Advanced Select

Queries
Advanced Select Queries(Ordering a
Listing)
- The ORDER BY clause in SQL is used to sort the rows
in the result set based on one or more columns or
expressions.
- Without it, the order of rows returned by a query is
undefined and may vary each time
Syntax:
SELECT column1, column2, ...
FROM table_name
ORDER BY columnA [ASC|DESC], columnB [ASC|
DESC], ...;
ASC (ascending) order is default, DESC (descending)
 Advanced Select Queries(Ordering a
Listing)
SELECT * FROM employees Departm
Emp_id Name Salary
ent
ORDER BY salary ASC;
50,00
Emp_i 1 Alka HR
Name Department Salary 0
d Balra 60,00
1 Eva HR 45,000 2 IT
m 0
2 Aika HR 50,000 Charlo 55,00
Charlo 3 Finance
3 Finance 55,000 Emp_i s Departme 0
s Name Salary
d nt 70,00
Balra 4 Dev IT
4 IT 60,000 1 Charlos Finance 0
55,000
m 2 Alka HR 45,00
50,000
5 Eva HR
5 SELECT
Dev *FROM
IT 70,000
Employees 3 Eva HR 0
45,000
ORDER BY Department 4 Dev IT 70,000
ASC, 5 Balram IT 65,000
 Advanced Select Queries(Listing
Unique Values)
- listing unique values in DBMS use the DISTINCT
keyword
- SQL’s DISTINCT clause produces a list of only those values
that are different from one another.
Syntax: SELECT DISTINCT <column_name> FROM
<table_name>;
FNAME
Employee: DNO
Jeny 5
Example: SELECT DISTINCT DNO FROM
May 1 Employee
Alice 5
Ben 3
Sam 1 Result : 1,3,5
Aggregate functions
In DBMS (SQL), aggregate functions are used to perform
calculations on a set of rows and return a single value.
 FNAM LNAM SALAR
EMPID DNO
Aggregate functions E E
101 John Smith 5
Y
40000
1) COUNT(): Johnso
102 Mary 5 50000
SELECT COUNT(*) FROM n
Employee; 103 Alice Brown 1 55000
Result : 6 104 Bob Davis 1 70000
105 Carol Miller 3 55000
4) SUM():
106 David Wilson3 30000
2) MIN(): SELECT SUM(SALARY) AS
SELECT MIN(SALARY) AS total_salary FROM Employee;
lowest_salary FROM Employee; Result: 3,00,000
Result: 30000
5)AVG():
3) MAX():
SELECT AVG(SALARY) AS
SELECT MAX(SALARY) AS
avg_salary FROM Employee;
highest_salary FROM Employee;
Result : 50000
 Grouping Data (GROUP BY and HAVING
Clause)
GROUP BY:
- Used to group rows based on one or more columns.
- Works together with aggregate functions like SUM(),
AVG(), COUNT(), MAX(), MIN().
SELECT DeptNo, AVG(Salary) AS
DeptN
EmpID Name
o
Salary avg_salary
1 John 10 40000 FROM Employee
2 Mary 10 50000 GROUP BY DeptNo; avg_salary
DeptNo
3 Alice 20 45000 Result: 10 45000
4 Bob 20 60000
20 52500
5 Carol 30 55000
30 40000
6 David 30 30000
40 70000
7 Eve 30 35000
 Grouping Data (GROUP BY and HAVING
Clause)
Having:
- Similar to WHERE but applies after grouping.
- Used to filter groups (not individual rows).
EmpI DeptN SELECT DeptNo, AVG(Salary) AS
Name Salary
D o avg_salary
4000 FROM Employee
1 John 10
0 GROUP BY DeptNo
5000 HAVING AVG(Salary) > 45000;
2 Mary 10
0 Result:
4500 DeptNo avg_salary
3 Alice 20 20 52500
0
40 70000
6000
4 Bob 20
Advanced SQL(Relational Set Operators)
- Relational set operators are used to combine the
results of two or more queries.
- “UNION, INTERSECT, and EXCEPT (MINUS) work
only when the tables are union-compatible means
both queries must return the same number of
columns, and the columns in the same position
must have the similar data types.”
UNION :
- Combines results of two queries.
- Removes duplicates by default.
Syntax : query UNION query
 Advanced SQL(Relational Set Operators) -
Union
Students1 SELECT Name FROM Students1
ID Name
UNION
1 Riya
2 Arjun SELECT NAME FROM Students2;
3 Meera Result : Riya, Arjun, Meera, Neha

Students2 SELECT Name FROM Students1

ID Name UNION ALL
1 Arjun SELECT NAME FROM Students2;;
2 Neha Result: Riya, Arjun, Meera, Arjun,Neha
 Advanced SQL(Relational Set Operators) -
INTERSECT
- Returns only the common rows between two queries.
- It is not supported in MySQL directly, but can be simulated
with INNER JOIN or IN
- INNER JOIN gives the same result as INTERSECT
EmpID EmpName DeptID SELECT E.EmpID, E.EmpName, D.DeptName
1 Riya 101
2 Arjun 102 FROM Employees E
3 Meera 103 INNER JOIN Departments D
4 Neha 104
ON E.DeptID = D.DeptID;
Result :
DeptID DeptName EmpID EmpName DeptName
101 HR 1 Riya HR
102 IT 2 Arjun IT
103 Finance 3 Meera Finance
Advanced SQL(Relational Set Operators) -
MINUS/EXCEPT
- Returns rows from the first query that are not in the
second.
Example:
SELECT EmpName FROM Employee WHERE DeptID = 101
EXCEPT
SELECT EmpNameFROM Employee WHERE DeptID = 102;
SQL JOIN Operators
The relational join operation merges rows from two tables
and returns the rows with one of the following conditions:
• Have common values in common columns (natural join).
• Meet a given join condition (equality or inequality).
• Have common values in common columns or have no
matching values (outer join).
1) CROSS JOIN:
- CROSS JOIN produces a Cartesian product of two tables.
- Every row of the first table is paired with every row of the
second table.
- Number of rows in result = (Rows in Table A) × (Rows in Table
B
 SQL JOIN Operators - CROSS
JOIN(Cartesian Product)
Departments
Employees
dept_id dept_name
emp_na 10 HR
emp_id dept_id
me 20 IT
1 Alice 10 30 Marketing
2 Bob 20
Example: emp_i
emp_name dept_name
SELECT e.emp_id, d
e.emp_name, 1 Alice HR
d.dept_name 1 Alice IT
1 Alice Marketing
FROM Employees e 2 Bob HR
CROSS JOIN 2 Bob IT
Departments d; 2 departments,
Bob Marketing
- Every employee is matched with all regardless of actual
 SQL JOIN Operators - INNER JOIN
- INNER JOIN = Matching rows only
- Use when you want only the records that exist in
both tables
- If there’s no match, the row is not included in the result
Employees
emp_na Departments
emp_id dept_id
me dept_na
dept_id
1 Alice 10 me
2 Bob 20 10 HR
3 Charlie 30 20 IT
4
SELECT David e.emp_name,
e.emp_id, 40 Marketin
30
emp_id emp_name dept_name
d.dept_name g
1 Alice HR
FROM Employees e 2 Bob IT
INNER JOIN Departments d 3 Charlie Marketing
 SQL JOIN Operators - NATURAL JOIN
- A NATURAL JOIN automatically joins tables based on
columns with the same name and compatible data types.
- No need to explicitly mention the join condition.
- multiple same-name columns exist do not perform
NATURAL JOIN
Employees Departments
emp_na dept_na
emp_id dept_id dept_id
me me
1 Alice 10 10 HR
2 Bob 20 20 IT
3 Charlie 30 Marketin
4 David 40 30
emp_id emp_name dept_name
g
SELECT emp_id, emp_name, dept_name 1 Alice HR
FROM Employees 2 Bob IT
NATURAL JOIN Departments; 3 Charlie Marketing
 SQL JOIN Operators - JOIN USING
- Works like NATURAL JOIN, but you explicitly mention
the common column(s)
Employees Departments
emp_na dept_na
emp_id dept_id dept_id
me me
1 Alice 10 10 HR
2 Bob 20 20 IT
3 Charlie 30 Marketin
4 David 40 30
g
SELECT emp_id, emp_name, emp_id emp_name dept_name
1 Alice HR
dept_name
2 Bob IT
FROM Employees 3 Charlie Marketing
JOIN Departments USING
 SQL JOIN Operators - JOIN … ON
- The ON clause is used to explicitly specify the join
condition.
- You have full control: you can join on equal columns,
different names, multiple conditions, or even inequalities.
emp_i emp_na dept_i SELECT e.emp_id, e.emp_name,
city
d me d d.dept_name,
1 Alice 10 Delhi e.city AS emp_city, d.city AS
2 Bob 20 Mumbai dept_city
3 Charlie 30 Delhi FROM Employees e
dept_i dept_na JOIN Departments d
city
d me emp_na dept_na emp_cit dept_cit
10 HR Delhi emp_idON e.dept_id = d.dept_id;
me me y y
20 IT Pune
1 Alice HR Delhi Delhi
30 Marketing Delhi
2 Bob IT Mumbai Pune
- Unlike USING or NATURAL JOIN, 3
the ON clause Marketin
does not hide or merge same-name columns.
Charlie Delhi Delhi
SQL JOIN Operators- OUTER JOIN

- An INNER JOIN only shows rows that match in both

tables.
- An OUTER JOIN shows all rows from one table even if
there’s no match in the other table.
- Types of OUTER JOINs:
• LEFT OUTER JOIN (LEFT JOIN)
• RIGHT OUTER JOIN (RIGHT JOIN)
• FULL OUTER JOIN (FULL JOIN)
 SQL JOIN Operators- OUTER JOIN
LEFT OUTER JOIN (LEFT JOIN) :- keeps all rows from
the left table
Employees
emp_id emp_name dept_id SELECT emp_id, emp_name,
1 Alice 10 dept_name
2 Bob 20
3 Charlie 30 FROM Employees
4 David NULL
LEFT JOIN Departments
ON Employees.dept_id =
Departments Departments.dept_id;
emp_nam dept_nam
dept_id dept_name emp_id
10 HR
e e
20 Finance 1 Alice HR
40 IT 2 Bob Finance
3 Charlie NULL
4 David NULL
 SQL JOIN Operators- OUTER JOIN
RIGHT OUTER JOIN (RIGHT JOIN):- keeps all rows from
the right table.
Employees
emp_id emp_name dept_id SELECT emp_id, emp_name,
1 Alice 10 dept_name
2 Bob 20
3 Charlie 30 FROM Employees
4 David NULL
RIGHT JOIN Departments
ON Employees.dept_id =
Departments Departments.dept_id;
dept_id dept_name emp_id emp_name dept_name
10 HR 1 Alice HR
20 Finance
40 IT 2 Bob Finance
NULL NULL IT
 SQL JOIN Operators- OUTER JOIN
FULL OUTER JOIN (FULL JOIN):-keeps all rows from
both tables.
Employees SELECT emp_id, emp_name,
emp_id emp_name dept_id
1 Alice 10 dept_name
2 Bob 20
3 Charlie 30 FROM Employees
4 David NULL FULL OUTER JOIN Departments
ON Employees.dept_id =
Departments emp_id emp_name dept_name
Departments.dept_id;
dept_id dept_name 1 Alice HR
10 HR 2 Bob Finance
20 Finance
40 IT 3 Charlie NULL
4 David NULL
NULL NULL IT
Key points
• NATURAL JOIN = joins on all same-name columns.
• JOIN USING (col) = joins only on the specified column(s).
• INNER JOIN = Only matching rows.
• LEFT JOIN = All from left + matches.
• RIGHT JOIN = All from right + matches.
• FULL JOIN = All rows from both.
Date/Time Functions
1. CURRENT_DATE:
SELECT CURRENT_DATE;
2. CURRENT_TIME
SELECT CURRENT_TIME;
3. CURRENT_TIMESTAMP / NOW()
SELECT CURRENT_TIMESTAMP;
SELECT NOW();
4. EXTRACT():
SELECT EXTRACT(YEAR FROM CURRENT_DATE) AS year_part;
SELECT EXTRACT(HOUR FROM CURRENT_TIME) AS hour_part;
Date/Time Functions
5. DATE_ADD()
SELECT DATE_ADD(CURRENT_DATE, INTERVAL 10 DAY);
6. DATE_SUB()
SELECT DATE_SUB(CURRENT_DATE, INTERVAL 5 DAY);
7. DATEDIFF()
SELECT DATEDIFF('2025-12-31', '2025-08-17');
8. LAST_DAY()
SELECT LAST_DAY('2025-08-17') AS last_day;
9.DATE_FORMAT(date, format)
Format Specifiers
Specifier Meaning Example Result
%Y Year (4 digits) 2025
%y Year (2 digits) 25
%M Month name August
%m Month (2 digits) 08
%b Abbreviated month Aug
%d Day (2 digits) 18
%H Hour (00–23) 15
%i Minutes 45
%s Seconds 09

SELECT DATE_FORMAT(NOW(), '%d-%M-%Y') AS

formatted_date;
Numeric Functions
1. ABS(x): absolute (positive) value of a number
SELECT ABS(-25); o/p : 25
2. CEIL(x) / CEILING(x) : upwards to the nearest integer
SELECT CEIL(4.2) ; o/p: 5

3. FLOOR(x):downwards to the nearest integer.

SELECT FLOOR(4.6); o/p: 4

4. ROUND(x, d): rounds a number to ‘d’ decimal places (default

= 0).
SELECT ROUND(243.358, 2); o/p: 243.36
 String Functions
1. CONCAT(str1, str2, …)
SELECT CONCAT('Hello', ' ', 'FYMCA') AS result; o/p: Hello FYMCA
SELECT CONCAT(emp_name, ' works in department ', dept_id) AS info FRO
Employees;
2. LENGTH(str):
SELECT LENGTH('FYMCA') AS len; o/p:5
3. UPPER(str) / UCASE(str):
SELECT UPPER('fymca'); o/p: FYMCA
4. LOWER(str) / LCASE(str):
SELECT LOWER('FYMCA'); o/p: fymca
5. SUBSTRING(str, start, length)
SELECT SUBSTRING('Database', 5, 3); O/P: bas