UNIT I: Product Development

Process & Methodologies

MN3051 – Concepts in Product
Development
Department of Production Technology
• What is Integrated Product Development
Process?
• The Integrated Product Development Process
(IPDP) is a structured approach that brings
together all the necessary functions and
departments—like design, engineering,
marketing, manufacturing, and quality—to work
in parallel throughout a product's development.
• The goal is simple:
👉 Design better products, faster, and at lower
cost.
• Why “Integrated”?
• Because everyone collaborates from the start
—not just designers or engineers.
For example:
• While the design team sketches the product,
• The manufacturing team suggests how to make
it easier to build,
• The marketing team gives input on customer
needs.
• This avoids miscommunication, delays, and
redesigns later.
• Key Stages of IPDP:
• Conceive the Idea
– Identify market need or customer problem.
• Specification
– Define what the product must do (features, functions, standards).
• Concept Design
– Brainstorm and model multiple product ideas.
• Detailed Design
– Develop 3D models, select materials, and finalize components.
• Validation and Simulation
– Use software tools to test virtually before building.
• Tool Design & Manufacturing Planning
– Design jigs, dies, or molds and plan how to produce the product.
• Manufacture and Assemble
– Build components and assemble the product.
• Test and Quality Check
– Ensure the product works properly and meets quality standards.
• Service and Support
– Plan for delivery, maintenance, and end-of-life handling.
• Benefits of IPDP
• Faster time to market
• Lower cost and fewer changes later
• Better product quality
• Higher customer satisfaction
• Strong collaboration and communication
• Simple Example: Launching a New Smartwatch
• In a traditional approach, design might be done first,
followed later by engineering and manufacturing.
• In IPDP:
• Designers, engineers, marketers, and suppliers work
together from the beginning.
• Designers know what materials are available.
• Engineers understand customer preferences.
• Manufacturers give input to make the watch easy to
produce.
• Result? A better smartwatch, delivered faster, and with
fewer surprises.
Integrated Product Development Process

• Conceive → Specification → Concept design

→ Detailed design
• Validation and analysis (simulation)
• Tool design → Plan manufacturing
• Manufacture, Build/Assemble, Test (quality
check)
• Service: Sell, Deliver, Use, Maintain, Support,
Dispose
• 1. Conceive
• This is the initial stage of product development
where the idea for a new product is born.
• Activities Involved:
– Identifying a market need or opportunity.
– Brainstorming product ideas.
– Defining the product concept at a high level.
– Conducting feasibility studies and preliminary research.
• Output:
– Concept note or idea brief.
– Initial product vision.
• 2. Specification
• This stage translates the concept into detailed
requirements.
• Activities Involved:
– Defining customer requirements and expectations.
– Creating technical specifications (materials, size,
weight, performance, etc.).
– Setting constraints (cost, time, compliance).
• Output:
– Product Requirement Document (PRD)
– Design specifications
• 3. Concept Design
• This phase involves creating preliminary design
solutions based on the requirements.
• Activities Involved:
– Sketching different design alternatives.
– Creating initial CAD models or mock-ups.
– Evaluating options using tools like SWOT or Pugh
matrix.
Output:
– Chosen design concept
– Justification for selected design approach
• 4. Detailed Design
• This is the finalization of the design, where every
part and assembly is defined in detail.
• Activities Involved:
– Preparing full-scale 3D models and engineering
drawings.
– Tolerancing, material selection, and part specifications.
– Planning for prototyping, manufacturing, and assembly.
• Output:
– Complete design documentation
– Bill of Materials (BOM)
– Ready-to-manufacture design
• Validation and Analysis (Simulation)
• This stage verifies if the designed product meets the
intended function and requirements.
• Activities:
– Computer-Aided Engineering (CAE) tools used for
simulations.
– Structural, thermal, fluid flow, and vibration analysis.
– Stress testing and fatigue life predictions.
– Validating against safety, durability, and efficiency targets.
Purpose:
To identify design flaws before building physical
prototypes, reducing cost and time.
• Tool Design → Plan Manufacturing
• This involves developing tools and preparing the
manufacturing process.
• Tool Design:
– Creating jigs, fixtures, dies, molds, and cutting tools.
– Ensuring compatibility with product geometry and material.
• Planning for Manufacturing:
– Selecting the manufacturing process (machining, casting, 3D
printing, etc.).
– Planning for resources, facilities, and manpower.
– Defining workflow, material handling, and safety measures.

Goal:
Optimize manufacturing efficiency, accuracy, and cost-
effectiveness.
• Manufacture, Build/Assemble, Test (Quality Check)
• Manufacture:
– Raw material processing and individual component production.
– Following specified processes, tolerances, and quality standards.
• Build/Assemble:
– Assembling components into a final product.
– Managing sequence, tools, and fixtures.
• Test (Quality Check):
– Verifying product performance and compliance.
– Involves visual inspection, functional testing, and statistical
quality control.
• Goal:
To ensure that the final product is safe, functional, and
meets specifications.
• Service: Sell, Deliver, Use, Maintain, Support, Dispose
• Sell:
– Marketing and distributing the product.
– Building awareness and facilitating sales through appropriate channels.
• Deliver:
– Logistics and transportation to the customer or retailers.
– Ensuring safe and timely delivery.
• Use:
– The customer uses the product as intended.
– Feedback gathered for future improvements.
• Maintain:
– Providing manuals, training, spare parts, and service support.
– Scheduled or on-demand maintenance.
• Support:
– Customer service, warranty, and technical support.
– Helps in retaining customer trust and satisfaction.
• Dispose:
– End-of-life phase.
– Recycling, reusing parts, or eco-friendly disposal.

Goal:
Deliver value across the full product lifecycle and ensure sustainability.
 Design Strategies and Workflow
• Bottom-up design
• Top-down design
• Front loading design workflow
• Design in context
• Modular design
• Bottom-Up Design
• Definition:
Design starts from individual components which are later
assembled into a complete system.
• Process:
• Begin by designing small, functional parts.
• Combine them to form subsystems or assemblies.
• Finally, assemble all into the final product.
• Example:
Designing a gearbox:
• First, design gears, shafts, bearings individually.
• Then assemble them to form a working gearbox.
• Finally, integrate it into a vehicle or machinery.
• When to Use:
• When standard components are reused across multiple products.
• When there’s high confidence in part performance.
• Top-Down Design
• Definition:
Design begins with the overall system architecture, then decomposes
into smaller components.
• Process:
• Start with system-level requirements and layout.
• Break down into subsystems, assemblies, and finally, components.
• Example:
Designing a smartphone:
• First, define the phone’s size, screen, performance targets.
• Then decide internal layout for battery, PCB, camera.
• Finally, design the casing, buttons, ports, etc.
• When to Use:
• For complex systems where functions and relationships must be
clearly defined early.
• To ensure all subsystems align with the overall goal.
• Design in Context
• Definition:
Designing a component while considering its relationship with
surrounding parts or environment.
• Process:
• The part is not designed in isolation.
• Real-time references to mating parts are used.
• Example:
In aircraft interior design, a seat is designed with:
• Cabin size,
• Nearby seats,
• Passenger access and safety in mind.
• Why it Matters:
• Ensures proper fit, function, and performance.
• Avoids interference or mismatches during assembly.
• Modular Design
• Definition:
A product is built from interchangeable, self-contained modules.
• Process:
• Each module performs a distinct function.
• Modules can be independently developed, replaced, or upgraded.
• Example:
Desktop computers:
• CPU, RAM, hard disk, GPU—all are modules.
• Can be upgraded or replaced without affecting the whole system.
• Advantages:
• Easier maintenance and customization.
• Faster product updates and variants.
• Work Structuring
• Definition:
Work structuring is the process of organizing, sequencing, and defining the tasks
in a project so that they align with project goals, available resources, and desired
workflow.
It ensures that work is broken down into manageable, logical segments, and that
the dependencies between tasks are clear.
• Key Aspects:
• Identify tasks: What needs to be done? (scope definition)
• Sequence tasks: In what order should they be done? (dependencies)
• Define flow: How will work move smoothly from one task to the next without
bottlenecks?
• Optimize handoffs: Reduce delays and rework during transitions between teams.
• Balance workloads: Ensure no team is overloaded or idle.
• Example:
In constructing a hospital wing:
• Early stage: Design must be completed before structural work begins.
• Work structuring ensures that architectural design, foundation work, frame
construction, and MEP installation are all logically sequenced, with minimal
waiting time between stages.
• Team Deployment
• Definition:
Team deployment is the strategic allocation and arrangement of human
resources across the project to ensure the right people are doing the right jobs
at the right time.
It answers the question: Who will do what, when, and where?
• Key Aspects:
• Role allocation: Assign people according to their expertise.
• Skill matching: Ensure team members have the competencies needed for
assigned tasks.
• Workload balancing: Avoid overloading individuals or leaving skills unused.
• Cross-functional teams: Combine different specializations to speed up
problem-solving.
• Dynamic adjustment: Reallocate resources if priorities shift.
• Example:
In a product design project:
• Team deployment ensures mechanical engineers focus on CAD modeling,
electronics engineers handle circuitry, and marketing specialists work on
customer feedback — all at the correct stage of development.
 How They Work Together
Example

• Work structuring focuses on the tasks and

sequence.
• Team deployment focuses on the people and
responsibilities.
• Think of it like a train schedule:
• Work structuring is the train timetable (when and
where each train runs).
• Team deployment is the assignment of drivers
and staff to each train so everything runs on time.
Product & Process Systemization
• Slide (what to put on the slide — concise bullets)
• Problem identification
– Customer feedback (support tickets, RMAs, NPS)
– Market research (benchmarks, competitor
returns/trends)
• Problem-solving methodologies
– Root Cause Analysis (RCA) | 5 Whys | Fishbone Diagram
• Systemization (standardize for consistency)
– SOPs, incoming inspection, control plans, training, poka-
yoke
– Measurement: KPIs & SPC dashboards
• Problem identification
• Collect and quantify feedback: support tickets, return reasons, field failure logs,
NPS comments. Use market research to see if it’s an isolated issue or an industry
trend. Example metric: “Motor-cutout return material authorization (RMAs) rose
from 1.2% → 3.8% over three months.”
• Categorize by severity, frequency, and customer impact so you prioritize correctly.
• Problem-solving methodologies
• RCA: define a clear problem statement, gather data (photos, test logs, batch IDs),
reproduce failure if possible.
• 5 Whys: iterate “why?” until you reach a root cause that points to a clear
corrective action.
• Fishbone (Ishikawa): map possible causes across categories (Man, Machine,
Method, Material, Measurement, Environment) — this prevents tunnel vision and
surfaces hidden contributors.
• Systemization
Once root cause and corrective action are decided, standardize the fix so the
problem doesn’t recur: write/update SOPs, add incoming inspection checks,
introduce control charts (SPC), train operators, lock in supplier specs via BOM &
purchase orders, and implement poka-yoke where possible. Monitor KPIs to
confirm the fix.
• Worked example (use your SMART BICYCLE project)
• Problem: Customers report motor cutting out mid-ride (RMAs ↑).
Data: Failures cluster in units from Supplier Batch X; connector shows burn/loose crimps.

• 5 Whys (short):
• Why did the motor cut out? → Because the power connector opened.
• Why did the connector open? → Crimp failed (loss of contact).
• Why did the crimp fail? → Crimp depth/force was inadequate.
• Why was force inadequate? → Crimp machine setting was changed after supplier change.
• Why was the change missed? → No incoming inspection / no change control for supplier part.
• Root cause: Missing change-control + inadequate incoming inspection after supplier change.

Corrective & systemization actions

• Containment: 100% outgoing/incoming inspection for affected batches; recall if required.
• Engineering: update connector spec in BOM and drawings.
• Process: new SOP for crimping with torque values + visual acceptance.
• Equipment: calibrate crimp machines weekly; add crimp-gauge check & poka-yoke jig that only accepts correct connector.
• Supplier: require certificate of conformity & sample crimp pull test.
• Training: operator certification & sign-off before assembly.
• Monitoring: add SPC chart for crimp pull strength and RMA% dashboard.

Expected KPIs
• RMA% — target drop from 3.8% → <0.5% within 3 months
• First Pass Yield (FPY) — target >98%
• Time-to-resolution for RMA — <48 hours
• Incoming inspection fail rate — trending to 0.5% or lower

Timeline (example)
• Week 0: Cross-functional RCA & containment
• Week 1–2: SOP updates, crimp spec changes, supplier CAPA
• Week 3: Operator training, machine calibration, install poka-yoke
• Week 4–8: Monitor KPIs and adjust
• Mortality Curve (Bathtub Curve)
• The bathtub curve describes how failure rates change during a product’s life.
It looks like the cross-section of a bathtub — high at both ends and low in the
middle.
• Phases:
• Early Failures (Infant Mortality)
– Occurs soon after the product is put into use.
– Caused by manufacturing defects, assembly errors, or design flaws.
– Can be reduced through burn-in testing (running the product for a short period before
shipping).
• Constant Failure Rate (Useful Life)
– Middle flat portion of the curve.
– Failures occur randomly at a steady rate, often due to unexpected external factors
(power surges, accidental damage).
– This is the most reliable phase of the product.
• Wear-out Failures
– Failure rate increases at the end of life.
– Caused by material fatigue, corrosion, wear, or aging of components.
– Prevented or delayed through maintenance, replacement of worn parts, or better
material selection.
 Concurrent Engineering
• - Definition and purpose
• - Work structuring
• - Team deployment
• - Benefits: efficiency, collaboration, reduced
time to market
• Concurrent Engineering is a systematic
approach to integrated product
development that emphasizes the
parallelization of tasks (i.e., performing tasks
simultaneously), as opposed to the traditional
sequential design method. It involves multi-
disciplinary teams working together from the
start of the design phase to consider all
elements of the product life cycle.
• Key Features of Concurrent Engineering
• Parallel Development Process
– Tasks like design, analysis, manufacturing planning, and marketing
are done simultaneously, not sequentially.
– Reduces total development time.
• Cross-Functional Teams
– Involves engineers, designers, marketing, quality, manufacturing,
and even suppliers and customers.
– Enhances collaboration and early feedback.
• Integrated Product and Process Development (IPPD)
– Product and its manufacturing process are developed together to
ensure compatibility.
• Early Consideration of All Aspects
– Cost, quality, manufacturability, maintenance, disposal, and
customer needs are all considered from the start.
• 1. Iterative Feedback Loop
• Continuous feedback from all stakeholders (designers, engineers, customers, suppliers) during the development process.
• Enhances adaptability and responsiveness to changes or issues.
• 2. Design for X (DfX) Integration
• Concurrent engineering encourages early application of multiple DfX principles, such as:
• Design for Manufacturability (DfM)
• Design for Assembly (DfA)
• Design for Reliability
• Design for Cost
• This leads to optimized designs that meet production, cost, and quality goals from the start.

• 3. Better Documentation and Knowledge Sharing

• Promotes centralized and real-time documentation.
• Improves communication and decision-making between departments using shared digital platforms or PLM systems (Product Lifecycle Management).

• 4. Supplier and Vendor Involvement

• Involving suppliers early helps in choosing available materials, cost-effective components, and realistic production timelines.
• Reduces supply chain disruptions and mismatched expectations.

• 5. Use of Advanced Tools and Technologies

• CAD/CAE tools for collaborative design
• Simulation and prototyping software for real-time testing
• PLM systems for version control, data sharing, and lifecycle integration
• Digital twins for simultaneous design and testing in virtual environments

• 6. Cost Reduction Through Early Error Detection

• Since CE allows multiple departments to identify issues early (before prototyping or production), costly redesigns or recalls are minimized.
• 7. Stronger Integration with Lean and Agile Practices
• Encourages a lean approach by minimizing waste, rework, and delays.
• Aligns with agile principles for rapid iteration, flexibility, and continuous improvement.
• 8. Reduced Engineering Change Orders (ECOs)
• CE reduces the number and scope of Engineering Change Orders during production, which are typically expensive and time-consuming.
• 9. Organizational Culture Shift
• Encourages collaboration over silos, where departments traditionally operate in isolation.
• Requires a culture that promotes open communication, shared responsibility, and trust among teams.
• 10. Real-Life Success Examples
• Boeing 777: One of the first aircraft fully designed using concurrent engineering and CAD tools — reduced design cycle and improved quality.
• Toyota: Uses CE to synchronize design and manufacturing, resulting in fast development of reliable vehicles.
• Boeing 777 – A Milestone in Concurrent Engineering
• Boeing adopted Concurrent Engineering and advanced CAD tools to design
the 777.
• Teams from design, manufacturing, maintenance, and suppliers worked
together from day one.
• Result:
– 50% reduction in rework.
– First Boeing aircraft to be entirely digitally designed.
– Improved product quality and faster development.
• 🚗Toyota – CE in Action on the Assembly Line
• Toyota integrates design and manufacturing teams early in product
development.
• Uses CE to ensure:
– Parts are easy to manufacture and assemble.
– Production issues are resolved during the design phase.
• Result:
– Shorter time-to-market.
– High product reliability.
– Cost-effective mass production with fewer defects.
 Product and Process Systematization
• - Problem identification
• - Solving methodologies
• - Product reliability
• - Mortality curve
Design for Manufacturing and Six Sigma
• Design for Manufacturing (DFM)
• Design for Assembly (DFA)
• Design for Six Sigma (DFSS)
• Enhancing product quality and efficiency
• Six Sigma - Definition:
Six Sigma is a data-driven, quality management methodology aimed at
reducing defects, improving processes, and enhancing customer
satisfaction.
The term "Six Sigma" refers to achieving a process performance level
where the number of defects is limited to 3.4 per million opportunities.

Levels of Six Sigma

• 1 Sigma: Very poor performance (690,000 defects per million
opportunities).
• 6 Sigma: World-class performance (3.4 defects per million opportunities).

Key Objectives:
• Reduce variation in processes.
• Eliminate defects or errors.
• Improve efficiency and customer satisfaction.
• Six Sigma Methodology
• Six Sigma projects typically follow the DMAIC cycle:
• D – Define: Identify the problem, goals, and customer
requirements.
• M – Measure: Collect data to determine current
performance.
• A – Analyze: Identify root causes of defects or
inefficiencies.
• I – Improve: Implement solutions to address root
causes.
• C – Control: Maintain the improvements through
monitoring.
• Example
• Case: Improving Mobile Phone Assembly Quality
• Problem: A mobile phone company finds that 2% of their
phones have touchscreen issues after assembly.
• Define: Goal is to reduce touchscreen defects to less than
0.01%.
• Measure: Collect defect data from 3 production lines over 2
months.
• Analyze: Root cause identified as improper calibration of the
touchscreen testing machine.
• Improve: Introduced automatic calibration and operator
training.
• Control: Weekly calibration checks and process audits.
• Result: Defects reduced from 2% to 0.008% (≈ Six Sigma level).
• Design for Manufacturing (DFM)

• Design for Manufacturing is the practice of

designing products in such a way that they
are easy, cost-effective, and efficient to
manufacture while still meeting functional
and quality requirements.
The goal is to minimize manufacturing
complexity, reduce production cost, and
improve product quality from the very
beginning of the design stage.
• Key Principles of DFM
• Minimize the number of parts – Fewer parts mean reduced
assembly time and cost.
• Use standard components – Avoid unnecessary custom
parts.
• Design for ease of fabrication – Match design features to
manufacturing capabilities.
• Select cost-effective materials – Without compromising
quality.
• Design for efficient assembly – Parts should fit together
easily with minimal adjustments.
• Consider manufacturing tolerances – Avoid over-specifying
tolerances that increase cost.
• Example
• Case: Plastic Bottle Design for Beverage Company
• Initial Problem: The company’s old bottle design had a complex neck shape
requiring a special mold and slow production speed.
• DFM Action:
– Simplified the neck design so it could be produced using a standard mold.
– Reduced the bottle wall thickness without affecting strength.
– Chose PET material that is easy to mold and widely available.
• Result:
– Reduced mold cost by 30%.
– Increased production speed by 20%.
– Lowered material usage, saving thousands per year.

Benefits of DFM
• Reduced manufacturing cost.
• Faster time-to-market.
• Higher product quality.
• Improved reliability.
Design for Assembly (DFA)
• Definition
• Design for Assembly is the process of designing a product so that it can be assembled quickly,
easily, and at the lowest possible cost, without compromising functionality or quality.
• While Design for Manufacturing (DFM) focuses on making parts easy to manufacture, DFA focuses
on making the assembly of those parts efficient.

Key Principles of DFA

• Reduce the number of parts – Every additional part increases cost, assembly time, and error risk.
• Use self-locating parts – Parts should guide themselves into place without complex alignment.
• Design for one-way assembly – Minimize the need to flip or rotate parts during assembly.
• Use standard fasteners – Reduce variety of screws, bolts, or clips.
• Minimize reorientation – Arrange assembly steps to reduce handling.
• Make parts easy to grasp, move, and insert – Avoid awkward shapes or very small components.

Benefits of DFA
• Lower assembly time and cost.
• Fewer assembly errors.
• Improved product reliability.
• Easier automation of assembly.
• Example
• Case: Electric Kettle Assembly
• Initial Problem:
– Old design required 12 screws to fix the handle and base.
– Some screws were small and hard to align, increasing assembly
time.
• DFA Action:
– Redesigned handle with snap-fit joints instead of screws.
– Reduced total parts from 18 to 12.
– Standardized screws for the base (only one type needed).
• Result:
– Assembly time reduced by 35%.
– Labor cost savings and fewer assembly errors.
– Improved product consistency.
• Design for Six Sigma (DFSS)

• Design for Six Sigma (DFSS) is a systematic methodology used to design

new products or processes (or redesign existing ones) so they meet
customer requirements and achieve Six Sigma level performance from
the start — i.e., extremely low defect rates and minimal variation.
While DMAIC improves existing processes, DFSS is used when you need
to create something new or re-engineer a product/process that cannot
reach goals by incremental improvements.

Common DFSS Frameworks

• DMADV — Define, Measure, Analyze, Design, Verify (most common)
• IDOV — Identify, Design, Optimize, Validate (used in engineering
contexts)
• DFSS Tools — QFD, VOC, FMEA, DOE, Monte Carlo simulation, tolerance
design, robust design, design optimization, prototyping.
• DFSS — Phase-by-Phase (DMADV)
• Define
– Goal: Capture customer needs (VOC) and define project scope and CTQs (Critical to Quality).
– Deliverables: Project charter, CTQ tree, SIPOC.
– Tools: VOC interviews/surveys, Kano analysis, QFD (House of Quality).
• Measure
– Goal: Translate CTQs into measurable specifications; collect baseline or benchmark data.
– Deliverables: CTQ metrics with target values, measurement plan.
– Tools: Measurement system analysis (MSA), benchmarking.
• Analyze
– Goal: Generate and evaluate design concepts; perform risk analysis and feasibility checks.
– Deliverables: Shortlist of candidate designs, FMEA (failure modes & effects analysis).
– Tools: Brainstorming, QFD updates, FMEA, Pareto charts.
• Design
– Goal: Develop detailed designs that meet CTQs; optimize tolerances and robustness.
– Deliverables: Detailed drawings/specs, prototypes, design verification plan.
– Tools: DOE (design of experiments), tolerance stack-up, CAD, simulation, robust design (Taguchi
methods).
• Verify
– Goal: Validate that the product/process meets targets under real conditions; pilot and transfer
to production.
– Deliverables: Pilot study results, control plan, production readiness.
– Tools: Pilot runs, capability studies ( control charts,
• Example — DFSS for an Electric Scooter Battery System
• Context: A company wants a new scooter model with >100 km range, fast charging (≤1 hour),
and high reliability (low battery failures).
1. Define
• VOC: Riders want longer range, quick charge, light weight, safe battery.
• CTQs: Range ≥100 km, charge time ≤60 min, battery failure rate <0.01%/yr, weight ≤12 kg.
• Output: Project charter, QFD mapping VOC → CTQs.
2. Measure
• Translate CTQs into specs: energy density (Wh/kg), charge current limits, thermal rise
thresholds.
• Benchmark competitor batteries and supplier capabilities.
3. Analyze
• Evaluate cell chemistries (Li-ion NMC vs. LFP) vs. safety, energy density, cost.
• Conduct FMEA: identify mode — thermal runaway risk, connector failure, BMS faults.
4. Design
• Select NMC cells for energy density; design pack with modular cells and active cooling.
• Use DOE to optimize cell spacing and cooling fan speed vs. temperature rise and weight.
• Tolerance stack-up for welding/connector fits; design robust BMS algorithms (SOC estimation).
5. Verify
• Build pilot battery packs; run cycle and abuse tests (charge/discharge cycles, thermal tests).
• Measure performance: achieves 105 km range, charge to 80% in 45 min, Cpk for pack assembly
>1.33.
• Finalize control plan, supplier specs, and production transfer.
• Result: New scooter battery meets CTQs with validated reliability and ready for production.
• VOC & QFD (House of Quality) — turn voice of customer
into engineering specs.
• FMEA — anticipate and mitigate failures early.
• DOE — find optimal design settings with minimal
experiments.
• Tolerance Analysis & Robust Design — ensure
performance despite variability.
• Simulation & Prototyping — test designs before large
production runs.
• Capability Analysis — confirm process can meet design
specs (Cp, Cpk).