VARIATION & SELECTION

Chapter 17
IGCSE
0610
 17.1 VARIATION

• Continuous & discontinuous variation

• Causes of variation
• Causes of genetic variation
 Mutation
 Meiosis
 Random Mating and random fertilization
 17.1 VARIATION

• Differences between individuals belonging to the same species are called variation.
• Humans belong to a specie: Homo sapiens
• Closely related organisms are similar in phenotypes.
• They showcase features/traits characteristics.
• Basically fittest means survival and reproduction.
• Adaptive features make the organisms fittest in their environments.
 CONTINUOUS & DISCONTINUOUS
DISCONTINUOUS VARIATION

• There are 2 basic types of variation & one of them is discontinuous variation.
• There is no range in this variation, means no intermediate categories.
• Eg. Blood group, eye color, ear lobes.
• Features that shows a limited number of distinct possibilities & number in between/intermediates.
• The shape of graph is step/bar graph.
• An example is given below about blood groups which only vary in A, b, ab or o.
NUMBER OF PEOPLE

Key terms
Key
words
 CONTINUOUS & DISCONTINUOUS
CONTINUOUS VARIATION

• The other type of variation is continuous variation.

• They show features that show extremes & a range of possibilities in between
intermediates.
• When the graph is plotted for continuous variation, it forms a bell-shaped curve,
because it is a result of small degree of difference.
• Caused by genes & environment
• Environmental factors could be: climate, diet, lifestyle, culture

Majori
ty
 CAUSES OF VARIATION

• Mutation
• Meiosis
• Random mating & random fertilization
 CAUSES OF VARIATION

Variation refers to differences among individuals in a population. It can be caused by several factors, which are
generally grouped into two main categories:
1. Genetic Causes (Inherited Variation)
These are differences passed from parents to offspring due to genetics. They include:
•Mutation – Random changes in DNA that create new traits.
•Genetic recombination – The reshuffling of genes during sexual reproduction (e.g., crossing over in meiosis).
•Independent assortment – The random distribution of chromosomes during gamete formation.
•Gene flow – The movement of genes between populations (e.g., migration).
2. Environmental Causes (Acquired Variation)
These are differences caused by external factors and not inherited. Examples include:
•Climate – Temperature, rainfall, and sunlight affect traits (e.g., plant size).
•Nutrition – Diet influences growth and development (e.g., height in humans).
•Lifestyle & Habits – Exercise, education, and personal choices can shape characteristics.
•Disease & Injury – Health conditions can alter an individual’s traits (e.g., scars, weight loss).
Often, variation results from a combination of genetic and environmental factors. For example, a person’s height is
influenced by both their genes and their diet.
 DETAILS OF CAUSES OF VARIATION
MUTATION

• A gene may suddenly change which is called mutation.

• Mutations are the only source of brand new characteristics that appear in a species, so it is really a source
of all genetic variation.
• Changes in genes are unpredictable.
• Many factors that mutation more likely:
1. Ionising radiation; Xrays, gamma radiations, beta radiations & alpha radiations.
 X-rays
 Gamma Radiations
 Beta Radiations
 Alpha radiations

2. Chemical Mutagens
 DANGERS OF 1

• Radiation can damage bases in DNA molecules

• If this happens in ovaries or testes, than altered DNA
may be passed on to the offspring.
 2) CHEMICAL MUTAGENS

• Heavy metals such as lead & mercury can interfere with the process in which DNA is
copied.
• DANGERS OF 2:
• If this process goes wrong, the daughter cells will get faulty DNA when the cell
divides.
• Chemicals that can cause mutations are called mutagens.
• Mutations involve random changes in DNA base sequences.
• Usually, the change would be harmful- if protein is different in shape, it wont carry its
function.
• But very occasionally, the mutation may be beneficial.
 17.2 SELECTION

• Adaptive features
• Xerophytes
• Hydrophytes
• Selection
1. An example of natural selection
2. Antibiotic resistance in bacteria
• DNA sequences & classification
• Selective Breeding
• Comparing natural selection & selective breeding
 ADAPTIVE FEATURES

A feature of an organism that

is caused by its genes, & that
helps it to survive & reproduce
in its environment, is known
as adaptive feature.
 REASONS FOR ADAPTIVE FEATURES

1. Survival in the Environment

•Adaptations help organisms cope with environmental challenges like extreme temperatures, water scarcity, or predation.
•Example: Thick fur in polar bears helps retain heat in cold climates.

2. Efficient Resource Utilization

•Adaptations enable organisms to use available resources efficiently, such as food, water, and shelter.
•Example: Cacti have thick, waxy skins to reduce water loss in deserts.

3. Predator Avoidance
•Some adaptations help organisms avoid being eaten by predators.
•Example: Camouflage in chameleons or stick insects helps them blend with their surroundings.

4. Improved Hunting or Foraging

•Some species develop adaptations to improve their ability to hunt or gather food.
•Example: Eagles have sharp talons and excellent vision for catching prey.

5. Reproduction and Mating Success

•Certain adaptations increase the chances of attracting mates and reproducing successfully.
•Example: The bright feathers of male peacocks help attract females.
 REASONS FOR ADAPTIVE FEATURES

6. Protection from Disease

•Some species develop immunity or resistance to diseases over time.
•Example: Certain human populations have genetic resistance to malaria.

7. Climate Adaptation
•Organisms adapt to different climatic conditions for survival.
•Example: Arctic foxes change fur color based on the season to maintain camouflage.

8. Migration and Seasonal Changes

•Some adaptations allow species to move or change behavior with the seasons.
•Example: Birds migrate to warmer regions during winter.

9. Coexistence with Other Species

•Adaptations help organisms interact beneficially with others in an ecosystem.
•Example: Bees have specialized body structures for collecting nectar and pollinating flowers.

10. Evolutionary Advantage

•Over time, beneficial adaptations give species an advantage in survival and reproduction, leading to evolutionary success.
•Example: The long neck of giraffes helps them reach high tree leaves, reducing food competition.
XEROPHYTES

• Plants that are adapted

to live in places where
water in short is supply
are called xerophytes.
 • Closing & Sunken stomata – reduce
transpiration
• Waxy cuticle – restrict evaporation
• Hairy leaves; coiled into spines – reduces
surface area
CHARACTERISTICS OF • Deep or spreading roots; well developed
XEROPHYTES – deep, horizontally spread (water
absorption)
• Thick & succulent stem – juicy, water,
minerals, food etc.

NOTE: PICTURES ARE ARRANGED IN ORDER

OF THE CHARACTERISTICS.
HYDROPHYTES

• Plants that live in

very wet places,
including those that
live in water are
called
hydrophytes.
 • Soil – partially or fully submerged in water;
they have water in excess.
• Cuticle – thin & sometimes absent
• Roots – poorly developed roots.
• Stomata – upper surface of leaves
CHARACTERISTICS OF
HYDROPHYTES • Stem – has some air spaces, allow for easy
floating.

NOTE: PICTURES ARE ARRANGED IN ORDER

OF THE CHARACTERISTICS.
 SELECTION

• An animal that is well adapted to its environment is much more likely to

survive than one is not.
• Only well adapted individuals have a good chance of living long enough
to reproduce.
• Adaptive features are caused by genes.
• Individuals whose alleles give them slightly better adaptive features are
more likely to survive & reproduce than any other individuals in the
population, more likely the alleles are passed on to the next generation,
this is called natural selection.
• Selection pressure is when the environment affects the individuals’
 HOW NATURAL SELECTION IS
SUMMARIZED IN FOUR POINTS?

• Natural selection could be summarized in 4 points.

[Link].
[Link].
[Link] adapted individuals more likely to survive & reproduce.
[Link] that confer useful adaption more likely to be passed
on.
• Each topic is discussed in detail in the other slides.
 1) VARIATION

Variation within a population

are caused by having different
alleles of genes. Some of the
variation affects the adaptive
features of the organisms.
 2) OVERPRODUCTION

Within a wild population

many more offspring are
produced then will survive to
become adults & reproduce.
 3) BEST ADAPTED INDIVIDUALS MORE
LIKELY TO SURVIVE & REPRODUCE

• Within the population it is the individuals that have the best

adaptive features that have the best chance of surviving &
reproducing.
• There is a struggle for survival.
• The individuals might have to compete for food if this in short
supply, & only the ones that have the best adaptions for
getting food adaptions.
 4) ALLELES THAT CONFER USEFUL ADAPTION
MORE LIKELY TO BE PASSED ON

• These better adapted individuals are therefore the

ones that pass on their alleles to next generation.
• The alleles that confer the best chance of survival
therefore increase in the population, while alleles
that are not advantageous become less common.
 HOW NATURAL SELECTION CAUSES
CHANGE IN POPULATION?

• A new allele could arise just by chance, by mutation. If this allele

gives an organism a better adaptive feature than any of the other
individuals in the population, then this organism will be selected for-
that is, it will have good chance of surviving & reproducing, & the
new allele is passed on to next generation.
• Environment changes can cause features that once helped an
organism to survive are no longer useful. Individuals that have
adaptive features that help them to survive in new environment will
pass on their alleles &, over time there will therefore be change in
the adaptive features of the species.
 ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE IN
BACTERIA

• The process by which these features develop over many generations in a

population, gradually making the population more suited to its environment, is
called adaptions.
• Drugs help ease symptoms, or help in recovery.
• Drugs are a substance that affect metabolic reactions in the body.
• Antibodies are medicinal drugs that kill bacteria in the body, without harming our
own cells, they’re a very important tool.
• Antibiotics help to cure bacterial infections that could otherwise be very serious or
even fatal, but however don’t affect viruses, so the point in using the to treat cold
or viral infections.
 ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE IN
BACTERIA

• However, previously many populations of pathogenic bacteria has

become resistant to antibodies, & the reason is natural selection, &
that’s why these resistant bacteria are no longer killed by bacteria.
• Penicillin is an antibiotic that stops bacteria from forming cell walls.
• When a person infected with bacteria are unable to grow new cell walls,
& they burst open.
• But, within a person’s body, there is a population of bacteria, in several
millions. Within that population, they’re likely to be at least one or 2
individuals that would’ve an allele resistant to penicillin, making them
add a horrendous selective advantage & they can reproduce while
others can’t. Soon, a huge population of penicillin resistant bacteria
would contain the allele that confers resistance to penicillin.
 ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE IN
BACTERIA

• This happens frequently, which is the reason why there are so many different
antibodies, to backup each other.
• There are many populations of bacteria that have become resistant to more
than one antibiotic.
• The bacteria Staphylococcus aureus lives on the skin of the most of us & is
normally completely harmlessly, but it can cause dangerous infections if it gets
through skin & into body.
• This virus, in the past, could be easily killed including penicillin, oxacillin
amoxicillin & methicillin.
• These resistant populations are known as MRSA.
• Through random & natural selection, a new adaption that helps it to survive
treatment with antibiotics, & we then find new antibiotics to start with, & again
the bacteria becomes resistant & so on.
 HOW CAN WE PREVENT THIS GROWING
RESISTANCE OF BACTERIA ON ANTIBIOTICS

• Its very important to restrict the use of antibiotics as much as we can,

until it’s a serious bacterial infection case with source.
• Its pointless to give antibiotics for cold & a minor bacterial infection
that the body can fight off its own.
• Reducing our use of antibiotics means bacteria that have resistance
to them have new selective advantage, so populations of resistant
bacteria are much less likely to arise.
• Then someone really doesn’t need to be treated with the antibiotic,
it’ll work.
 DNA SEQUENCES & CLASSIFICATION

• If the change in DNA sequences turns out to be advantageous,

natural selection may cause the change to become more
common over time as it passed on to subsequent generations.
• By time, more & more mutations can occur, so the base sequence
of DNA in a population can become more & more different from
their ancestors. A new species has been formed.
• DNA bas sequences are now quite often used to help classify
organisms into species, genes families & so on.
 DNA SEQUENCES & CLASSIFICATION

• DNA is extracted from the cells of an organism of one species & check the
base sequence. Some procedure is carried out for the other organism. If
they’re identical, then they’re probably belonging to the same species. If
they are different, this suggests that the organisms may belong to
different species.
• If there are a lot of differences in DNA sequences of the 2 species, this
suggest that there has been time for many mutations to happen, since 2
species stopped breeding with one another, they’re only distantly related.
• If there are only a few differences that means the species stopped
breeding for a while & are closely related.
 SELECTIVE BREEDING

• The process of choosing only certain animals or plants

to breed is called artificial or selective breeding.
• It’s the same as natural selection.
• The only difference is individuals with advantageous
characteristics breed, while disadvantages don’t.
 COMPARING NATURAL SELECTION &
SELECTIVE BREEDING

ARTIFICIAL/SELECTIVE
NATURAL SELECTION SELECTION

1. It’s the environment that determines or

1. The humans select which individuals survive &
‘selects’ which individuals survive &
breed.
breed.
2. Human determine the individuals who should
2. Random mating, where animals choose
reproduce together.
their own mates & plants can receive
pollen from any anthers onto any stigmas. 3. The features that are selected for are not
adaptive features. These features might
3. Adaptive features increase the chances of
actually make it less likely that the organism
an individual surviving & reproducing are
would survive in the wild.
selected for. These help the organism to
survive in its natural environment.
 COMPARING NATURAL SELECTION &
SELECTIVE BREEDING

ARTIFICIAL/SELECTIVE
NATURAL SELECTION SELECTION

1. Selective advantage of a specific 1. Only the very best organisms are

feature can be quite small, there’s chosen to reproduce.
slightly better chance of some
2. The amount of variation that is
individuals surviving than others even
they have a better chance of present in a wild population is often
reproducing. less.

2. The amount of variation that is present 3. Quite large changes in features can
in a wild population is often much happen over quite short periods of
greater. time.
3. Speed of change is very slow & usually
there’s no change in population.
GLOSSARY
SUMMAR
Y