Course Title: Building Construction and

Cost Estimation
Course Code: AG312

Course Coordinator
Name: Dr Jagriti Gupta
Designation: Assistant Professor
Department: Civil Engineering
Email ID: [Link]@[Link]
Lesson no: 1 Introduction to Rocks and
Stones.
Expected Course Outcomes
By the end of the course, students will be able to:
•Understand the properties and applications of key building materials and components, including their design and
construction techniques.
•Gain knowledge of agricultural and roofed building designs, sustainable practices, and conservation principles.
•Analyze construction economics, including cost estimation, cost control, and evaluation of planning alternatives.
•Apply economic methods like cost-in-use analysis, benefit-to-cost ratios, and payback period calculations to assess
investments in buildings and systems.
•By integrating theoretical and practical knowledge, students will develop skills for sustainable, cost-effective
construction practices and informed decision-making in real-world building design and construction projects.
Course Objectives:
•Understand Building Materials: Learn the properties, classifications, and applications of essential construction
materials like stones, bricks, cement, concrete, glass, metals, and timber.
•Master Building Components and Techniques: Gain knowledge of the design, construction, and finishing
methods for key building components such as floors, staircases, arches, and walls.
•Explore Specialized Building Design: Study the design and construction of agricultural buildings, sloped and
flat roofs, with a focus on conservation and modern design practices.
•Analyse Construction Economics: Develop skills in cost estimation, cost control, and evaluating cost-effective
design and planning alternatives in construction projects.
•Apply Economic Evaluation Tools: Use methods like cost-in-use analysis, benefit-to-cost ratios, and payback
period calculations to assess investments in buildings and systems.
Introduction to Rocks and Stones
Rocks: Natural materials composed of minerals.
Classified into:
• Igneous Rocks (Granite, Basalt): Formed from cooled magma;
hard and durable.
• Sedimentary Rocks (Sandstone, Limestone): Formed from
sediment deposition; used for flooring and walls.
• Metamorphic Rocks (Marble, Slate): Formed under pressure
and heat; aesthetically appealing.
Igneous Rock: (Example – Granite, Basalt)

• Igneous rock (from Latin igneus 'fiery'), or magmatic rock, is one of

the three main rock types.
• Igneous rocks are formed through the cooling and solidification of
magma or lava.
• The magma can be derived from partial melts of existing rocks in
either a planet’s mantle or crust.
• Typically, the melting is caused by one or more of three processes:
An increase in temperature, A decrease in pressure, or a change in
composition.
• Solidification into rock occurs either below the surface as intrusive
rocks or on the surface as extrusive rocks.
Sedimentary rocks: (Example – Sandstone, Limestone)
• These are types of rock that are formed by the accumulation
or deposition of sediments, ie. Mineral or organic particles, at
Earth’s surface.
• Cementation and sedimentation are the collective processes
that cause these particles to settle in place.
• The particles that form a sedimentary rock are
called sediment, and may be composed of minerals or organic
matter.
• The key process of formation of sedimentary rocks are:
• Weathering and Erosion
• Transportation
• Compaction
• Cementation
Metamorphic rocks: (Example – Marble, Slate)
• These rocks arise from the transformation of existing rock
to new types of rock in a process called metamorphism.
• The original rock is subjected to temperatures greater than
150 to 200 °C (300 to 400 °F) and, often, elevated pressure
of 100 Mpa or more, causing profound physical or chemical
changes.
• During this process, the rock remains mostly in the solid
state, but gradually recrystallizes to a new texture or
mineral composition. The existing rock may be an Igneous,
Sedimentary or existing metamorphic rock.
PROPERTIES OF STONES
The criteria for selection of stone as a building material is based upon the following properties:-

• Structure:
• Structure of a stone layer may be either stratified or unstratified.
• Structured stones are easily dressed and are suitable for the superstructures.
• Unstratified stones are hard and difficult to dress and are preferred for the foundation works.
• Texture:
• Fine grained stones are usually strong and durable.
• For carving, attractive fine-grained stones with homogeneous distribution are used.
• Density:
• Light weight stones are weak and denser stones are stronger.
• Stones with specific gravity less than 2.4 are not suitable for buildings.
• Appearance:
• Appearance is a chief requirement for the selection of the stone.
• A stone with uniform and attractive colour is durable, if grains are compact.
• The colour and ability to receive polish greatly influence the appearance.
• Marble and granite get very good appearance, when polished. Hence they are used for face works in buildings.
• Colour
• The colour of stone along with its shape and arrangement of mineral constituents greatly influence its fashion and ornamental
value.
• A stone with uniform and the attractive colour is durable if its grains are compact.
• The engineer selecting the stone should be aware of the variation of colour of the stone after long exposure and in polluted
atmospheres.
• Strength:
• For the selection of stone as a building block, strength is an important property to be looked for.
• For any building block, minimum crushing strength should be 3.5 N/mm2 as recommended by Indian Standard Code.
• Hardness:
• When stone is used for flooring and pavement, this is an important property to be considered
• Coefficient of hardness should be less than 14, for building work stones.
• Coefficient of hardness should be at least 17, for road works.
• The stones used in floors and pavements should be able to resist abrasive movement caused due to the movement of men and
materials over them.
• Durability:
• When stone is used as aggregate for road works and railway ballast, this is an important property to be considered.
• The durability of the stone is significantly determined by its resistance to fire and weathering.
• Stones selected should be capable of resisting adverse effects of natural forces like wind, rain and heat.
• A good stone should not show wear of more than 2%.
• Toughness:
• Building stones should have more toughness to sustain stresses developed due to vibrations.
• In general, the resistance to impact is known as toughness, and can be found by impact test.

• Porosity and Absorption:

• Building stones should not be porous, since rain water might enter the pores and deteriorate it.
• All stones have pores and hence absorb water. The percentage of water absorbed by the stone when it is immersed underwater for
24 hours should not be more than 5% for a good stone.

• Resistance to Fire and Weathering:

• Rain and wind cause loss of good appearance of stones.
• Stones with good weather resistance should be used for face works.
• Sand stones resist fire better.
• Argillaceous materials, though poor in strength, are good in resisting fire.

• Specific Gravity:
• For the construction of dams, retaining walls, harbours, etc. a heavier variety of stones should be used.
• For a good building stone, specific gravity is between 2.4 and 2.8.
• Ease in Dressing:
• Dressing is the process of giving required shape to the stone.
• Cost of dressing contributes to cost of stone masonry to a great extent.
• Dressing is easy in stones with lesser strength. Hence an engineer should look into sufficient strength rather than high strength while
selecting stones for building works.
• Seasoning:
• The process of removing moisture from pores is called seasoning.
• Quarry stones contain moisture in the pores. If this moisture is removed before using the stone, the strength of the stone improves.
• The optimum way of seasoning is to let it exposed in the nature for 6 to 12 months. Seasoning is very much required in the case of
laterite stones.
• Cost:
• Cost is an essential consideration while selecting a building material.
• Cost of dressing has a great contribution in the total cost of stone masonry.
• Transportation charges, quarrying and cutting costs, adding ornamental features and the durability of a stone mostly persuades the
total cost.

Nevertheless, it is prominent that a single stone cannot satisfy all the criteria's of a good building stone. One property may contradict with
another, like strength and durability criteria oppose the ease of dressing requirement. Therefore it is essential that, the engineer has to
consider the criteria based on its properties before selecting the stone for particular work.
USES OF STONES
General uses of building stones are:
• Construction of foundations, walls, columns and arches are done using stone masonry.
• Stone slabs are used for flooring, damp proof courses, lintels and even as roofing materials.
• Polished granite and marbles are commonly used for facing and flooring works.
• Road pavements and footpaths are also made using stones.
• Constructions of piers and abutments of bridges, dams and retaining walls. are also done suing stones.
• Crushed stones are used as base course for roads, inert material in concrete and as railway ballast.
1. What are rocks primarily composed of?
a) Metals
b) Water
c) Minerals
d) Gases
Answer: c) Minerals

2. Which type of rock is formed from cooled magma or lava?

a) Sedimentary
b) Metamorphic
c) Igneous
d) Organic
Answer: c) Igneous
3. What is an example of an igneous rock?
a) Limestone
b) Slate
c) Granite
d) Sandstone
Answer: c) Granite

4. Which type of rock is formed from the deposition of

sediments?
a) Metamorphic
b) Igneous
c) Sedimentary
d) Volcanic
Answer: c) Sedimentary
5. What is an example of a sedimentary rock?
a) Marble
b) Basalt
c) Sandstone
d) Quartzite
Answer: c) Sandstone

6. Which of the following rocks is formed by heat and

pressure?
a) Basalt
b) Granite
c) Slate
d) Limestone
Answer: c) Slate
7. Which type of rock is commonly used for decorative
purposes due to its appearance?
a) Igneous rocks
b) Sedimentary rocks
c) Metamorphic rocks
d) All of the above
Answer: c) Metamorphic rocks

8. Which of the following is a property of stones?

a) Durability
b) Color
c) Flexibility
d) Transparency
Answer: a) Durability
9. What property of stones determines their ability to
withstand wear and pressure?
a) Strength
b) Hardness
c) Porosity
d) Appearance
Answer: a) Strength

10. What is the primary use of igneous rocks like granite and
basalt?
a) Flooring
b) Walls
c) Construction (foundations)
d) Decorative features
Answer: c) Construction (foundations)
11. Which of these is a common application for sedimentary
rocks like limestone?
a) Walls
b) Pavements
c) Flooring
d) Roofing
Answer: c) Flooring

12. What type of rock is marble?

a) Igneous
b) Metamorphic
c) Sedimentary
d) Volcanic
Answer: b) Metamorphic
13. What property of stones determines their ability to absorb
water?
a) Durability
b) Porosity
c) Hardness
d) Strength
Answer: b) Porosity

14. Which of the following is a major factor in the selection of

stones for construction?
a) Transparency
b) Strength
c) Flexibility
d) Color
Answer: b) Strength
15. Which of the following rocks is most commonly used for
flooring due to its durability and appearance?
a) Marble
b) Sandstone
c) Basalt
d) Limestone
Answer: a) Marble

16. Which property of stones affects their ability to withstand

extreme weather conditions?
a) Hardness
b) Porosity
c) Durability
d) Appearance
Answer: c) Durability
Reference Book: -
1."Engineering Geology for Civil Engineers" by K. V. G. K. Gokhale
 This is an important reference for civil engineering students, focusing on the application of rocks and stones in
construction, including their properties, classification, and uses in India.
2. "Mineralogy and Petrology" by K.K. Verma
 This book provides detailed insights into the mineralogical and petrological aspects of rocks, with examples relevant to
India.
3. "Engineering Geology" by F. G. Bell (Indian Edition)
 This book focuses on the practical applications of geology, including the use of rocks and stones in engineering,
construction, and the study of their properties.
4. "Indian Geology" by P.K. Mukherjee
 This book is a comprehensive reference for Indian geology, including the classification and properties of different
types of rocks and stones.
5. "A Textbook of Geology" by G.B. Mahapatra
 This book is specifically designed for Indian students and covers the study of rocks, minerals, and the geology of India
in detail.
• Research Papers: -
• P. A. McKeown and G. H. Morgan, “„Epoxy granite: a structural material for precision machines‟,” Precision
Engineering, , pp. 227- 229, 1979.
• H. C. Mohring, C. Brecher, E. Abele, J. Fleischer and B. Friedrich, "Materials in machine tool structures," CIRP
Annals - Manufacturing Technology, pp. 1-24, 2015.
• Tien, J. C. Liou and N. Chuan, "Estimation of the thermal conductivity of granite using a combination of
experiment sand numerical simulation," International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences, vol. 81, p.
39–46, 2016.
• A. Selvakumar, K. Ganesan and P. V. Mohanram, "Dynamic analysis on fabricated mineral cast lathe bed,"
Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part B: Journal of Engineering Manufacture, pp. 1-7,
2012.
• A. M. Kilic, O. Kilic and M. O. Keskin, "The effect of the rock type forming the aggregate in lightweight
polymer concrete on compressive and flexural tensile strength," vol. 5, no. 15, pp. 1986- 1992, 4 August 2010.
• P. V. Mohanram and A. Selvakumar, "Analysis of Alternative Composite Material for High Speed Precision
Machine Took Strctures," pp. 95-98, 2012.