Sensors

[Link] Sem: 5th

Electrical
Subject: Industrial Automation. ( 2EE51PE2)

By: Dr. Kaumil Shah

Assistant Professor
Electrical Department.
U.V. Patel College of Engineering.
Type of Sensor: Temperature Sensors
The most commonly used type of sensors are those types of sensors that detect
Temperature or heat.
These types of temperature sensors vary from simple ON/OFF thermostatic devices
which control a domestic hot water heating system to highly sensitive semiconductor
types that can control complex process control furnace plants.
Temperature Sensors measure the amount of heat energy or even coldness that is
generated by an object or system, allowing us to “sense” or detect any physical change
to that temperature producing either an analogue or digital output.

Temperature sensor
Types of Temprature Sensor:

A temperature sensor consists of two basic physical types:

➢ Contact Temperature Sensor Types – These types of temperature sensors are

required to be in physical contact with the object being sensed and use
conduction to monitor changes in temperature. They can be used to detect solids,
liquids, or gases over a wide range of temperatures.
➢ Non-contact Temperature Sensor Types – These types of temperature sensors use
convection and radiation to monitor changes in temperature. They can be used to
detect liquids and gases that emit radiant energy as heat rises and cold settles to
the bottom in convection currents or detect the radiant energy being transmitted
from an object in the form of infrared radiation (the sun).
Types of sensor: Thermistor
The word “Thermistor” is a combination of the words “Thermal” and
“resistor“. A thermistor is a type of resistor whose resistance changes with
the change in temperature. It is a passive component that does not require
an extra power source to operate. But they do not operate well in extreme
conditions such as very high or very low temperatures.

Symbol of thermistor:
Types of sensor: Thermistor
How Does a Thermistor Work
The working principle of a thermistor is that its resistance is dependent on its
temperature. We can measure the resistance of a thermistor using an ohmmeter.
A thermistor is made of semiconductor material whose resistance greatly depends on
the surrounding temperature. They significantly vary with the temperature. Depending
on the material used, the resistance may either increase or decrease with an increase
in temperature called the PTC and NTC thermistor.
This change in resistance can be calibrated and measured to calculate the exact
temperature of the environment in a circuit.
How are they constructed
Thermistors are generally made from ceramic materials such as oxides of nickel,
manganese or cobalt coated in glass, making them easily damaged.
To make a thermistor, two or more semiconductor powders made of metallic oxides are
mixed with a binder to form a slurry. Small drops of this slurry are formed over the lead
wires. For drying purposes, we have to put it into a sintering furnace.
Types of sensor:
Thermistor
During this process, the slurry will shrink onto the lead wires to make an electrical
connection.
This processed metallic oxide is sealed by putting a glass coating on it. This glass
coating gives a waterproof property to the thermistors – helping to improve their
stability.

Thermistor
Types of sensor:
Thermistor
Types of Thermistor
There are two types of thermistors
1. PTC (Positive Temperature Coefficient) Thermistor
2. NTC (Negative Temperature Coefficient) Thermistor
PTC Thermistor
PTC or Positive Temperature Coefficient thermistor is a type of thermistor whose
resistance is directly proportional to the surrounding temperature. Its resistance
increases with an increase in the temperature and decreases with a decrease in the
temperature.
It is made of polycrystalline ceramic material. Its resistance increases
non-linearly in a curve. The increase in resistance is very small at low
temperatures which increases rapidly when the temperature reaches PTC Thermistor

above the switching point (TR).

Types of sensor:
Thermistor
NTC Thermistor
As its name suggests, NTC or Negative temperature coefficient thermistor has a negative
coefficient k. therefore, its resistance varies inversely with the temperature. The
resistance decreases with an increase in temperature and vice versa.
Here is the symbol of the NTC thermistor.

NTC Thermistor
Types of sensor:
Thermocouple
A Thermocouple is a sensor used to measure temperature. Thermocouples consist of
two wire legs made from different metals. The wire’s legs are welded together at one
end, creating a junction. This junction is where the temperature is measured. When the
junction experiences a change in temperature, a voltage is created. The voltage can
then be interpreted using thermocouple reference tables to calculate the temperature.
A thermocouple can measure a wide range of temperatures.
It is a simple, robust, and cost-effective temperature sensor used in various industrial
applications, home, office, and commercial applications.
Types of sensor:
Thermocouple
Thermocouple Working Principle
The thermocouple principle mainly depends on the three effects namely Seebeck,
Peltier, and Thompson
See beck-effect
This type of effect occurs among two dissimilar metals. When the heat offers to any one
of the metal wires, then the flow of electrons supplies from hot metal wire to cold
metal wire. Therefore, direct current stimulates the circuit.
Peltier-effect
This Peltier effect is opposite to the Seebeck effect. This effect states that the difference
in temperature can be formed among any two dissimilar conductors by applying the
potential variation among them.
Thompson-effect
This effect states that as two disparate metals fix together & if they form two joints then
the voltage induces the total conductor’s length due to the gradient of temperature.
This is a physical word that demonstrates the change in the rate and direction of
temperature at an exact position.
Types of sensor: Thermocouple
Construction of Thermocouple
The construction of the device is shown below. It comprises two different metal
wires that are connected together at the junction end. The junction thinks of the
measuring end. The end of the junction is classified into three type’s namely
ungrounded, grounded, and exposed junction.
Types of sensor: Thermocouple
How Does a Thermocouple Work?
The thermocouple diagram is shown in the below picture. This circuit can be built
with two different metals, and they are coupled together by generating two
junctions. The two metals are surrounded by the connection through welding.
In the above diagram, the junctions are denoted by P & Q, and the temperatures are
denoted by T1, & T2. When the temperature of the junction is dissimilar from each
other, then the electromagnetic force generates in the circuit.

Thermocouple Circuit
Types of sensor:
Thermocouple
If the temperate at the junction end turns into an equivalent, then the equivalent, as
well as reverse electromagnetic force, produces in the circuit, and there is no flow of
current through it. Similarly, the temperature at the junction end becomes imbalanced,
then the potential variation induces in this circuit.
The magnitude of the electromagnetic force induces in the circuit relies on the sorts of
material utilized for thermocouple making. The entire flow of current throughout the
circuit is calculated by the measuring tools.
The electromagnetic force induced in the circuit is calculated by the following equation
E = a (∆Ө) + b
Where ∆Ө is the temperature difference among the hot thermocouple junction end as
well as the reference thermocouple junction end
a & b - constants
Types of sensors:
RTD
A resistance Temperature Detector (also known as a Resistance Thermometer or RTD is
an electronic device used to determine the temperature by measuring the resistance of
an electrical wire.
Most RTD elements consist of a length of fine-coiled wire wrapped around a ceramic or
glass core.
The element is usually quite fragile, so it is often placed inside a sheathed probe to
protect it.
The RTD element is made from a pure metal as mentioned below.
The material property has a predictable change in resistance as the temperature change
is used to determine temperature.
 Commonly used RTD Materials:
• Platinum (most popular and accurate)
• Nickel
• Copper
• Balco (rare)
• Tungsten (rare)
Types of sensors: RTD
RTD working principle
In terms of how it works, the RTD follows a basic principle. When the temperature of a
metal increases, the resistance to the flow of electricity increases as well. An electrical
current is passed through the sensor, the resistance element is used to measure the
resistance of the current being passed through it. As the temperature of the resistance
element increases the electrical resistance also increases.
The electrical resistance is measured in Ohms. The resistance value can then be
converted into temperature based on the characteristics of the element. Usually, the
response time for an RTD is between 0.5 and 5 seconds. This makes them very suitable
for many applications.
RTD sensors types
Resistance Temperature Detectors can be categorized into two types of RTDs.
Their type is based on the construction of the temperature-sensing element.
1. Thin-film RTDs
2. Wire-wound RTDs
Types of sensors:
RTD
Thin-film RTDs
The thin-film RTD elements are made by depositing a thin layer of metal which in
most cases is platinum on a ceramic substrate material.
The metal film is laser cut or etched into an electrical circuit pattern that provides the
specified amount of resistance. Lead wires are then attached, and a thin protective
glass coating is applied to the entire element.
The advantages of thin-film RTDs are that they are reliable and are produced at a low
cost. Moreover, they are more damage resistant from vibrations than the other types
of resistance temperature detectors.
Types of
sensors: RTD
Wire-wound RTDs
The other type of RTD is wire-would. Its sensing element comprises a small coil of
ultra-thin platinum wire. The wire coil is commonly packaged inside a ceramic or
glass tube or the wire can be wound around the outside of a ceramic or glass
housing material.
The advantages of wire-wound RTDs are that they are very accurate and those
with glass cores can readily be immersed in many liquids, while those with
ceramic cores can be used to accurately measure extremely high temperatures.
The disadvantages of wire-wound RTDs are that they are more expensive to
produce than thin film and they are more vibration-sensitive.