System

A System is a set of interrelated elements that

collectively work together to achieve some
common purpose or Goal. e.g.
• Communication System.
• Computer System.
• Business / Firm.
 System’s Attribute
i. Elements of the System.- These are the units within the system which
interact with each other to produce desire results. These may be tangible
objects, abstract concepts (intangible) or an event.
ii. Boundary of the System.- Boundary is the area that separates one system
from another. Any thing within the boundary is part of the system(element).
It is a filter of inputs and outputs between system and surroundings.
iii. Surroundings of the System.- Any thing outside the boundary of the system
that influences the operation of system and cannot be directly controlled by
the system.
iv. Input of the System.- These are the energies taken into the system.
Results/Outputs are produced after processing of these inputs. e.g. Electric
Current, Computer Program..
v. Output of a System.- These are the energies discharged from the system
into the environment. e.g. Financial Statements are output of an Accounting
Information System(AIS).
vi. Interface.- It is the medium for transporting the output from one system
into another system as input.
 Open System
A system which accepts input from the environment and
returns output to its surroundings. Almost all systems are
open in nature.

Close System
Close Systems do not interact with environment. It means that
no inputs are fed into systems and no outputs are returned.
 Why we replace existing Systems
New Systems (CBIS) frequently replace existing manual systems and
new systems may themselves be replaced after sometime due to
introduction of new Technologies/Applications. Some of the reasons
why users and MIS professionals consider an existing system to be
inadequate are:-
 Existing System does not support business objectives and
strategies efficiently.
 It does not satisfy the needs and requirements of users.
 It has inadequate system controls.
 It has software that is unstructured and difficult to maintain.
 Less use of modern technologies.
 It contains various flaws and errors in its design.
 It is poorly documented and difficult to use.
 Successful MIS
In order to develop a successful System different
methods/techniques are used. These methods enable the
professionals to build information system that not only
satisfy the user's requirements but also are delivered in
time and within a budget.
 High level of user involvement are present
throughout the system development process.
 Project management techniques are used to
implement systems plan.
 Alternative system designs are developed and
critically evaluated prior to committing to final
design, technology and software.
 Successful MIS
 Structured program designing and coding is used.
 Clear, complete and accurate documentation for the
new system is generated throughout the system
development process.
 System implementation and user training are carefully
planned and coordinated.
 Post implementation reviews are conducted to ensure
that user and management needs were met.
 New systems are designed for easy maintenance.
No System is guaranteed of success but if above points
are considered, chances that users and mangers will
satisfy should increase.
SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE (SDLC)
The process of replacing the old system by the new one take
in a series of stages and the whole process is called System
Development Life Cycle. It comprises the following stages:
 Preliminary Investigation of the System.
 Detailed System Analysis or Requirement Analysis.
 System Design.
 System Acquisition and System Development.
 System Implementation and Evaluation.
 System Maintenance.
 What is SDLC….
1. PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATION OF SYSTEM.
1. Initial study/system study.
2. Problem identification.
3. Feasibility study/report.
2. REQUIREMENT ANALYSIS
1. Detail system study.
2. System analysis.
3. Preparation of statement of requirements.
3. SYSTEM DESIGN.
1. Review of TORs (Term of references).
2. Specification of proposed system.
3. User interface designing. (Screen design / Reports layout etc.)
4. Reporting to management about 3rd phase.
 …. What is SDLC
4. SYSTEM ACQUISITION AND DEVELOPMENT.
1. Acquisition of hardware and software.
2. Software Development.
3. Documentation.
5. SYSTEM IMPLEMENTATION.
1. System testing.
2. User training.
3. Implementation method.
4. Post implementation reviews.
6. SYSTEM MAINTENANCE.
 Preliminary Investigation
Preliminary Investigation of system
First phases of SDLC start when a user found some
problem/difficulties in the operation of existing system or
management decides to change the current system to met
the changing requirement. Normally consultant are hired to
observe/study the existing system them recommend a
propose system which fulfill all requirement. It consist of
different sub activities.
The preliminary investigation is the first step in system
development. After a user need or opportunity is identified,
a system analyst determines if a new or modified system is
necessary. Preliminary Investigation is also known as project
feasibility study.
 Preliminary Investigation
The main objective of this phase (step) is to
determine whether or not work on a new/modified
system is capable of being accomplished. Following
areas are considered to evaluate the feasibility of a
project.
 Technical feasibility.
 Operational feasibility.
 Economic feasibility.
 Schedule feasibility.
 Preliminary Investigation
The main task performed by the system analyst in this step
are:-
 Identifying and defining the problem and its back
ground.
 Determining the size of the development effort
involved.
 Recommendations of different possible solution.
 Cost and Benefits of each option.
Result of these tasks are listed in a report known as
“Project Feasibility Report” and will be sent to steering
committee/Top management for further consideration and
approval.
Requirements Analysis (System Analysis)….
If management decides to continue developing the system after reading the
Systems Analyst’s report (Project feasibility Report), the second phase of
development begins. In traditional approach, the full requirement analysis is
performed before system design begins. User typically sign a document at the
end of this phase, confirming the requirements identified by System Analyst. In
prototype approach, requirement analysis and system design phases proceed in
simultaneously. In requirement analysis phase following activities are
performed:-
 Users requirements are determined in detail.
 Existing system is studied in depth to analyze the data and its processing.
 Preparation of statement of requirements.
.…Requirements Analysis (System Analysis)
The systems analyst will explore a no. of routes and use a variety of methods
to establish a full picture of the existing system. Following techniques/methods
will be used to collect data about the existing system in this phase:-
 Documents.
 Questionnaires.
 Interviews.
 Observation.
In system analysis and system design phase Data Flow Diagrams (DFD) and
system flow charts are used to represent the movement of data in an
organization.
The last step of this phase is to report finding to management. This includes
a recommendation from the list of alternative solution, an assessment of costs
and benefits and a schedule covering future system activities. (Design,
Development Acquisition and implementation).
 System Design
System design consists, generally, of three activities: reviewing informational
and functional requirements, developing a model of the new system, and
reporting the results to management. Developing a model of the new system
comprises the bulk of system design.
When designing a new system, Systems Analysts determine, at both the
logical and physical levels, the components of the system in the areas of input,
output, processing, storage, procedures, and personnel. A logical description of
information describes how elements of the system relate to each other - without
mention, perhaps, of specific hardware deceives or software packages. A physical
description, in contrast, identifies specific devices or products.
The impact of systems software and computing hardware must also be
assessed in the design process. Some issues to consider are the types of
computations involved, whether or not telecommunication or real-time
processing is necessary, and throughput (which relates to how much work a
given computer system can do in a given amount of time).
After system design activities are completed, they are reviewed by users and
reported to management.
 System Acquisition
After the system design details are resolved, such resource needs as specific
types of hardware, software, and services are determined. Subsequently, choices
are made regarding which products to buy or lease from which vendors. These
activities are part of system acquisition.

System Development
In this stage following activities are performed:-
 Establish a Project Development Schedule
 Produce Specification for each Programme to be Developed
 Coding, Testing and Debugging of each Programme.
 Create the Documentation for the System
 System Implementation
After development and successful testing of the system, the next stage is to put
it into action, i.e. system implementation. Usually there are four distinct
alternatives approaches are used to implement a new system:
 Direct Implementation
 Parallel Implementation
 Pilot Implementation
 Phased Implementation

System Maintenance
Once the system has been introduced successfully, it does not mean the end
of the systems analyst’s work. The system has to be maintained, added to,
adapted and amended in the light of subsequent developments. These may be
due to
 Error Elimination
 New Developments in Technology
 Other External Circumstances
After implementation, the system is maintained, it is modified to adapt to
changing user and business needs so that the system can be useful to the
organization for as long as possible.
APPROACHES TO SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT
Approaches to systems development are often classified according to how
the five systems development activities are carried out or whether the
development efforts are top-down or bottom-up. The first of these classifications
divides systems development process into three basic approaches: the traditional
approach, prototyping approaches, and end-user development.

Traditional Approach
In the traditional approach, developmental activities are followed in strict
sequence, one after the other. This approach is criticized because it is often
difficult for users to formulate their needs in advance. This approach can be used
in following circumstances.
i. User have significant experience with the type of system to be
designed.
ii. Many important features can be readily identified before development
begins.
iii. Data requirements can be identified in advance.
iv. Management requires a comprehensive “picture” of the new system
before giving approval.
 Prototyping Approaches
With prototyping approaches, a small or pilot version of the system--called a
prototype-- is developed. Users work with the prototype, and feedback provided
to the systems analyst leads to further prototype refinements or enhancements.
This process of gradually improving the prototype through iterative user
feedback continues until a final, acceptable system is developed. Normally this
approach is used in following circumstances.
i. User do not have a feel for the information or system capabilities they
require.
ii. User needs are changing rapidly.
iii. Users have little experience with the type of system under development
iv. The risk associated with delivering the wrong system is high.
v. The way users will react to the new system is an important development
variable.
vi. Many alternative design strategies must be tested.
vii. The system must be developed quickly and at the lowest possible cost.
 End-user Development Approach
With end-user development, the end-user is responsible for developing the system. The
end-user may select a traditional type of approach, a prototyping approach, or an intuitive
approach. It is used in following circumstances.
i. The system under development is local rather than enterprise-wide.
ii. The system under development is inexpensive.
iii. A suitable environment of end-user development tools and professional expertise is available.
iv. Standards exist to minimize divergent efforts by the end-users and other dangers to the
organization.
v. High levels of security are not necessary for the system being developed.
vi. The system under development involves numerous customized queries and reports.
vii. The system under development can easily be built and supported by the end-user.
viii. The system under development does not involve high-volume transaction processing.
ix. The development time is short and cannot be accommodated by the MIS department
(possibly because of a huge application backlog).
x. The user must be heavily involved in the development process.
Top-down systems development views the organization's needs from a strategic
perspective, and a new system is developed to meet that perspective. Bottom-up systems
development looks at the existing organizational systems and tries to meet new systems
needs within the constraints posed by those existing systems. In most cases, a combination
of top-down and bottom-up approaches is used.
 Documentation
Documentation is the term used to describe all types of written instructions
associated with using, operating, developing or maintaining a computer system.
The primary objective of documentation must be to provide easy-to-flow,
unambiguous, user friendly instructions and explanations. Good documentation
is highly important to the success of any system. Good documentation however,
is very often under rated. It is also true that the skills required to produce a good
documentation is quite different from those required for systems analysis and
design and is rare.
Many analysts treat documentation rather casually and wait until the entire
system is almost finished to begin preparing it. The documentation process is
thus rushed to meet the deadline and a poor documentation is the result.
Luckily, modern 4th GLS have built in facility to produce part of the
documentation while systems development is taking place.
Documentation can broadly be classified as:
 User Manual
 Systems/Technical Manual
 User Manual
User documentation consists of either a written or disk tutorial and a reference manual. The
tutorial is designed to get the user started with using the system and help him to solve the many
problems that may crop up while he is trying to gain command over the use of the system. The reference
manual, intended for advanced users, is really the “bible” for the package. If the user cannot figure out
how a command works, he may consult the manual to solve the problem.

System Manual
Systems manuals are actually meant for the DP professionals, the systems analyst and programmers
who may be required to run the system and make amendments and additions to it later on. The Systems
manual comprises of the following:
 Systems Specification - which will include all of the materials that are necessary to show how a
particular system operates. This includes system requirements, diagrams, such as data flow
diagrams or systems flow charts, written narratives of job descriptions and so forth.
 Program listing - the manual will include listing of all the programs’ source codes.
 An English narrative describing what the program and programs modules are supposed to do
together with program flowcharts.
* Files - the names and descriptions of all the files used in the system together with their structures,
i.e. the names and descriptions of the variables used. A cross reference of all files called by
each program is also included.
 Forms Layout - a complete list of all the forms for inputs and outputs used by the system
together with their layouts.
 Implementation Techniques….
Direct Implementation –
Using this method of implementation, the old system is completely replaced by
the new system in one move. While this method is comparatively cheap it is risky
(system or program corrections are difficult while the system has to remain
operational). The new system should be introduced during slack periods. This
requires a great deal of effort and there might be considerable disruption.
Parallel Implementation –
This is a form of implementation whereby the old and new systems are run in
parallel for a period of time. There may be some errors in the new system ,this
method provides a degree of safety. However, if there are differences between
the two systems cross-checking may be difficult. Furthermore, there is a delay in
the actual implementation of the new system, a possible indication of lack of
confidence in the new system, and a need for more staff to cope with both
systems running in parallel. As far as the company is concerned, this is likely to
prove too expensive and unwieldy given the volume of data processed.
 …. Implementation Techniques
Pilot Implementation –
This is cheaper and easier to control than parallel running, and provides a greater degree of
safety than does a direct changeover. In this approach a complete logical part of the whole
system file is chosen and run as a unit on the new system. If that is shown to be working well
the remaining parts are then transferred. Gradually the whole system can be transferred in this
piecemeal fashion. Two systems have to be controlled and additional staff, as well as a longer
period for implementation, may be required. However, this would seem to be an appropriate
option for the company.
Phased Implementation –
This is particularly suitable for large projects. It is a process of changing over from the old
system to the new one in segments for example on a department by department basis. This
may be done either by a series of periods of parallel running, or by a series of direct
changeovers. In the former case, instead of running two complete systems (old and new) in
parallel in order to compare the results of living processing on the new system with those
generated by the old, only a portion of the data is run in parallel, e.g. for one department only.
In the latter case, the same considerations apply as for an organization-wide direct changeover.
Where this approach is adopted care must be taken to control any systems amendments
incorporated in the later phases in order to ensure that the overall system remains totally
compatible.
 What is SDLC….
In order to develop a new CBIS, consultants have to perform a no. of activities. Collection
of activities to be performed during system development is called SDLC. It include
following phases.
1. PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATION OF SYSTEM.
1. Initial study/system study.
2. Problem identification.
3. Feasibility study/report.
2. REQUIREMENT ANALYSIS
1. Detail system study.
2. System analyses.
3. Preparation of statement of requirements.
3. SYSTEM DESIGN.
1. Review of TORs (Term of references).
2. Specification of proposed system.
3. User interface designing. (Screen design / Reports layout etc.)
4. Reporting to management about 3rd phase.
 …. What is SDLC
4. SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT.
1. Acquisition of hardware and software.
2. Software Development.
3. Documentation.
5. SYSTEM IMPLEMENTATION.
1. System testing.
2. User training.
3. Implementation method.
4. Post implementation reviews.
6. SYSTEM MAINTENANCE.
Preliminary Investigation of system
First phases of SDLC start when a user found some problem/difficulties in the
operation of existing system or management decides to change the current
system to met the changing requirement. Normally consultant are hired to
observe/study the existing system them recommend a propose system which
fulfill all requirement. It consist of different sub activities.
 INITIAL STUDY….
In this sub activities consultant have to observe the working of system to
find out its working and objective (short term as well as long term). During initial
study consultant have to locate/indicate factor which are creating problems in
the working/operation of current system. These sub activities called
identification of problem in the existing system.
It is the responsibility of consultant to recommend more than one
procedure/alternative to solve/remove identified problem. Composition of each
option is made on bases of benefits, limitation and cost estimate. Propose
solution are evaluated to check their suitability/feasibility with respect to
following factors.
1. Technical feasibility.
2. Operational feasibility.
3. Economic feasibility.
4. Organization feasibility.
 …. INITIAL STUDY
At the end of 1st phase reports is prepared by consultant for the
consideration/approval of top management about the development of new
system.
This report contains following information: -
1. Introduction of end user organization.
2. Introduction of consultant.
3. Brief description of the system/project being studied.
4. Problem area of existing system.
5. Different alternative to solved remove the problem.
6. Comparison of each option.
7. Recommendation of consultant.
 REQUIRMENT ANALYSES….
2ND phase of SDLC starts when top management/project steering committee
decide to continue the development of new system after evaluating the
feasibility report prepare in first phase. Normally system analysts are deputed by
consultant to determine the detail requirement of end user organization.
Following sub activities have to be perform by system analyst during this
phase.
1.In this sub activities the end user organization is studied in depth
understand the data and processing requirement of organization. For this
purpose system analyst have to use different data collections techniques some of
them are: -
i. By observing facts.
ii. By conducting interviews.
iii. By floating questioner.
iv. By reading office manual.
 ….REQUIRMENT ANALYSES
2. After collecting necessary information about data and data processing
requirement of existing system, it is the responsibility of system analyst to
create a relation among these requirements. It helps the system analyst to
determine the requirement of organization with respect to propose system.
Different type of data analysis tools are used by system analyst during this phase.
 Data flow diagram DFD.
 System flow charts.
 Organogram (Organizational chart).
 Decision Table.
 Decision tree.
3. At the end of 2nd phase system analyst have to prepare a report/statement
describing all requirement of end user organization. This report act as
agreement between consultant and organization. Both parties have to follow
these TORS. It means that consultant have to develop a system which fulfill all
requirements describe in TOR’s according to specified time schedule. End user
organization have to pay extra amount if the add some requirement latest
stages.
 System Design….
In the 3rd phase of SDLC system analyst/system designer have to prepare the
specification (logical model) of proposed system. These specification are based
on the requirement identified in 2nd phase.
1.It is better to review all identified requirement before preparing the
specification of proposed system. It is easier to add additional requirement at
this stage.
2.What type of data processing are made in the propose system and what
type of devices are required in propose system. These type of question are
assume by SA/SD during this activities. What type of procedure are used in
proposed system to fulfill the requirement or achieve defined targets. Almost all
paper work about the propose system is finalizes in the face.
 …. System Design
3. In this sub activities different issue regarding user interface are design by
SA/SD for example: -
 Screen design/form designing.
 Lay out of report.
 Style of message / dialogue boxes.
 File designing (Structure of tables, field size, field type and relation among
table).
A set of system design tools used in this phase which are E.
 ERD entity relationship diagram.
 HIPO charts (hierarchical input processing output ).
 Structured English.
 Pseudo code
 Algorithms.
 Program flow chart.
4. At the end of 3rd phase a consolidated report prepare for Management to
inform the current status of system development and to direct the system
developer about system designing phases.
Why we replace a new system with existing
system?
There are three reasons:
 According to changing environment there may be a chance that the
existing system doesn’t fulfill all requirements of a n organization.
 Introduction of modern / latest technologies.
 There may be chance that existing system produce incorrect & delayed
results.
 Programs of existing systems are difficult to modify /maintain due to un-
structured programming & poor documentation.
 System Development Techniques….
1. WATER FALL MODEL:-
It is also known as traditional approach of system development process. It this
model all activities / phases of SDLC are performed in sequential order (top to
bottom ). This approach of system development requires more development
time as compared to other approaches. It is the most effective system developed
according to fulfillment of requirements due to the season that all phase are
perfumed in a very detailed manner.
2. RAD RAPID APPLICATION DEVELOPMENT:-
This technique of system development is introduced to seduce the system
development time. In this model more than one activities / phases are
performed in parallel. This technique of system development use different
methods of developing new system.
Prototyping
Incremental model.
3. PROTOTYPING:-
It is a type of RAD. It the first instance project manager /system analyst develop
a very sough model of a new system and handed over to the uses\r for its input.
This sough model is changed / modified repeatedly acceding to user
requirements/ input.
…. System Development Techniques
4. JOINT APPLICATION DEVELOPMENT (JAD):-
A technique developed by the professional of IBM. In this technique a team /
work group of consultants, IT Professionals and end-users is selected and
assigned the development of new system. This work group is mere effective to
determine the requirement of new system and to develop an acceptable system.
5. INCREMENTAL SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT MODEL:-
In this model first phase of SDLC is again performed after the completion of last
phase. Using this approach a new system become more acceptable for an
organization for a longer period.
6. SPIRAL MODEL:-
It is also an incremental model in which activities of SDLC are performed
repeatedly to get an acceptable system.
7. OBJECT ORIENTED SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT:-
It is also known as component based system development. This technique uses
the object oriented techniques for system development. First of all main abject
of new systems are defined /created and them these object are combined
effectively to develop a system which fulfills all requirement of an organization.