COMPUTATIONAL
PROBLEM
SOLVING
LECTURE – V
UDIT KR. CHAKRABORTY
DEPT. OF COMP. SC. & ENGG.
SMIT
VON NEUMANN ARCHITECTURE
• Typically, based on the functionalities and their flexibilities, computers are
classified into two broad categories:
• Fixed Program Type Computers –
• Specific and fixed functions.
• Cannot be reprogrammed.
• Stored Program Type Computers –
• Programs can be stored.
• Stored programs can be executed, hence reprogrammable.
• The von Neumann Architecture is a stored program computer architecture.
BASIC STRUCTURE
• Proposed by John von Neumann, this architecture allows the computer
to store both instructions and data in the same memory, making
programming easier and computers more flexible.
COMPONENTS
• Memory – Storage of data and instructions allowing easy retrieval.
• Control Unit – Unit managing and controlling the flow of data and instructions
from the CPU to other units.
• ALU – Performs arithmetic and logical operations.
• Input / Output – Devices or methods responsible for input/output of data.
• CPU – Central unit where operations are performed. Consists of ALU and Control
Unit.
• Accumulator – Register that stores intermediate results of operations performed
by the CPU.
KEY PRINCIPLES
[Link] Program Concept: As both data and instructions are stored in the
same memory, the computer becomes programmable and flexible.
[Link] Instruction Execution: Instructions are fetched and executed
one at a time in a specific order, simplifying processing and control.
STAGES
[Link]: The CPU retrieves an instruction from memory.
[Link]: The instruction is translated into signals the computer understands.
[Link]: The CPU performs the instruction (e.g., calculations or data
movement).
[Link] Access: Data is read from or written to memory if needed.
[Link] Back: Results are saved back to memory or registers.
BASIC CPU ARCHITECTURE
Memory
•Address: Specifies the location in
memory where data or instructions
are stored or retrieved.
•Data: The actual information
(either data or instructions) stored
in memory.
•Control: Manages the flow of data
and instructions between memory
and the CPU.
CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT
The CPU is the core processing unit that executes instructions. It consists of: CU (Control Unit): Coordinates the
activities of the CPU, managing the
• ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit): Performs arithmetic and logical operations (e.g., flow of data and instructions.
addition, subtraction, comparisons). Accumulator: A register that stores
intermediate results of arithmetic and
• PC (Program Counter): Keeps track of the address of the next instruction to be logic operations.
executed.
General Purpose Registers: Used for
• IR (Instruction Register): Holds the current instruction being executed. temporary storage of data during
processing.
• MAR (Memory Address Register): Stores the address of the memory location being
accessed.
• MDR (Memory Data Register): Temporarily holds data being transferred to or from
memory.
BUS
• The bus is a communication system that transfers data, addresses, and
control signals between the CPU, memory, and I/O devices. In Von Neumann
architecture, a single bus is shared for both data and instructions, which can
create a bottleneck (known as the Von Neumann bottleneck).
• I/O Bus
• I/O Interface: Connects the CPU and memory to input/output devices.
• Device: Refers to external hardware like keyboards, monitors, or storage
devices.
KEY CHARACTERISTICS
[Link] Memory for Data and Instructions: Both data and program
instructions are stored in the same memory.
[Link] Bus: A single bus is used for transferring data, addresses, and
control signals, which can limit performance.
[Link] Execution: Instructions are executed one at a time in a
sequential manner.
VON NEUMANN BOTTLENECK
• Instructions can only be done one at a time
• Instructions can only be carried out sequentially.
Both of these factors hold back the competence of the CPU. This is
commonly referred to as the ‘von Neumann bottleneck’. We can provide
a von Neumann processor with more cache, more RAM, or faster
components but if original gains are to be made in CPU performance
then an influential inspection needs to take place of CPU configuration.
ADVANTAGES
• Simplified Design: Uses a single memory for data and instructions, reducing hardware
complexity.
• Cost-Effective: Lower production costs due to fewer components.
• Flexibility: Can run various programs and makes it suitable for general-purpose
computing.
• Ease of Programming: Unified memory structure simplifies software development.
• Widely Adopted: Forms the foundation of most modern computers hence, ensures
widespread compatibility.
LIMITATIONS
• Memory Bottleneck: Shared memory slows down data and instruction transfer.
• Sequential Processing: Cannot process data and instructions simultaneously.
• Scalability Issues: Struggles with high-performance tasks requiring rapid
memory access.
• Energy Inefficiency: Frequent memory access increases power consumption.
• Latency: Data and instruction fetch delays reduce overall system efficiency.
APPLICATIONS
• General-Purpose Computing: Powers desktops, laptops, and smartphones.
• Embedded Systems: Used in simple devices where cost and simplicity are priorities.
• Software Development: Shapes programming tools and languages due to its
unified structure.
• Education: A foundational concept in computer science courses.
• Gaming and Multimedia: Supports complex applications like video games and
editing software.
REFERENCES
• [Link]
architecture/?ref=lbp
COMPUTATIONAL
PROBLEM
SOLVING
LECTURE – VI
• Udit Kr. Chakraborty
• Dept. of Comp. Sc. & Engg.
• SMIT
HARVARD ARCHITECTURE
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