Initial Multi-engine Rating

MOTIVATION FOR CHOICE OF MULTI-ENGINE

AIRCRAFT
Multi –engine aircraft dominate commercial air transport. They are the
preferred choice as they offer:
 Safety Multi-engine aircraft are safer as there is redundancy of power sources
and critical systems.
 More power The additional power available from multiple engines allows higher
performance and/or greater payloads.
 Versatility The additional power, and systems redundancy, improve all-
weather capability.

Multi-engine aircraft have some disadvantages when competing against

single engine aircraft.
 Weight Additional engines adds more weight as opposed to increasing the size
of a single engine. The performance gain is therefore moderate.
 Complexity Multiple engines increases complexity as controls and
instrumentation must be replicated, provision made for cross-feeding etc.
 Training Far greater training is required because of the complexity compared to
singles.
 Reliability Multiple engines increase the likelihood of experiencing single
failures. This reduces dispatch reliability.
Multi-engine aerodynamics (basic)
Comparison with singles - normal operations
 Newton 1,2,3
 Multi-engine aircraft are generally
faster, heavier, and have more
momentum & inertia than singles.

 As with singles
LIFT = WEIGHT & THRUST= DRAG
with the horizontal stabilizer
balancing the couples.
 Thrust in twin-engine airplanes is
not directed along the centerline,
as it is in single-engine airplanes.
 An advantage of wing mounted
engines is that lift is generated
from the slipstream created by the
propellers and the boundary layer
is energized.
 New concepts to be explored
 Asymmetric Flight Aerodynamics
 Performance After Engine Failure
 Factors Which Affect Controllability
 P-Factor and the Critical engine
 Understanding Critical Speeds & Vmca
 Speed Definitions
 Runway Definitions, Balanced Field
 Understanding what kind of twin you are flying
- FAR Part 23 or 25
 Asymmetric Flight
Asymmetric flight is the flying condition experienced in a multi-engine airplane when there is an
imbalance of power or thrust about the normal axis. The unbalanced forces form a couple which
generates a torque leading to yaw, roll and side slip.

What happens when an engine fails

on a twin-engine aircraft.
 Deceleration

Loss of thrust-deceleration
 The loss of thrust and lift causes
the nose to drop and the airspeed
to decay.

 YAW Development
 The differences in thrust and drag
due to the windmilling propeller
causes an immediate yawing
moment towards the dead engine.
YAW
 Asymmetric Flight cont…
 Roll Development
ROLL
ROLL
ROLL  There is an immediate reduction in lift
on the side of the failed engine due to
the reduced slipstream and thus there
is a rolling moment towards the dead
engine.
 The airplane also rolls toward the dead
engine because of the primary yaw as
the engine fails.

 Sideslip Development
 The lift vector is tilted as a result of
the roll. The resultant of the tilted lift
vector and vertical weight vector is a
sideslip component towards the dead
engine.
 The weather cocking effect of the
sideslip creates an additional yawing
moment towards the dead engine.

SIDESLIP
Pilots response to asymmetric flight

STOP THE YAW

 Control yaw with RUDDER
 Sufficient rudder is applied towards
the live engine to counteract the yaw.
 After yaw has been corrected there will
still be a residual rolling moment
towards the dead engine, caused by
asymmetric lift. This is counted by an
aileron moment towards the live
engine.
Sideslip - Cure - Bank towards live engine
 SIDESLIP
 Now that you have controlled the
yaw and roll, wings level with the ball
in the middle you have a problem
due to the resultant sideslip.
 Additional Yaw due to weather
cocking requires greater rudder
deflection to balance it, thus creating
increased drag.

 Cure for sideslip – Slight bank

toward the live engine.
 The inefficiencies of the sideslip are
removed by a small amount of bank
towards the live engine, max 5°.
SUMMARY- Actions in event of an engine
failure on a twin
 RUDDER TO STOP YAW, SLIGHT BANK
TOWARDS THE LIVE ENGINE

 With rudder against yaw, and a slight

bank towards the live engine there is
zero sideslip. This is the most effective
way to control the aircraft, to make
best use of available control, to
minimise drag and to gain the most
performance that is available.

 Part of the lift vector is used to balance

the side force due to rudder and thus
allows the sideslip to be reduced to
zero. Zero sideslip results it minimum
drag. It is called the “Angle of bank“
method and offers best performance.

 The maximum recommended bank is

5°
 Performance After Engine Failure

 On a twin-engine aircraft if you lost one of two engines you

would expect to have half(50%) the thrust and half the
performance. This is not the case.
 Typically the light twin looses 80% of its excess thrust and hence
80% of its ability to climb or accelerate! –performance is
significantly reduced.
 Effect of Engine Failure on Aircraft
Performance
 Climb Performance
Climb rate typically reduced 80-90%.
May not be able to maintain altitude and minimum climb gradients.
 Ceiling
Service ceiling and absolute ceiling reduced.
Re-planning may be necessary to remain above MSA.
 Acceleration
Acceleration is reduced – significant to single engine go-around.
 Range and endurance
On some aircraft it may not be possible to cross feed from all fuel tanks
following engine failure -therefore available fuel will be reduced. Re-
planning may be required.
 Zero Thrust
For training purposes a feathered propeller may be simulated by
setting zero thrust.
Emulates reduction in drag brought about by feathering propeller
 Factors Which Affect Controllability
 Thrust - obviously the greater the thrust, the greater the
yawing moment from the live engine. Thrust is greatest at low
speed. i.e. immediately after take-off.
 Altitude – As thrust reduces with increasing altitude, then as a
rule, the worst case for engine failure is at the lowest altitude,
i.e. immediately after take-off.
 Drag – from the dead engine contributes directly to the yawing
moment and only the fact of whether the propeller is stopped,
windmilling or feathered will alter the total drag and therefore
the yawing moment from this failed engine.
 Factors Which Affect Controllability

 Asymmetric Blade Effect

 At lower airspeed the aircraft has to be flown at a higher angle of
attack to generate the required lift. This leads to the down-going
propeller blade presenting a higher angle of attack to the airflow than
the up-going blade, resulting in the thrust line being slightly offset
from the engine centerline. This creates a yawing moment.
 The term CRITICAL ENGINE is used to refer to the engine that if
failed would result in the largest yawing moment. In aircraft with
clockwise rotating engines the critical engine is the left engine.
Aircraft having counter-rotating engines do not have a critical engine.
Factors Which Affect Controllability
 Torque reaction
 To any applied force there is a
reaction. The torque effect on an
engine with clockwise rotating
propellers will tend to make the
aircraft roll to the left.
 If the left engine fails, the roll due
to asymmetric thrust will be
compounded by the roll produced
by the torque effect.

 Difference in Lift
 With engine failure on one side
comes a loss in the propeller
induced lift on that side. As well as
a reduction in total lift and
therefore a tendency to descend,
there is a rolling moment towards
the failed engine. Feathering the
propeller minimises the disruption
to the airflow.
 Factors Which Affect Controllability
Balance

 Position of the Centre of Gravity (CG)

 If the aircraft is loaded so that the CG is at its forward limit then the
distance to the tail surface is at a maximum and the stabalising
moments are greatest. The rudder has its greatest leverage. At the aft
limit of CG position, the distance to the tail is minimised and so this
offers the least stable position and the least rudder power.
 Airspeed - The aerodynamic power of all of the pilot’s controls
depends on indicated airspeed. More airspeed, more control power.
Also the stabilising moments of the keel surfaces and the fin depend
on indicated airspeed. More airspeed = more stability. Airspeed is the
vital ingredient in controlling an aircraft with asymmetric thrust.
 Turbulence – turbulence increases drag and demands control inputs
which in turn further increase drag.
 Understanding Critical Speeds & Vmca
 Vmc - Minimum Control Airspeed - is the lowest airspeed at
which, when any engine is made inoperative, it is still possible to
recover control of the aircraft with that engine inoperative and to
maintain straight and level flight, either with zero yaw, or, at the
option of the pilot, with an angle of bank of not more than 5 deg.
This airspeed shall be such that during the recovery the aircraft shall
not assume any dangerous attitudes, nor should the pilot require any
exceptional piloting skill, alertness or strength to prevent a heading
change of more than 20 degrees.
 VMC only relates to control of the aircraft and not to performance.

 Vmca
 The minimum control speed relating to a sudden engine failure on
take-off is a very specific speed measured under very stringent test
conditions. It is known as Vmca. Unlike the minimum control speed
(Vmc), Vmca is a dynamic case.
 Vmca is the minimum speed that, in the event of sudden and
complete failure of the most critical engine in takeoff configuration,
enables continued directional control and steady flight using full
rudder deflection and a maximum of 5° of bank away from the failed
engine.
 Vmca - criteria
 Critical engine suddenly failed with the propeller in the fine pitch
position and windmilling.
 Maximum thrust on the live engine.
 No more than 5° of bank towards the live engine.
 Undercarriage retracted.
 Flaps in the take-off position.
 CG at the aft limit for take-off.
 Maximum take-off weight.
 Sea level ISA.

Vmca takes into account pilot skill, reaction time, strength (150 pounds
rudder force max) and assumes full rudder is available. The aircraft is
allowed to deviate up to 20° in heading before the pilot regains
control.

Vmca is a certification speed.

Vmca is usually indicated on the ASI by a red line.

 Factors Affecting Vmca
 Effect of Bank - Bank toward the live engine reduces the rudder
deflection required and so allows a lower Vmca. Only a small amount
of bank (less than 5° - typically 3°)

 Effect of CG position – Forward CG greater control power and

stability , Aft CG reduced control power and stability

 Effect of Flap – Under asymmetric thrust conditions, the lowering of

flaps reduces climb performance, increases the margin above the
stall but does not directly affect Vmca. However, if take-off flap is
set, the difference in lift between the two wings due to the propeller
slipstream is further increased. This increase in rolling moment,
requires increased aileron deflection and indirectly affects Vmca.

 Affect of Altitude – Vmca is affected by maximum thrust which

reduces with increased altitude. Therefore Vmca reduces with
increasing altitude. This does not apply to turbo-charged engine
aircraft.
The Relationship between
Vmca and Vstall
 The indicated airspeed at which the aircraft
stalls is nominally constant for a given
weight, in straight and level flight. If we are
heavier or if we are turning, the stall speed
increases but other than this, it doesn’t
vary with altitude.
 The asymmetric thrust will decrease as the
thrust decreases with altitude. Therefore
Vmca will decrease with altitude.
 If we are slowing down with an engine
failure and full power on the live engine, we
may think we have a safe margin above
Vmca, and we have, but we could stall with
full power on the live engine, and almost
full rudder deflection . There isn’t a more
likely situation for an uncontrollable
departure from controlled flight and if
uncorrected, a spin.
 Speed Definitions
 Vmcg: Minimum Control Speed Ground
 Vmca: Minimum Control Speed Air (RED LINE)
 V1: Take-Off Decision Speed: This is the maximum speed on take
off at which it is still possible to stop in the remaining distance of
runway and stop way.
 VR: Speed that the aircraft is rotated to the take-off attitude
 V2: Take Off- Safety Speed: Takeoff speed giving a safe margin over
the stall and VMCA. Greater of 1.1* VMCA or 1.2*VS
 Vx: Best Angle of Climb
 Vxse: Best Angle of Climb Single Engine
 Vy: Best Rate of Climb
 Vyse: Best Rate of Climb Single Engine (BLUE LINE)
 Vsse: Recommended Safe Single Engine Speed: Sudden simulated
engine failures should not be practiced below this speed. Safeguard
against inadvertent spins If not stated use Vmca+10kts
 Runway Definitions, Balanced Field
 Stopway
Extension beyond the end of the runway to be used in decelerating
and stopping the aircraft in the event of a rejected take off, not
intended for normal use. Must be able to support the weight of the
aircraft.
 Clearway
Area beyond the runway, not less than 75 meters either side of the
extended centreline cleared of obstacles for the purpose of
establishing the aircraft in a climb. Includes the stopway, maximum
50% of runway length.

 Displaced Threshold
Precludes the full use of the runway for landing.
Does not affect take off distance available.
 Take-Off Run Available (TORA)
Length of runway from beginning to end.
 Take-Off Distance Available
Length of the TORA plus the clearway
 Accelerate Stop Distance Required (ASDR)
Distance required to accelerate the aircraft to V1, experience an
engine failure and bring the aircraft to a stop.
 Accelerate Go-Distance Required
Total distance required to accelerate the aircraft to V1,
experience an engine failure at V1 and continue the take-off to
reach V2 at 35 ft.
More applicable to large twins with guaranteed single engine
climb performance (FAR part 25).
 Understanding what kind of twin you
are flying - FAR Part 23 or 25
FAR stands for Federal Aviation Regulations, which are the
regulations as set by the USA FAA, which stands for the Federal
Aviation Agency, being the Aviation Regulatory Body of the
USA Government.

Most of the World’s General Aviation Aircraft are American built,

and many other countries building aircraft have either adopted the
American Standards or Standards similar to the FAA.

These Parts or sections of the Federal Aviation Regulations are the

regulations governing the Airworthiness Standards, which
encompass the Certification Criteria for various categories of aircraft.
 FAR Part 25
 The above comprises the Airworthiness Standards for Transport
Category Aircraft.
 These are usually large aircraft, but small aircraft can also be certified
under Part 25, such as small corporate jets, like the Cessna Citation Jets,
and most of the Lear Jets.
 FAR Part 25 are the most stringent certification rules, and therefore, the
performance capabilities of these aircraft are normally much greater
than FAR Part 23 Type Certified aircraft.

 Engine Failure During Take-off on

Part 25 Type Aircraft

Because of these aircraft’s greater performance and more stringent

certification criteria, decision making when experiencing an engine
failure during take-off is a much simpler process, because such aircraft
need to demonstrate that it can accelerate on the ground, from a
standing start at the beginning of the take-off run to it’s take-off
decision speed V1, experience failure of its critical engine, and then still
continue to accelerate to its take-off rotation speed Vr, rotate and climb
out at specified climb gradient and performance, so one could refer to
these as “Go Orientated” aircraft, should you experience an engine
failure during take-off at or after V1.
FAR 25 Aircraft Take-off Criteria
 Engine Failure During Take-off on
Part 25 Type Aircraft
 In the above situation once the landing gear has
been retracted, the single engine climb gradient
for a 2 engine Part 25 Type aircraft needs to be no
less than 2.4%

 Most FAR Part 23 Type Certified aircraft do not

have the performance or control capabilities to fly
away when experiencing an engine failure, either
on the ground during take off or even in the air,
immediately after lift off at low altitude/speed
above the take-off surface, unlike a FAR Part 25
Type Aircraft as depicted above!
 FAR Part 23
 This Part comprises the Airworthiness Standards, which
encompass the certification criteria appertaining to small
aircraft, normal, utility, aerobatic and Commuter
category aircraft.

 The FAR Part 23 certification rules are much less

stringent than the FAR Part 25 Transport Category
Certification rules.

 Normal Category Part 23 type twin engine aircraft, with a

maximum take-off weight of less than 6000 lbs and a
stalling speed of less than 61 knots do not even have to
demonstrate any single engine climb performance
capabilities.

 Although aircraft above this weight and higher stalling

speeds, under Part 23, do need to prove certain single
engine climb performance, this is still minimal as
compared to FAR Part 25 type certified aircraft.
 FAR Part 23 - Example C404

 Aircraft in the weight category of the C404 and

stalling speed above 61knots, for certification, only
needs to demonstrate, measurably positive single
engine climb performance at 400 feet above the
take-off surface. The first instance where these
aircraft need to demonstrate any specific single
engine climb gradient, is at 1500 feet above the
take-off surface, and that needs to be no less than
0.75%
Engine Failure During Take-off in FAR
Part 23 Type Aircraft Considerations
 On most small Part 23 type certified aircraft, if the landing gear
has not been retracted, when an engine fails during take-off, it
is a “No Fly” situation, and the aircraft should be put back onto
the ground, because with the landing gear still down, the failed
engine propeller wind milling, creating drag, climb performance
will be absolutely minimal.
 With all these factors influencing decision making when an
engine fails during take-off on a Part 23 type aircraft, it is very
different compared to a Part 25 aircraft, where once you have
gone past V1, it is a “Go” situation!