UNIT-V

IIR DIGITAL FILTERS

 Contents
• Introduction
– Filtering of signals
– Classification of filters
• Analog and digital
• Based on frequency response
• Practical analog filter specifications
– LPF. HPF, BPF and BSF.
• Analog filters approximation
– Butterworth and Chebyshev
– Finding Order and normalized Stable filter
– Design examples
• Analog to analog transformations
• Design of IIR Digital filters from analog filters
– Impulse invariance, step invariance and bilinear
transformations
– Design examples
• Analog to digital transformations
Jun 15, 2025 2
 Introduction

Filtering of signals
 What is meant by a filter!
The DTFT is remembered again:



1
X (e )   x[n]e 
jw jwn
jw  jwn
x[n]  X ( e ) e dw
n 
2 

•x[n] is expressed as a summation of sinusoids with

scaled amplitude.
•Using a system with a frequency selective to these
inputs, then it is possible to pass some frequencies
and attenuate the others.
•Such a system is called a Filter.
Jun 15, 2025 4
 What is meant by a filter!

The function of a filter is to remove

unwanted parts of the signal, such as
random noise, or
to extract useful parts of the signal,
such as the components lying within
a certain frequency range.

Unfiltered signal
or raw signal Filtered signal

Jun 15, 2025 5

 Example.1
Choose frequency response of a system such that
1 for  c
H (e ) 
jw
Almost = 0
0 for c   

If x[n]  A cos(1n)  B cos(2 n) for 0  1  c  2  

y[n]  A H (e j ) cos1n   (1 )   B H (e j ) cos2 n   (2 ) 

1 2

y[n]  A H (e ) cos1n   (1 ) 

j1

Which indicating the LPF effect of the LTI system

Jun 15, 2025 6
Adawy
 Design a HP digital filter that passes
Example.2 the 0.4rad/sec, and stops the 0.1
h[n]=[ a b a] rad/sec frequency.
j  j  j 2  j  j 2
H (e ) h[0]  h[1]e  h[2]e a  be  ae
j  j
 j 2  j  e  e   j  j
a(1  e )  be 2a  e  be

 j
2 
( 2a cos   b)e
H (e j ) 2a cos   b Ө(ω)= -ω

H (e j 0.1 ) 2a cos(0.1)  b 0 H (e j 0.4 ) 2a cos(0.4)  b 1

Solving for the two equations gives a= -6.76195,
y[n]=h[n]*x[n]
b=13.456335
y[n]=h[0]x[n]+h[1]x[n-1]+h[2]x[n-2]=ax[n]+bx[n-1]+ax[n-2]
Jun 15, 2025 7
 y[n]= -6.76195 ( x[n]+x[n-2] )+13.456335 x[n-1]
If x[n]={cos(0.1n)+cos(0.4n)}u(n)
x1+x2

Output is
almost
equal to x2,
the high
frequency
Output of
Transient
the filter
x1

Jun 15, 2025 8

Classification of filters

Analog and digital

 Classification of filters as
analog or digital
Analog filters Digital filters
An analog filter processes A digital filter processes
analog inputs and generates .and generates digital data
.analog outputs

Analog filters are constructed A digital filter consists of

from passive or active elements like adder,
electronic components such as multiplier and delay
resistors, capacitors and element
opamps to produce the required
.filtering effect

An Analog filter is described by Digital filter is described

.a differential equation .by difference equation

Jun 15, 2025 10

 Classification of filters as
analog or digital
Analog filters Digital filters
The frequency response of an The frequency response of
analog filter can be modified by digital filter can be changed by
.changing the components changing the filter coefficients

Such filter circuits are widely A digital filter uses a digital

used in such applications as processor to perform numerical
noise reduction, video signal calculations on sampled values
enhancement, graphic .of the signal
equalizers in hi-fi systems, and
.many other areas The processor may be a
general-purpose computer
such as a PC, or a specialized
DSP (Digital Signal Processor)
.chip
Jun 15, 2025 11
Jun 15, 2025 12
Classification of filters

Based on Frequency
response
 Classification of filters According to
frequency response
• A analog filter is a network used to shape the frequency
spectrum of an electrical signal.
• These networks are essential parts of communication and
control systems.
• Filters are classified as low pass, high pass, band pass and
band reject, amplitude equalizers and delay equalizers.

H(ejω)
LPF H(ejω)
HPF
ω
0 ωc π ω
0 ωc π
H(e ) jω

BPF H(ejω)
BSF
π
ω π
0 ωc1 ωc2 ωc1 ωc2 ω
0

Jun 15, 2025 14

Practical analog filter
specifications
Practical Analog Filter specifications

Lowpass Highpass
filter filter

Ω Ω
0 Ωp Ωs 0 Ωs Ωp

Bandpass Bandstop
filter filter

Ω Ω
0 Ω1 ΩL ΩU Ω2 0 ΩL Ω1 Ω2 ΩU
Jun 15, 2025 16
 Practical analog Low pass filter
specifications

Jun 15, 2025 17

 Practical analog low pass filter
specifications

0 0
Amax=αp
Magnitude (dB)

Amin=αs

Transition
Passband Stopband
band
Ω
0 Ωp Ωs
frequency 18
Jun 15, 2025
 Practical analog Low pass filter
specifications
• The basic function a of LOW PASS filter is to pass LOW
frequencies with very little loss and to attenuate high
frequencies.
• It is required to pass signals from DC up to pass band
edge frequency Ωp with at most Amax(αp)dB of
attenuation.
• The frequencies above stop band edge frequency Ωs are
required to have atleast Amin(αs)dB of attenuation.
• The band of frequencies from 0 to Ωp is called the pass
band.
• The band of frequencies from Ωs to infinity is called the
stop band.
• The frequency band from Ωp to Ωs is referred to as
transition band.
Jun 15, 2025 19
 Practical analog high pass filter specifications
• The basic function a of HIGH PASS filter is to pass
HIGH frequencies with very little loss and to
attenuate low frequencies.
• It is required to pass signals from pass band edge
frequency Ωp up to infinity with at most Amax(αp) dB
of attenuation.
• The frequencies below stop band edge frequency Ωs
are required to have atleast Amin(αs)dB of
attenuation.
• The band of frequencies from Ωp to infinity is called
the pass band.
• The band of frequencies from zero to Ωs is called the
stop band.
• The frequency band from Ωs to Ωp is referred to as
transition band.
Jun 15, 2025 20
 Practical analog band pass filter
specifications

0
Amax=αp
Magnitude (dB)

Amin=αs Amin=αs

Passband
Stopband Stopband

Ω
Ω1 ΩL ΩU Ω2
Jun 15, 2025 21
 Practical analog Band pass filter specifications
• The basic function a of BAND PASS filter is to pass MIDDLE
frequencies with very little loss and to attenuate low and high
frequencies.
• It is required to pass signals from lower pass band edge
frequency ΩL to upper pass band edge frequency Ωu with at
most Amax(αp) dB of attenuation.
• The frequencies below lower stop band edge frequency Ω1 and
above upper stop band edge frequency Ω2 are required to
have atleast Amin(αs)dB of attenuation.
• The frequency band from ΩL to ΩU is called the pass band.
• The band of frequencies from 0 to Ω1 and Ω2 to infinity are
called the stop bands.
• The band of frequencies from Ω1 to ΩL and ΩU to Ω2 are
referred to as transition bands.

Jun 15, 2025 22

 Practical analog Band stop filter specifications
• The basic function a of BAND STOP filter is to attenuate
MIDDLE frequencies and to pass low and high frequencies with
very little loss .
• It is required to attenuate signals from lower stop band edge
frequency Ω1 to upper stop band edge frequency Ω2 with at
least Amin(αs)dB of attenuation.
• The frequencies below lower pass band edge frequency ΩL and
above upper pass band edge frequency ΩU are required to
have at most Amax(αp) dB of attenuation.
• The frequency band from Ω1 to Ω2 is called the stop band.
• The band of frequencies from 0 to ΩL and ΩU to infinity are
called the pass bands.
• The band of frequencies from ΩL to Ω1 and Ω2 to ΩU are
referred to as transition bands.

Jun 15, 2025 23

 Design of digital filters from analog
filters
• The most common techniques used for designing IIR
digital filters known as indirect method, involves
first designing an analog prototype filter and then
transforming the prototype to a digital filter.
• For the given specifications of a digital filter, the
derivation of the digital filter transfer function
requires three steps
1. Map the desired digital filter transfer function into
equivalent analog filter.
2. Derive the analog transfer function for the analog
prototype.
3. Transform the transfer function from the analog prototype
into an equivalent digital transfer function.

Jun 15, 2025 24

 Advantages of digital filters

1. Unlike analog filters, the digital filters performance

is not influenced by component aging, temperature
and power supply variations.
2. A digital filter is highly immune to noise and
posses considerable parameter stability.
3. Digital filters afford a wide variety of shapes for the
amplitude and phase responses.
4. There are no problems of input or output
impedance matching with digital filters.
5. Digital filters can be operated over a wide range of
frequencies.

Jun 15, 2025 25

 Advantages of digital filters

6. The coefficients of digital filter can be programmed

and altered any time to obtain the desired
characteristics.
7. Multiple filtering is possible only in digital filters.

Disadvantage of digital filters

1. The quantization error arises due to finite word
length in the representation of signals and
parameters.

Jun 15, 2025 26

 Analog filter
approximations
 Analog filter approximations
The rational function low pass approximations which we
describe in this have the general form.
2
2 2 V 1 1
Magnitude function H ( S )  H ( j)  OUT  2
  (1)
VIN N ( j ) 2
1  K ( j ) 1  D ( j )
Where H(S) is the desired magnitude function and K(S) is the
rational function in S.
•The function K(S) is chosen such that
•its magnitude is small in pass band to make the magnitude
of H(S) close to UNITY.
•Its magnitude is large in the stop band to make the
magnitude of H(S) close to ZERO.
In particular K(S) may be chosen to be a polynomial of the
form K ( S ) PN ( S ) a0  a1S  a2 S 2  ...  a N S N  (2)

Where the coefficients of the nth order polynomial Pn(S) are

chosen so that the corresponding loss function satisfies the
given filter requirements.
Jun 15, 2025 28
 Low pass filter approximation
In particular K(S) may be chosen to be a polynomial of the form

In the pass band

VIN 2
i.e as   0, K ( j)  0  VOUT 1  K ( j) 2 1  VOUT VIN

As expected in the pass band of Low pass filter (near to DC) no

loss of signal the signal. But practically there will be some loss.

In the stop band

VIN 2
i.e as   , K ( j)    VOUT 1  K ( j) 2   VOUT 0

As expected in the stop band of Low pass filter (high frequencies)

no pass of signal the signal. But practically there will be some
Pass of signal

Jun 15, 2025 29

 Low pass filter approximation
There are four types of polynomials which satisfy these conditions.

They are
1. Butterworth Polynomial
(Maximally flat approximation)
1. Chebyshev polynomial
2. Elliptic polynomials
3. Bessel Polynomials
We are going to study

Butterworth filter approximation and

Chebyshev filter approximation

Jun 15, 2025 30

 IIR Filter Types

Butterworth Chebyshev Type I Chebyshev Type II

Elliptic Bessel
Jun 15, 2025 31
 Butterworth filter Approximation
(Maximally flat approximation)
K ( S ) PN ( S )    S N
SP   
 N
P or  
 N
C  (4)
The corresponding magnitude function is
VOUT 1
H ( j )   for N 1,2,3,...  (5)
VIN 1  C   2N

Where
N is the order of the filter
 is a constant
 is the operating frequency and
 C is the cutoff frequency
 P is the pass band edge frequency
 
 N
C   
 N
P  
C  1/ N 
P or  P  1/ N C  (6)

Jun 15, 2025 32

 Butterworth filter Approximation
(Maximally flat approximation)
 2  
2N
At DC means near Ω =0
P
 1
So
1     
2  2N
P
1
2
1  12  2  
 2N
P  18  4  
 4N
P  161  6  
 6N
P  ...

This expression shows that the first 2N-1 derivatives are zero at
Ω=0.
Since K(S) was chosen to be an nth order polynomial this
is the maximum number of derivatives that can be made zero.
Thus the slope is as flat as possible at DC.

For this reason the butter worth approximation is also known as

the Maximally flat Approximation.

Jun 15, 2025 33

 Butterworth filter Approximation
(Maximally flat approximation)
2
2V 1
The loss in dB is given from equ i.e H ( j)  OUT   (7 )
VIN 1  2  
 2N

    dB  (8)
P

 2N
as A() 10 log10 1   2
P

At pass band edge frequency i.e at   P the loss is Amax ( P )

  P  A( P ) 10 log10 1   2  

0.1 P
  10  1  (9)
It is the parameter related to pass band
At high frequencies the loss asymptotically approaches 20 log10   N P

because

10 log10 1   2
   10 log    
 2N
P 10
 N
P
2
20 log10   
 N
P

These loss is seen to increase with the order N. At high frequencies

the slope is 6N dB/Octave. Therefore the stop band loss increases
with the order N.
Jun 15, 2025 34
 Butterworth filter Approximation
(Maximally flat approximation)
At stop band edge frequency i.e at   S the loss is Amin ( S )


 S  A(  S ) 10 log10 1   2
  
S 2 N
P

100.1 S  1 100.1 S  1
 10
0.1 S
 1   
2 S 2 N
P   
S 2 N
P  0.1 P
10 1
  
S N
P 
100.1 P  1
100.1  1 S

log10 log10  
100.1 1 0.1
  
  log 10 1
S
P

N log S
 N 
log10   log10  
10  P 10
100.1 P
1 S
P
S
P

Where   100.1  1  (10) S

is a Parameter related to stop band
Since this expression normally does not result in an integer value
we therefore round off N to the next higher integer to satisfy the
minimum required specifications.

log10  
N     (11)
log10   S
P
Jun 15, 2025 35
 Stable normalized Butterworth
filter design
The magnitude function of the Butterworth low pass filter is given by
1
H ( j )   (11)
1    

C
2N
1
2

The magnitude squared function of a normalized Butterworth low pass

filter with Ωc=1 rad/sec is given by
2 1
H ( j )  2N
 (12)
1 
The function is monotonically decreasing. The maximum response is
zero at Ω=0. The response approaches ideal characteristics as the
order N increases.

Jun 15, 2025 36

 Stable normalized Butterworth
filter design
At Ω=Ωc the curve
passes through 0.707
which corresponds to
3dB point.

Now let us derive the transfer function of a stable filter.

For this purpose substitute Ω=S/j in equ.12 then we have
2 1
H ( j )  H ( j ) H (  j )   (13)
1 
S 2N
j

1
 H ( S ) H ( S )   (14)
1  ( 1) N S 2 N

Jun 15, 2025 37

 Stable normalized Butterworth
filter design
1.2

1
N=100

0.8 N=2
N=1 N=200

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Jun 15, 2025 38

 Stable normalized Butterworth
filter design
The above relation tells us that this function has poles in the LHP as well as in
the RHP because of the presence of two factors H(S) and H(-S).
If H(S) has poles in the LHP then H(-S) has the corresponding poles in the
RHP.
These roots we can get by equating the denominator to zero i.e
1  ( S 2 ) N 0  (15)
j Nk
For N odd it reduces to S 2 N 1 e j 2k  S k e  (16)

2N j ( 2 k  1) j ( 2 kN 1) 
For N even it reduces to S  1 e  S k e  (17)

The solution of the above equation is

j 2  2 k NN  1 
S k e for k 1,2,...,2 N  (18)
Jun 15, 2025 39
 Stable normalized Butterworth
filter design
These 2N roots are located on the unit circle and are equally spaced at
л/N radians intervals
The S domain magnitude function is therefore given by
1 Im
H (S )   (19) Z-Plane
j
( S  S j )

Where Sj are the left half plane poles.

r

Re
Poles of Butterworth filter are located
on the circle in the S-plane and are
equally spaced at л/N radians intervals

Jun 15, 2025 40

 Stable normalized Butterworth filter design
Example.3 Find the Butterworth approximation
function for the 3rd order Normalized low Pass Filter
Solution: N=3 for third order and k=1 to 2N = 1 to 6.
j 2  2 k NN  1  j 2  2 k32  j  k31 
S k e e e
 23 
cos23  j sin 23   0.5  j 0.866
j
S1 e
 33 
e j cos  j sin    1
j
S 2 e
S3 e
j  43 
cos 3  j sin  3   0.5  j 0.866
4 4 Im
Z-Plane
The S domain magnitude function is therefore given by
1 1
H (S )  
( S  S1 )( S  S 2 )( S  S3 ) S  ( 0.5  j 0.866)S  ( 1)S  ( 0.5  j 0.866) r
1 1
H (S ) 
 2 2
 2

( S  0.5)  ( j 0.866) S  1 ( S  S  0.25  0.75)(S  1) Re
1
H (S ) 
( S  1)( S 2  S  1)

Jun 15, 2025 41

 Stable normalized Butterworth filter design
Example.4 Find the Butterworth approximation function for the
4th order Normalized low Pass Filter

Solution: N=4 for fourth order and k=1 to 2N = 1 to 8.

j 2  2 k NN  1  j 2  2 k43 
S k e e
 58 
cos58  j sin 58   0.3827  j 0.9239
j
S1 e
 78 
cos78  j sin 78   0.9239  j 0.3827 Z-Plane
j
S 2 e
 98 
cos98  j sin 98   0.9239  j 0.3827
j
S3 e
j 118 
S 4 e cos 8  j sin  8   0.3827  j 0.9239
11 11

The S domain magnitude function is therefore given by Im

1
H (S ) 
( S  S1 )( S  S 2 )( S  S3 )( S  S 4 )
1
H (S ) 
S  ( 0.3827  j 0.9239)S  ( 0.9239  j 0.3827)S  ( 0.9239  j 0.3827)S  ( 0.3827  j 0.9239)
r
1
H (S ) 
 
( S  0.3827)  ( j 0.9239) ( S  0.9239) 2  ( j 0.3827) 2
2 2
 Re
1
H (S ) 
( S 2  0.76536S  1)( S 2  1.84776S  1)
Jun 15, 2025 42
 List of Butterworth polynomials
N Denominator of H(S)
1 (S+1)

2 (S2+√2S+1)

3 (S+1) (S2+S+1)

4 (S2+0.76537S+1) (S2+1.84776S+1)

5 (S+1) (S2+0.61803S+1) (S2+1.61803S+1)

6 (S2+1.931855S+1)(S2+√2S+1) (S2+0.51764S+1)

7 (S+1) (S2+1.80194S+1)(S2+1.247S+1) (S2+0.445S+1)

Jun 15, 2025 43

 Chebyshev filter Approximation

The main feature of the Butterworth approximation is that the loss

is maximally flat at the origin.
Thus the approximation to a flat pass band is very good at the
origin but it gets progressively poorer as frequency approaches
pass band edge.
Moreover the attenuation provided in the stop band is less than
that attainable using some other polynomial types, such as
Chebyshev polynomial.
There are two types of Chebyshev filters .i.e. Type-I and Type-II
Type-I are all-pole filters that exhibits equiripple behavior in the
Pass band and a monotonic characteristics in the stop band.

Type-II contains both poles and zeros and exhibits a monotonic

behavior in the pass band and an equiripple behavior in the
stop band.
Jun 15, 2025 44
 Chebyshev filter Approximation

TYPE-I

Jun 15, 2025 45

 Chebyshev filter Approximation
The magnitude square response of Nth order Type-I filter can be
expressed as
2
VOUT
2 1
H ( j )   for N 1,2,3,...  (1)
VIN 1   C N  
2 2 
P

Where
 is a filter parameter related to the ripple in the pass band.
and CN   is the Nth order Chebyshev polynomial defined as
 cos(N cos 1 )  1 passband
C N ()   ( 2)
 cosh(N cosh 1
)  1 stopband

It can be expressed by recursive formula from

C N 1 ()  C N  1 () cos( N  1) cos  1   cos( N  1) cos  1 
2 cos( N cos  1 ) cos(cos  1 )
2 cos( N cos  1 ) 2C N ()
as CN 1 () 2CN ()  CN  1 ()  (3)
Jun 15, 2025 46
 Chebyshev filter Approximation
We know that
C0 () 1 and C1 () 

Then from
C N 1 () 2C N ()  C N  1 ()

C2 () 2C1 ()  C0 () 2 2  1

C3 () 2C2 ()  C1 () 22 2  1  43  3

C4 () 2C3 ()  C2 () 243  3  2 2  1 8 4  8 2  1

C5 () 2C4 ()  C3 () 28 4  8 2  1 43  3  165  20 4  5

Jun 15, 2025 47

 Chebyshev filter Approximation

Jun 15, 2025 48

 Chebyshev filter Approximation
Chebyshev Polynomial has the following properties
1.  CN ( ) for N odd
CN () 
 CN ( ) for N even
 0 for N odd
2. C N (0)  N

( 1) for N even

2

3. CN (1) 1 for all N

 1 for N odd
4. CN ( 1) 
 1 for N even
5. C N () oscillates with equal ripple between 1 for  1.
6. For all N 0  C N () 1 for 0   1 and C N ()  1 for   1
7. C N () is monotonically increasing for   1 for all N .
8. Every coefficient is an integer and the one associated with  N
is 2 N  1.
Jun 15, 2025 49
 Chebyshev filter Approximation

Chebyshev Type-I

Jun 15, 2025 50

 Chebyshev filter Approximation
2
The loss in dB is given from equ.1 i.e VOUT
2 1
H ( j )  
VIN 1   2C N2   P

as A() 10 log10 1   2CN2   dB  (4)

P

At pass band edge frequency i.e at   P the loss is Amax ( P )


 P  A(  P
) 10 log10
1   2
C 2
N
1 10 log10
1   2
   100.1  1  (5)
P

At stop band edge frequency i.e at   S the loss is Amin ( S )


 S  A(  S ) 10 log10
1   2
C 
2 
N 
S
P
 10 log 1  
10
2
cosh 2 N cosh  1 (  ) 
S
P

100.1  1 100.1  1
cosh N cosh ( )  N cosh ( ) cosh
S S
2 1 S 1 S 1
P P
 2
100.1  1
P

10 0.1 S  1
1  1  
cosh cosh  
10 0.1 P
1      ( 6)
N
cosh  1 (  PS )  
cosh  1  PS
Where   100.1  1  (7) S

Jun 15, 2025 51

Chebyshev Approximation provides 6(N-1)dB more
attenuation than Butterworth for the same order
The attenuation in STOP BAND of Butterworth filter for    P
in dB is given by

A() 10 log10 1   P 
2 S 2 N
 10 log   10 P 
2 S 2 N
 20 log      I
10
S N
P

The attenuation in STOP BAND of Chebyshev filter for    P

in dB is given by
A() 10 log10 1   2CN2  S
P
 10 log  C   20 log C    II
10
2 2
N
S
P 10 N
S
P

But for    P C S
N P  2  
N  1 S N
P  III
So above equation-II reduces to
A() 20 log10 CN  S
P
 20 log 10
 2    20 log   
N  1 S N
P 10
S N
P  20 log10 2 N  1

A() 20 log10   

S N
P  20( N  1) log10 2 20 log10   
S N
P  6( N  1)  IV

Comparing above equ.I and IV it is seen that the Chebyshev

approximation provides 20 log10 2 N  1 6( N  1)dB more attenuation
than a Butterworth of the same order.
Jun 15, 2025 52
 Stable normalized Chebyshev filter
design
To find the poles of the Chebyshev approximation transfer
function  P 1
Take the denominator of the equ(1) substitute to get
normalized
2 function and 1equate it to zero. 2 2.i.e. j
H ( j )  H ( j ) H (  j ) 
1   C ( )
2 2
N
 1   C N (  )  0  C N (  ) 

It can be proved that the roots of above equation are

S k  k  j k for k 1,2,...,2 N

Where  k sin 2 2 kN 1 sinh N1 sinh  1 ( 1 ) 

 k cos 2 2 kN 1 cosh N1 sinh  1 ( 1 ) 
2 2
further  k   k 
 1

 sinh  1 1 
N sinh (  ) 
1
 
1 1 
 cosh N sinh (  ) 
1

Jun 15, 2025 53
 Stable normalized Chebyshev filter
design
These 2N roots are located on the ellipse in the s-plane spaced at
л/N radians intervals
The S domain magnitude function is therefore given by
H0 cosh N1 sinh  1 ( 1 ) 
Im
H (S ) 
( S  S j ) Z-Plane
j

Where Sj are the left half plane poles and

r
H0 is the order dependent constant
It can be found from R
e
 1 for N odd

H ( S ) S 0  1
for N even
 1   2 sinh N1 sinh  1 ( 1 ) 

Jun 15, 2025 54

 Stable normalized Chebyshev filter design
Example.5 Find the Chebyshev approximation function order
for the filter requirements
Ωp=200 rad/s, Ωs=600 rad/s, αp=0.5dB, αs=20dB.
Solution: Given Ωp=200 rad/s, Ωs=600 rad/s, αp=0.5dB, αs=20dB.
0.1
10  1
S
10 2
1
cosh  1 cosh 1

10 0.1
 1
P
10 0.05
 1 cosh  1 (28.484)
N 1 
  1 600
 1
2.293
cosh (  ) S
P
cosh ( 200 ) cosh (3)

So the required order is N=3, for third order k=1 to 2N = 1 to 6.

S k  k  j k for k 1,2,...,2 N

Where
 k sin 2  sinh  sinh (  ) 
 2k  1
N
1
N
1 1

k cos   cosh  sinh (  ) 

2
2k  1
N
1
N
1 1

Jun 15, 2025 55

 Stable normalized Chebyshev filter design
Example.6 obtain an analog Chebyshev filter transfer function
that satisfies the constraints
1
2
 H ( j) 1 for 0  2 H ( j) 0.1 for  4
Solution: In general specifications are given as
1
1 2
 H ( j) 1 for 0   p H ( j)  1
for   s
12
 P 2  S 4
1
1 2
  1   2   1
1
2
2

1
12
0.1  1  2 100    99 9.95
0.1
10 1
S

cosh  1
N 10 0.1
1
P cosh 
1 
  
cosh  1  2.269
 1 9.95

cosh  1 (  )
S
P
cosh  1 (  ) cosh  1 ( 42 )
S
P

Order to be selected is N=3 and k=1 to 2N = 1 to 6.

Jun 15, 2025 56

 Stable normalized Chebyshev filter design
Example.6 obtain an analog Chebyshev filter transfer function
that satisfies the constraints
1
2
 H ( j) 1 for 0  2 H ( j) 0.1 for  4
Solution cont.d: S k  k  j k for k 1,2,...,2 N

Where  k sin 2 2 kN 1 sinh N1 sinh  1 ( 1 ) 

 k cos 2 2 kN 1 cosh N1 sinh  1 ( 1 ) 
1
N sinh  1 ( 1 )  13 sinh  1 ( 11 ) 0.29379
A sinh N1 sinh  1 ( 1 )  sinh 0.29379 0.298

B cosh N1 sinh  1 ( 1 )  cosh 0.29379  1.043

Jun 15, 2025 57

 Stable normalized Chebyshev filter design
Example.6 cont.d

 k sin 2 2 k3 1  A  k cos2 2 k3 1  B

 1 sin2 13  (0.298) 0.149 1 cos 2 13 (1.043) 0.903

 2 sin 2 33  (0.298) 0.298  2 cos 2 33 (1.043) 0
 3 sin 2 53 (0.298) 0.149 3 cos 2 53 (1.043)  0.903

Left half plane Poles are given by

S1  1  j1 0.149  j 0.903
S 2  2  j 2 0.298
S3  3  j3 0.149  j 0.903
Jun 15, 2025 58
 Stable normalized Chebyshev filter design
Example.6 cont.d
Normalized Transfer function is
H0 H0
H (S )  
( S  S1 )( S  S 2 )( S  S3 ) S  ( 0.149  j 0.903)S  ( 0.298)S  ( 0.149  j 0.903)
H0 H0
H (S )  
(S  0.149)2  ( j 0.903)2 S  0.298 (S  0.298)( S 2  0.298S  0.8388)
Using H ( S ) S 0 1 for N Odd
0.25
H 0 (0.298)(0.8388) 0.25  H ( S ) 
( S  0.298)(S 2  0.298S  0.8388)

Denormalized Transfer function with C  P /  1/ N 2 / 1 2 is

0.25 0.25
H ( s ) H ( S ) S  s  
C ( S  0.298)( S 2  0.298S  0.8388) S s ( 2s  0.298)[( 2s ) 2  0.298( 2s )  0.8388]
2

2
H (s) 
( s  0.596)( s 2  0.596 s  3.354)
Jun 15, 2025 59
 Design of Analog Butterworth LOW PASS
filter
1. From the given specifications find the order of
the filter N.

2. Round off Order N to the next higher integer.

3. Find the Normalized Transfer function H(S).

4. Calculate the value of cut off frequency Ωc.

5. Find the De-normalized transfer function H(s) by

replacing S with s/Ωc.

Jun 15, 2025 60

 Design of Analog Chebyshev LOWPASS
filter
1. From the given specifications find the order of
the filter N.
2. Round off Order N to the next higher integer.
3. Find the denominator of the Normalized Transfer
function H(S).

4. Calculate the value of cut off frequency Ωc and

find numerator constant H0 depending on the value
of N.  1 for N odd

H ( S ) S 0  1
for N even
 1   2

5. Find the De-normalized transfer function H(s) by

replacing S with s/Ωc.
Jun 15, 2025 61
Frequency transformations of analog filters
•The approximations described so far were directly applicable to low-
pass filters.
•These approximations can be adapted to high pass,
symmetrical band pass and symmetrical band reject filters from a
normalized low pass filter(Ωc=1 rad/sec)

Equivalent T HP (s)
HP, BP or BR
LP TLP (S) TBP(s)
requirements
Requirements TBR(s)
Take the given filter requirements
Translate the given requirements to EQUIVALENT low pass
requirements.
Approximate the resulting low pass requirement using the
specified approximation method
Finally translate the low pass approximation function to the
desired HP, BP or BR approximation function
Jun 15, 2025 62
Frequency transformations of analog filters

Practical Analog Filter specifications

Low pass High pass

filter filter

Ω Ω
0 Ωp Ωs 0 Ωs Ωp

Band pass Band stop

filter filter

Ω Ω
0 Ω1 ΩL ΩU Ω2 0 ΩL Ω1 Ω2 ΩU
Jun 15, 2025 63
Design of HP/BP/BR filters of Butterworth /
Chebyshev type Analog filter
1. Find the equivalent low pass requirements.
.i.e.  p  s  p 1 and for HPF

 r   ps
for BPF  r  u2  1l
for BRF  r  u2  1l
2. Find the normalized Low pass filter order and
Transfer function for the given approximation Type.
3. Find the required De-normalized Transfer function
by replacing S in H(S) with below transformations
for HPF H ( s ) H ( S ) S  C
s

for BPF H ( s ) H ( S ) S  s 2 u l

s ( u  l )

for BRF or BRF H ( s ) H ( S ) S  s ( u  l )

s 2 u l

Jun 15, 2025 64

Stable Analog filter design- Example.7
For the given specifications αp=3dB, αs=15dB, Ωp=1000 rad/s
and Ωs=500 rad/s design a butter worth approximated High
pass filter.

Solution:  p 3dB  P 1000 rad / s  s 15dB  S 500 rad / s

  100.1  1  100.3  1 1
P   100.1  1  101.5  1 5.533
S

 /  5.533

Equivalent low pass requirements are

 p 3dB  s 15dB  p 1 rad / s  r   1000

500 2 rad / s
P
S


log10  
   log10 5.533
N  2.468
log10  
 r
p
log10 2 
Jun 15, 2025 65
 Stable analog filter design- Example.7: Cont.d

Solution: select N=3 and k=1 to 2N = 1 to 6.

j 2  2 k NN  1  j 2  2 k32  j  k31 
S k e e e
 23 
cos23  j sin 23   0.5  j 0.866
j
S1 e
 33 
e j cos  j sin    1
j
S 2 e
 43 
cos43  j sin 43   0.5  j 0.866
j
S3 e

Normalized Transfer function of equivalent Low-pass filter is

1 1
H (S )  
( S  S1 )( S  S 2 )( S  S3 ) S  ( 0.5  j 0.866)S  ( 1)S  ( 0.5  j 0.866)
1 1
H (S )  
 
( S  0.5) 2  ( j 0.866) 2 S  1 ( S 2  S  0.25  0.75)(S  1)

1
H (S ) 
( S  1)( S 2  S  1)
Jun 15, 2025 66
 Stable analog filter design- Example.7: Cont.d

Solution:  P  1/ N C  C  P /  1/ N 1000 / 1 1000

De-normalized Transfer function of required High-pass filter is
Given by
1
H ( s ) H ( S ) S  c 
s ( S  1)( S 2  S  1) S 1000
s

1
H (s) 
 1000    1000  1000 
 2

  1      1
 s   s  s 
De-normalized Transfer function of required High-pass filter is

s3
H (s) 
s  103 s 2  103 s  106 
Jun 15, 2025 67