Words and Their Components

• 1 Tokens
• 2 Lexemes
• 3 Morphemes
• 4 Typology
• 1. Tokens : Tokenization is a way of separating a piece of text
into smaller units called tokens. Here, tokens can be either
words, characters, or subwords
 Words and Their Components
2. Lexemes: By the term word, we often denote not just the one
linguistic form in the given context but also the concept behind
the form and the set of alternative forms that can express it. Such
sets are called lexemes or lexical items, and they constitute the
lexicon of a language.
• The lexeme “play,” for example, can take many forms, such
as playing, plays, played.
 Words and Their Components
3. Morpheme: is the smallest unit of a word that provides a specific
meaning to a string of letters (which is called a phoneme).
i) free morphemes and
ii) bound morphemes.
• For example, “apple” is a word and also a morpheme. “Apples”
is a word comprised of two morphemes, “apple” and “-s”, which
is used to signify the noun is plural.
• Unhappy
 Words and Their Components
• 4. Typology is the study the ways in which the languages of
the world vary in their patterns. It is concerned with
discovering what grammatical patterns are common to many
languages and which ones are rare.

• They are specified according to three criteria:

• Genealogical familiarity
• Structural familiarity
• Geographic distribution
 Words and Their Components
• According to these criteria, the below are the important language
family groups:
• Indo-European Sino-Tibetan Niger-Congo Afroasiatic Austronesian
• Altaic Japonic Austroasiatic Tai-Kadai
• The most commonly spoken are languages in the Indo-European and
Sino-Tibetan language groups. These two groups are used by 67% of
the global population.
• To scientifically classify languages, the following criteria are used:
• Language criteria
• Historical criteria
• Geographical criteria
• Sociopolitical criteria
• The classification of languages shows us the precise connections
between the languages of the world
 Issues and Challenges
1. Irregularity, we mean existence of such forms and structures
that are not described appropriately by a prototypical linguistic
model. Some irregularities can be understood by redesigning the
model and improving its rules, but other.
2. Ambiguity and Uncertainty in Language
• Lexical Ambiguity
• The ambiguity of a single word is called lexical ambiguity. For example, treating the
word silver as a noun, an adjective, or a verb.

• Syntactic Ambiguity
• This kind of ambiguity occurs when a sentence is parsed in different ways. For
example, the sentence “The man saw the girl with the telescope”. It is ambiguous
whether the man saw the girl carrying a telescope or he saw her through his telescope.

• Semantic Ambiguity
• This kind of ambiguity occurs when the meaning of the words themselves can be
misinterpreted. In other words, semantic ambiguity happens when a sentence contains
an ambiguous word or phrase.
• For example, the sentence “The car hit the pole while it was moving” is having
semantic ambiguity because the interpretations can be “The car, while moving, hit the
pole” and “The car hit the pole while the pole was moving”.
2. Ambiguity and Uncertainty in Language
• Anaphoric Ambiguity
• This kind of ambiguity arises due to the use of anaphora entities in
discourse. For example, the horse ran up the hill. It was very steep. It
soon got tired. Here, the anaphoric reference of “it” in two situations
cause ambiguity.
•
• Pragmatic ambiguity
• Such kind of ambiguity refers to the situation where the context of a
phrase gives it multiple interpretations. In simple words, we can say
that pragmatic ambiguity arises when the statement is not specific.
• For example, the sentence “I like you too” can have multiple
interpretations like I like you (just like you like me), I like you (just like
someone else dose).
• 3. Productivity
•
• 1. Set Objectives
• The simplest way of implementing a form of NLP in your work environment is to make sure everyone is working towards goals. By setting objectives you are giving your team a direction and
something to work for. If employees feel they are expected to achieve these firm objectives they will naturally work harder to make sure they do. They will also automatically be taking more
responsibility over their role and the work they do.
• This increases productivity on an individual level. Incentives for successfully achieving objectives can also be specified in order to motivate staff to succeed and thrive in the work environment.
•
• 2. Boost Staff Morale
• NLP is a great way to make employees more engaged and content in the workplace and NLP training is a valuable investment. Committed and engaged employees will perform better than
other employees in the business – what are you doing to maintain commitment and engagement in your business? Learning NLP techniques through tailored training courses and coaching will
enable team members to reach high levels of performance by over coming barriers in the workplace.
• Staff morale is an ongoing factor that a team leader or manager considers. Treating employees with respect, listening to their ideas and making them feel included on a daily basis will keep
their self-esteem and confidence high.
•
• 3. Better Communication
• Internal communications and client relationships are vital for a productive and efficient working environment. Making people aware of how they come across when interacting with others is a
key aspect of using NLP to improve communication. NLP will help to identify adverse behaviours such as body language. Body language such as avoiding eye contact or slouching shoulders is
generally a subconscious behaviour.
• Once the negative behaviour has been recognised, the individual can work to change and improve. As the individual becomes more self-aware, they also become more aware of other people.
Effective communication requires an understanding to others’ thought processes as well as an awareness of yourself. See yourself in the way that you would like others to see you.
•
• 4. Learning and Development
• NLP is all about bringing together an individual’s innermost skills and highlighting their hidden, concealed ability. NLP unlocks the potential for a wealth of knowledge. Employees will be eager
to learn and advance in their own professional development. This enables employees to take control of their own career and requires them to be proactive about doing so. A proactive, engaged
and progressing team will be highly motivated and productive.
• NLP helps the individual to improve in their job role by taking a highly performing team member and using their behaviour and work ethic as a model for others to adopt. You could have a
team that is as strong as your strongest employee. This would have a huge impact on productivity as well as give your business a competitive edge.
•
• 5. Changing Behaviour
• The main objective of NLP is to reverse negative behaviours and habits. How an individual interprets their workplace has little to do with the actual working environment and more to do with
the individual. Employees have completely different experiences at work, even though the work environment is the same for everyone. NLP makes employees aware that the problems they
face at work are usually internal, not external. Making employees self-aware of their attitudes and behaviours is the first step towards a positive change.
• success, no matter what your goals are
 Morphological Models
• 1 Dictionary Lookup
• 2 Finite-State Morphology
• 3 Unification-Based Morphology
• 4 Functional Morphology
• 5 Morphology Induction
• Morphological Models
• There are many possible approaches to designing and implementing morphological models. Over time, computational linguistics has
witnessed the development of a number of formalisms and frameworks, in particular grammars of different kinds and expressive power, with
which to address whole classes of problems in processing natural as well as formal languages.
• Various domain-specific programming languages have been created that allow us to implement the theoretical problem using hopefully
intuitive and minimal programming effort. Morphological Models – 2 Marks Each
• Dictionary Lookup
– A simple approach where words and their morphological variations are stored in a predefined dictionary.
– When a word is encountered, the model checks the dictionary for its root, affixes, and meaning.
• Finite-State Morphology
– Uses finite-state automata (FSA) or finite-state transducers (FST) to represent and process morphological rules.
– Efficient for morphological analysis and generation in NLP applications like spell-checking and text processing.
• Unification-Based Morphology
– Based on feature unification, where word forms are analyzed using attribute-value pairs.
– Commonly used in constraint-based linguistic models like Head-Driven Phrase Structure Grammar (HPSG).
• Functional Morphology
– Treats morphology as a function that maps lexical entries to their grammatical and semantic structures.
– Helps in computational linguistics by modeling complex word formation processes.
• Morphology Induction
– An unsupervised learning approach where morphological rules and structures are derived from large text corpora.
– Used in machine learning for discovering patterns in word formation without predefined rules.