CHAPTER 7

THE MAKING OF REGIONAL CULTURE

HISTORY CLASS 7
INTRODUCTION TO THE SLIDE
One of the commonest ways of describing people is in terms
of the language they speak. When we refer to a person as a
Tamil or an Oriya, this usually means that he or she speaks
Tamil or Oriya and lives in Tamil Nadu or Orissa. We also tend
to associate each region with distinctive kinds of food, clothes, A figure of Tamil Literature
poetry, dance, music and painting. Sometimes we take these
identities for granted and assume that they have existed from
time immemorial. However, the frontiers separating regions
have evolved over time (and in fact are still changing). Also,
what we understand as regional cultures today are often the
product of complex processes of intermixing of local traditions
with ideas from other parts of the subcontinent. As we will A figure of Odia Literature
see, some traditions appear specific to some regions, others
seem to be similar across regions, and yet others derive from
older practices in a particular area, but take a new form in
other regions.
THE CHERAS AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF
MALAYALAM
Let us begin by looking at an example of the
connection between language and region. The
Chera kingdom of Mahodayapuram was
established in the ninth century in the south- GLOSSARY
western part of the peninsula, part of the PENINSULA - A landform that is
present-day Kerala. It is likely that Malayalam mostly surrounded by water but
was spoken in this area. The rulers introduced connected to the mainland on one
the Malayalam language and script in their side
INSCRIPTION - writing carved
inscriptions. In fact, this is one of the earliest into something made of stone or
examples of the use of a regional language in metal, for example a gravestone
official records in the subcontinent. or medal
THE CHERAS AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF
MALAYALAM
At the same time, the Cheras also drew upon Sanskritic
[Link] temple theatre of Kerala, which is traced
to this period, borrowed stories from the Sanskrit epics.
The first literary works inMalayalam, dated to about the
twelfth century, are directly indebted to Sanskrit.
Interestingly enough, a fourteenth-century text, the
Lilatilakam, dealing with grammar and poetics, was
composed in Manipravalam – literally, “diamonds and
corals” referring to the two languages, Sanskrit and the
regional language.
RULERS AND RELIGIOUS TRADITION:
THE JAGANNATH CULT
In other regions, regional cultures grew
around religious traditions. The best
example of this process is the cult of
Jagannatha (literally, lord of the world, a
name for Vishnu) at Puri, Orissa. To
date, the local tribal people make the
wooden image of the deity, which GLOSSARY
suggests that the deity was originally a CULT: HERE, CULTURE
local god, who was later identified with DEITY : GOD

Vishnu.
RULERS AND RELIGIOUS TRADITION:
THE JAGANNATH CULT
In the twelfth century, one of the GLOSSARY
most important rulers of the Ganga
DYNASTY - THE PEOPLE COMING
dynasty, Anantavarman, decided to FROM A LINE OF PEOPLE IN A
FAMILY FROM PAST TO FUTURE
erect a temple for Purushottama
Jagannatha at Puri. Subsequently, DEPUTY - the second most
important person in a particular
in 1230, king Anangabhima III organization, who does the work of
dedicated his kingdom to the deity his/her manager if the manager is
away
and proclaimed himself as the
“deputy” of the god.
 PURUSOTTAM JAGANNATH
TEMPLE

KING ANANTAVARMAN

SHRI HARI VISHNU

LORD OF THE WHOLE WORLD

As the temple gained in importance as a
centre of pilgrimage, its authority in GLOSSARY

social and political matters also Pilgrimage - a long journey

that a person makes to visit
increased. All those who conquered a religious place
Orissa, such as the Mughals, the
Gain - Profit
Marathas and the English East India
Company, attempted to gain control over
the temple. They felt that this would
make their rule acceptable to the local
people
THE RAJPUTA AND TRADITIONS OF HEROISM
In the nineteenth century, the region that constitutes
most of present-day Rajasthan, was called Rajputana GLOSSARY
by the British. While this may suggest that this was an
area that was inhabited only or mainly by Rajputs, this Rajputana - The region that
is only partly true. There were (and are) several constitute most of present
day Rajasthan
groups who identify themselves as Rajputs in many
areas of northern and central India. And of course,
there are several peoples other than Rajputs who live
in Rajasthan. However, the Rajputs are often
recognised as contributing to the distinctive culture of
Rajasthan.
 GLOSSARY
These cultural traditions were closely linked
with the ideals and aspirations of rulers. From ideals - an idea or principle that seems
about the eighth century, most of the present- perfect to you and that you want to
achieve
day state of Rajasthan was ruled by various valiantly - with great courage
Rajput families. Prithviraj (Chapter 2) was battle field - the place where a battle is
one such ruler. These rulers cherished the fought
ideal of the hero who fought valiantly, often minstrels -a singer or musician in the
choosing death on the battlefield rather than Middle Ages
face defeat. Stories about Rajput heroes
were recorded in poems and songs, which
were recited by specially trained minstrels.

Prithvi Raj Chauhan Prince Raj Singh of Bikaner

 GLOSSARY
These preserved the memories of heroes and were
expected to inspire others to follow their example. loyalty - a faithfulness that is
Ordinary people were also attracted by these steadfast in the face of any
temptation to renounce, desert, or
stories – which often depicted dramatic situations, betray
and a range of strong emotions – loyalty, friendship, immolation - sacrificing
love, valour, anger, etc. Did women find a place widows- a woman whose husband
within these stories? Sometimes women are has died and who has not married
depicted as following their heroic husbands in both again
funeral - a ceremony (usually
life and death – there are stories about the practice religious) for burying or burning a
of sati or the immolation of widows on the funeral dead person
pyre of their husbands. So those who followed the pyre -a large pile of wood on which
heroic ideal often had to pay for it with their lives a dead body is placed and burned
as a part of a funeral ceremony
ideal - the best possible; perfect
Note
The upcomming
Regions described in
the chapter are marked
in Light red Color
respectively.
MAP WORK REGARDING THE CHAPTER
STUDENTS SHALL SEE THE MAP AND
LABEL THE GIVEN STATES
A Small Question for you

1. Who built the Mahodayapuram?

a) Chera Kingdom
b) Chola Kingdom
c) Pandya Kingdom
d) Rahtrakutas
a) Chera Kingdom
• The right answer is Chera Kingdom.
Explanation: Mahodayapuram was established in the ninth
century in the south-western part of the peninsula by the
Chera Kingdom
A Small Question for you

Who decided to erect a temple of Purushottam Jagannath?

i) Raja Mukunddeva
ii) Raja Ananthavarman
iii) Raja Harishchandra
iv) Raja Vishwavasu
ii) King Ananthvarman
• The right answer is King Ananthavarman
Explanation: Anantavarman, decided to erect a temple for
Purushottama Jagannatha at Puri
Let’s Move on To the
upcomming Topic
Beyond Regional Frontiers: The Story of Kathak
If heroic traditions can be found in different regions
in different forms, the same is true of dance. Let us
look at the history of one dance form, Kathak, now
associated with several parts of north India. The
term kathak is derived from katha, a word used in
Sanskrit and other languages for story. The kathaks
were originally a caste of story-tellers in temples of
north India, who embellished their performances
with gestures and songs. Kathak began evolving
into a distinct mode of dance in the fifteenth and
sixteenth centuries with the spread of the bhakti
movement. The legends of Radha-Krishna were
enacted in folk plays called rasa lila, which
combined folk dance with the basic gestures of the
kathak story-tellers.
Rash
Leela
of Radha
Krishna
• Under the Mughal emperors and their nobles, Kathak was
performed in the court, where it acquired its present features and
developed into a form of dance with a distinctive style.
Subsequently, it developed in two traditions or gharanas: one in
the courts of Rajasthan (Jaipur) and the other in Lucknow. Under
the patronage of Wajid Ali Shah, the last Nawab of Awadh, it grew
into a major art form. By the third quarter of the nineteenth
century, it was firmly entrenched as a dance form not only in these
two regions, but in the adjoining areas of present-day Punjab,
Haryana, Jammu and Kashmir,Bihar and Madhya Pradesh.
Emphasis was laid on intricate and rapid footwork, elaborate
costumes, as well as on the enactment of stories.
• Kathak, like several other cultural practices, was viewed
with disfavour by most British administrators in the
nineteenth and twentieth centuries. However, it survived
and continued to be performed by courtesans, and was
recognised as one of the six “classical” forms of dance in
the country after independence.
• Can you tell, What’s the folk dance of the state where
you are staying. Tell also some other types of dance
that are famous from your state?
The question of defining any art form as “classical” is often quite complicated.
Do we define something as classical if it deals with a religious theme? Or do we
consider it classical because it appears to require a great deal of skill acquired
through long years of training? Or is it classical because it is performed
according to rules that are laid down, and variations are not encouraged? These
are questions we need to think about. It is worth remembering that many dance
forms that are classified as “folk” also share several of the characteristics
considered typical of “classical” forms. So, while the use of the term “classical”
may suggest that these forms are superior, this need not always be literally true.
Other dance forms that are recognised as classical at present are:
Bharatanatyam (Tamil Nadu) Kathakali (Kerala) Odissi (Odisha) Kuchipudi
(Andhra Pradesh) Manipuri (Manipur)
A Question for you
Can you tell which picture represent which states dance form?
BharatNatyam Manipuri
Odissi
(Tamil Nadu) (Manipur)
(Odisha)

Kathakali Kuchipudi
(Kerala) (Andhra Pradesh)
Painting for Patrons: The Tradition of Miniatures
Another tradition that developed in different ways was that of
miniature painting. Miniatures (as their very name suggests) are
small-sized paintings, generally done in water colour on cloth or
paper. The earliest miniatures were on palm leaves or wood. Some
of the most beautiful of these, found in western India, were used to
illustrate Jaina texts. The Mughal emperors Akbar, Jahangir and
Shah Jahan patronised highly skilled painters who primarily
illustrated manuscripts containing historical accounts and poetry.
These were generally painted in brilliant colours and portrayed court
scenes, scenes of battle or hunting, and other aspects of social life.
They were often exchanged as gifts and were viewed only by an
exclusive few – the emperor and his close associates.
• With the decline of the Mughal Empire, many painters
moved out to the courts of the emerging regional states
(see also Chapter 8). As a result Mughal artistic tastes
influenced the regional courts of the Deccan and the
Rajput courts of Rajasthan. At the same time, they
retained and developed their distinctive characteristics.
Portraits of rulers and court scenes came to be painted,
following the Mughal example. Besides, themes from
mythology and poetry were depicted at centres such as
Mewar, Jodhpur, Bundi, Kota and Kishangarh.
Another region that attracted miniature paintings was the
Himalayan foothills around the modern-day state of
Himachal Pradesh. By the late seventeenth century, this
region had developed a bold and intense style of miniature
painting called Basohli. The most popular text to be
painted here was Bhanudatta’s Rasamanjari. Nadir Shah’s
invasion and the conquest of Delhi in 1739 resulted in the
migration of Mughal artists to the hills to escape the
uncertainties of the plains. Here they found ready patrons
which led to the founding of the Kangra school of painting.
By the mid-eighteenth century the Kangra artists
developed a style which breathed a new spirit into
miniature painting. The source of inspiration was the
Vaishnavite traditions. Soft colours including cool blues and
greens, and a lyrical treatment of themes distinguished
Kangra painting.
 Remember that ordinary women and men painted
as well — on pots, walls, floors, cloth — works of
art that have occasionally survived, unlike the
miniatures that were carefully preserved in
palaces for centuries.

Maharana Ram Singh II

playing Holi, Rajput
Miniature, Kota
Krishna, Radha and his
companion, Pahari
Miniature, Kangra
A short Question for you

Match the following

Column A Column B
Bharatnatyam a) Odisha
Kathakali b) Kerala
Odissi c) Tamil Nadu
Kuchipudi d) Manipur
Manipuri e) Andhra Pradesh
Match the following
• Answers of the given question

Column A Column B
Bharatnatyam c a) Odisha
Kathakali b b) Kerala
Odissi a c) Tamil Nadu
Kuchipudi d) Manipur
e
Manipuri d e) Andhra Pradesh
Let’s Move on To the
upcomming Topic
A Closer Look: Bengal
The Growth of A Regional Language
• As we saw at the outset, we often tend to identify regions
in terms of the language spoken by the people. So, we
assume that people in Bengal always spoke Bengali.
However, what is interesting is that while Bengali is now
recognised as a language derived from Sanskrit, early
Sanskrit texts (mid-first millennium bce) suggest that the
people of Bengal did not speak Sanskritic languages.
How, then, did the new language emerge?
A Closer Look: Bengal
The Growth of A Regional Language
• From the fourth-third centuries bce, commercial ties
began to develop between Bengal and Magadha (south
Bihar), which may have led to the growing influence of
Sanskrit. During the fourth century, the Gupta rulers
established political control over north Bengal and began
to settle Brahmanas in this area. Thus, the linguistic and
cultural influence from the mid-Ganga valley became
stronger. In the seventh century, the Chinese traveller
Xuan Zang observed that languages related to Sanskrit
were in use all over Bengal.
A Closer Look: Bengal
The Growth of A Regional Language
• From the eighth century, Bengal became the centre of a
regional kingdom under the Palas (Chapter 2). Between
the fourteenth and sixteenth centuries, Bengal was ruled
by Sultans who were independent of the rulers in Delhi
(Chapter 3). In 1586, when Akbar conquered Bengal, it
formed the nucleus of the Bengal suba. While Persian
was the language of administration, Bengali developed as
a regional language.
A Closer Look: Bengal
The Growth of A Regional Language
• In fact, by the fifteenth century the Bengali group of dialects came to be
united by a common literary language based on the spoken language of the
western part of the region, now known as West Bengal. Thus, although
Bengali is derived from Sanskrit, it passed through several stages of
evolution. Also, a wide range of non-Sanskrit words, derived from a variety of
sources including tribal languages, Persian, and European languages, have
become a part of modern Bengali.
• Early Bengali literature may be divided into two categories – one indebted to
Sanskrit and the other independent of it. The first includes translations of the
Sanskrit epics, the Mangalakavyas (literally auspicious poems, dealing with
local deities) and bhakti literature, such as the biographies of Chaitanyadeva,
the leader of the Vaishnava bhakti movement
A Closer Look: Bengal
The Growth of A Regional Language
• The second includes Nath literature, such as the songs
of Maynamati and Gopichandra, stories concerning the
worship of Dharma Thakur, and fairy tales, folk tales and
ballads
A Closer Look: Bengal
The Growth of A Regional Language
• The texts belonging to the first category are easier to
date, as several manuscripts have been found indicating
that they were composed between the late fifteenth and
mid-eighteenth centuries. Those belonging to the second
category circulated orally and cannot be precisely dated.
They were particularly popular in eastern Bengal, where
the influence of Brahmanas was relatively weak.
Pirs and Temples
• From the sixteenth century, people began to migrate in large
numbers from the less fertile western Bengal to the forested and
marshy areas of south-eastern Bengal. As they moved eastwards,
they cleared forests and brought the land under rice cultivation.
Gradually, local communities of fisherfolk and shifting cultivators,
often tribals, merged with the new communities of peasants. This
coincided with the establishment of Mughal control over Bengal
with their capital in the heart of the eastern delta at Dhaka.
Officials and functionaries received land and often set up
mosques that served as centres for religious transformation in
these areas.
Pirs and Temples
• The early settlers sought some order and assurance in
the unstable conditions of the new settlements. These
were provided by community leaders, who also functioned
as teachers and adjudicators and were sometimes
ascribed with supernatural powers. People referred to
them with affection and respect as pirs. This term
included saints or Sufis and other religious personalities,
daring colonisers and deified soldiers, various Hindu and
Buddhist deities and even animistic spirits. The cult of pirs
became very popular and their shrines can be found
everywhere in Bengal.
Pirs and Temples
• Bengal also witnessed a temple-building spree from the late fifteenth
century, which culminated in the nineteenth century. We have seen (Chapter
2) that temples and other religious structures were often built by individuals
or groups who were becoming powerful – to both demonstrate their power
and proclaim their piety. Many of the modest brick and terracotta temples in
Bengal were built with the support of several “low” social groups, such as the
Kolu (oil pressers) and the Kansari (bell metal workers). The coming of the
European trading companies created new economic opportunities; many
families belonging to these social groups availed of these. As their social and
economic position improved, they proclaimed their status through the
construction of temples. When local deities, once worshipped in thatched
huts in villages, gained the recognition of the Brahmanas, their images began
to be housed in temples. The temples began to copy the double-roofed
(dochala) or four-roofed (chauchala) structure of the thatched huts. This led
to the evolution of the typical Bengali style in temple architecture.
Pirs and Temples
• In the comparatively more complex four-roofed structure,
four triangular roofs placed on the four walls move up to
converge on a curved line or a point. Temples were
usually built on a square platform. The interior was
relatively plain, but the outer walls of many temples were
decorated with paintings, ornamental tiles or terracotta
tablets. In some temples, particularly in Vishnupur in the
Bankura district of West Bengal, such decorations
reached a high degree of excellence.
Rooftops of two houses of ancient time

A Double roof thatched roof A four roofed temple with a tower

Krishna with
gopis,
terracotta plaque

from the
Shyamaraya
temple,
Vishnupur.
 Fish as Food
Traditional food habits are generally based on locally
available items of food. Bengal is a riverine plain which
produces plenty of rice and fish. Understandably, these
two items figure prominently in the menu of even poor
Bengalis. Fishing has always been an important occupation
and Bengali literature contains several references to fish.
What is more, terracotta plaques on the walls of temples
and viharas (Buddhist monasteries) depict scenes of fish
being dressed and taken to the market in baskets.

Brahmanas were not allowed to eat non_x0002_vegetarian

food, but the popularity of fish in the local diet made the
Brahmanical authorities relax this prohibition for the
Bengal Brahmanas. The Brihaddharma Purana, a
thirteenth-century Sanskrit text from Bengal, permitted
the local Brahmanas to eat certain varieties of fish
RECAP NOTES

The Making of Regional Cultures

An individual’s place of origin may be determined by the
language they speak. It is common to associate each region
with specific types of food, clothing, poetry, dance, music,
and painting. Today’s culture combines local customs with
beliefs from other parts of the subcontinent. Some traditions
appear to be regionally specific, while others appear to be
regionally consistent, and still, others derive from older
systems and new forms.
RECAP NOTES
The Cheras and the Development of Malayalam
• The Chera kingdom was founded in the 9th century by the ruler Mahodayapuram.
• This kingdom is an example of a language-based culture.
• It originated in the country’s southwestern region, which is now known as Kerala.
• Malayalam was widely spoken in this region. As a result, the Malayalam language and script
were added to the ruler’s inscriptions.
• It is the first instance of a regional language being used in official records in India.
• The stories of the Sanskrit epics were borrowed from Kerala’s temple theatre, which
depicted the ruler’s admiration for the Sanskrit language.
• Sanskrit was a major contributor to the flourishing of Malayalam literature in the 12th century.
• The Lilatilakam, a 14th-century text on punctuation and poetics, was written in Manipravalam
– which, in a real sense, means ‘precious stones and corals’.
• Manipravalam is a combination of two languages: Sanskrit and Malayalam.
RECAP NOTES
Rulers and Religious Traditions: The Jagannatha Cult
• The Jagannath Cult is an example of a religion-based culture.
• Vishnu is known as Jagannatha in Puri, Orissa.
• Jagannatha was a local deity who was later identified as Vishnu after the
local wooden image was created.
• Anantavarman, a Ganga dynasty leader, chose Puri to build a shrine for
Purushottama Jagannatha in the 12th century. In 1230, ruler Ananga Bhima
III dedicated his realm to God and regarded himself as God’s “delegate.”
• When the Mughals conquered Orissa, the Temple was controlled by the
Marathas and the British East India Company. Assuming it would grant them
authority over the locals. As a result, the Temple’s political influence is
emphasised.
RECAP NOTES
The Rajputs and Traditions of Heroism
• The British referred to most of Rajasthan as Rajputana in the 19th century.
• The Rajputs appeared to have dominated the area. Some Rajputs also live in other parts of
India. However, the Rajputs have had a significant influence on Rajasthani culture.
• One Rajput ruler was Prithviraj. Rajput rulers value heroism.
• Rajput glory was immortalised in poetic poems and songs.
• Rajput stories were recited by specially trained minstrels. They were meant to serve as role
models for their successors.
• These stories piqued the interest of familiar people because they depicted dramatic
situations and strong emotions such as loyalty, friendship, love, courage, anger, and so on.
• Women also played important roles in these stories because they were involved in wars to
win or protect women. Women are sometimes depicted as following their husbands’ heroic
ideals, most of the time giving their lives in the form of Sati.
RECAP NOTES
Beyond Regional Frontiers: The Story of Kathak
• Kathak is derived from the word Katha, which means “story.”
• The Kathaks was originally known as a caste of storytellers in North Indian temples. Their
songs and dances were added to their storytelling.
• As the Bhakti movement spread, Kathak began to evolve into a distinct mode of dance.
• Rasa Lila was the name given to the stories of Radha and Krishna.
• The practice of dancing in Mughal courts gave Kathak its distinctive style.
• Kathak has two traditions, or gharanas, one in the courts of Rajasthan and the other in
Lucknow.
• Under the protection of Wajid Ali Shah, who was the last Nawab of Awadh, Kathak grew
even more.
• Kathak became well-established in Rajasthan, Lucknow, Punjab, Haryana, Jammu and
Kashmir, Bihar, and Madhya Pradesh after 1850.
• Despite British opposition, courtesans continued to perform and were recognised as one of
the six primary “classical” dance forms in India after independence.
RECAP NOTES
Painting for Patrons: The Tradition of Miniatures
• Miniatures are small watercolour expressions done on fabric or
paper. Previously, miniatures were done on palm leaves or wood.
• It was used to delineate Jaina messages in Western India.
• Skilled painters depicted court scenes, fight or chasing scenes,
and various aspects of public activity in their compositions.
• Mughal emperors Akbar, Jahangir, and Shah Jahan
commissioned these painters.
• They were regarded as gifts.
RECAP NOTES
• Mughal creative preferences influenced local Deccan and Rajput courts in Rajasthan.
• Portraits of rulers and court scenes were painted, first by the Mughals and then by other
rulers.
• Miniature arts were also popular in the Himalayan foothills, which is now the state of
Himachal Pradesh.
• By the late 17th century, a scaled-down painting style known as Basohli had emerged.
Bhanudatta’s Rasamanjari was the most noticeable piece.
• The invasion of Delhi by Nadir Shah in 1739 forced Mughal artists to flee to the hills. They
found ready buyers here, which resulted in the establishment of the Kangra School of
Painting.
• Later in the 18th century, Kangra artists adopted a new style that was influenced by
Vaishnavite traditions. Kangra paintings were distinguished by their use of soft colours, such
as cool blues and greens, and their lyrical treatment of themes.
RECAP NOTES
A Closer Look: Bengal
• Bengali is the language spoken by Bengalis, and it is thought to
have Sanskrit roots. The natives, however, did not speak Sanskrit.
• Business ties between Bengal and Magadha began to develop in
the 4th-3rd centuries BCE, which may have contributed to the
Sanskrit influence.
• The Gupta emperors expanded their political control over North
Bengal in the 4th century and increased their influence by bringing
Brahmins there.
• The local dialect was also influenced by the change in rulers.
• Early Bengali literature was broadly classified into two types. One
was reliant on Sanskrit, while the other was not.
RECAP NOTES

Pirs and Temples

• The Bengalis moved east in search of fertile land. The
Mughals’ invasion and their presence here both had an
impact on mosque construction and local population
dynamics.
• The Pirs were leaders in the community. They were also
teachers and judges. Sometimes, supernatural powers
are used to stabilise settlements.
• Many of Bengal’s basic block and earthen-ware
sanctuaries were built with the assistance of a few “low”
groups of people.
RECAP NOTES

Fish as Food
• Non-vegetarian food is generally avoided by Brahmins.
However, Bengal Brahmins ate fish because fish was a
significant food source for Bengalis living near rivers.
• There are pictures of fish being prepared for the market
and transported there on the walls of monasteries and
viharas.
Thank You