BIOLOGY 30/AP
Cell Division
UNIT 3A
PLEASE NOTE!!!
○ Corresponding AP Units to Unit C of Bio
30 course can be found in AP Bio
Channel - class materials under:
○ UNIT 4 – Cell Communication and Cell
Cycle
Cell Communication (plants or animals) is
not on Bio 30 course, however you will
learn about Homeostasis in Unit A.
TOPIC 1: MITOSIS
○ somatic cells vs. sex cells
○ autosomes vs. sex chromosomes
○ chromosomes vs. chromatin
○ homologous chromosomes vs. sister chromatids
○ haploid (n) vs. diploid (2n)
○ stages of interphase: G1, S, G2
○ stages of mitosis: prophase, metaphase, anaphase,
telophase
○ cancer, cloning, and stem cells
○ telomeres & aging
Textbook pgs. 556-571
From the moment of fertilization, cells are
continuously growing, dying, and being
replaced…
Each new cell, or daughter cell, must contain
the same genetic information as the original
cell, or parent cell
parent cell:
DNA is this genetic information. It is
found within the nucleus of each
and every cell in the body.
This is accomplished through the processes of
DNA replication and cell division
Chromosomes & Cell Division
DNA in the nucleus of each cell is tightly
packaged into structures called chromosomes:
“Unpackaged” DNA is referred to as
chromatin:
Chromatin only condenses into chromosomes
when the cell is about to divide. Each nucleus of
a human cell contains about 3 meters of DNA.
Chromosome Number
varies from species to species…
Bananas = 22
Humans = 46 Dogs = 78
Ferns = 1260
More chromosomes DOES NOT necessarily result
in higher intelligence or complexity
The somatic cells of human males
have 22 pairs of homologous o Homologous chromosomes
chromosomes (“autosomes”), and 1 are chromosomes with the
same gene sequence as one
pair of non-homologous chromosomes another; one homologue is of
(“sex chromosomes”), or 46 maternal origin, and the other
chromosomes in total: is of paternal origin.
o Although homologues carry the
same set of genes, they may
carry different forms of the
each gene (a.k.a alleles)
o Because human cells carry two
pairs of each chromosome, we
are said to be diploid (2n)
Examples of karyotypes…
Human somatic cells are diploid, or “2n”
Human gametes are haploid, or “n”
2n = 46
n = 23
Some organisms, such as earthworms, contain
more than two homologous chromosomes in each
cell. These organisms are said to be polyploid.
3n = 54
n = 18
The Cell Cycle
Goal: to produce daughter cells with the same DNA
as the parent cell
Each cell goes through three
phases before it actually divides:
1. G1 Phase (cell growth)
2. S Phase (DNA replication)
3. G2 Phase (preparation for
division)
Collectively, these phases are
referred to as interphase.
Interphase is followed by cellular
division, or “M phase”.
Key terms to note…
The key difference between centriole and centromere depends on its function. Centrioles involve
in the synthesis and organizing of spindle fibers whereas centromeres provide a site of
attachment to the spindle fibers. The centriole is an organelle while the centromere is a region of
the chromosome. The centrosome is also an organelle that serves as the organizing centre of all
microtubules in a cell.
The Cell
Cycle
M-phase accounts for the
actual division of genetic
information (mitosis) and
splitting of the cytoplasm itself
(cytokinesis)
Mitosis
Mitosis is performed by all autosomes. It is a form of cell division
that produces daughter cells that are identical to parent cells.
The extent of repair varies
from organism to organism
Mitosis & Growth
Mitosis
After DNA replication (interphase), cells go through
four stages of mitosis before cytokinesis can occur:
1. PROPHASE
At this stage, each pair of homologous chromosomes
has been duplicated, so the cell contains twice as much
DNA than normal:
o Chromatin condenses to
form chromosomes
o Nuclear membrane breaks
down
o Centrioles move to
opposite poles of the cell
and spindle fibres begin to
form (spindle fibres are
required to eventually pull
the duplicated
chromosomes apart)
2. METAPHASE
o Spindle fibres attach
to the centromere of
each chromosome,
guiding them to the
equator of the cell
o Duplicated
chromosomes line up
in single file, forming
the “metaphase plate”
3. ANAPHASE
o Spindle fibres shorten
and sister chromatids
are pulled apart from
one another;
centromeres split
o Two opposing poles
are formed, each with
a complete diploid set
of DNA
Some Terminology:
Homologues vs.
Sister Chromatids
Sister Chromatids Homologous Chromosomes
○ Are the same size ○ Are the same size
○ Have the same Genes ○ Have the same Genes
○ Genes are at the same ○ Carry same Genes in
location same loci
○ Same Alleles ○ But can have different
alleles
○ Held Together by
Centromere ○ Not held together by a
Centromere
4. TELOPHASE
o Chromosomes reach
opposite poles of the cell
o Spindle fibres break
down
o Chromosomes begin to
unwind into chromatin
o Nuclear membrane
forms around each new
set of genetic info.
Cytokinesis
o Cytoplasm splits to
form two identical
daughter cells with
the same genetic
content as the
original parent cell
o Daughter cells are
now in G1 of
interphase
Telophase and cytokinesis in
plant cells looks a bit
different…
o Because plant cells
contain a rigid cell wall,
cytoplasm will not
furrow and pinch off
o Instead, a cell plate
forms between the two
daughter nuclei,
eventually developing
into a cell wall
Mitosis in Plant Cells:
Formative Assessment
Exam Q
AP Question
○ 1. A scientist is testing new chemicals designed to
stop the cell cycle at various stages of mitosis. Upon
applying one of the chemicals, she notices that all of
the cells appear as shown below. Which of the
following BEST explains how the chemical is likely
acting on the cells?
A. The chemical has arrested the cells in prophase
and has prevented attachment of the spindle fibers to
the kinetochore.
B. The chemical has arrested the cells in metaphase
and has prevented dissociation of the spindle fibers
from the centromere.
C. The chemical has arrested the cells in metaphase
and is preventing the shortening of the spindle fibers.
D. The chemical has arrested the cells in anaphase
and is preventing the formation of a cleavage furrow.
Answer and Why?
○ Correct answer is C
○ Why?
During anaphase, the chromatids are separated by shortening of
the spindle fibers. Chemically blocking the shortening of these
fibers would arrest the cell in metaphase. The cells are arrested
in metaphase as indicated by the alignment of the
chromosomes in the center of the cell and their attachment to
spindle fibers, eliminating A and D. The chromosomes still seem
to be attached to the fibers, so there doesn’t appear to be
dissociation of the fibers, eliminating B.
If you were to look at a
sample of healthy tissues
under a microscope, most of
the cells you would observe
would likely be in
interphase/early prophase…
Why???
What would happen if cells were
constantly dividing?
CANCER
Cancer & the Cell Cycle
● Uncontrolled cell division may
be caused by exposure to
mutagens, or agents which
change an organism’s genetic
material.
● Mutagens may be physical,
chemical, or biological in origin.
● Mutagens that specifically lead
to the formation of cancerous
cells are further classified as
carcinogens.
Carcinogens may target two different types of genes:
1) Oncogenes stimulate
the cell cycle and
promote cell growth
2) Tumour suppressor
genes repress cell
division and promote
apoptosis (cell death)
Mutations which lead to either the over-expression of
oncogenes or under-expression of tumour suppressor
genes can lead to the development of tumours.
Metastasis is the spread of cancer from one location
(primary tumour) to another, forming a secondary tumour…
Applications of the Cell Cycle: Cloning
Cloning is the process of forming identical offspring from a single
cell or tissue of a parent organ.
● Cloning is a form of asexual
reproduction. Many species utilize this
form of reproduction (e.g. plants,
bacteria, hydra)
● A form of cloning also results in the
production of twins; if a single
fertilized egg accidentally undergoes
mitosis and splits in two, identical or
monozygotic twins occur, each with
the exact same DNA.
● Non-identical or dizygotic twins form
when two eggs are ovulated at once,
and are fertilized by different sperm.
Dizygotic twins do not share the same
genetic information.
Animal Cloning Technology
Organisms can be artificially cloned as well…
Dolly the Sheep
Stem Cell Research
Most cloning-based research has focused on cloning
individual cells, tissues and organs from stem cells
(cells that have not yet become specialized)…
What might be some useful applications of
this research???
Stem Cell Ethics
● Only a zygote is truly
totipotent; it is
considered unethical
to obtain stem cells
from this source.
● Pluripotent stem
cells, however, can
easily be obtained
from adult tissues.
https://www.genome.gov/25020028/cloning-fact-sheet/
Mitosis and Aging
● Telomeres are caps found at
the end of each chromosome.
Every time a cell divides, its
telomeres shorten.
● Eventually, the telomeres
become so short that a cell will
no longer be able to undergo
mitosis, and cell death occurs.
● Telomere length thus serves as
a sort of “molecular clock” for
cellular aging.
https://www.cnet.com/news/nasa-twins-study-scott-mark
-kelly-space-station-telomeres/
Telomeres
that do not
shorten with
each cell
division may
be indicative
of cancerous
cells…
http://med.stanford.edu/news/all-news/2018/04/telomerase-expressing-liver-cells-regenerate-the-organ.html
Long-Term Consequences?
https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn3393-dolly-the-sheep-dies-young/
Mitosis overview:
TOPIC 2: MEIOSIS
○ Reduction of chromosome number
○ Stages of meiosis
○ Crossing over & independent assortment
○ Mitosis vs. meiosis: similarities & differences
○ Nondisjunction
Textbook pgs. 572-586
While autosomal cells must contain a complete
set of chromosomes, gametes possess just half
the genetic information of parent cells.
This is accomplished through the process of
meiosis.
Meiosis
The outcome of meiosis is different
than that of mitosis in three ways:
1) Produces four daughter cells rather than two
2) Daughter cells have fewer chromosomes than
parent cells
3) Daughter cells have chromosomes with
different combinations of genes compared to
those in parent cells
Meiosis
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VzDMG7ke69g
Involves the same stages of cell division as mitosis;
however, in meiosis, each stage occurs twice.
PROPHASE I
Like in mitosis, meiosis begins with interphase, or
DNA replication. Entering prophase I, then, the cell
contains two pairs of homologous chromosomes…
o Chromatin condenses to
form chromosomes,
spindle fibres form,
nuclear membrane
dissolves, etc.
o Homologous
chromosomes align
(“synapsis”) for
crossing over
Crossing over or “mixing”
of genes:
(Happens ONLY during prophase I of meiosis)
METAPHASE I
o Spindle fibres attach to the
centromere of each
chromosome
o Instead of lining up in single file
as they do in mitosis,
chromosomes line up as
homologous pairs, so that
chromosomes of maternal and
paternal origin will end up at
opposing poles
o The orientation of each pair of
homologous chromosomes is
independent of the orientation
of the other pairs
(independent assortment)
Independent Assortment:
Increases gamete diversity due to number of
potential chromosome combinations
ANAPHASE I
o Spindle fibres
shorten, pulling
homologous
chromosomes apart
o Sister chromatids
remain together, so
that each new pole
has a full set of DNA
TELOPHASE I
o Homologous chromosomes
begin to uncoil, spindle fibres
disappear
o Cytoplasm is divided and a
nuclear membrane forms
around each new set of
chromosomes
o Each new cell is haploid
because they contain either
the maternal or paternal set
of homologous chromosomes
MEIOSIS II
Interphase does NOT occur before the cells enter
prophase II (i.e. DNA is not replicated)
o Cells proceed through prophase,
metaphase, anaphase, and
telophase once more
o The result is four haploid
daughter cells with a single copy
of each chromosome
Each haploid cell formed after telophase II will
proceed through cytokinesis to form gametes…
In males, this process is referred to as
spermatogenesis, and results in the formation of
four viable sperm cells
Spermatogenesis:
2n 2n n n n
In females, the cytoplasm is not equally
divided amongst gametes, resulting in a
single viable ovum and three polar bodies:
This process is referred to as oogenesis
Oogenesis:
2n 2n n n
Why does female gametogenesis
involve unequal division of the
cytoplasm?
Nondisjunction:
When things go wrong
Nondisjunction during meiosis I and meiosis II have
different outcomes; however, both produce gametes with
either too few or too many chromosomes, resulting in
either trisomy or monosomy upon fertilization.
MONOSOMY:
TRISOMY:
Incidence of Down Syndrome
with maternal age:
o As a woman ages, her probability of producing eggs with an extra copy
of chromosome 21 increases dramatically. This is thought to happen
because centromeres become “sticky” with age, meaning that
nondisjunction will occur more readily
o Trisomy 21 can also be caused by nondisjunction in sperm cells
Diploma Q
Diploma Q
Remember to ANSWER IN ORDER: Example 6897
Review: Mitoses &
Meiosis
○ Please complete the review sheet. Due
for the next class.
Diploma Q
Diploma Q
AP Q
○ Trisomy 21, which results in Down syndrome, results from
nondisjunction of chromosome 21 in humans. Nondisjunction
occurs when two homologous chromosomes, or two sister
chromatids, do not separate. Which of the following describes
the mechanism of this defect?
○ A) During DNA replication in S phase of the cell cycle, the two
new strands do not separate.
○ B) During mitosis, at the metaphase plate, non-sister
chromatids do not separate.
○ C) The mitotic spindle attaches to chiasmata rather
than kinetochores.
○ D) The same microtubule in the spindle attaches to both sister
chromatids during meiosis II.
TOPIC 3: ALTERNATION OF
GENERATIONS
○ Reproductive strategies
○ Alternation of generations
○ Sporophyte vs. gametophyte
Textbook pgs. 579-580
Reproductive Strategies
The human life cycle relies on regular patterns of
meiosis and mitosis. However, other organisms
rely on alternative reproductive strategies…
→ Binary Fission
o Method of reproduction utilized by bacteria
o Allows for rapid growth of identical populations
through asexual reproduction
→ Conjugation
o Also utilized by bacteria
o Plasmids (another source
of DNA) are transferred
from one cell to another
through pili
o Creates cells with new
genetic combinations
(sexual reproduction)
→ Budding
A form of asexual reproduction in which a complete but
miniature version of the parent grows out from the parent’s
body; the newly formed clone separates only once it matures
Commonly utilized by corals, sponges, and hydra
→ Vegetative Reproduction
o A form of
budding that
takes place in
plants (asexual
reproduction.
Example:
runners)
→ Parthenogenesis
A form of asexual reproduction in which an
unfertilized egg develops into an adult
Example: Honeybees
o The queen bee lays
both fertilized and
unfertilized eggs
o Fertilized eggs
develop into female
worker bees, while
unfertilized eggs
develop into male
drones
→ Spores
Form of asexual reproduction which allows parents to
disperse their offspring over long distances
o Often dispersed by wind
or water
o May be haploid or diploid
o Some spores are actually
the product of sexual
reproduction (meiosis
rather than mitosis),
resulting in an alternation
of generations
“ALTERNATION OF GENERATIONS”
The life cycle of some plants consists of
two generations…
1. A diploid generation, or sporophyte
2. A haploid generation, or gametophyte
Through meiosis, the sporophyte (or spore-making body)
produces multiple haploid spores, which spread and develop
without fertilization. Each spore grows into a plant body called
the gametophyte (or gamete-making body), which produces
male and female gametes. Upon fertilization, gametes develop
into another sporophyte, and the cycle repeats.
General model for alternation of generations:
Many plants spend the
majority of their lives in one
phase or the other…
Conifers, for example, spend most of
their lives in the diploid generation.
The tree itself is this diploid
sporophyte, while the cones contain
the haploid gametophytes.
Rather than alternating between haploid and diploid
generations, some organisms simply alternate between
sexual and asexual reproduction (e.g. cnidarians):
Meiosis
Mitosis
