Sanjivani University

School of Engineering and Technology

Department of Computer Science and Engineering

INDIAN KNOWLEDGE SYSTEM

(24UFSIK101)

By,
Sakshi Mane
 UNIT - III

Indian Knowledge System (24UFSIK101) by Sakshi

01/25/2025 2
Mane
 Knowledge Framework and Classifications and Linguistics

The Indian Knowledge System provides a comprehensive approach to

understanding reality and knowledge validation. This unit focuses on ancient
frameworks for classifying knowledge, the means of gaining valid knowledge,
and key concepts in linguistics, including how computational linguistics was
approached in ancient India.

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Indian Scheme of Knowledge
• Parā Vidyā: This refers to higher, spiritual knowledge that pertains to
ultimate truths, such as the nature of the self (ātman), the universe, and
the divine.

• Aparā Vidyā: Lower or material knowledge, dealing with practical subjects

like science, mathematics, linguistics, and daily life.

• Significance: Indian knowledge systems consider both material (Aparā)

and spiritual (Parā) realms equally important for a holistic understanding
of existence.

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The Knowledge Triangle
• Pramāṇa (Means of Valid Knowledge): These are the various ways
in which valid knowledge can be acquired. In Indian philosophy, six
main pramāṇas exist, with perception (pratyakṣa) and inference
(anumāna) being among the most important.

• Prameya (Object of Knowledge): Refers to the objects or subjects

that we seek to know. It is the target of inquiry, which could be physical
objects, mental states, or abstract concepts.

• Pramātṛ (Knower): The individual or subject who is acquiring the

knowledge. Understanding how the knower relates to the known is
central to epistemology in Indian philosophy.

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Prameya: Vaiśeṣikan Approach to Physical Reality

• Vaiśeṣika Philosophy: One of the six orthodox schools of Hindu

philosophy, it emphasizes categorizing the physical world.

• Dravyas (Substances): The fundamental building blocks of reality, like the

elements (earth, water, fire, air, ether) and abstract entities (time, space,
soul, mind).

• Attributes (Guṇas): These are qualities that substances possess, such as

color, taste, and heat.

• Karma (Action): Refers to the movement and activities that lead to

change, conjunction (coming together), and disjunction (separation)
between substances.

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Sāmānya, Viśēṣa, and Samavāya
• Sāmānya (Generality): The universal aspect shared by a group of
things. For example, all trees have certain common characteristics,
which define the category "tree.“

• Viśēṣa (Particularity): The unique attributes that distinguish one

object from another, such as one specific tree from another.

• Samavāya (Inherence): Describes a permanent and inseparable

relationship between a substance and its attributes. For example, color
is inherent in an object and cannot exist without it.

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Pramāṇa: The Means of Valid Knowledge
Six Means of Knowledge:
• Pratyakṣa (Perception): Direct knowledge obtained through the senses.
• Anumāna (Inference): Drawing conclusions from evidence or reasoning.
• Upamāna (Analogy): Gaining knowledge through comparisons and
analogies.
• Arthāpatti (Postulation): Inferring facts based on circumstantial evidence
(e.g., seeing someone gain weight but never eat, one postulates that they
must be eating in secret).
• Anupalabdhi (Non-apprehension): Knowledge gained from the absence of
something (e.g., knowing there is no apple on the table because you do
not perceive one).
• Śabda (Verbal Testimony): Knowledge obtained from trustworthy sources,
including scriptures and experts.

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Saṃśaya: Ambiguities in Existing Knowledge
• Saṃśaya (Doubt): Arises when there are conflicting pieces of information
or when knowledge is incomplete. It plays a critical role in intellectual
inquiry by prompting further investigation.

• Significance: Ambiguity is not necessarily a flaw but a driving force for

deeper exploration and clarity in the pursuit of knowledge.

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Framework for Establishing Valid Knowledge
• Deductive Logic: Involves reasoning from a general principle to specific
instances. Example: "All humans are mortal. Socrates is human. Therefore,
Socrates is mortal.“

• Inductive Logic: Involves making generalizations based on specific

observations. Example: Observing that the sun rises in the east every day,
one concludes that it will always rise in the east.

• Importance: Both methods are crucial for reasoning and arriving at

conclusions in various fields of study.

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Potential Fallacies in Reasoning
• Hasty Generalization: Making a conclusion based on insufficient or biased
evidence.

• False Causality: Assuming one event causes another simply because they
occur together.

• Circular Reasoning: Using the conclusion as part of the premise.

• Equivocation: Misleading with ambiguous terms that have multiple

meanings.

• Impact: Understanding fallacies helps in avoiding errors in reasoning and

developing sound arguments.

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Siddhānta: Established Tenets
•Siddhānta: Refers to conclusions or doctrines that are widely
accepted and established in a particular field. For example, in
mathematics, principles like the Pythagorean theorem are considered
established tenets.

•Application: Siddhānta serves as the foundation for future inquiry and

study in various disciplines.

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Introduction to Linguistics
• Linguistics: The scientific study of language, including its structure, meaning,
and sound.

• Significance in Ancient India: Indian scholars like Panini made significant

contributions to the study of language, which continues to influence modern
linguistics.

• Connection to Knowledge: Language is the primary medium through which

knowledge is transmitted and preserved.

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Aṣṭādhyāyī by Panini
• Aṣṭādhyāyī: A detailed treatise on Sanskrit grammar written by Panini around
500 BCE. It is one of the oldest and most complete linguistic frameworks in
the world.

• Significance: Panini’s grammar is highly systematic and algorithmic in nature,

making it a precursor to modern computational models in linguistics.

• Structure: The Aṣṭādhyāyī consists of over 3,900 rules that define the
structure and formation of words and sentences in Sanskrit.

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Phonetics and Word Generation
• Phonetics: Deals with the sound systems of language. In the context
of Sanskrit, it was critical for ensuring the accurate preservation and
transmission of sacred texts, particularly the Vedas.

• Word Generation: Involves creating meaningful words by combining

roots (dhātus) with prefixes and suffixes according to the rules set by
Panini.

• Relevance: Panini’s methods for word formation are still used today in
the study of Sanskrit and serve as models for modern linguistic
analysis.

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Computational Aspects in Ancient Linguistics

• Panini’s Grammar as an Algorithm: Panini’s grammar can be

considered an early form of computational linguistics. His rules work
much like a computer algorithm, breaking down the structure of
language into manageable and replicable components.

• Modern Relevance: Panini’s work is often studied in the context of

natural language processing (NLP) and computational models of
language. His rule-based system anticipates many techniques used in
contemporary linguistics and AI language models.

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Relevance of Ancient Indian Knowledge Today

• The Indian Knowledge System offers comprehensive frameworks that

remain relevant in fields like logic, reasoning, linguistics, and
computational models.

• The systematic approaches developed by ancient Indian scholars,

especially in linguistics, continue to influence modern science and
technology, especially in fields like artificial intelligence and language
processing.

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