Operating System
Books for references:
Abraham Silberschatz, Peter Baer Galvin, Greg Gagne “Operating
System Concepts Essentials” 2nd Edition
Abraham Silberschatz, Peter Baer Galvin, Greg Gagne “Operating
System Concepts” 9th Edition.
Lecturer
Dr. Anwar Saif Alshamiri
email: [Link]@[Link]
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.1 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Introduction
Operating-System Structures
PROCESS MANAGEMENT
Threads,Process Synchronization,CPU Scheduling,Deadlocks
MEMORY MANAGEMENT
Main Memory, Virtual Memory
PART FOUR STORAGE MANAGEMENT
Mass-Storage Structure
File-System Interface
File-System Implementation
PROTECTION AND SECURITY
Protection, Security
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.2 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Chapter 1: Introduction
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edit9on Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
What is an Operating System?
A program that acts as an intermediary between a user of a
computer and the computer hardware
A program that manages a computer’s hardware
Operating system goals:
Execute user programs and make solving user problems
easier
Make the computer system convenient to use
Use the computer hardware in an efficient manner
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.4 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Computer System Structure
Computer system can be divided into four components:
Hardware – provides basic computing resources
CPU, memory, I/O devices
Operating system
Controls and coordinates use of hardware among various
applications and users
Application programs – define the ways in which the system
resources are used to solve the computing problems of the
users
Word processors, compilers, web browsers, database
systems, video games
Users
People, machines, other computers
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.5 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Four Components of a Computer System
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.6 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
What Operating Systems Do
Depends on the point of view
Users want convenience, ease of use and good performance
Don’t care about resource utilization
But shared computer such as mainframe or minicomputer must
keep all users happy
Users of dedicate systems such as workstations have dedicated
resources but frequently use shared resources from servers
Handheld computers are resource poor, optimized for usability
and battery life
Some computers have little or no user interface, such as
embedded computers in devices and automobiles
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.7 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Operating System Definition
OS is a resource allocator
Manages all resources
Decides between conflicting requests for efficient and
fair resource use
OS is a control program
Controls execution of programs to prevent errors and
improper use of the computer
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.8 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Operating System Definition (Cont.)
No universally accepted definition
“Everything a vendor ships when you order an operating
system” is a good approximation
But varies wildly
“The one program running at all times on the computer” is the
kernel.
Everything else is either
a system program (ships with the operating system) , or
an application program.
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.9 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Computer Startup
bootstrap program is loaded at power-up or reboot
Typically stored in ROM or EPROM, generally known
as firmware
Initializes all aspects of system
Loads operating system kernel and starts execution
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.10 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Storage Definitions and Notation Review
The basic unit of computer storage is the bit. A bit can contain one of two
values, 0 and 1. All other storage in a computer is based on collections of bits.
Given enough bits, it is amazing how many things a computer can represent:
numbers, letters, images, movies, sounds, documents, and programs, to name a
few. A byte is 8 bits, and on most computers it is the smallest convenient chunk
of storage. For example, most computers don’t have an instruction to move a bit
but do have one to move a byte. A less common term is word, which is a given
computer architecture’s native unit of data. A word is made up of one or more
bytes. For example, a computer that has 64-bit registers and 64-bit memory
addressing typically has 64-bit (8-byte) words. A computer executes many
operations in its native word size rather than a byte at a time.
Computer storage, along with most computer throughput, is generally measured
and manipulated in bytes and collections of bytes.
A kilobyte, or KB, is 1,024 bytes
a megabyte, or MB, is 1,0242 bytes
a gigabyte, or GB, is 1,0243 bytes
a terabyte, or TB, is 1,0244 bytes
a petabyte, or PB, is 1,0245 bytes
Computer manufacturers often round off these numbers and say that a
megabyte is 1 million bytes and a gigabyte is 1 billion bytes. Networking
measurements are an exception to this general rule; they are given in bits
(because networks move data a bit at a time).
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.11 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Storage Structure
Main memory – only large storage media that the CPU can access
directly
Random access
Typically volatile
Secondary storage – extension of main memory that provides large
nonvolatile storage capacity
Hard disks – rigid metal or glass platters covered with magnetic
recording material
Disk surface is logically divided into tracks, which are subdivided into
sectors
The disk controller determines the logical interaction between the device
and the computer
Solid-state disks – faster than hard disks, nonvolatile
Various technologies
Becoming more popular
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.12 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Storage Hierarchy
Storage systems organized in hierarchy
Speed
Cost
Volatility
Caching – copying information into faster storage system;
main memory can be viewed as a cache for secondary
storage
Device Driver for each device controller to manage I/O
Provides uniform interface between controller and
kernel
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.13 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Storage-Device Hierarchy
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.14 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Caching
Important principle, performed at many levels in a computer
(in hardware, operating system, software)
Information in use copied from slower to faster storage
temporarily
Faster storage (cache) checked first to determine if
information is there
If it is, information used directly from the cache (fast)
If not, data copied to cache and used there
Cache smaller than storage being cached
Cache management important design problem
Cache size and replacement policy
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.15 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Migration of data “A” from Disk to Register
Multitasking environments must be careful to use most recent
value, no matter where it is stored in the storage hierarchy
Multiprocessor environment must provide cache coherency in
hardware such that all CPUs have the most recent value in their
cache
Distributed environment situation even more complex
Several copies of a datum can exist
Various solutions covered in Chapter 17
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.16 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Operating System Structure
Multiprogramming (Batch system) needed for efficiency
Single user cannot keep CPU and I/O devices busy at all times
Multiprogramming organizes jobs (code and data) so CPU always has one to
execute
A subset of total jobs in system is kept in memory
One job selected and run via job scheduling
When it has to wait (for I/O for example), OS switches to another job
Timesharing (multitasking) is logical extension in which CPU switches jobs
so frequently that users can interact with each job while it is running, creating
interactive computing
Response time should be < 1 second
Each user has at least one program executing in memory process
If several jobs ready to run at the same time CPU scheduling
If processes don’t fit in memory, swapping moves them in and out to run
Virtual memory allows execution of processes not completely in memory
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.17 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
The processor spends a certain amount
of time executing, until it reaches an I/O
instruction; it must then wait until that I/O
instruction concludes before proceeding
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.18 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
There must be enough memory to hold the OS (resident
monitor) and one user program
When one job needs to wait for I/O, the processor can switch
to the other job, which is likely not waiting for I/O
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.19 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Multiprogramming
alsoknown as multitasking
memory is expanded to hold three, four, or more
programs and switch among all of them
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.20 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Operating-System Operations (cont.)
Dual-mode operation allows OS to protect itself and other system
components
User mode and kernel mode
Mode bit provided by hardware
Provides ability to distinguish when system is running user
code or kernel code
Some instructions designated as privileged, only
executable in kernel mode
System call changes mode to kernel, return from call resets
it to user
Increasingly CPUs support multi-mode operations
i.e. virtual machine manager (VMM) mode for guest VMs
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.21 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Modes of Operation
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.22 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Transition from User to Kernel Mode
Timer to prevent infinite loop / process hogging resources
Timer is set to interrupt the computer after some time period
Keep a counter that is decremented by the physical clock.
Operating system set the counter (privileged instruction)
When counter zero generate an interrupt
Set up before scheduling process to regain control or terminate
program that exceeds allotted time
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.23 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Protection and Security
Protection – any mechanism for controlling access of processes or
users to resources defined by the OS
Security – defense of the system against internal and external attacks
Huge range, including denial-of-service, worms, viruses, identity
theft, theft of service
Systems generally first distinguish among users, to determine who
can do what
User identities (user IDs, security IDs) include name and
associated number, one per user
User ID then associated with all files, processes of that user to
determine access control
Group identifier (group ID) allows set of users to be defined and
controls managed, then also associated with each process, file
Privilege escalation allows user to change to effective ID with
more rights
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.24 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
End of Chapter 1
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edit9on Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
