PHY 102: Introduction to Physics II

(Spring Semester 2025)

Course Information

Department of Physics
Shiv Nadar University
 PHY 102 LAB
Lab constitutes 25% of the total marks of PHY102
course. This includes:
• Lab exam: 10%
• Lab classes: 15%

For Lab classes: Each experiment carries 15 marks, which

comes from the following components:
A. On experiment + Viva 10 marks

B. Lab Report 05 marks

 LAB REPORT
The Lab report should contain:
• Aim/Objective of the experiment,
• Observation (Data recorded by the student)
• Data analysis,
• Uncertainty/error analysis,
• Results and conclusions.
• Precautions
(Details can be found in the Lab Manual shared
in Blackboard)
SUBMISSION AND EVALUATION OF LAB REPORTS
For each group, the corresponding instructors will evaluate the
Lab reports.

It is very important to compose your lab reports according to

the instructions given (previous slide) as every head carries
marks. For example, out of 5 marks:
1 mark: Aim, Theory (Working formula + explanation)
3 marks: Experimental data + graph
1 mark: Error analysis + Conclusion
 Experiment#1
Error analysis
PHY102 laboratory
Motivation
 Performing the experiment and collecting data is the beginning of the
process of completing an experiment in science.
 Error analysis is the study and evaluation of uncertainty in a
measurement.
 A result comprises of its value and some information on the “quality”
of the result.

Accuracy – How
Precision – How close is it to the
reproducible “true” value

“Error”
(Uncertainty)

Note : Not all measurements have errors. If asked how

many people there are in a room, one can give an exact
number as an answer.
Accuracy and Precision
Measurements True Value

High Precision Low Precision High Precision

Low Accuracy High Accuracy High Accuracy
 Types of Errors
Systematic Random

Due to built-in error in These lead to a spread or

the instrument either in distribution of results on
design or in calibration. repetition of the particular
e.g. If the pointer in a stop watch is measurement.
slightly bent so that it reads 1s
instead of 0 seconds and you don’t They may arise from
notice this and start the clock and fluctuations in either the
stop the clock at 10s mark, then you
have taken the time period for only 9
physical parameters due to
s. This would be a systematic error in the statistical nature of the
your result. particular phenomenon or
the judgement of the
Repeated measurements experimenter,
would not show a spread e.g. variation in response
time or estimation in scale reading.
Reducing uncertainty
 Taking repeated measurements reduces the uncertainty of a
measurement.

Mean value:
An experiment were repeated many, say N, times to get x1,
x2, …, xk, …xN (N measurements of the same quantity, x)

The best estimate of the true value of x is then the

mean value of these measurements :

𝑥̅=(𝑥1+𝑥2+𝑥 +𝑥 𝑘+⋯+𝑥𝑁)/N
Measuring errors:

There are several different ways the distribution of the measured values of a repeated
experiment such as discussed above can be specified.

 Maximum Error : The maximum and minimum values of the data set, x max and xmin,
could be specified. In these terms, the quantity,

Δ𝑥𝑚ax=(𝑥𝑚ax−𝑥min)/2 is the maximum error.

 Probable Error : Probable error, Δxprob, specifies the range 𝑥̅±Δ𝑥prob, which contains
50% of the measured values.
 Average Deviation : The average deviation is the average of the absolute values of
differences from the mean,

Δ𝑥AV=Σ|𝑥𝑘−𝑥̅|/𝑁
N

 x  x
2
 Standard Deviation : i We will use the
  i 1
standard deviation
N
Reporting the
measurement
 Therefore any measurement is written down
as :

x x
Where, N

 xi  x
2

x  m  i 1

N
Standard deviation on mean Standard Deviation
N

 x  x
2
i
 m  / N   i 1

N
Propagation of Errors
If a variable z=z(a1, a2, …, aN) depends on variables a1, a2, …, aN, which have
independent errors (Δa1, Δa2, …, ΔaN), then the uncertainty in z is given by :

2 2 2
  z     z     z  

z     a1      a 2  .........   
  a N 
  a   a 
  a1    2    N  

Few Examples :

Z=A+B Δ𝑍=√(Δ𝐴)2+(Δ𝐵)2

Z=A-B Δ𝑍=√(Δ𝐴)2+(Δ𝐵)2

Z = nA (n is an exact number) Δ𝑍=|𝑛|Δ𝐴

Significant figures:
Non-zero digits or zeros between a number are
significant.

549 – 3 sig. figs.

1.892 – 4 sig. figs.
4023 – 4 sig. figs.

For decimal’s zeros to the left of

the first non-zero digit are not
significant.

0.000034 – 2 sig. figs. Write

As 3.4 x 10-5
For decimal’s zeros to the right of
a non-zero digit are significant.

2.00 – 2 sig. figs.

0.050 – 2 sig. figs. (5.0 x 10-2)
Rules to express
uncertainty
The last significant figure in any result should be of the same
order of magnitude (i.e. in the same decimal position) as the
uncertainty.

The uncertainty should be rounded to one or two significant

figures.

 9.82 ± 0.02 9.82 ± 0.02385

 10.0 ± 1.5 10.0 ± 2

 4±1 4 ± 0.5
Expressing uncertainty
 A result is quoted as : A±∆A
 This means that the “true value” lies between
a maximum value of A + ∆A and a
minimum value of A - ∆A

Also ,quote the relative error and percent error :

◦ Relative error = ∆A/A
◦ Percent error = (∆A/A)*100 %
 Plotting errors on graphs :
Graphing your results
 If the slope or intercept of a line on a plot is the
required calculated value (or the required value is
calculated from these values) then the uncertainty
of the slope and intercept will also be required.

 First draw the best line possible, and then draw the
two lines that just barely pass through the data.
Fit to function
Final Result
Log scale/Linear scale
 Everyone is familiar with linear scales
 Log (Logarithmic) scale is a scale of measurement that displays the physical
quantity using intervals corresponding to orders of magnitude, rather than a
standard linear scale.
 Each unit increase on the logarithmic scale represents an exponential increase
in the underlying quantity for the given base (10, in this case). So, we go as 1,
10, 10^2, 10^3 and so on..
 Presentation of data on a logarithmic scale can be helpful when the data covers
a large range of values.
A semi-log graph
A log-log graph
Assignments (Error analysis
and Graphing)
 To determine the diameter of a metal wire.
 To determine the diameter of a coin.
 Plot the given data on a semi-log and

log-log graph paper

Vernier Callipers

MSD = Main scale small division,

VSD = Vernier scale division
 Least count = 1 MSD/(Number of VSD)

Note : Find out the least count of EVERY instrument before

Starting your readings.
Reading the vernier caliper
Screw Gauge

Least count = Pitch (Distance moved in one

revolution/(Number of Divisions) =
0.5 mm/50 = 0.01 mm

Reading = Linear Scale reading +

(coinciding circular scale x least
count)
= 3.5 mm + (32 x 0.01)
= 3.5 + 0.32
= 3.82 mm
Assignment-I, the leaky water
bucket :
The time we have recorded the times at which the level in a
cylindrical water “bucket” passed each centimeter mark on
the side of the cylinder. Analyze the data. (Use Semi-Log)

Height time
(cm.) (Sec.)
18 0
17 5
16 10
15 14
14 19
13 25
12 31
11 37
10 43
9 51
8 60
7 110
6 121
5 134
4 150
3 211
2 246
1 345
Assignment-2: Light intensity vs distance from a small sour

he measurements of the light intensity (brightness) at a detector that is

oved farther and farther from the light source is performed. One has to analyze
e data. He knows that light from a “point” source should obey the
nverse square law,” a power law and wants to evaluate using log-log paper.

Distance Intensity
(cm.) (ft cndls)
± 0.2 cm ±5%
5 60 (101)
10 16.0
15 7.4
20 4.3
30 2.1
40 1.3
60 0.74
80 0.55 (10-2)