THE CELL STRUCTURE

BY
Namuyimbwa Lydia

1
Course objectives
By the end of this session, you will be able
to;
• Explain the cell theory
• Define the cell
• Describe the cell structure and its
functions
• Differentiate a prokaryotic and
eukaryotic cell

2
History of Cells & the Cell Theory

Cell Specialization
Virchow
3
 First to View Cells
• In 1665, Robert Hooke
used a microscope to
examine a thin slice of
cork (dead plant cells)
• What he saw looked
like small boxes

4
 First to View Cells
• Hooke is responsible for
naming cells
• Hooke called them
“CELLS” because they
looked like the small
rooms that monks lived in
called Cells

5
 Anton van Leeuwenhoek
• In 1673, Leeuwenhoek
(a Dutch microscope
maker), was first to
view organism (living
things)
• Leeuwenhoek used a
simple, handheld
microscope to view
pond water &
scrapings from his
teeth 6
 Beginning of the Cell Theory
• In 1838, a German
botanist named
Matthias Schleiden
concluded that all
plants were made of
cells
• Schleiden is a
cofounder of the cell
theory

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 Beginning of the Cell Theory
• In 1839, a German
zoologist named
Theodore Schwann
concluded that all
animals were made
of cells
• Schwann also
cofounded the cell
theory

8
 Beginning of the Cell Theory
• In 1855, a German medical
doctor named Rudolph
Virchow observed, under
the microscope, cells
dividing
• He reasoned that all cells
come from other pre-
existing cells by cell
division

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 CELL THEORY
• All living things are made of cells
• Cells are the basic unit of
structure and function in an
organism (basic unit of life)
• Cells come from the
reproduction of existing cells
(cell division)

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 Definition of Cell
•A cell is the smallest unit that is
capable of performing life functions.
• A cell is the smallest functional
unit of a living organism.
 Basic Characteristics of Cells
• Smallest living subdivision of the human
body
• Diverse in structure and function
• Small

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Discoveries Since
the Cell Theory

13
Simple or Complex Cells

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 Prokaryotes – The first Cells
• Cells that lack a nucleus or membrane-
bound organelles
• Includes bacteria, archaea.
• Simplest type of cell
• Single, circular chromosome

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 Prokaryotes
• Nucleoid region
(center) contains the
DNA
• Surrounded by cell
membrane & cell
wall (peptidoglycan)
• Contain ribosomes
(no membrane) in
their cytoplasm to
make proteins 16
 Prokaryotic Cells

Prokaryotic cell walls

-protect the cell and maintain cell shape

Bacterial cell walls

-may be composed of peptidoglycan
-may be Gram positive or Gram negative

Archaean cell walls lack peptidoglycan.

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 Eukaryotes
• Cells that HAVE a nucleus
and membrane-bound
organelles
• Includes protists, fungi,
plants, and animals
• More complex type of cells

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 Eukaryotic Cells
Eukaryotic cells
-possess a membrane-bound nucleus
-are more complex than prokaryotic cells
-compartmentalize many cellular
functions within organelles and the
endomembrane system
-possess a cytoskeleton for support and
to maintain cellular structure

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 Eukaryotic Cell
Contain 3 basic cell
structures:
• Nucleus
• Cell Membrane
• Cytoplasm with
organelles

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Two Main Types of Eukaryotic Cells

Plant Cell Animal Cell

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 NUCLEUS
CYTOSKELETON

RIBOSOMES

MITOCHONDRION ROUGH ER

CYTOPLA SMOOTH ER

SM
CENTRIOLES

GOLGI BODY

PLASMA LYSOSOME
MEMBRANE
VESICLE Fig. 4-15b, p.59
Organelles

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 Organelles
• Very small (Microscopic)
• Perform various functions for a cell
• Found in the cytoplasm
• May or may not be membrane-bound

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 Cell or Plasma Membrane
• Composed of double layer of phospholipids and
proteins
• Surrounds outside of ALL cells
• Controls what enters or leaves the cell
• Living layer
Outside
of cell
Carbohydrate
chains
Proteins
Cell
membrane

Inside
of cell Protein
(cytoplasm) channel Lipid bilayer 25
 Phospholipids
• Heads contain glycerol &
phosphate and are hydrophilic
(attract water)
• Tails are made of fatty acids and
are hydrophobic (repel water)
• Make up a bilayer where tails
point inward toward each other
• Can move laterally to allow small
molecules (O2, CO2, & H2O to
enter)
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 The Cell Membrane is Fluid

Molecules in cell membranes are constantly moving

and changing 27
 Cell Membrane Proteins
• Proteins help move large
molecules or aid in cell
recognition
• Peripheral proteins are
attached on the surface
(inner or outer)
• Integral proteins are
embedded completely
through the membrane

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 Cell Membrane in Plants
Cell
membrane
• Lies immediately
against the cell wall in
plant cells
• Pushes out against the
cell wall to maintain
cell shape

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 Cell Wall Cell wall

• Found outside of the cell

membrane
• Nonliving layer
• Supports and protects cell
• Found in plants, fungi, &
bacteria

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 Cytoplasm of a Cell
cytoplasm
• Jelly-like substance
enclosed by cell
membrane
• Provides a medium for
chemical reactions to
take place

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 More on Cytoplasm
cytoplasm

• Contains organelles to
carry out specific jobs

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 The Control Organelle - Nucleus
• Controls the normal
activities of the
cell
• Contains the DNA in
chromosomes
• Bounded by a
nuclear
envelope (membrane) with
pores
• Usually the largest organelle
33
 More on the Nucleus
Nucleus

• Each cell has fixed

number of chromosomes
that carry genes
• Genes control cell
characteristics

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 Nuclear Envelope
• Double membrane surrounding
nucleus
• Also called nuclear membrane
• Contains nuclear pores for
materials to enter & leave nucleus

Nuclear
pores

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 Inside the Nucleus -
The genetic material (DNA) is found

DNA is spread out DNA is condensed &

And appears as wrapped around
CHROMATIN proteins forming
in non-dividing cells as CHROMOSOMES
in dividing cells 36
 What Does DNA do?
DNA is the hereditary
material of the cell

Genes that make up the DNA

molecule code for different
proteins

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 Nucleolus

• Inside nucleus
• Disappears when cell
divides
• Makes ribosomes that
make proteins

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 Cytoskeleton
• Helps cell maintain cell shape
• Also help move organelles
around
• Made of proteins
• Microfilaments are
threadlike & made of ACTIN
• Microtubules are tubelike &
made of TUBULIN

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 Cytoskeleton

MICROTUBULES

MICROFILAMENTS

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Centrioles
• Found only in animal cells
• Paired structures near
nucleus
• Made of bundle of
microtubules
• Appear during cell division
forming mitotic spindle
• Help to pull chromosome
pairs apart to opposite ends
of the cell

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 Mitochondrion
(plural = mitochondria)
• “Powerhouse” of the cell
• Generate cellular energy (ATP)
• More active cells like muscle
cells have MORE mitochondria
• Both plants & animal cells have
mitochondria
• Site of CELLULAR RESPIRATION
(burning glucose)

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MITOCHONDRIA
Surrounded by a DOUBLE
membrane
Has its own DNA
Folded inner membrane called
CRISTAE (increases surface
area
for more chemical
Reactions)

Interior called MATRIX

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Interesting Fact ---
• Mitochondria Come
from cytoplasm in
the EGG cell during
fertilization
Therefore …
• You inherit your
mitochondria from
your mother!

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 Endoplasmic Reticulum - ER
• Network of hollow membrane tubules
• Connects to nuclear envelope & cell
membrane
• Functions in Synthesis of cell products &
Transport

Two kinds of ER ---ROUGH & SMOOTH 45

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (Rough ER)

• Has ribosomes on its

surface
• Makes membrane
proteins and proteins for
export out of cell

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Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
(Rough ER)
• Proteins are made by
ribosomes on ER surface
• They are then threaded
into the interior of the
Rough ER to be modified
and
transported

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Functions of the Smooth ER
• Makes membrane lipids
(steroids)
• Regulates calcium
(muscle cells)
• Destroys toxic
substances (Liver)

48
 Endomembrane System

Includes nuclear membrane connected to ER

connected to cell membrane (transport) 49
 Endomembrane System
Endomembrane system
-a series of membranes throughout the
cytoplasm
-divides cell into compartments where
different cellular functions occur
1. endoplasmic reticulum
2. Golgi apparatus
3. lysosomes

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 Ribosomes
• Made of PROTEINS and rRNA
• “Protein factories” for cell
• Join amino acids to make proteins through
protein synthesis


51
Ribosomes

Can be attached to
Rough ER

OR

Be free
(unattached) in
the cytoplasm

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 Golgi Bodies
• Stacks of flattened sacs
• Have a shipping side CIS
(cis face) & a receiving
side (trans face)
• Receive proteins made
by ER
TRAN
• Transport vesicles with S
modified proteins
pinch off the ends Transpo
rt
vesicle
53
 Golgi Bodies
Flattened stacks of interconnected
membranes

Modify, sort, & package

molecules from ER
for storage OR
transport out of cell
54
 Golgi Animation

Materials are transported from Rough ER to Golgi

to the cell membrane by VESICLES 55
 Lysosomes
• Contain digestive enzymes
• Break down food, bacteria,
and worn out cell parts for
cells
• Programmed for cell death
(APOPTOSIS)
• Lyse & release enzymes to
break down & recycle cell
parts)

56
 Lysosome Digestion

• Cells take in
food by
phagocytosis
• Lysosomes
digest the food &
get rid of wastes

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Microbodies
-membrane bound vesicles
-contain enzymes
-not part of the endomembrane system
-glyoxysomes in plants contain enzymes
for converting fats to carbohydrates
-peroxisomes contain oxidative enzymes
and catalase

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 Vesicles
• Vesicles - small membrane bound sacs
– Examples
• Golgi and ER transport vesicles
• Peroxisome
– Where fatty acids are metabolized
– Where hydrogen peroxide is detoxified
• Lysosome
– contains digestive enzymes
– Digests unwanted cell parts and other
wastes
 Cilia & Flagella
• Function in moving cells, in
moving fluids, or in small
particles across the cell
surface

60
 Cilia & Flagella
• Cilia are shorter
and more
numerous on
cells
• Flagella are
longer and fewer
(usually 1-3) on
cells

61
Cell Movement with Cilia & Flagella

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 Flagella
-present in some prokaryotic cells
-used for locomotion
-rotary motion propels the cell

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Cilia Moving Away Dust Particles
from the Lungs

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 Vacuoles
• Fluid filled sacks for storage
• Small or absent in animal cells
• Plant cells have a large Central Vacuole

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 Vacuoles

• In plants, they store Cell

Sap
• Includes storage of
sugars, proteins,
minerals, lipids, wastes,
salts, water, and
enzymes

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 Chloroplasts
• Found only in producers (organisms
containing chlorophyll)
• Use energy from sunlight to make own
food (glucose)
• Energy from sun stored in the Chemical
Bonds of Sugars

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 Chloroplasts
• Surrounded by DOUBLE
membrane
• Outer membrane smooth
• Inner membrane modified into
sacs called Thylakoids
• Thylakoids in stacks called
Grana & interconnected
• Stroma – gel like material
surrounding thylakoids

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