Sensor Networks

A Sensor Network is a specialized type of network that consists of a large number of small, low-cost, and energy-
efficient devices called sensors.
These sensors are deployed in various environments to monitor and collect data from the physical world, such as
temperature, humidity, light, sound, motion, and other environmental parameters.

Characteristics of Sensor Network :

[Link] Deployment: Sensors are usually deployed in a distributed manner across a physical area, often
forming an ad hoc network without a predefined infrastructure.

[Link] Constraints: Sensor nodes are typically battery-powered and have limited energy resources. Energy-
efficient protocols and techniques are crucial to extend the network's operational lifespan.

[Link] Collection: Sensors gather data from their surroundings and often need to communicate this data to a
central location or other nodes in the network for further processing and analysis.

[Link] Aggregation: Since sensors can generate a large volume of data, data aggregation techniques are employed
to reduce the amount of data transmitted. This helps conserve energy and reduce network congestion.

[Link]-Organization: Sensor networks are often required to self-organize, establish communication links, and adapt
to changes in the network topology.
[Link] Topology: Due to factors like sensor mobility (in some cases) and potential node failures, the network topology
can change dynamically.

[Link] Fusion: Sensor networks often perform data fusion, where data from multiple sensors is combined to provide
more accurate and reliable information about the environment being monitored.

[Link] Diversity: Sensor networks are used in a wide range of applications, including environmental monitoring,
industrial automation, healthcare, smart cities, agriculture, and military applications.

[Link] and Actuation: In addition to sensing, some sensor nodes may also be equipped with actuation capabilities to
perform actions based on collected data, such as turning on/off devices or triggering alarms.

[Link] Protocols: Communication protocols for sensor networks need to be energy-efficient, scalable, and
capable of handling the unique challenges of wireless communication and node mobility.

[Link]: Knowing the geographic location of sensors is often important for applications. Sensor networks may
employ localization techniques to determine the positions of individual nodes.

[Link] Security and Privacy: Sensor networks need to address security concerns to protect the integrity, confidentiality,
and authenticity of the data collected. Privacy concerns related to the data collected from individuals or sensitive
environments are also important.
[Link]: Sensor networks can scale to include a large number of nodes. Designing protocols and
algorithms that work efficiently and reliably at different scales is a key challenge.

[Link] Tolerance: Since individual sensor nodes can fail due to various reasons, sensor networks need
to be designed with mechanisms to handle node failures without significant disruption.

In summary, sensor networks are designed for collecting and transmitting data from the physical world
using a large number of low-power sensors. They are used in various applications that require real-time
monitoring, data analysis, and automation. Energy efficiency, data aggregation, and adaptability are
critical considerations in the design and operation of sensor networks.
ad hoc network
An ad hoc network, also known as a Mobile Ad hoc Network (MANET), is a type of wireless network in
which devices or nodes communicate with each other without depend on a centralized infrastructure
or pre-existing communication infrastructure. Ad hoc networks are particularly useful in scenarios
where a fixed infrastructure is unavailable, impractical, or too expensive to set up. Instead, nodes in
an ad hoc network form temporary connections to establish communication as needed

wireless network
A wireless network is a type of computer network that uses wireless communication technologies to
connect devices without the need for physical wired connections. Instead of relying on cables or
wires, wireless networks use radio waves, infrared signals, or other wireless technologies to transmit
data between devices. These networks provide flexible connectivity and mobility, allowing devices to
communicate with each other without being constrained by physical connections.
MANETs
MANET means “Mobile Adhoc Network “

MANETs are decentralized networks in which nodes (devices) communicate with each other
without depend on a fixed infrastructure such as a base station or access point.

A MANET consists of a number of mobile devices that come together to form a network as
needed, without any support from any existing internet infrastructure or any other kind of fixed
stations.

Nodes in a MANET are usually mobile, and they can dynamically establish and maintain
connections with other nodes in the network.

These networks are highly flexible and can be deployed in scenarios where infrastructure setup
is impractical, such as disaster-stricken areas or military operations.

MANET nodes are free to move randomly as the network topology changes frequently. Each
node behaves as a router as they forward traffic to other specified nodes in the network.

MANETs are basically peer-to-peer, multi-hop wireless networks in which information packets are transmitted in a store
and forward manner from a source to an arbitrary destination, via intermediate nodes as given in the figure:
As nodes move, the connectivity may change based on relative locations of other
nodes. The resulting change in the network topology known at the local level must
be passed on to other nodes so that old topology information can be updated.

For example, as MS2 in the figure changes its point of attachment from MS3 to
MS4, other nodes that are part of the network should use this new route to forward
packets to MS2
Characteristics of MANETs

The following are the Characteristics of MANETs

[Link] Topologies
[Link]-constrained operation
[Link] Bandwidth
[Link] Threats
[Link] Behavior
6. Less Human Intervention

[Link] Topologies
Nodes are free to move arbitrarily with different [Link], the network topology may changes randomly and unpredictable
times.

[Link]-constrained operation
Some (or) all of the nodes in an ad hoc network may rely on batteries (or) other exhaustible means for their energy. For these
nodes, the most important system design optimization criterion may be energy conservation.

[Link] Bandwidth
Wireless links usually have lower reliability, efficiency, stability, and capacity as compared to a wired network
[Link] Threats
Mobile wireless networks are generally more susceptible to physical security threats than fixed-cable networks.
The increased possibility of eavesdropping, spoofing type attacks should be carefully considered.

[Link] Behavior
Each node can act as a host and router, which shows its autonomous behavior.

6. Less Human Intervention

They require minimum human intervention to configure the network, therefore they are dynamically autonomous in
nature.
Applications of MANETs:
The following are the applications of MANETs

[Link] work
[Link]-management applications
[Link] Area Network
[Link] Area Networking

[Link] work
For some business scenarios, the need for collaborative computing might more important outside office
environments than inside a [Link] is often the case where people do need to have outside meetings to
cooperate and exchange information on a given project.

[Link]-management applications
these arise, for example, as a result of natural disasters where the entire communications infrastructure
is in panic(for example,Tsunamis,hurricanes,..etc..).Restoring communication quickly is essential.
By using ad hoc networks, an infrastructure could be set up in hours instead of days/weeks required for
wire-line communications
[Link] Area Network
An ad hoc network is specifically useful in forming networks among different vehicles on the road and
Propagate information like accidents, jamming, etc.
It can also help deterring close by facilities in the neighborhood such gas stations, restaurants, hospitals
And other facilities.

[Link] Area Networking

A personal area network(PAN) is a short-range, localized network where nodes are usually associated
with a given person.
These nodes could be attached to someone’s cell phone, laptop, TV Set and so on.
In these scenarios, mobility is only a major consideration when interaction among several
PAN is necessary.
Example:Bluetooth
Challenges of MANETs
Mobile Ad hoc Networks (MANETs) are wireless networks consisting of mobile nodes that communicate with
each other without the need for a fixed infrastructure or centralized control. While MANETs offer advantages like
flexibility and rapid deployment, they also come with several challenges that need to be addressed to ensure
their effective functioning
The following are the Challenges of MANETs
[Link]
[Link] of service(QOS)
[Link] Server Model shift
[Link]
[Link] with the internet
[Link] conservation
[Link] cooperation
8. Dynamic Topology
9. Routing Protocols
10. Reliability
11. Location Awareness
1. Scalability
As the number of nodes increases, the overhead associated with routing and maintaining network state
information also increases. Efficiently scaling MANETs to support a large number of nodes while maintaining
performance is challenging.
[Link] of Service (QoS):
Providing consistent QoS in MANETs is complex due to factors like node mobility, varying link qualities, and
limited resources. Ensuring that applications receive the required level of service is a challenge
QoS can be defined as the ability of the network to provide different services to various types of network traffic.
It means that the goal of QoS is to achieve a more deterministic network behaviour so that data carried by the network can
be better delivered and the resources can be better utilized.
In wired networks there are four typical QoS metrics, namely, bandwidth, delay, delay variance (jitter) and packet loss. In
MANETs service coverage area and power consumption can be added.

In wired networks there are two QoS models widely used: IntServ (Integrated Services) and DiffServ (Differentiated
Services) used in the Internet.
Unfortunately, both are not suitable for MANETs due to their specific characteristics.
When QoS model for MANETs was designed, these specific features of mobile ad hoc networks had to have been
considered. Especially, features like dynamic network topology, bandwidth constraint and limited power of nodes which
make MANETs really specific. And due to them it is not possible to use conventional QoS models from wired networks. The
design also needed to take under consideration the fact that a lot of MANETs are connected to the Internet.

[Link] Server Model shift

In the internet, a network client is configured to use a server as its partner for network transactions.
These servers can be found automatically (or) by static configuration.
In ad hoc networks ,however, the network structure can not be defined by collecting IP addresses into subnets.
There may not be servers, but the demand for basic services still exists.
Address allocation, name resolution, authentication and the service location itself are just examples of
Very basic services which are needed but their location in the network is unknown and possibly even changing over time.
Due to the infrastructure less nature of these networks, and node mobility, a different addressing approach may be
Required. It is still not clear who will be responsible for managing various network services.

[Link]
Ad hoc and sensor networks are mainly susceptible to malicious behavior.
Attacks such as eavesdropping, data modification, node impersonation, and denial of service can disrupt communication and
compromise sensitive information.
Security is often considered to be the major “roadblock” in the commercial application of this technology.

[Link] with the internet

The most common applications of ad hoc networks require some internet connectivity.
However, the issue of defining the interface between the two different networks is not straightforward.
If a node has an internet connections, it could offer internet connectivity to other nodes.
This node could define itself as a default router and the whole network could be considered to be single-hop
From the internet perspective although the connections are physically over several hops.

[Link] conservation
Mobile nodes are often powered by batteries, and energy conservation is crucial to prolong network lifetime. However,
energy consumption varies depending on communication, processing, and mobility. Balancing the energy consumption of
nodes while maintaining connectivity is a challenge.
Energy conservative networks are becoming extremely popular within the ad hoc and specially sensor networking
Research community.
There are two primary research topics which are almost identical:
[Link] of lifetime of a single battery
2. Maximization of lifetime of whole network.

The goals can be achieved either by developing better batteries (or) by making the network terminals to be
More efficient.

[Link](MH) cooperation
Closely related to the security issues, the node cooperation stands in the way of commercial application
Of the technology.
The fundamental question is why anyone should relay other people’s data so as to receive the
Corresponding service from the others. However, when differences in amount and data priority come
Into picture, the situation becomes more complex. Surely, a critical fire alarm box should not waste its
Batteries for relaying gaming data nor should it be denied access to other nodes because of such restrictive
Behavior. Encouraging nodes to cooperate may lead to the introduction of billing.
Well-behaving network members colud be rewarded, while selfish user could be charged higher rates.

[Link] Topology
MANETs feature a constantly changing network topology due to the movement of nodes. This leads to frequent link
disruptions, route changes, and the need for adaptive routing protocols to maintain communication paths.
9. Routing Protocols
Designing robust and efficient routing protocols for MANETs is a significant challenge due to the dynamic topology and
resource constraints. Protocols must adapt to topology changes quickly and find paths that minimize energy consumption

[Link]
The irregular connectivity caused by node mobility and link disruptions can lead to packet loss and unreliable
communication. Developing mechanisms to ensure reliable data delivery despite these challenges is crucial.

[Link] Awareness
Many MANET applications rely on the knowledge of node locations. Achieving accurate location information in dynamic and
rapidly changing networks can be challenging, affecting tasks like routing and localization.
Routing in MANETs
Routing
the process of selecting path and sende sends data packets to receiver along with path is called as Routing.
Routing in Mobile Ad Hoc Networks (MANETs) is a critical aspect that involves determining the paths
that data packets should take to reach their destinations in a dynamic network environment. Unlike
traditional wired networks, MANETs consist of a collection of mobile nodes that can communicate
with each other directly when they are within each other's radio range. These nodes are highly
dynamic and can move freely, causing frequent changes in network topology.
Criteria for classification
Routing protocols in Mobile Ad Hoc Networks (MANETs) can be classified based on various criteria,
Here are some common criteria for classifying routing protocols in MANETs:

[Link] Approach:
Proactive (Table-Driven): These protocols maintain up-to-date routing information regardless of whether data is being sent or
not. Examples include DSDV and OLSR.
Reactive (On-Demand): These protocols establish routes only when needed, reducing control message overhead. Examples
include AODV and DSR.
Hybrid: These protocols combine elements of both proactive and reactive approaches to balance control overhead and route
setup times. An example is ZRP.
Control messages : Control messages are messages that are not directly related to the main data being transferred, but
instead, they serve to manage, monitor, or control the communication and interaction between the entities involved.
[Link] Information Source:
Topology-Based: Protocols in this category maintain information about the network topology, such as links and nodes.
Position-Based (Geographic): These protocols use geographical information of nodes to make routing decisions. GPSR is an
example of a position-based protocol.

[Link] Discovery Mechanism:

Flooding: Some protocols use flooding, where control messages are broadcast to all neighbors, leading to high overhead.
Reactive protocols like AODV and DSR use controlled flooding.
Source Routing: In this approach, the source node specifies the complete route in the packet header. DSR is an example of
a source routing protocol.
Zone-Based: ZRP uses zones to limit the scope of route discoveries and control overhead.

[Link] Topology Handling:

Flat: All nodes are treated equally in terms of routing responsibilities.
Hierarchical: Nodes are organized into a hierarchy, where certain nodes have more routing responsibilities. Hierarchy can
help reduce control overhead.
Cluster-Based: Nodes are grouped into clusters, with a cluster head responsible for inter-cluster communication. This
approach can improve scalability.

[Link] Handling:
Static: Protocols designed for networks with limited mobility.
Mobile: Protocols designed to adapt to frequent node movements and changing network topology.
[Link] Efficiency:
Energy-Aware: Some protocols take into account the energy levels of nodes and aim to conserve energy.
This is crucial for extending network lifetime.
Non-Energy-Aware: Protocols that do not prioritize energy conservation in their routing decisions.

[Link]:
Scalable: Protocols that can efficiently handle large network sizes without unnecessary overhead.
Non-Scalable: Protocols that might suffer from increased control message overhead in large networks.

[Link]:
Secure: Protocols that join security mechanisms to protect against attacks and unauthorized access.
Less Secure: Protocols with limited or no built-in security mechanisms.

[Link]-Specific:
Data-Centric: Protocols designed for data-centric applications, where data spreading and gathering are
key, such as sensor networks.
Multicast-Specific: Protocols optimized for efficient multicast data delivery.
Taxonomy of MANET routing algorithms
Routing algorithms for Mobile Ad hoc Networks (MANETs) can be categorized into several classes based on their
characteristics and underlying principles.

Here's a taxonomy of MANET routing algorithms:

[Link] (Table-Driven) Routing Protocols:

Proactive protocols maintain up-to-date routing tables for all nodes in the network. They are suitable for networks with
moderate mobility and relatively stable topologies.
• Destination-Sequenced Distance Vector (DSDV): Based on the traditional distance-vector algorithm but with
sequence numbers to prevent routing loops.
• Optimized Link State Routing (OLSR): Utilizes proactive link-state routing with optimization techniques to reduce control
message overhead.

[Link] (On-Demand) Routing Protocols:

Reactive protocols establish routes only when needed, conserving bandwidth and resources. They are well-suited for
highly dynamic and mobile networks.
• Ad Hoc On-Demand Distance Vector (AODV): Establishes routes on-demand and maintains them as long as needed.
• Dynamic Source Routing (DSR): Source routing protocol where the sender specifies the entire route in the packet
header.
[Link] Routing Protocols:
Hybrid protocols combine proactive and reactive elements to balance between maintaining routes and establishing routes
on demand.
• Zone Routing Protocol (ZRP): Divides the network into zones, using proactive routing within zones and reactive routing
between zones.

[Link] Routing Protocols:

These protocols use location information to forward packets. They work well in scenarios where node positions are
known.
• Greedy Perimeter Stateless Routing (GPSR): Uses geometric coordinates to make routing decisions.
• Geographic Distance Routing (GEDIR): A distance vector protocol that uses geographic information.

[Link] Protocols:
Geocasting is a form of multicasting where messages are delivered to nodes within a specific geographical region.
• Geocasting with Guaranteed Delivery (GGD): Uses a combination of greedy forwarding and flooding to ensure message
delivery.

[Link]-Aware Routing Protocols:

These algorithms consider node energy levels when making routing decisions to prolong network lifetime.
• Power-Aware Multi-Path Routing (PAMR): Utilizes multiple paths to balance energy consumption across nodes.
• Energy-Efficient Ad Hoc Routing (EEAR): Minimizes energy consumption by dynamically selecting routes based on
energy levels.
[Link]-Based Routing Protocols:
QoS-aware protocols consider quality-of-service parameters, such as bandwidth, delay, and reliability, when
selecting routes.
• Ad Hoc QoS On-Demand Routing (AQOR): Establishes routes based on QoS requirements of the data flows.

[Link] Radio-Based Protocols:

These protocols use cognitive radios to dynamically select available frequency bands and routes to optimize
network performance.
• Cognitive Radio Ad Hoc Network (CRAHN) Routing Protocol: Adapts routing decisions based on spectrum
availability.
[Link]-Based Routing Protocols:
These protocols take into account node mobility patterns when making routing decisions.
• Mobility-Centric Distance Vector (MCDV): Incorporates node mobility metrics into routing decisions.

[Link]-Aware Routing Protocols:

Security-aware protocols consider security measures to protect against malicious attacks and unauthorized access.
• Secure Ad Hoc On-Demand Distance Vector (SAODV): A secure version of AODV that incorporates cryptographic
techniques.

[Link]-Centric Routing Protocols:

These protocols focus on content retrieval rather than traditional source-to-destination routing.
• Content-Centric Networking (CCN) Routing: Routes data based on content names rather than IP addresses.
This taxonomy provides an overview of the various categories of MANET routing algorithms, each catering to specific
network characteristics and requirements. Keep in mind that advancements in networking research may lead to the
development of new algorithms and hybrid approaches that combine multiple concepts from different categories.
Topology-based routing algorithms
The following are the Topology-based routing algorithms

1. Proactive Routing Approach

a).DSDV(Destination-Sequenced Distance-Vector Protocol)

2. Reactive Routing Approach

a) DSR(Dynamic Source Routing)
b) AODV(Ad Hoc On-Demand Distance Vector Protocal)

3. Hybrid Routing Approach

a) ZRP(Zone Routing Protocal)
[Link] Routing Approach
Proactive protocols attempt to evaluate continuously the routes within the network. It means
proactive protocol continuously maintain the routing information, so that when a packet needs to
be forwarded, the path is known already and used immediately.
The advantage of the proactive schemes is that whenever a route is needed, there is negligible
delay in determining the route.
Unfortunately, it is a big overhead to maintain routing tables in the MANET environment. Therefore,
this type of protocol has following common disadvantages:
•Requires more amounts of data for maintaining routing information.
•Low reaction on re-structuring network and failures of individual nodes.
the following is one of the most important proactive routing protocol
a).DSDV(Destination-Sequenced Distance-Vector Protocol)
a).DSDV(Destination-Sequenced Distance-Vector Protocol)
In this routing protocol, every MH(Mobile Host) in the network maintains a “routing table” that table store
information about the routes to different destinations in the network. Each entry in the routing
table includes the next hop to reach the destination and a sequence number assigned by
destination MH.

DSDV uses sequence numbers to differentiate between different versions of routing information.
Each time a node updates its routing information, it increments the sequence number associated
with that information.

Nodes in the network periodically exchange routing information with their neighbors. These
When a node detects a change in its local topology, it broadcasts this information along with its
sequence number to its neighboring nodes. The neighbors then use this information to update
their routing tables.

DSDV uses techniques like split horizon and route destroying to prevent incorrect or looping
routing information from spreading through the network.

DSDV uses hop count as a metric to determine the shortest path to a destination, aiming to
minimize the number of hops a packet needs to travel.

To alleviate potentially large network update traffic, two possible types of packets can be used:
Full dumps (or) small increment packets.

A full dump type packet carries all available routing information and can require multiple network
protocol
Data units(NPDUs).

Smaller incremental packets are used to dispatch only the information that has changed later the
last full dump.

Each of these broadcasts should fit into a standard-size NPDU, thus decreasing the amount of
traffic generated.

The MHs maintain an additional table where they store data sent in the incremental routing
In DSDV each node keeps record of route information in the form of routing table.
Routing table consists of
[Link] ID
[Link] Node
[Link](Number of Hops required)
[Link] Number
Route broad cast message
[Link] Node
[Link] Hop
[Link] Sequence Number
[Link]
Each node exchanges its updated routing table with each other.
Example1

MH1

MH2

Routing Table for MH1

Destination Next Hop Distance Sequence Number
MH2 MH2 1 14
Example2

MH1

MH2

MH3

Routing Table for MH1

Destination Next Hop Distance Sequence Number

MH2 MH2 1 14
MH3 MH2 2 18
Example

Destination Next Hop Distance Sequence Number

2 2 1 14
3 3 1 15
4 2 2 16
5 3 2 17
6 3 2 18

Routing table for Node1

There are two types of table updates

[Link] dump [Link] Update

[Link] dump
Entire routing table is sent to neighbor

2. Incremental Update
Only entries that are changed are exchange.

Example suppose MH4 is addede

MH1

MH4
MH2

MH3
Routing Table of MH1

Destination Next Hop Distance Sequence Number

MH2 MH2 1 14
MH3 MH2 2 18
MH4 MH2 2 22

In incremental update only new entry will be exchange to its neighbors.

Table maintenance in DSDV

[Link] node receives the route information with most recent sequence number from
other nodes and updates its table.

[Link] looks at its routing table in order to determine shortest path to reach all the
destination.

[Link] node constructs another routing table based on shortest path information

[Link] Routing table will be broadcast to its neighbors

[Link] nodes updates its routing table

 MH2 MH4

MH1

MH3 MH5

Routing table for MH1

Destination Next Hop Distance Sequence Number
MH2 MH2 1 340
MH3 MH1 1 164
MH4 MH2 2 115
MH5 MH3 2 20
Suppose there is a link break between 2 MHs(nodes)

Suppose Node MH4 is disconnected. The route has to be maintained in DSDV again for this the route is
Dynamically changed. Here the link break is observed by MH2,MH3 and MH5 and it automatically sets all routes
Through a broken link to infinity so the broadcast to its routing table so the MH1 receives
An update(whenever the break is there MH1 receives an update message)

All nodes are going to be update the routing table

Disconnected
So Destination
MH2 MH4

MH1

MH3 MH5
Suppose After some time it is added

Disconnected
So Destination
MH2 MH4

MH1

MH4

MH3 MH5
added
Routing table for Node MH1

Destination Next Hop Distance Sequence number

MH2 MH2 1 340
MH3 MH3 1 164
MH4 2 2 115
MH5 MH3 2 20
MH5 MH3 3 124

The new sequence number always grater than old sequence number
Advantages of DSDV
Destination-Sequenced Distance Vector (DSDV) is a proactive routing protocol used in wireless ad hoc networks. It
was designed to address some of the challenges and limitations of traditional distance vector routing protocols, such
as the Routing Information Protocol (RIP).

The following are some advantages of DSDV:

[Link]-Free Routing: DSDV employs a sequence number for each route entry, ensuring that older routing
information is discarded in favor of newer updates. This mechanism helps prevent routing loops, a common issue in
traditional distance vector protocols.

[Link] Convergence: DSDV employs a proactive approach, where each node maintains a consistent routing table
that is periodically updated. This helps in maintaining up-to-date routing information and leads to relatively quick
convergence when network topology changes occur.

[Link] Routing Overhead: The sequence numbers in DSDV are used to differentiate between newer and older routing
information. This allows nodes to avoid unnecessary updates for routes that are still valid. This helps reduce the
routing overhead and conserves bandwidth in the network.

[Link] Behavior: DSDV is deterministic in nature. Each node follows a strict update process based on
sequence numbers, which leads to predictable routing behavior. This predictability can be advantageous in certain
scenarios where stability and reliability are critical.
[Link] Implementation: The basic concept of DSDV is relatively straightforward, making it easier to implement and
understand compared to more complex routing protocols like OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) or EIGRP (Enhanced
Interior Gateway Routing Protocol).

[Link] for Small Networks: DSDV is particularly well-suited for small to medium-sized networks with limited mobility
and relatively stable topologies. In such environments, its proactive nature and quick convergence can be beneficial.

[Link] with Legacy Systems: DSDV can be a suitable choice when integrating wireless ad hoc networks with
existing wired networks that might still rely on distance vector routing protocols.

[Link] for Static or Slowly Changing Networks: If the network topology changes infrequently or at a slow pace,
DSDV can provide reliable routing without the need for frequent updates.
Disadvatages of DSDV
The following are Disadvantages of DSDV

[Link] to Infinity Problem: DSDV is susceptible to the "count to infinity" problem. This occurs when there are network
topology changes, and nodes need to propagate updates. In some scenarios, the update information might take a while
to converge, leading to incorrect routing information and potential loops.

[Link] Information: DSDV relies on periodic updates to maintain routing tables. If a node fails to receive updates due to
communication failures or other reasons, it might end up using stale routing information, leading to incorrect routes.

[Link] Table Size: In networks with large numbers of nodes and routes, DSDV can result in significant overhead due
to the frequent exchange of routing information. This can lead to larger routing tables and increased memory usage on
individual nodes.

[Link] Scalability: DSDV might not scale well in very large or highly dynamic networks. The overhead of maintaining
and propagating routing updates can become burdensome, causing delays and inefficiencies, especially when the
network topology changes frequently.

[Link] Control Message Overhead: DSDV generates and broadcasts control messages (updates) even when there are no
actual changes in the network. This control message overhead can consume valuable bandwidth, especially in scenarios
where bandwidth is limited.
[Link] for Mobile Networks: DSDV was designed with static or slowly changing networks in mind. In highly mobile ad
hoc networks, where nodes can move frequently, the proactive nature of DSDV can lead to unnecessary updates and
increased overhead.

[Link] in Sequence Number Management: While sequence numbers help prevent routing loops, managing them
can be challenging. If sequence numbers are not carefully managed, they might not effectively prevent loops or lead to
confusion in the network.

[Link] Convergence Delay: When a network is first established or restarted, DSDV requires some time for initial
convergence, during which routing tables are being populated and updated. This delay might affect the overall network
performance during that period.

[Link] to Network Changes: DSDV relies on periodic updates regardless of whether there are actual changes in the
network or not. This can be inefficient in scenarios where the network topology changes infrequently or when the changes
are concentrated in specific areas.

[Link] Consumption: In wireless networks, energy conservation is crucial. DSDV's proactive nature, which involves
constant updates, can lead to increased energy consumption, particularly in battery-constrained devices.
[Link] Routing Approach
These are also known as on-demand routing protocol.
In this type of routing, the route is discovered only when it is required/needed. The process of route discovery occurs by
flooding the route request packets throughout the mobile network. It consists of two major phases namely, route discovery
and route maintenance.

a) DSR(Dynamic Source Routing)

b) AODV(Ad Hoc On-Demand Distance Vector Protocol)

a) DSR(Dynamic Source Routing)

It is a reactive/on-demand routing protocol. In this type of routing, the route is discovered only
when it is required/needed.

In this protocol, Source node stores the complete path information and intermediate nodes do not
need to maintain routing information to route the packets to the destination.

It consists of two phases:

1. Route Discovery 2. Route Maintenance

Route Discovery: This phase determines the most optimal path for the transmission of data packets between the
source and the destination mobile nodes.
in this phase there are 2 different data packets
[Link] packet [Link] packet
RREQ packet means Route request packet which contains Source Node ID and Destination Node ID.
RREQ is used to initiate the route discovery process, enabling nodes to discover paths to destination nodes in wireless
ad hoc networks
RREP packets means Route reply packet that contain the entire route information from the source node to the
destination node, including the addresses of all the intermediate nodes that the packet must traverse.

Route Maintenance: This phase performs the maintenance work of the route as the topology in the mobile ad-hoc
network is dynamic in nature and hence, there are many cases of link breakage resulting in the network failure
between the mobile nodes.
The Route Error (RERR) message in DSR is used to communicate the failure or unavailability of a route to other nodes
in a wireless ad hoc network.

In DSR, MH(Mobile Hosts) maintain route caches that store recently discovered and valid routes, allowing nodes to
efficiently forward data packets and avoid unnecessary route discoveries

When an MH has a packet to send to some destination, it first consults its route cache to determine whether
It already has a route to the destination.
If it has a route to the destination, it will use this route to send the packet.

If the MH does not have such an unexpired route, it initiates route discovery by broadcasting a route request
Packet containing the address of the destination, along with the source MH’s address and a unique identification
Number. Each node receiving the packet checks whether it knows of a route to the destination.
If it does not, it adds its own address to the route record of the packet and then forwards the packet along
Its outgoing links.

A route reply is generated when the request reaches either the destination itself (or) an intermediate node that in
Its route cache contains an unexpired route to the destination.

By the time the packet reaches either the destination (or) such an intermediate node, it contains a route record
With the sequence of hops taken.

If the node generating the route reply is the destination, it places the route record contained in the route request
into the route reply.

If the responding node is an intermediate node, it appends its cached route to the route record and then
Generates the route reply.

To return the route reply, the responding node must have a route to the initiator.
If it has a route to the initiator in its route cache, it may use that route.
Otherwise, if symmetric links are supported, the node may reverse the route in the route record.
if symmetric links are not supported, the node may initiate its own route discovery and added the
The route reply on the new route request.
Route maintenance is accomplished through the use of route error packets and acknowledgments.

Route error packets are generated at a node when the data link layer encounters a fatal transmission problem.
When a route error packet is received, the hop in error is removed from the node’s route cache and
All routes containing the hop are truncated at that point.

Acknowledgements are used to verify the correct operation of the route links. These include passive acknowledgements,
Where a MH is able to hear the next hop forwarding the packet along the route.

DSR also supports multi-path in its design as a built-in feature with no need for extra add-ons.
It is very useful when a route fails, another valid route can be obtained from the route cache if one exists.

Example
source Shortest path

destination

discarded
Advantages of DSR
The following are the some advantages of DSR

[Link] Hoc Network Support: DSR is designed specifically for ad hoc networks where nodes communicate directly
with each other without the need for a centralized infrastructure. It allows for flexible and dynamic network
formations, which is particularly useful in scenarios where infrastructure deployment is impractical or unavailable.

[Link] Fixed Infrastructure: DSR doesn't rely on a fixed network infrastructure like traditional routing protocols do.
This makes it suitable for scenarios like disaster recovery, military operations, and remote areas where setting up
infrastructure is challenging.

[Link]: DSR allows nodes to discover and adapt to changes in the network topology. Nodes can join or leave
the network, and DSR adjusts the routing paths accordingly. This dynamic adaptability is beneficial in situations
where network topology changes frequently.

[Link] Overhead: DSR reduces the overhead of routing table maintenance compared to some other routing
protocols. Instead of maintaining static routing tables, DSR maintains route information in packet headers, resulting
in lower memory and processing requirements.

[Link]-Free Routing: DSR ensures loop-free routing by including the list of visited nodes in the packet header. This
helps prevent routing loops that can occur in dynamic networks.
[Link] Caching: DSR uses route caching, which means that when a node discovers a route to a destination, it
stores that route for future use. This caching mechanism helps in reducing the number of route discovery
messages and contributes to overall network efficiency.

[Link] Routing: DSR is a source routing protocol, meaning that the source node determines the complete route
a packet should take to reach the destination. This can be advantageous in scenarios where the source node has
better knowledge of the network topology or specific requirements for routing.

[Link] Use of Resources: Since DSR uses source routing, nodes can make intelligent decisions about the paths
packets take, potentially optimizing for factors like energy consumption or avoiding congested areas.

[Link] to Failures: DSR's dynamic nature makes it more resilient to network failures. If a link or node fails,
DSR can quickly adapt and find alternative routes to ensure that packets reach their destinations.

[Link]: DSR's relatively simple design makes it easy to implement and deploy, especially in scenarios where
complex network management is not feasible.
Disadvantages of DSR
The following are the disadvantages of DSR
[Link] Header Overhead: DSR includes the complete route information within the packet header. This can result in
increased header overhead, especially for longer routes

[Link]: DSR's dependence on source routing can lead to scalability issues in large networks. As the network grows in
size, the overhead associated with maintaining and transmitting the complete source route in each packet becomes more
pronounced.

[Link] Discovery Delay: When a route is not cached, DSR requires a route discovery process to find a path to the
destination. This process involves broadcasting route request packets, which can introduce delay, consume network
resources, and potentially increase latency, particularly in networks with high mobility or frequent topology changes.

[Link] Maintenance Overhead: DSR depend on route caching, and while this can reduce route discovery frequency, it
also introduces overhead related to route maintenance. Cached routes might become old due to network changes,
leading to additional control traffic for route maintenance.

[Link] Concerns: Source routing can expose the network to security vulnerabilities. Malicious nodes could potentially
manipulate the routing information in packet headers, leading to unauthorized data interception, data tampering, or
network disruption.

[Link] Error Handling: Handling errors, such as broken links or unreachable nodes, can be more complex in DSR due
to its reliance on source routing. If a node on a source route becomes unavailable, the source node needs to handle the
error and find an alternative route.
b) AODV(Ad Hoc On-Demand Distance Vector Protocol)

The AODV is basically a combination of DSDV and DSR.

It borrows the basic on-demand mechanism of Route Discovery and Route Maintenance from DSR, plus the
Use of hop-by-hop routing, sequence numbers from DSDV.

AODV minimizes the number of required broadcasts by creating routes only on-demand basis.

When a source MH desires to send a message and does not already have a valid route to the destination,
It initiates a path discovery process to locate the corresponding MH.
It broadcasts a route request(RREQ) packet to its neighbors , which then forwards the request to their neighbors,
And so on, until either the destination (or) an intermediate MH with a “fresh enough” route to the destination is
reached.

AODV utilizes destination sequence numbers to ensure all routes are loop-free and contain the most recent route
Information.

Each node maintains its own sequence number, as well as a broadcast ID which is incremented for every RREQ

The RREQ includes the most recent sequence number it has for the destination.

RREQ contains src_id, des_id, src_seqno,dest_seqno,broadcast_id and TTL(Time to leave).

Intermediate nodes can reply to the RREQ only if they have a route to the destination.

When intermediate node receive RREQ packet 2 cases are possible

-if it does not have a valid route to destination, the node forwards it
-if it has a valid route, the prepares a route reply(RREP]

During the process of forwarding the RREQ, intermediate nodes record in their route tables the address of the
Neighbor from which the first copy of the packet was received, thereby establishing a reverse path. If additional
Copies of the same RREQ are later received, they are discarded.
This means that if the RREQ is received multiple times, the duplicate copies are discarded.
Duplicate copies are determined by comparing broadcast_id and src_id pairs.

Once the RREQ reaches the destination (or) an intermediate node with fresh enough route, the destination/intermediate node
responds by unicasting a route reply(RREP) packet back to the neighbor from which it first received the RREQ.

As the RREP is routed back along the reverse path, nodes along this path set up forward route entries in their route
tables that point to the node from which the RREP came.

Each route entry is associated with route timer which causes the deletion of entry if it is not used with in the specified
lifetime. This means that if route reply is not received before a time expires, this entry is deleted.

Because the RREP is forwarded along the path established by the RREQ, AODV only supports the use of symmetric links.
node1 sends data packet to node7
Assume node6 knows the valid route to node7
node1 sends a RREQ packet to all its neibhors
Here
src_id=1
dest_id=7
broadcast_id= broadcast_id+1
src_seqno= src_seqno+1
dest_seqno=last dest_seqno for node7
Routes are maintained as follows,

If source MH moves, it is able to reinitiate the route discovery protocol to find a new route to the
Destination. If a MH along the route moves, its upstream neighbor notices the move and propagates a link
Failure notification message to each of its active upstream neighbors to inform them of the breakage of that
Part of route.

An important aspect of the protocol is the is use of hello messages as periodic local broadcasts to inform
each MH in its neighborhood to maintain local connectivity. However, the use of hello messages may not be
required at all times.

AODV is designed for unicast routing only, and multi-path is not supported. In other words, only one route to a
Given destination can exist at a time. However, enhancements have been proposed which extend base AODV
To provide multi-path capability, and it is known as Multi path AODV (MADOV).
Advantages of AODV
The following are the advantages of AODV
[Link]-Demand Routing: AODV is an on-demand routing protocol, meaning that it only establishes routes when
they are needed. This reduces the overhead associated with maintaining routing tables for every node in the
network, which can be especially beneficial in networks with limited resources.
[Link] Control Traffic: AODV minimizes the amount of control traffic by sending route request (RREQ) packets
only when a route is not available. This approach helps conserve network bandwidth and reduces congestion
caused by excessive control messages.
[Link] Prevention: AODV incorporates mechanisms to prevent routing loops. It uses sequence numbers for route
entries, ensuring that old routes are not mistakenly used. This loop prevention mechanism enhances the protocol's
reliability.
[Link] Route Establishment: AODV typically establishes routes quickly when needed. Route discovery involves
broadcasting RREQ packets, and the first received response (RREP) establishes the route. This efficient route setup
is valuable in scenarios with dynamic topologies or rapidly changing network conditions.
[Link] to Network Changes: AODV reacts well to changes in network topology. When routes break due to
node mobility or other factors, AODV can quickly detect these changes and initiate route repairs using route error
(RERR) packets.
[Link] Simplicity: AODV's design is relatively straightforward compared to some other routing
protocols. This simplicity can make it easier to implement and understand, leading to quicker adoption and
deployment.
Disadvantages of AODV
The following are the disadvantages of AODV

[Link] Discovery Delay: AODV relies on route discovery, which involves broadcasting Route Request (RREQ) packets
to find a route to the destination. This process introduces delay in establishing a route, especially for longer routes or
in networks with high mobility. This delay can impact real-time or time-sensitive applications.
[Link] Maintenance Overhead: AODV requires frequent route maintenance to keep track of route validity. This
overhead increases with network size and mobility, as the protocol needs to continuously update and monitor routes
to handle changes in the network.
[Link] Accumulation: In networks with high mobility and frequent route changes, the increase of route request
(RREQ) and route reply (RREP) packets can lead to increased blocking and inefficient bandwidth utilization.
[Link] for Multicast:
AODV is designed for unicast routing only, and multi-path is not supported.
[Link] Support for Quality of Service (QoS): AODV's primary focus is on finding routes based on hop count, without
considering factors such as bandwidth, latency, or reliability. This limitation can be a drawback in scenarios where QoS
requirements are crucial.
[Link] Concerns: Like many other ad hoc routing protocols, AODV can be susceptible to security threats. For
example, malicious nodes can disrupt route discovery or tamper with control messages, leading to unauthorized access
or network disruption.
[Link] on Neighbor Discovery: AODV assumes that nodes can reliably discover their neighbors. If neighbor
discovery mechanisms are not reliable, it can lead to incorrect route information and route failures.
3. Hybrid Routing Approach
It basically combines the advantages of both, reactive and pro-active routing protocols. These protocols are
adaptive in nature and adapts according to the zone and position of the source and destination mobile nodes.
One of the most popular hybrid routing protocol is Zone Routing Protocol (ZRP).

Zone Routing Protocol (ZRP)

ZRP is a hybrid routing approach.

ZRP is the combination of proactive and reactive routing approaches.

Proactive routing approach Reactive routing approach

In advance routing information is In this type of routing, the route is
collected discovered only when it is
required/needed
Route immediately available Route delayed available
Route might be stale Route less likely to be stale
ZRP uses Best part of proactive and reactive routing approaches.

The whole network is divided into different zones and then the position of source and destination mobile node is
observed.
If the source and destination mobile nodes are present in the same zone, then proactive routing is used for the
transmission of the data packets between them.
And if the source and destination mobile nodes are present in different zones, then reactive routing is used for the
transmission of the data packets between them.

Zone is based on the radius (Or) number of hop radius.

Reactive routing protocols uses global flood-search for quiring node.

Any updation in the network is broadcasted to entire network.

ZRP limit scope of proactive procedure to only nodes local neighborhood.

Routing zone of a node X include nodes which have minimum distance in hops from X is at most
Pre-defined number known as Zone radius.
Let’s calculate distance for every node from node A in hops
Zone

source

Routing Zone of Node A with Zone Radius 2

 Zone

source

Routing Zone of Node A with Zone Radius 2

peripheral node
Select nodes which are having distance equal to zone radius as peripheral nodes

IRAP: Intra zone routing protocol

IRAP used for maintain route in Zone using proactive routing approach.

IERP: Inter zone routing protocol.

IERP help to find route to nod outside of Zone.
IERP uses Reactive routing approach.

In the above diagram

Node A wants to send anything to Node G it uses IERP because Node G is outside Zone.

Node A wants to send anything to Node F it uses IRAP because Node F is with in the Zone.

The following steps involved in ZRP

Step1: Source Node will check whether destination is in its zone or not

Step2:If destination is in zone then source node must be having route to destination(proactive used in zone)

Step3: If destination is not in zone then source node send Route Query to its peripheral nodes.
Step4: when peripheral nodes receive route query packet then it also run same logic.
it will check whether destination is in.

Route Accumulation process

In the basic route accumulation, a node appends its IP address to a received query packet.
The sequence of IP address specifies a route from the query’s source to the current node.
By reversing this sequence a route may also be obtained back to the source.

Query control mechanism

Query control mechanism detects and terminate a query thread when it appears in a previous quired region
Of the network.
i.e arrives at a node belonging to the routing zone of a previously queried node.
Example
Position-based routing algorithms
In Position-based routing algorithms Decisions made based on destination's position and position of forwarding
node's neighbors.
position-based routing algorithms use the geographical location of nodes to make routing
decisions.

Location Services
In order to get the current position of a specific node, help is needed from a location service.
MHs register their current position with this service. When a node does not know the position
of a desired communication partner, it contacts the location service and requests that
information.

In classical one-hop cellular networks, there are dedicated position servers that maintain
position information
About the nodes in the network. With respect to classification, this is some-for-all approach
as the servers some
Specific nodes, each maintaining the position information about all MHS.

In MANETs, such centralized approach is possible only as an endless service that can be reached via non-ad hoc
means.

There are two main reasons for this.

Second, since a MANET is dynamic, it might be difficult to guarantee that at least one position server will be
Present in a given MANET.

The following are the decentralized location services in MANET

1. DREAM(Distance Routing Effect Algorithm for Mobility)

2. Quorum-based Location Service

[Link](Distance Routing Effect Algorithm for Mobility)

DREAMD means Distance Routing Effect Algorithm for Mobility.

In DREAM each node maintains a position database that stores the location information about other nodes
that are part of the network.

it can be classified as an all-for-all approach.

An entry in the position database includes a node identifier, the direction of distance to the node, as well as
A time value when this information is generated.

Each node running DREAM periodically floods packets to update the position information maintained by the
Other nodes.
A node can control the accuracy of its position information available to other nodes in 2 ways

• By changing the frequency at which it sends position updates. This is knows as temporal resolution.
• By indicating how far a position update may travel before it is discarded. This is knows as spatial resolution.

The temporal resolution of sending updates is coupled with the mobility rate.

The as spatial resolution is used to provide accurate position information in the direct neighborhood of a node
and low accurate position information for far away nodes.

The costs associated with accurate position information at remote nodes can be reduced since greater the
Distance separating two nodes is, slower they appear to moving with respect to each other.

Accordingly, the location information in routing table can be updated as a function of the distance separating nodes
without compromising the routing accuracy. This is called as the distance effect
In the above diagram MH A is assumed as stationary, while MHs B and C are moving in the same direction
At the same speed.

From node A’s perspective, the change direction will be grater for node B than for node C.
The distance effect allows low spatial resolution areas far away from the target node,
Provided that intermediate hops are able to update the position information contained in the
Packet header. Based on the resulting rioting tables, DREAM forwards packets in the recorded direction of the
destination node, guaranteeing delivery by following the direction with a given probability.

2. Quorum-based Location Service

A quorum-based location service is a concept used in distributed systems and databases to ensure consistency,
availability, and fault tolerance in managing and locating resources across multiple nodes or servers.

Quorum-based systems are designed to function properly even in the presence of network barriers or node failures.
The term "quorum" refers to a minimum number of nodes that need to agree on a particular action before it can be
considered valid.

Here, information updates(write operations) are sent to a subset(quorum) of available nodes,

Forwarding Strategies
In ad hoc and sensor networks, forwarding strategies play a crucial role in efficiently transmitting
data between nodes.

In ad hoc and sensor networks nodes may move, join, or leave the network frequently. As a result, designing effective
forwarding strategies is essential to ensure reliable communication.
Greedy Packet
Using greedy packet forwarding, the sender of packet includes an approximate position of the recipient in that
Packet.

This information is gathered by an appropriate location service.

In a greedy routing algorithm, each node evaluates its neighbors and chooses the one that is closest to the destination. The
packet is then forwarded to that neighbor, and the process repeats until the packet reaches its proposed destination
There are three different strategies a node can use to decide to which neighbor a given packet should be forwarded.

In above diagram,
S is source and
D is destination.
The circle with radius r indicates the maximum transmission range of node S.

there is a node labeled as "S," and around this node, there is a circle with a radius "r." This circle represents the maximum
transmission range of node S. In wireless networks, each node can communicate with other nodes within a certain
distance, which is determined by their transmission range.

transmission range" refers to the maximum distance at which a node can effectively send and receive signals to and from
other nodes. Nodes within the transmission range of each other can directly communicate without the need for
intermediate nodes to dispatch the signal. Nodes outside the transmission range of a given node would require routing
mechanisms, such as the greedy routing approach to dispatch the data

One natural strategy is to forward the packet to the node that is closest to node D
In the above diagram most closet node to D is C. this strategy is known as most forward within r (MFR).

MFR may be a good strategy in scenarios where the sender of packet can not adjust the transmission signal strength
to the sender and receiver. However , a different strategy performs better than MFR in situations where sender can
adjust its transmitting power.
In nearest with forward progress(NFP),the packet is transmitted to the nearest neighbor of the sender which is in
The direction of the destination. In the above diagram this would be node A.

If all nodes uses NFP, the probability of packet collisions is significantly reduced. Thus, the average progress of the
Packet is calculated as p f(a,b)
where p is the probability of a successfully transmission and
f(a,b) is the progress of the packet being successfully forwarded from a to b.

The "probability of packet collisions" refers to the probability that two or more data packets transmitted within a
network will interfere with each other and result in a collision
When multiple nodes attempt to transmit data at the same time, their signals might overlap, leading to interference
and collision.

Another strategy for forwarding packets is compass routing.

In compass routing the neighbor closer to the straight line between sender and the destination is selected.
In the above diagram this would be node B. Compass routing tries to minimize the spatial distance a packet
Travels.

Finally, it is possible to let the sender randomly select one the nodes closer to the destination and forward the
Packet to that node. this strategy minimizes accuracy of information needed about the neighbors, thereby reducing
the number of operations required to send a packet.

Greedy routing may fail to find a path between sender and destination, even though one does exist.
This can be seen in the following diagram
Here the circle around node D has the radius of the distance between node S and D, and circle around node S shows
its transmission range. There exists a valid path from node S to node D. but the problem here is that node S is closer
to the destination node D than any of the nodes in its transmission range. Greedy routing has therefore reached a
Local maximum from which it cannot recover.

a local maximum typically refers to a sensor node that has a higher reading or value compared to its neighboring
nodes within a certain range. However, this reading might not be the highest value in the entire network. It's
important to note that local maxima can occur due to noise or variation in the sensor readings.

To counter this problem, it has been suggested that the packet should be forwarded to the node with least
Backward progress if no node can be found in the forward direction. However, this raises the problem of looping,
Which can not occur when packets are forwarded with positive progress towards the destination. Other studies
Suggest not to forward packets that have reached a local maximum.
The face-2 algorithm and the perimeter routing strategy of Greedy Perimeter Stateless Routing Protocol(GPSR)
are 2 similar recovery approaches based on planar graph traversal. Both are performed on a per-packet basis and do
Not require any additional information.

A packet enters the recovery mode when it arrives at a local maximum.

It returns to greedy mode when it reaches a node closer to the destination than the node where the packet
Entered the recovery mode.
Planner graphs are the graphs with non-intersecting edges.

A set of nodes in MANET can be considered as graph in which nodes are vertices and edges exists between 2 nodes
If they are close enough to communicate directly with each other.
The graph formed by MANET is generally not planner, as shown in the following diagram where the transmission
Range of each node contains all other nodes.
In order to construct a connected planner sub-graph of the graph formed by the nodes in a MANET,
A well-known mechanism is used:

An edge between 2 nodes A and B is included in the graph only if the intersection of the 2 circles with radii equal to
The distance between node A and node B around those 2 nodes does not contain any other nodes.

In the above diagram the edge between A and C would not be included in the planner sub-graph since node B and
node D are contained in the intersection of the circles. It is important to realize that each node can locally make
The decision as to whether an edge is within the planner sub-graph, since each node know the position of all its
neighbors.
Based on the planner sub-graph, a simple planner graph traversal is used to find a path toward the destination.
The general concept is to forward the packet on faces of the planner sub-graph progressively closer to the
destination.

the above diagram shows how this traversal is carried out when a packet is forwarded from node S to node D
on recovery mode. On each face, the packet is forwarded along the interior of the face by using the
Right hand rule: forward the packet on the next edge counterclockwise from the edge in which a packet is
about to be forwarded, check if this intersection is closer to the destination than any other intersection previously
encountered. If this is true, switch to the new face bordering the edge the packet is about to be forwarded along
Before switching faces. This algorithm guarantees that a path will be found from the source to the destination.

The header of a packet contains additional information such as the position of the node where it entered recovery
mode, the position of the last intersection that caused face change, and the first edge traversed on the current face.
Therefore, each node can make all routing decisions based only on the information about its local neighbors.
Restricted Directional Flooding
The term "Restricted Directional Flooding" implies that instead of blindly forwarding messages in all directions (as in
traditional flooding), nodes in the network follow some rules or restrictions when deciding which neighbors to forward
messages to. These rules could be based on factors like proximity, signal strength, network topology, or energy levels to
optimize the spreading of information while maintaining network resources.

[Link]

2. LAR

[Link]

In DREAM, the sender node S of packet with destination node D forwards the packet to all one-hop neighbors that lie
In the direction of node D.

In order to determine this direction, a node calculates the region that is likely to contain node D, called the
Expected region as shown in the following diagram.
Since this position information may be outdated, the radius r of the expected region is set (t1-t0)vmax

Where t1 is the current time

t0 is timestamp of the position information node S has about node D
And vmax is the maximum speed that a node may travel in the MANET.

Given the expected region, the “direction towards node D” for example in the above diagram is defined by
the line between nodes S and D and the angle ɸ.The neighboring nodes repeat this procedure using their
information on node D’s position.

If a node does not have a one-hop neighbor in the required direction, a recovery procedure has to be started.
This procedure is not part of DREAM specification.
2. LAR(Location-Aided Routing)
LAR means “Location-Aided Routing”

LAR is a Mobile ad hoc routing protocol.

Location-Aided Routing is a routing protocol used in wireless ad hoc and sensor networks to improve the efficiency of
routing by taking advantage of location information about the nodes in the network

LAR uses location information using GPS(Global Positioning System),through which every node can know it's current physical
location in the network.

in LAR node find out route to another node when it wants send data to that node.

LAR has two phases

[Link] Discovery [Link] Error

Route Discovery:
Through Route discovery route request packets are sent (or) broadcast to the destination
once destination receive a route request message, it will reply by sending route reply packet

Route Error
if there any link broken during transmission then this error will be reported to the sender by sending a route error packet.
these 2 phases are similar to DSR but there is a difference in flooding route request packets.
Under the assumption that nodes have information about other node’s positions, LAR uses this to restrict the
Flooding to certain area.

LAR limits the search to a route called the request zone, determined based on expected location of the destination node
at the time of route discovery.

Two concepts are important to understand how LAR works

[Link] Zone
[Link] Zone

[Link] Zone
The Expected Zone is a region or area around the estimated location of the destination node. This means that
Expected Zone is a area in which destination node is expected to be present.

[Link] Zone
Request Zone specify whether an intermediate node forward received route request packets to it’s neighbors or not.
If intermediate node is in request zone then it will forwarded otherwise it discard packet.
Last known position is used to find out expected zone.

Consider node S that needs to find a route to node D.

Assume that node S knows that node D was at Location L at time t 0.
Then, the expected zone of node D from viewpoint of node S at the current time t1, is the region expected to contain
Node D.

This means that let’s say at time t0 location of D was known to S and current time is t1

For example, if node S knows that node D travels with average speed v, then S may assume that the expected
Zone is the circular region of radius v(t1-t0), centered at location L as shown in the following diagram
If actual speed happens to be larger than the average, then the destination may actually be outside the expected zone
At time t1. thus, expected zone is only an estimate made by node S to determine a region that possibly contains D
At time t1.

Extra information regarding node reduce expected zone hence reduce area of searching for destination.

For example if node is moving only in north direction then expected zone can be half

If node S does not know any previous location of node D, then node S can not reasonably determine the
expected zone(the entire region that may possibly be occupied by the ad hoc network is assumed to be
The expected zone).
In general, having more information regarding mobility of a destination node can result in smaller expected zone
As shown in above diagram 2.17

When node receive route request then if it is not destination then it will forward those route request to it’s neighbor
If it is in request zone

Based on expected zone, we can define the request zone. The proposed LAR algorithms use flooding with one
Modification.

In LAR two different schemes are used to find out membership of node in request zone namely LAR1 and LAR2
In LAR1 shape of Request Zone is Rectangle
This Rectangle request zone includes expected zone and current location of node S(node initiating route request)

Based on this information, the source node S can thus determine the four corners of the expected zone.

Node S defines a route request zone for the route request.

A node forwards a route request only if it belongs to the request zone.
To increase the probability that the route request will reach node D, the request zone should include
the expected zone.
Additionally, the request zone may also include other regions around the request zone
Last know location of D is (xd,yd) at time t0

Assume average speed of node D is v then t1 node D will be at v*(t1-t0)

Expected Zone

Request Zone
 When the source node S send route request packet
(xs,yd+R) (xd+R,yd+R) These 4 co-ordinates will be included in that
packet

(xs,ys)
(xd+R,ys)

Expected Zone

Request Zone
Here node S is present in expected zone
Of node D
In the above diagram, if the node I receives route request from another node, it forwards the request to neighbors,
Because it is within the rectangular request zone. However, when node J receives the route request, node J discards
The request, as node J is not within the request zone.
This algorithm is called LAR scheme 1.
LAR-Scheme-2 insert two types of information in route request packets instead of request zone’s coordinates.

The LAR scheme2 is a slight modification to include two pieces of information within the route request packet:
Assume that node S knows the location (Xd;Yd) of node D at some time t0-the time at which route discovery is
initiated
By node S is t1, where t1>=t0. Node S calculates its distance from location (Xd;Yd) , denoted as DISTs, and includes
this
Distance with the route request message.

The coordinates (Xd;Yd) are also included in the route request packet.
With this information, a given node J forwards a route request forwarded by I(originated by node S).
If J is within an expected distance from (Xd;Yd) than node I.