Protocols

A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications.

A protocol defines what is communicated, how it is communicated, and when it is
communicated.
The key elements of a protocol are syntax, semantics, and timing.
• Syntax. The term syntax refers to the structure or format of the data i.e., the order in which they are
presented.
For example, a simple protocol might expect the first 8 bits of data to be the address of the sender, the second 8
bits to be the address of the receiver, and the rest of the stream to be the message itself.

• Semantics. The word semantics refers to the meaning of each section of bits. How is a particular pattern to
be interpreted, and what action is to be taken based on that interpretation?
For example, does an address identify the route to be taken or the final destination of the message?

• Timing. The term timing refers to two characteristics: when data should be sent and how fast they can be
sent.
• For example, if a sender produces data at 100 Mbps but the receiver can process data at only 1 Mbps, the
transmission will overload the receiver and some data will be lost.
Standards
 Standards are essential in creating and maintaining an open and competitive market for equipment
manufacturers and in guaranteeing national and international interoperability of data and
telecommunications technology and processes.

 Standards provide guidelines to manufacturers, vendors, government agencies, and other service
providers to ensure the kind of interconnectivity necessary in today's marketplace and in
international communications.

 Data communication standards fall into two categories:

o de facto (meaning "by fact" or "by convention")
o de jure (meaning "by law" or "by regulation").
o De facto.
• Standards that have not been approved by an organized body but have been adopted as standards through
widespread use are de facto standards.
• De facto standards are often established originally by manufacturers who seek to define the functionality of
a new product or technology.
o De jure. Those standards that have been legislated by an officially recognized body are de jure standards.
 Standards are developed through the cooperation of standards creation committees, forums, and
government regulatory agencies.
Standards Creation Committees
While many organizations are dedicated to the establishment of standards, data telecommunications in
North America rely primarily on those published by the following:
o International Organization for Standardization (ISO).
• The ISO is a multinational body whose membership is drawn mainly from the standards creation
committees of various governments throughout the world.
• The ISO is active in developing cooperation in the realms of scientific, technological, and
economic activity.
o International Telecommunication Union-Telecommunication Standards Sector (ITU-T).
• Around 1970s, The United Nations responded by forming, as part of its International
Telecommunication Union (ITU), a committee, the Consultative Committee for International
Telegraphy and Telephony (CCITT).
• This committee was devoted to the research and establishment of standards for
telecommunications in general and for phone and data systems in particular.
• On March 1, 1993, the name of this committee was changed to the International
Telecommunication Union- Telecommunication Standards Sector (ITU-T).
o American National Standards Institute (ANSI).
• American National Standards Institute is a completely private, non-profit corporation not affiliated with
the U.S. federal government.
• However, all ANSI activities are undertaken with the welfare of the United States and its citizens
occupying primary importance.
o Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE).
• The IEEE is the largest professional engineering society in the world.
• International in scope, it aims to advance theory, creativity, and product quality in the fields of electrical
engineering, electronics, and radio as well as in all related branches of engineering.
• IEEE oversees the development and adoption of international standards for computing and
communications.
o Electronic Industries Association (EIA).
• Aligned with ANSI, EIA is a non-profit organization devoted to the promotion of electronics
manufacturing concerns.
• Its activities include public awareness education and lobbying efforts in addition to standards
development.
• In the field of information technology, the EIA has made significant contributions by defining physical
connection interfaces and electronic signaling specifications for data communication.
Forums
• Telecommunications technology development is moving faster than the ability of standards committees to
ratify standards. Standards committees are procedural bodies and by nature slow moving.
• To accommodate the need for working models and agreements and to facilitate the standardization process,
many special-interest groups have developed forums made up of representatives from interested corporations.
• The forums work with universities and users to test, evaluate, and standardize new technologies.
• By concentrating their efforts on a particular technology, the forums are able to speed acceptance and use of
those technologies in the telecommunications community.
• The forums present their conclusions to the standards bodies.

Regulatory Agencies
• All communications technology is subject to regulation by government agencies such as the Federal
Communications Commission (FCC) in the United States.
• The purpose of these agencies is to protect the public interest by regulating radio, television, and wire/cable
communications.
• The FCC has authority over interstate and international commerce as it relates to communications.
 Network Layer Protocols
Address Resolution Protocol
The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is used to associate a logical address with a physical
address. On a typical physical network, such as a LAN, each device on a link is identified by a
physical or station address, usually imprinted on the network interface card (NIC). ARP is
used to find the physical address of the node when its Internet address is known.
Reverse Address Resolution Protocol
The Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP) allows a host to discover its Internet
address when it knows only its physical address. It is used when a computer is connected to a
network for the first time or when a diskless computer is booted.
Internet Control Message Protocol
The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) is a mechanism used by hosts and gateways to
send notification of datagram problems back to the sender. ICMP sends query and error
reporting messages.
Internet Group Message Protocol
The Internet Group Message Protocol (IGMP) is used to facilitate the simultaneous
transmission of a message to a group of recipients
 Transport Layer Protocols
UDP (User Datagram Protocol (UDP):
It is a process-to-process protocol that adds only port addresses, checksum error control, and length information
to the data from the upper layer.
IT is unreliable connectionless
TCP (Transmission Control Protocol):
Provides full transport-layer services to applications.
A reliable connection-oriented transport protocol. (A connection must be established between both ends of a
transmission before either can transmit data).
At the sending end of each transmission, TCP divides a stream of data into smaller units called segments. Each
segment includes a sequence number for reordering after receipt, together with an acknowledgment number for
the segments received. Segments are carried across the internet inside of IP datagrams. At the receiving end, TCP
collects each datagram as it comes in and reorders the transmission based on sequence numbers.
 Application Layer Protocols
FTP
HTTP
SMTP
TELNET
 Concept of Analog and Digital Signals
 Communication at the physical layer involves host-to-router, router-to-
router, and router-to-host. Switches are also involved in the physical
communication.
 In order to exchange data, communication at the physical layer means
exchanging signals.
 Data need to be transmitted and received, but the media have to
change data to signals. Both data and the signals that represent them
can be either analog or digital in form.
 Concept of Analog and Digital Signals
Analog data: It refers to information that is continuous
Digital data: It refers to information that has discrete states.

For example,
(i) An analog clock that has hour, minute, and second hands gives information in a
continuous form; the movements of the hands are continuous. On the other hand,
a digital clock that reports the hours and the minutes will change suddenly from
8:05 to 8:06.

(ii) Analog data, such as the sounds made by a human voice, take on continuous
values. When someone speaks, an analog wave is created in the air. This can be
captured by a microphone and converted to an analog signal or sampled and
converted to a digital signal. Digital data take on discrete values. For example, data
are stored in computer memory in the form of 0s and 1s. They can be converted to a
digital signal or modulated into an analog signal for transmission across a medium.
 Analog and Digital Signals
Analog Signals: It has infinitely many levels of intensity over a period of time. As the
wave moves from value A to value B, it passes through and includes an infinite
number of values along its path.

Digital Signals: It has only a limited number of defined values. Although each value
can be any number, it is often as simple as 1 and 0.
The simplest way to show signals is by plotting them on a pair of perpendicular axes.
The vertical axis represents the value or strength of a signal. The horizontal axis
represents time.
 Periodic and Non-periodic Signals
Both analog and digital signals can be either periodic or nonperiodic
(sometimes referred to as aperiodic).

 Periodic signal: It completes a pattern within a measurable time

frame, called a period, and repeats that pattern over subsequent
identical periods. The completion of one full pattern is called a cycle.

 Nonperiodic signal: It changes without exhibiting a pattern or cycle

that repeats over time.

In data communications, we commonly use periodic analog signals and

nonperiodic digital signals.
 Periodic Analog Signals
Periodic analog signals can be classified as simple or composite.
• A simple periodic analog signal, a sine wave, cannot be decomposed into
simpler signals.
• A composite periodic analog signal is composed of multiple sine waves.
The sine wave is the most fundamental form of a periodic analog signal.
When we visualize it as a simple oscillating curve, its change over the
course of a cycle is smooth and consistent, a continuous, rolling flow.
 Periodic Analog Signals
Peak Amplitude: The peak amplitude of a signal is E.g., Power in our house :
the absolute value of its highest intensity, Represented with a sine wave
proportional to the energy it carries. For electric with a peak amplitude of 155 to
signals, peak amplitude is normally measured in 170 V (Voltage of the power is
volts. 110 to 120 V (root mean square
(rms) value representing
voltage)). The signal is squared
and then the average amplitude
is calculated. The peak value is
equal to × rms value
(representing power)
 Periodic Analog Signals
Period and Frequency
• Period refers to the amount of time, in
seconds, a signal needs to complete 1 cycle.
• Frequency refers to the number of periods
in 1 s.
 Period is the inverse of frequency, and
frequency is the inverse of period
 Period is formally expressed in seconds.
Frequency is formally expressed in Hertz
(Hz), which is cycle per second.
Frequency is the rate of change with respect to time.
Change in a short span of time means high frequency.
Change over a long span of time means low frequency.
If a signal does not change at all, its frequency is zero. If a
signal changes instantaneously, its frequency is infinite.
 Periodic Analog Signals
Ques 1: The power we use at home has a frequency of 60 Hz (50 Hz in Europe). What is the period of this sine
wave.

Ques 2: The period of a signal is 100 ms. What is its frequency in kilohertz?
 Periodic Analog Signals
Phase (Phase Shift):
• It describes the position of the waveform relative to time 0.
• If wave shifted backward or forward along the time axis, phase describes the amount of that shift. It indicates
the status of the first cycle.
• Phase is measured in degrees or radians [360º is 2π rad; 1º is 2π/360 rad, and 1 rad is 360/(2π)].
• A phase shift of 360º corresponds to a shift of a complete period; a phase shift of 180° corresponds to a shift of
one-half of a period; and a phase shift of 90º corresponds to a shift of one-quarter of a period

Ques- A sine wave is offset cycle with respect to time 0. What

is its phase in degrees and radians?
 Periodic Analog Signals
Wavelength
• Wavelength binds the period or the frequency of a simple sine wave to the propagation speed of the medium
• While the frequency of a signal is independent of the medium, the wavelength depends on both the
frequency and the medium. The propagation speed of
• The wavelength is the distance a simple signal can travel in one period
electromagnetic signals depends on
the medium and on the frequency of
the signal.
For example, in a vacuum, light is
propagated with a speed of 3 × 10^8
m/s. That speed is lower in air and even
lower in cable. The wavelength is
normally measured in micrometers
(Speed of light) (microns) instead of meters

Wavelength of light (frequency = 4 ×

10^14) in air is
 Periodic Analog Signals
Time and Frequency Domains
• The time-domain plot shows changes in signal amplitude with respect to time (it is
an amplitude-versus-time plot). Phase is not explicitly shown on a time-domain
plot.
• To show the relationship between amplitude and frequency, a frequency-domain
plot is used. A frequency-domain plot is concerned with only the peak value and
the frequency
The advantage of the
frequency domain is that we
can immediately see the
values of the frequency and
peak amplitude. A complete
sine wave is represented by
one spike. The position of the
spike shows the frequency; its
height shows the peak
amplitude.
 Periodic Analog Signals
Time and Frequency Domains
 Composite Signals
• A composite signal is made of
many simple sine waves.
• A single-frequency sine wave is
not useful in data
communications; we need to
send a composite signal, a signal
made of many simple sine waves.
• According to Fourier analysis,
any composite signal is a
combination of simple sine waves
with different frequencies,
amplitudes, and phases.
• If the composite signal is
periodic, the decomposition gives
a series of signals with discrete
frequencies; if the composite
signal is nonperiodic, the
decomposition gives a
combination of sine waves with
continuous frequencies.
 Composite Signals
• The frequency of the sine wave with frequency f is the same as the frequency of the composite signal; it is called
the fundamental frequency, or first harmonic.
• The sine wave with frequency 3f has a frequency of 3 times the fundamental frequency; it is called the third
harmonic.
• The third sine wave with frequency 9f has a frequency of 9 times the fundamental frequency; it is called the ninth
harmonic.
• Note that the frequency decomposition of the signal is discrete; it has frequencies f, 3f, and 9f.
• The frequency domain of a periodic composite signal is always made of discrete spikes.

In a time-domain representation of non-periodic

composite signal, there are an infinite number of simple
sine frequencies. Although the number of frequencies in a
human voice is infinite, the range is limited. A normal
human being can create a continuous range of frequencies
between 0 and 4 kHz. Note that the frequency
decomposition of the signal yields a continuous curve.
There are an infinite number of frequencies between 0.0
and 4000.0 (real values). To find the amplitude related to
frequency f, we draw a vertical line at f to intersect the
envelope curve. The height of the vertical line is the
amplitude of the corresponding frequency.
 Composite Signals
Bandwidth:
 The range of frequencies contained in a
composite signal is its bandwidth.
 The bandwidth of a composite signal is
the difference between the highest and
the lowest frequencies contained in that
signal.
 For example, if a composite signal
contains frequencies between 1000 and
5000, its bandwidth is 5000 − 1000, or
4000.
• The bandwidth of the periodic
signal contains all integer
frequencies between 1000 and 5000
(1000, 1001, 1002, . . .).
• The bandwidth of the nonperiodic
signals has the same range, but the
frequencies are continuous.
 Composite Signals
Ques:
If a periodic signal is decomposed into five sine waves with frequencies of 100, 300,
500, 700, and 900 Hz, what is its bandwidth?
 Digital Signals
• Information can also be represented by a digital signal.
• For example, a 1 can be encoded as a positive voltage and a 0 as zero voltage.
• A digital signal can have more than two levels. In this case, we can send more
than 1 bit for each level.
• In general, if a signal has L levels, each level needs log2L bits. For this reason,
we can send log24 = 2 bits in part b.

Ques:
A digital signal has eight levels. How many bits are
needed per level? We calculate the number of bits from
the following formula. Each signal level is represented
by 3 bits.
 Digital Signals
Bit Rate:
• Most digital signals are nonperiodic, and thus period and frequency are not appropriate
characteristics.
• Bit rate (instead of frequency) is used to describe digital signals.
• The bit rate is the number of bits sent in 1s, expressed in bits per second (bps).
Bit Length:
• We discussed the concept of the wavelength for an analog signal: the distance one cycle occupies on the
transmission medium.
• Bit length (Instead of wavelength) is described for digital signals. The bit length is the distance one bit
occupies on the transmission medium.
Ques: Assume we need to download text documents at Ques: A digitized voice channel is made by digitizing a 4-kHz
the rate of 100 pages per second. What is the required bit bandwidth analog voice signal. We need to sample the signal at
rate of the channel? twice the highest frequency (two samples per hertz). We
Solution: A page is an average of 24 lines with 80 assume that each sample requires 8 bits. What is the required
characters in each line. If we assume that one character bit rate?
requires 8 bits, the bit rate is
 Digital Signal as a Composite signal
Based on Fourier analysis, a digital signal is a composite
analog signal.
A digital signal, in the time domain, comprises connected
vertical and horizontal line segments.
• A vertical line in the time domain means a frequency of
infinity (sudden change in time);
• A horizontal line in the time domain means a frequency of
zero (no change in time).
• Going from a frequency of zero to a frequency of infinity
(and vice versa) implies all frequencies in between are part
of the domain.
Fourier analysis can be used to decompose a digital signal.
If the digital signal is periodic, which is rare in data
communications, the decomposed signal has a frequency
domain representation with an infinite bandwidth and
discrete frequencies.
If the digital signal is nonperiodic, the decomposed signal
still has an infinite bandwidth, but the frequencies are
continuous.
 Transmission of Digital Signals
A digital signal is a composite analog signal with an infinite bandwidth.

Two different approaches: Baseband transmission or Broadband transmission (using modulation)

Baseband transmission :
• Baseband transmission means sending a digital signal over a channel without changing the digital signal to an
analog signal.
• Baseband transmission requires a low-pass channel, a channel with a bandwidth that starts from zero. This is the
case if we have a dedicated medium with a bandwidth constituting only one channel.
• Baseband transmission of a digital signal that preserves the shape of the digital signal is possible only if we have
a low-pass channel with an infinite or very wide bandwidth.
• In a low-pass channel with limited bandwidth, we approximate the digital signal with an analog signal. The level
of approximation depends on the bandwidth available.
• In baseband transmission, the required bandwidth is proportional to the bit rate; if we need to send bits faster,
we need more bandwidth.
Broadband transmission (using modulation)
• Broadband transmission or modulation means changing the digital signal to an analog signal for transmission.
Modulation allows us to use a bandpass channel—a channel with a bandwidth that does not start from zero.
• If the available channel is a bandpass channel, we cannot send the digital signal directly to the channel; we need
to convert the digital signal to an analog signal before transmission.
 Transmission Impairment
Signals travel through transmission media, which are not perfect. The imperfection causes signal
impairment. This means that the signal at the beginning of the medium is not the same as the signal
at the end of the medium. What is sent is not what is received.

• Three causes of impairment are attenuation, distortion, and noise

Attenuation:
• Attenuation means a loss of energy.
• When a signal, simple or composite,
travels through a medium, it loses some of
its energy in overcoming the resistance of
the medium.
• That is why a wire carrying electric signals
gets warm, if not hot, after a while. Some
of the electrical energy in the signal is
converted to heat. To compensate for this
loss, amplifiers are used to amplify the
signal.
 Transmission Impairment
Decibel:
• To show that a signal has lost or gained strength, engineers use the unit of the decibel.
• The decibel (dB) measures the relative strengths of two signals or one signal at two different
points.
• Note that the decibel is negative if a signal is attenuated and positive if a signal is amplified.

Variables P1 and P2 are the powers of a signal at points 1 and 2, respectively.

 Transmission Impairment
Distortion
• Distortion means that the signal changes its form or
shape.
• Distortion can occur in a composite signal made of
different frequencies.
• Each signal component has its own propagation
speed through a medium and therefore, its own
delay in arriving at the final destination.
• Differences in delay may create a difference in
phase if the delay is not exactly the same as the
period duration.

Noise
• It is another cause of impairment.
• Several types of noise, such as thermal noise,
induced noise, crosstalk, and impulse noise, may
corrupt the signal.
 Transmission Impairment
Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR)
To find the theoretical bit rate limit, we need to know
the ratio of the signal power to the noise power.
The signal-to-noise ratio is defined as

A high SNR means the signal is less corrupted by

noise; a low SNR means the signal is more corrupted
by noise. Because SNR is the ratio of two powers, it is
often described in decibel units, SNRdB, defined as
Transmission Impairment
 Performance
Bandwidth:
In networking, we use the term bandwidth in two contexts.
• Bandwidth in hertz, refers to the range of frequencies in a composite signal or the range of
frequencies that a channel can pass.
• Bandwidth in bits per second, refers to the speed of bit transmission in a channel or link.

Throughput:
• The throughput is a measure of how fast we can actually send data through a network.
• Although bandwidth in bits per second and throughput seem the same, they are different.
• A link may have a bandwidth of B bps, but we can only send T bps through this link with T always less
than B.
In other words, the bandwidth is a potential measurement of a link; the throughput is an actual
measurement of how fast we can send data.
 Performance
Latency (Delay)
The latency or delay defines how long it takes for an entire message to completely arrive at the
destination from the time the first bit is sent out from the source.
We can say that latency is made of four components: propagation time, transmission time, queuing
time and processing delay.

Propagation Time Propagation time measures the time required for a bit to travel from the source to
the destination. The propagation time is calculated by dividing the distance by the propagation speed.
Propagation time = Distance / (Propagation Speed)
 Performance
Transmission Time In data communications we don’t send just 1 bit, we send a message. The first bit
may take a time equal to the propagation time to reach its destination; the last bit also may take the
same amount of time. However, there is a time between the first bit leaving the sender and the last bit
arriving at the receiver. The first bit leaves earlier and arrives earlier; the last bit leaves later and arrives
later. The transmission time of a message depends on the size of the message and the bandwidth of
the channel.
Transmission time = (Message size) / Bandwidth
 Performance
Queuing Time
The time needed for each intermediate or end device to hold the message before it can be processed.
The queuing time is not a fixed factor; it changes with the load imposed on the network. When there
is heavy traffic on the network, the queuing time increases. An intermediate device, such as a router,
queues the arrived messages and processes them one by one. If there are many messages, each
message will have to wait.

Jitter
jitter is a performance issue related to delay if different packets of data encounter different delays and
the application using the data at the receiver site is time-sensitive (audio and video data, for example).
If the delay for the first packet is 20 ms, for the second is 45 ms, and for the third is 40 ms, then the
real-time application that uses the packets endures jitter.