• R will vary from one crystal to another.
• The crystal with the largest R yields first.
• Other (less favorably oriented) crystals
yield later.

300 m

78
Polycrystalline Copper
 Deformation by Twinning

• In addition to slip (dislocation movement), plastic deformation can

occur by twinning.
• A shear force can produce atomic displacements so that on
one side of the plane (the twin boundary), atoms are located
in mirror image positions to atoms on the other side.
• Twinning may favorably reorient slip systems to promote
79
dislocation movement.
MATERIALS TESTING
 Why are metals tested ?
• Ensure quality
• Test properties
• Prevent failure in use
• Make informed choices in using materials

Factor of Safety is the ratio comparing the

actual stress on a material and the safe
useable stress.
81
 Two forms of testing
• Mechanical tests – the material may be
physically tested to destruction. Will
normally specify a value for properties
such as strength, hardness, toughness,
etc.

• Non-destructive tests (NDT) – samples

or finished articles are tested before being
used.
82
 HARDNESS TESTING
Hardness is the ability to withstand
indentation or scratches

83
Hardness testing machine

• The indenter is
pressed into
the metal

• Softer
materials leave
a deeper
indentation

84
Hardness testing machine

85
 Brinell hardness test
• Uses ball shaped indentor.

• Cannot be used for thin

materials.

• Ball may deform on very

hard materials

• Surface area of indentation

is measured.
86
 Vickers hardness test
• Uses square shaped
pyramid indentor.

• Accurate results.

• Measures length of
diagonal on indentation.

• Usually used on very hard

materials
87
 Rockwell hardness tests
• Gives direct reading.

• Rockwell B (ball) used for soft

materials.

• Rockwell C (cone) uses

diamond cone for hard
materials.

• Flexible, quick and easy to use.

88
 Impact Tests
• Toughness of metals is the ability to
withstand impact.

89
90
 Izod test
• Strikes at 167 Joules.

• Test specimen is held

vertically.

• Notch faces striker.

91
 Charpy impact test
• Strikes form higher
position with 300
Joules.

• Test specimen is held

horizontally.

• Notch faces away from

striker.

92
 Tensile Testing
• Uses an extensometer to apply measured
force to an test specimen. The amount of
extension can be measured and graphed.

• Variables such as strain, stress, elasticity,

tensile strength, ductility and shear strength
can be gauged.

• Test specimens can be round or flat. 93

Extensometer

94
95
Tensile test specimens

96
 Test results
Cup and cone fracture A shear fracture would
signifies a ductile material indicate a brittle material

97
 Producing graphs

Two basic graphs:

• Load / extension graph.

• Stress / strain graph.

98
100
Draw graph for this tensile
test?

101
Identify the straight line part of the graph.

102
 Youngs Modulus (E)
E = Stress
Strain

• Stress = Load
Cross section area
• Strain = Extension
Original length

103
Youngs Modulus for stress –
strain graph
• Select point on elastic
part of graph

• Calculate Youngs
Modulus with this point

E= Stress
Strain

104
Youngs Modulus for Load –
extension graph

105
 Proof Stress
• The stress that causes a % increase in
gauge length.
• It can be found by drawing a line parallel
to the straight part of the graph.
• A value can be taken from the vertical
axis.

106
Proof stress for Load –
Extension graph

107
Proof stress for Stress – Strain
graph

108
 Tensile Strength

Tensile strength = Maximum Load

Cross section area

Maximum load is the highest point on the

graph.

Often called Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS)

109
 Creep

When a weight is hung from a piece of

lead and left for a number of days the lead
will stretch. This is said to be creep.
Problems with creep increase when the
materials are subject to high temperature
or the materials themselves have low
melting points such as lead. Creep can
cause materials to fail at a stress well
below there tensile strength.
110
 Fatigue
• Fatigue is due to the repeated loading and unloading.
• When a material is subjected to a force acting in different
directions at different times it can cause cracking. In time this
causes the material to fail at a load that is much less than its
tensile strength, this is fatigue failure. Vibration for example is a
serious cause of fatigue failure.

• Fatigue can be prevented with good design practice.

1. A smooth surface finish reduces the chance of surface cracking.
2. Sharp corners should be avoided.
3. Corrosion should be avoided as this can cause fatigue cracks.

111