Ad hoc and Wireless Sensor Networks

UNIT I
Wireless LANs and PANs: Introduction, Fundamentals of
WLANS, IEEE 802.11 Standards, HIPERLAN Standard,
Bluetooth, Home RF.
AD HOC WIRELESS NETWORKS: Introduction, Issues in Ad
Hoc Wireless Networks.

UNIT II MAC Protocols Introduction, Issues in Designing a

MAC protocol for Ad Hoc Wireless Networks, Design goals
of a MAC Protocol for Ad Hoc Wireless Networks,
Classifications of MAC Protocols, Contention-Based
Protocols, Contention-Based Protocols with reservation
Mechanisms, Contention–Based MAC Protocols with
Scheduling Mechanisms, MAC Protocols that use
UNIT III Routing Protocols: Introduction, Issues in
Designing a Routing Protocol for Ad-Hoc Wireless
Networks, Classification of Routing Protocols, Table–Driven
Routing Protocols, On–Demand Routing Protocols, Hybrid
Routing Protocols, Routing Protocols with Efficient
Flooding Mechanisms, Hierarchical Routing Protocols,
Power–Aware Routing Protocols..

UNIT IV Transport Layer Protocols Introduction, Issues in

Designing a Transport Layer Protocol for Ad Hoc Wireless
Networks, Design Goals of a Transport Layer Protocol for
Ad Hoc Wireless Networks, Classification of Transport
Layer Solutions, TCP Over Ad Hoc Wireless Networks,
Other Transport Layer Protocol for Ad Hoc Wireless
Networks.
UNIT V Wireless Sensor Networks: Introduction, Sensor Network
Architecture-Layered Architecture, Clustered Architecture, Data
Dissemination-Flooding, Gossiping, Rumor Routing, Sequential
Assignment Routing, Directed Diffusion, Sensor Protocols for
Information via Negotiation, Cost Field Approach, Geographic Hash
Table, Small Minimum Energy Communication Network, Data
Gathering-Direct Transmission, Power Efficient Gathering for Sensor
Information Systems, Binary Scheme, Chain based Three Level
Binary Scheme, MAC Protocols for Sensor Networks-Self Organizing
MAC for Sensor Networks and Eavesdrop and register, Hybrid
TDMA/FDMA, CSMA based MAC protocols, Location Discovery-
Indoor localization, Sensor network localization, Quality of a Sensor
Network- Coverage, Exposure, Evolving Standards.

TEXT BOOKS:
1. Ad Hoc Wireless Networks Architectures and Protocols C. Siva
Ram Murthy B.S. Manoj, Prentice Hall, 6th Edition, 200
 Unit - I
Wireless LANs and PANs

AD HOC WIRELESS NETWORKs

 Introduction to Wireless Networks
• A wireless network is a type of computer network that uses
wireless data connections between network nodes.
• It allows devices like laptops, smartphones, and tablets to
connect to the internet or communicate with one another
without using physical cables.
• Wireless networks use radio waves, infrared, satellite, or
microwave signals to transmit data.
• Common types include Wireless Local Area Networks
(WLANs), Wireless Personal Area Networks (WPANs) (e.g.,
Bluetooth), Wireless Metropolitan Area Networks
(WMANs), and Wireless Wide Area Networks (WWANs)
(e.g., cellular networks).
Wireless LANs and PANs
• These privately-owned networks are known as local area
networks (LANs) which come under the category of small-scale
networks.
• To eliminate wiring in LAN PC interconnections, researchers
have explored using radio waves and infrared light.
• This has resulted in the emergence of wireless LANs (WLANs),
where wireless transmission is used at the physical layer of the
network.
• Wireless personal area networks (WPANs) are the next step
down from WLANs, covering smaller areas with low power
transmission, for networking of portable and mobile computing
devices
Wireless LANs and PANs
This chapter highlights the issues involved in the design of WLANs and
PANs. It consists of the following sections:
1. Fundamentals of WLANs: The technical issues in WLANs must be
understood in order to appreciate the difference between wired
networks and wireless networks. The use of WLANs and their design
goals are then studied. The types of WLANs, their components, and
their basic functionalities are also brought out in this section.

2. IEEE 802.11 Standard: This section introduces a prominent

standard in WLANs, the IEEE 802.11 standard. The medium access
control (MAC) layer and the physical layer mechanisms are explained
here. This section also covers some of the optional functionalities,
such as security and quality of service (QoS).
3. HIPERLAN Standard: This section describes another WLAN
standard, HIPER-LAN standard, which is a European standard based
on radio access.
Wireless LANs and PANs
4. Bluetooth: This section deals with the Bluetooth standard, which
enables personal devices to communicate with each other in the absence
of infrastructure.
5. HomeRF: This section discusses the issues in home networking
(HomeRF standard) and finally illustrates the technical differences
between Bluetooth, HomeRF, and other technologies such as infrared
[portable devices that use the infrared interface of the Infrared Data
Association (IrDA) for transmission], which are the current
technological alternatives in the PAN area.
FUNDAMENTALS OF WLANS
• A Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN) is a type of local area
network that allows devices to connect and communicate
wirelessly within a limited geographical area such as a home,
school, or office building.
• WLANs typically use radio frequency (RF) technology, often
based on the IEEE 802.11 standards, commonly referred to as
Wi-Fi.
• WLANs aim to support truly mobile work stations.
• While both portable terminals and mobile terminals can move
from one place to another, portable terminals are accessed only
when they are stationary.
• Mobile terminals (MTs), on the other hand, are more powerful,
and can be accessed when they are in motion.
Technical issues in WLAN
The technical issues that are encountered in the design and engineering of
WLANs, in particular, the differences between wireless and wired
networks, the use of WLANs, and the design goals for WLANs.

Differences Between Wireless and Wired Transmission:

• Address is not equivalent to physical location: In a wireless
network, address refers to a particular station and this station need not
be stationary. Therefore, address may not always refer to a particular
geographical location.
• Dynamic topology and restricted connectivity: The mobile nodes
may often go out of reach of each other. This means that network
connectivity is partial at times.
• Medium boundaries are not well-defined: The exact reach of
wireless signals cannot be determined accurately. It depends on
various factors such as signal strength and noise levels. This means
that the precise boundaries of the medium cannot be determined
Differences Between Wireless and Wired Transmission:
• Error-prone medium: Transmissions by a node in the
wireless channel are affected by simultaneous transmissions by
neighboring nodes that are located within the direct
transmission range of the transmitting node. This means that the
error rates are significantly higher in the wireless medium.

The above four factors imply that we need to build a reliable

network on top of an inherently unreliable channel.
This is realized in practice by having reliable protocols at the
MAC layer, which hide the unreliability that is present in the
physical layer
Uses of WLAN:
Wireless computer networks are capable of offering versatile
functionalities. WLANs are very flexible and can be configured in
a variety of topologies based on the application. Some possible
uses of WLANs are:
• Users would be able to surf the Internet, check e-mail, and receive
Instant Messages on the move.
• In areas affected by earthquakes or other such disasters, no suitable
• infrastructure may be available on the site. WLANs are handy in
such locations to set up networks on the fly.
• There are many historic buildings where there has been a need to set
up computer networks. In such places, wiring may not be permitted
or the building design may not be conducive to efficient wiring.
WLANs are very good solutions in such places.
Design Goals:
The following are some of the goals which have to be achieved while designing
WLANs:
• Operational simplicity: Design of wireless LANs must incorporate features
to enable a mobile user to quickly set up and access network services in a
simple and efficient manner.
• Power-efficient operation: The power-constrained nature of mobile
computing devices such as laptops and PDAs necessitates the important
requirement of WLANs operating with minimal power consumption.
• License-free operation: One of the major factors that affects the cost of
wireless access is the license fee for the spectrum in which a particular
wireless access technology operates. Low cost of access is an important aspect
for popularizing a WLAN technology.
• Tolerance to interference: The proliferation of different wireless
networking technologies have led to a significant increase in the
interference level across the radio spectrum. The WLAN design should
account for this and take appropriate measures by way of selecting
technologies and protocols to operate in the presence of interference.
Global usability: The design of the WLAN, the choice of technology, and the
selection of the operating frequency spectrum should take into account the
prevailing spectrum restrictions in countries across the world.
• Security: The inherent broadcast nature of wireless medium adds to the
requirement of security features to be included in the design of WLAN
technology.
• Safety requirements: The design of WLAN technology should follow the
safety requirements that can be classified into the following: (i) interference to
medical and other instrumentation devices and (ii) increased power level of
transmitters that can lead to health hazards.
• Quality of service requirements: Quality of service (QoS) refers to the
provisioning of designated levels of performance for multimedia traffic. The
design of WLAN should take into consideration the possibility of supporting a
wide variety of traffic, including multimedia traffic.
• Compatibility with other technologies and applications: The
interoperability among the different LANs (wired or wireless) is important for
efficient communication between hosts operating with different LAN
technologies. In addition to this, interoperability with existing WAN protocols
such as TCP/IP of the Internet is essential to provide a seamless communication
Network Architecture
WLANs can be broadly classified into two types, infrastructure
networks and ad hoc LANs, based on the underlying
architecture.
1. Infrastructure Mode:
• Devices connect via a central access point.
• Most common setup in homes and enterprises.
2. Ad-Hoc Mode:
 Devices connect directly without an access point.
 Ad hoc LANs do not need any fixed infrastructure
 Nodes communicate directly with each other or forward
messages through other nodes that are directly accessible.
 Suitable for small, temporary networks.
Components in a typical IEEE 802.11 Network
• IEEE 802.11 is the most popular WLAN standard that defines the
specification for the physical and MAC layers.
The basic components in a typical IEEE 802.11 WLAN [2] are:
 The set of stations that can remain in contact (i.e., are associated) with a
given AP is called a basic service set (BSS).
 The coverage area of an AP within which member stations (STAs or
MTs) may remain in communication is called the basic service area
(BSA).
 The stations that are a part of a BSS need to be located within the BSA
of the corresponding AP.
 A BSS is the basic building block of the network. BSSs are connected
by means of a distribution system (DS) to form an extended network.
 DS refers to an existing network infrastructure. The implementation of
the DS is not specified by the IEEE 802.11 standard.
 The services of the DS, however, are specified rigidly. This gives a lot
of flexibility in the design of the DS. The APs are connected by means
Components in a typical IEEE 802.11 Network
 Portals are logical points through which non-IEEE 802.11
packets (wired LAN packets) enter the system.
 They are necessary for integrating wireless networks with the
existing wired networks. Just as an AP interacts with the DS as
well as the wireless nodes, the portal interacts with the wired
network as well as with the DS.
 The BSSs, DS, and the portals together with the stations they
connect constitute the extended service set (ESS).
 An ad hoc LAN has only one BSS. Therefore, ad hoc LANs are
also known as independent basic service sets (IBSSs).
 It may be noted that the ESS and IBSS appear identical to the
logical link control (LLC).
 Figure gives a schematic picture of what a typical ESS looks
like
Services offered by a typical IEEE 802.11 Network
The services offered by a typical IEEE 802.11 network can be
broadly divided into two categories:
1. AP services
2. STA services.
The following are the AP services, which are provided by the DS:

• Association: The identity of an STA and its address should be known to

the AP before the STA can transmit or receive frames on the WLAN.
This is done during association, and the information is used by the AP
to facilitate routing of frames.
• Reassociation: The established association is transferred from one AP
to another using reassociation. This allows STAs to move from one BSS
to another.
• Disassociation: When an existing association is terminated, a
notification is issued by the STA or the AP. This is called disassociation,
and is done when nodes leave the BSS or when nodes shut down
• Distribution: Distribution takes care of routing frames. If the
destination is in the same BSS, the frame is transmitted directly to the
destination, otherwise the frame is sent via the DS.
• Integration: To send frames through non-IEEE 802.11 networks,
which may have different addressing schemes or frame formats, the
integration service is invoked.
The following are the STA services, which are provided by every
station, including APs:

• Authentication: Authentication is done in order to establish the

identity of stations to each other. The authentication schemes
range from relatively insecure handshaking to public-key
encryption schemes.
• Deauthentication: Deauthentication is invoked to terminate
existing authentication.
• Privacy: The contents of messages may be encrypted (say, by
using the WEP algorithm, which is explained later) to prevent
eavesdroppers from reading the messages.
• Data delivery: IEEE 802.11 naturally provides a way to
transmit and receive data. However, like Ethernet, the
transmission is not guaranteed to be completely reliable
Advantages of Wireless LANs
1. Mobility: Users can access the network from anywhere within
the coverage area, enhancing productivity and convenience.
2. Easy Installation: No need for physical cables; simplifies
setup, especially in buildings where wiring is difficult or
expensive.
3. Scalability: New devices can be added without reconfiguring
the entire network.
4. Cost-Effective: Reduces the cost of cabling and maintenance
in the long run.
5. Flexibility: Supports a variety of devices (laptops, mobile
phones, tablets) without compatibility issues
Disadvantages of Wireless LANs
1. Security Risks: More vulnerable to eavesdropping,
unauthorized access, and attacks compared to wired networks.
2. Interference: Performance can be affected by other electronic
devices, physical barriers, and environmental factors.
3. Limited Range: The effective coverage area is limited
(typically up to 100 meters indoors).
4. Lower Speed: Generally offers lower data transfer rates
compared to wired connections.
5. Reliability Issues: Prone to signal loss, fluctuations, and
connection drops, especially in dense environments
 IEEE 802.11
• IEEE 802.11 is a prominent standard for WLANs, which is adopted
by many vendors of WLAN products.
• A later version of this standard is the IEEE 802.11b [3], commercially
known as Wi-Fi (wireless fidelity).
• The IEEE 802.11 standard, which deals with the physical and MAC
layers in WLANs, was brought out in 1997.
• IEEE 802.11 was the first WLAN standard that faced the challenge of
organizing a systematic approach for defining a standard for wireless
wideband local access (small-scale networks capable of transmitting
data at high rates).
• Under the IEEE 802.11 standard, MTs can operate in two modes: (i)
infrastructure mode, in which MTs can communicate with one or
more APs which are connected to a WLAN, and (ii) ad hoc mode, in
which MTs can communicate directly with each other without using
 Physical Layer
• IEEE 802.11 supports three options for the medium to be used
at the physical level:
one is based on infrared and the other two are based on
radio transmission.
• The physical layer is subdivided conceptually into two parts —
Physical medium dependent sublayer (PMD) and
Physical layer convergence protocol (PLCP).

• PMD handles encoding, decoding, and modulation of signals

and thus deals with the idiosyncrasies of the particular medium.
• The PLCP abstracts the functionality that the physical layer has
to offer to the MAC layer.
• PLCP offers a service access point (SAP) that is independent of
• the transmission technology, and a clear channel assessment
(CCA) carrier sense signal to the MAC layer.
 Physical Layer
• The SAP abstracts the channel which can offer up to 1 or 2
Mbps data transmission bandwidth.

• The CCA is used by the MAC layer to implement the

CSMA/CA mechanism.

• The three choices for the physical layer in the original 802.11
standard are as follows:
(i) frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) operating in
the license-free 2.4 GHz industrial, scientific, and medical
(ISM) band, at data rates of 1 Mbps [using 2-level Gaussian
frequency shift keying (GFSK) modulation scheme] and 2
Mbps (using 4- level GFSK);
Physical Layer
ii) direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) operating in the 2.4
GHz ISM band, at data rates of 1 Mbps [using differential
binary phase shift keying (DBPSK) modulation scheme] and 2
Mbps [using (DQPSK)];

(iii) infrared operating at wavelengths in 850-950 nm range, at data

rates of 1 Mbps and 2 Mbps using pulse position modulation
(PPM) scheme.
Carrier Sensing Mechanisms
• In IEEE 802.3, sensing the channel is very simple. The receiver
reads the peak voltage on the cable and compares it against a
threshold.
• In contrast, the mechanism employed in IEEE 802.11 is relatively
more complex. It is performed either physically or virtually.
• The physical layer sensing is through the clear channel assessment
(CCA) signal provided by the PLCP in the physical layer of the
IEEE 802.11.
• The CCA is generated based on sensing of the air interface either
by sensing the detected bits in the air or by checking the received
signal strength (RSS) of the carrier against a threshold.
• Decisions based on the detected bits are made somewhat more
slowly, but they are more reliable.
• Decisions based on the RSS can potentially create a false alarm
caused by measuring the level of interference.
Basic MAC Layer Mechanisms
• The primary function of this layer is to arbitrate and statistically
multiplex the transmission requests of various wireless stations
that are operating in an area.
• The wireless transmissions are inherently broadcast in nature and
contentions to access the shared channel need to be resolved
prudently in order to avoid collisions.
• The MAC layer also supports many auxiliary functionalities such
as offering support for roaming, authentication, and taking care of
power conservation.
• The basic services supported are the mandatory asynchronous data
service and an optional real-time service.
• The asynchronous data service is supported for unicast packets as
well as for multicast packets.
• The real-time service is supported only in infrastructure-based
networks where APs control access to the shared medium.
Distributed Foundation Wireless Medium Access Control
(DFWMAC)
 The primary access method of IEEE 802.11 is by means of a
distributed coordination function (DCF).
 This mandatory basic function is based on a version of carrier sense
with multiple access and collision avoidance (CSMA/CA).

 To avoid the hidden terminal problem, an optional RTS-CTS

mechanism is implemented.

 There is a second method called the point coordination function

(PCF) that is implemented to provide real-time services.

 When the PCF is in operation, the AP controls medium access and

avoids simultaneous transmissions by the nodes.
Inter-Frame Spacing (IFS)
 Inter-frame spacing refers to the time interval between the
transmission of two successive frames by any station.
 There are four types of IFS: SIFS, PIFS, DIFS, and EIFS, in order
from shortest to longest.
 They denote priority levels of access to the medium.
 Shorter IFS denotes a higher priority to access the medium, because
the wait time to access the medium is lower.
 The exact values of the IFS are obtained from the attributes
specified in the physical layer management information base
(PHYMIB) and are independent of the station bit rate.
Short inter-frame spacing (SIFS):
 SIFS is the shortest of all the IFSs and denotes highest priority to
access the medium.
 It is defined for short control messages such as acknowledgments for
data packets and polling responses.
 The transmission of any packet should begin only after the channel is
sensed to be idle for a minimum time period of at least SIFS.
Inter-Frame Spacing (IFS)
PCF inter-frame spacing (PIFS) : PIFS is the waiting time whose
value lies between SIFS and DIFS. This is used for real-time services.

• DCF inter-frame spacing (DIFS): DIFS is used by stations that are

operating under the DCF mode to transmit packets. This is for
asynchronous data transfer within the contention period.

• Extended inter-frame spacing (EIFS): EIFS is the longest of all the

IFSs and denotes the least priority to access the medium. EIFS is used
for resynchronization whenever physical layer detects incorrect MAC
frame reception.
CSMA/CA Mechanism
• Carrier sense with multiple access and collision avoidance
(CSMA/CA) is the MAC layer mechanism used by IEEE 802.11
WLANs.
• Carrier sense with multiple access and collision detection
(CSMA/CD) is a well-studied technique in IEEE 802.x wired LANs.
• This technique cannot be used in the context of WLANs effectively
because the error rate in WLANs is much higher and allowing
collisions will lead to a drastic reduction in throughput.
• Moreover, detecting collisions in the wireless medium is not always
possible.
• The technique adopted here is therefore one of collision avoidance.
Media Access Mechanism
• The basic channel access mechanism of IEEE 802.11 is shown
Media Access Mechanism
• If the medium is sensed to be idle for a duration of DIFS, the node
accesses the medium for transmission.
• Thus the channel access delay at very light loads is equal to the DIFS.
• If the medium is busy, the node backs off, in which the station defers
channel access by a random amount of time chosen within a contention
window(CW).
• The value of CW can vary between CWmin and CWmax .
• The time intervals are all integral multiples of slot times, which are
chosen judiciously using propagation delay, delay in the transmitter, and
other physical layer dependent parameters.
• As soon as the back-off counter reaches zero and expires, the station can
access the medium.
• During the back-off process, if a node detects a busy channel, it freezes
the back-off counter and the process is resumed once the channel
becomes idle for a period of DIFS.
• Each station executes the back-off procedure at least once between
every successive transmission.
Contention Window Size
• The size of the Contention Window (CW) is another important
parameter.
• If the CW is small in size, then the random values will be close
together and there is a high probability of packet collision.
• On the other hand, if the size of CW is very large, there will be some
unnecessary delay because of large back-off values.
• Ideally, one would like the system to adapt to the current number of
stations that are contending for channel access.
• To effect this, the truncated binary exponential back-off technique is
used here, which is similar to the technique used in IEEE 802.3.
• The initial contention window is set to a random value between (0,
CWmin) and each time a collision occurs, the CW doubles its size up
to a maximum of CWmax.
• So at high load, the CW size is high and therefore the resolution
power of the system is high.
• At low loads, small CW ensures low access delay.
Contention Window Size
• The specified values of CWmin and CWmax for different physical
layer specifications are given as
Acknowledgments
• Acknowledgments (ACKs) must be sent for data packets in order
to ensure their correct delivery.
• For unicast packets, the receiver accesses the medium after
waiting for a SIFS and sends an ACK.
• Other stations have to wait for DIFS plus their backoff time. This
reduces the probability of a collision.
• Thus higher priority is given for sending an ACK for the
previously received data packet than for starting a new data packet
transmission.
• ACK ensures the correct reception of the MAC layer frame by
using cyclic redundancy checksum (CRC) technique.
• If no ACK is received by the sender, then a retransmission takes
place.
• The number of retransmissions is limited, and failure is reported
to the higher layer after the retransmission count exceeds this
limit.
RTS-CTS Mechanism
• The hidden terminal problem is a major problem that is observed
in wireless networks.
• It also highlights the non-transitive nature of wireless
transmission.
• In some situations, one node can receive from two other nodes,
which cannot hear each other.
• In such cases, the receiver may be bombarded by both the senders,
resulting in collisions and reduced throughput.
• But the senders, unaware of this, may get the impression that the
receiver can clearly listen to them without interference from
anyone else.
• This is called the hidden terminal problem.
RTS-CTS Mechanism
• To alleviate this problem, the RTS-CTS mechanism has been
devised as shown in Figure 2.2 (b).
How RTS-CTS Works
• The sender sends a request to send (RTS) packet to the receiver.
• The packet includes the receiver of the next data packet to be
transmitted and the expected duration of the whole data
transmission.
• This packet is received by all stations that can hear the sender.
• Every station that receives this packet will set its network
allocation vector (NAV) accordingly.
• The NAV of a station specifies the earliest time when the station is
permitted to attempt transmission.
• After waiting for SIFS, the intended receiver of the data packet
answers with a clear to send (CTS) packet if it is ready to accept
the data packet.
• The CTS packet contains the duration field, and all stations
receiving the CTS packet also set their NAVs
• These stations are within the transmission range of the receiver.
MAC as a State Machine
• It models the MAC layer as a finite state-machine, and shows the
permissible transitions.
• It must be noted that the state-machine is simplistic and is given
only to ease the understanding of the fundamental mechanisms at
the MAC layer.
• The functioning of the finite state-machine is explained in what
follows.
MAC as a State Machine

MAC state transition diagram

Fragmentation
• Bit error rates in the wireless medium are much higher than in
other media
• One way of decreasing the frame error rate is by using shorter
frames.
• IEEE 802.11 specifies a fragmentation mode where user data
packets are split into several smaller parts transparent to the user.
• This will lead to shorter frames, and frame error will result in
retransmission of a shorter frame.
• The RTS and CTS messages carry duration values for the current
fragment and estimated time for the next fragment.
• The medium gets reserved for the successive frames until the last
fragment is sent.
• The length of each fragment is the same for all the fragments
except the last fragment.
Fragmentation
• The fragments contain information to allow the complete MAC
protocol data unit (MPDU, informally referred to as packet) to be
reassembled from the fragments that constitute it.

• The frame type, sender address, destination address, sequence

control field, and indicator for more fragments to come are all
present in the fragment header.

• The destination constructs the complete packet by reassembling

the fragments in the order of the sequence number field.

• The receiving station ensures that all duplicate fragments are

discarded and only one copy of each fragment is integrated.

• Acknowledgments for the duplicates may, however, be sent

Other MAC Layer Functionalities
• There are several other functionalities that the MAC layer
provides in IEEE 802.11 WLANs.

• The functionalities described in this section are the

 point coordination function (PCF) which is used for QoS

guarantees,
 timing synchronization,
 power management, and
 support for roaming.
Point Coordination Function (PCF)
• The objective of the PCF is to provide guarantees on the
maximum access delay, minimum transmission bandwidth, and
other QoS parameters.

• Unlike the DCF, where the medium contention is resolved in a

distributed manner, the PCF works by effecting a centralized
contention resolution scheme, and is applicable only in networks
where an AP polls the nodes in its BSS.

• A point coordinator (PC) at the AP splits the access time into super
frame periods.

• The super frame period consists of alternating contention free

periods (CFPs) and contention periods (CPs).
Point Coordination Function (PCF)
• The PCF is essentially a polled service with the PC playing the
role of the polling master.

• The IFS used by the PCF is smaller than the IFS of the frames
transmitted by the DCF.

• This means that point-coordinated traffic will have higher priority

access to the medium if DCF and PCF are concurrently in action.

• The PC controls frame transmissions so that contentions are

eliminated over a limited period of time, that is, the CFP.
Synchronization
• Synchronization of clocks of all the wireless stations is an
important function to be performed by the MAC layer.
• Each node has an internal clock, and clocks are all synchronized
by a timing synchronization function (TSF).
• Synchronized clocks are required for power management, PCF
coordination, and frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS)
hopping sequence synchronization.
• Without synchronization, clocks of the various wireless nodes in
the network may not have a consistent view of the global time.
• A beacon contains a time-stamp that is used by the node to adjust
its clock.
• The beacon also contains some management information for
power optimization and roaming.

• Not all beacons need to be heard for achieving synchronization.

 Power Management
• Usage of power cords restricts the mobility that wireless nodes
can potentially offer.
• The usage of battery-operated devices calls for power
management because battery power is expensive.
• The transceiver must be switched off whenever carrier sensing is
not needed.
• The two states of the station are defined: sleep and awake.
• The sleep state refers to the state where the transceiver can not
receive or send wireless signals.
• Longer periods in the sleep state mean that the average throughput
will be low.
• On the other hand, shorter periods in the sleep state consume a lot
of battery power and are likely to reduce battery life.
• Sleeping stations wake up periodically, when senders can
announce the destinations of their buffered data frames
 Roaming
• Each AP may have a range of up to a few hundred meters where
its transmission will be heard well.
• The user may, however, walk around so that he goes from the BSS
of one AP to the BSS of another AP.
• Roaming refers to providing uninterrupted service when the user
walks around with a wireless station.
• When the station realizes that the quality of the current link is
poor, it starts scanning for another AP.
• This scanning can be done in two ways: active scanning and
passive scanning.
• Active scanning refers to sending a probe on each channel and
• waiting for a response.
• Passive scanning refers to listening into the medium to find other
networks.
• The information necessary for joining the new BSS can be
obtained from the beacon and probe frames.
 Other Issues
• Improvements in the IEEE 802.11 standard have been proposed to
support higher data rates for voice and video traffic.
• Also, QoS provisioning and security issues have been addressed in
extended versions of the standard.
 Newer Standards
 QoS for Voice and Video Packets: In order to offer QoS, delay-
sensitive packets (such as voice and video packets) are to be given
a higher priority to get ahead of less time-critical (e.g., file
transfer) traffic. Hybrid coordination function (HCF) can be used
where the AP polls the stations in a weighted way in order to offer
QoS.
 Wired Equivalent Privacy: Security is a very important issue in
the design of WLANs. In order to provide a modest level of
physical security, the wired equivalent privacy (WEP) mechanism
was devised.
 Comparison of IEEE 802.11 a, b, g and n standards

There are several standards of IEEE 802.11 WLANs. The

prominent among them are 802.11, 802.11a, 802.11b, 802.11g,
802.11n and 802.11p. All the standards use carrier-sense multiple
access with collision avoidance (CSMA/CA).
Also, they have support for both centralized base station based as
well as ad hoc networks.
Comparison of IEEE 802.11 a, b, g and n standards
 Comparison of IEEE 802.11 a, b, g and n standards
IEEE 802.11:
• IEEE 802.11 was the original version released in 1997.
• It provided 1 Mbps or 2 Mbps data rate in the 2.4 GHz band
• Used either frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) or direct-sequence spread
spectrum (DSSS).
• It is obsolete now.

IEEE 802.11a:
• 802.11a was published in 1999 as a modification to 802.11.
• Used orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) based air interface in
physical layer instead of FHSS or DSSS of 802.11.
• It provides a maximum data rate of 54 Mbps operating in the 5 GHz band.
• Besides it provides error correcting code. As 2.4 GHz band is crowded, relatively
sparsely used 5 GHz imparts additional advantage to 802.11a.

Further amendments to 802.11a are 802.11ac, 802.11ad, 802.11af, 802.11ah, 802.11ai,

802.11aj etc.
IEEE 802.11b
• 802.11b is a direct extension of the original 802.11 standard that
appeared in early 2000.
• It uses the same modulation technique as 802.11, i.e. DSSS and operates
in the 2.4 GHz band.
• It has a higher data rate of 11 Mbps as compared to 2 Mbps of 802.11,
due to which it was rapidly adopted in wireless LANs.
• However, since 2.4 GHz band is pretty crowded, 802.11b devices faces
interference from other devices.
Further amendments to 802.11b are 802.11ba, 802.11bb, 802.11bc,
802.11bd and 802.11be.
IEEE 802.11g
• 802.11g was indorsed in 2003. It uses OFDM technique (as in 802.11a).
• It operates in the 2.4 GHz band (as in 802.11b) and provides a average
throughput of 22 Mbps.
• It is fully backward compatible with 802.11b. 802.11g devices also faces
interference from other devices operating in 2.4 GHz band.
IEEE 802.11n
• 802.11n was approved and published in 2009 that operates on both the
2.4 GHz and the 5 GHz bands.
• It has variable data rate ranging from 54 Mbps to 600 Mbps.
• It provides a marked improvement over previous standards 802.11 by
incorporating multiple-input multiple-output antennas (MIMO antennas).

IEEE 802.11p
• 802.11 is an amendment for including wireless access in vehicular
environments (WAVE) to support Intelligent Transportation Systems
(ITS).
• They include network communications between vehicles moving at high
speed and the environment.
• They have a data rate of 27 Mbps and operate in 5.9 GHz band.
 Comparison of IEEE 802.11 a/b/g/n
Standard | Frequency | Max Speed | Modulation | Range
802.11a | 5 GHz | 54 Mbps | OFDM | Lo

802.11b | 2.4 GHz | 11 Mbps | DSSS | Hi

802.11g | 2.4 GHz | 54 Mbps | OFDM | Hi

802.11n |2.4/5 GHz |600 Mbps |OFDM + MIMO| Very High

Wireless PANs
• Wireless Personal Area Network in short known as
WPAN.
• Actually WPAN is PAN (Personal Area
Network) where the interconnected devices are centered
around a person's workspace and connected through
wireless medium.
• short range wireless connectivity. Typically the range is
within about 10 meters.
• Examples of WPAN includes Wireless mouse, Wearable
devices, USB flash drives, Digital cameras, Bluetooth,
Wi-Fi, Thermostats, Security systems, Lighting
controls, Motion sensors, Personal server and Leak
sensors etc.
• As per IEEE, Wireless Personal Area Network is
classified into 3 classes i.e

1. High-rate WPAN (HR-WPAN) : It is defined in the

IEEE 802.15.3 standard. Data throughput is > 20
Mbps.
2. Medium-rate WPAN (MR-WPAN) : It is defined in the
IEEE 802.15.1 standard. Data throughput is 1 Mbps.
3. Low-rate WPAN (LR-WPAN) : It is defined in the
IEEE 802.15.4 standard. Data throughput is < 0.25
Mbps.
Applications of WPAN :
• Short range connectivity for multimedia applications
• Hands free devices connection
• Industrial sensor applications

WPAN Topologies :
As mostly use of WPAN is within short range so it is mainly used
for general purpose uses and with little industrial requirement
implementations which supports below network connectivity
arrangements (network topology)
• Star Topology
• Mesh Topology
• Cluster Tree Topology
Features of WPAN :

 Low cost, Little or No infrastructure setup

 Short range communication
 Small personal network , use anywhere
 Wide range of devices
 Low power consumption
 No complex connectivity

Advantages of WPAN :

• Security
• Portability
• Easy Connectivity
• Stability

Disadvantages of WPAN :

• Short range
Bluetooth
• Bluetooth is used for short-range wireless voice and data
communication.
• It is a Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN) technology
and is used for data communications over smaller distances.
• This generation changed into being invented via Ericson in
1994.
• It operates within the unlicensed, business, scientific, and
clinical (ISM) bands from 2.4 GHz to 2.485 GHz.
• Bluetooth stages up to 10 meters. Depending upon the version,
it presents information up to at least 1 Mbps or 3 Mbps.
• The spreading method that it uses is FHSS (Frequency-
hopping unfold spectrum).
• A Bluetooth network is called a piconet and a group of
interconnected piconets is called a scatter net.
Bluetooth Specifications
• The Bluetooth specification consists of two parts: core and
profiles.
• The core provides a common data link and physical layer to
application protocols, and maximizes reusability of existing
higher layer protocols.
• The profiles specifications classify Bluetooth applications
into thirteen types.
• The protocol stack of Bluetooth performs the functions of
locating devices, connecting other devices, and exchanging
data.
• It is logically partitioned into three layers, namely,
i)the transport protocol group,
ii) the middleware protocol group, and
Bluetooth Specifications
i. the transport protocol group, consists of the radio layer,
baseband layer, link manager layer, logical link control
and adaptation layer, and the host controller interface.
ii. the middleware protocol group comprises of RFCOMM,
SDP, and IrDA (IrOBEX and IrMC).
iii. The application group consists of applications (profiles)
using Bluetooth wireless links, such as the modem dialer
and the Web-browsing client.
The Transport protocol group

Bluetooth Protocol Stack

Bluetooth Protocol Stack
• Radio (RF) Layer: It specifies the details of the air interface, including
frequency, the use of frequency hopping and transmit power. It performs
modulation/demodulation of the data into RF signals. It defines the physical
characteristics of Bluetooth transceivers. It defines two types of physical
links: connection-less and connection-oriented.
• Baseband Link Layer: The baseband is the digital engine of a Bluetooth
system and is equivalent to the MAC sublayer in LANs. It performs the
connection establishment within a piconet, addressing, packet format,
timing and power control.
• Link Manager Protocol Layer: It performs the management of the
already established links which includes authentication and encryption
processes. It is responsible for creating the links, monitoring their health,
and terminating them gracefully upon command or failure.
• Logical Link Control and Adaption (L2CAP) Protocol Layer: It is also
known as the heart of the Bluetooth protocol stack. It allows the
communication between upper and lower layers of the Bluetooth protocol
stack. It packages the data packets received from upper layers into the form
expected by lower layers. It also performs segmentation and multiplexing.
• Service Discovery Protocol (SDP) Layer: It is short for Service
Discovery Protocol. It allows discovering the services available on
another Bluetooth-enabled device.
• RF Comm Layer: It is a cabal replacement protocol. It is short for
Radio Frontend Component. It provides a serial interface with WAP
and OBEX. It also provides emulation of serial ports over the logical
link control and adaption protocol(L2CAP). The protocol is based on
the ETSI standard TS 07.10.
• OBEX: It is short for Object Exchange. It is a communication
protocol to exchange objects between 2 devices.
• WAP: It is short for Wireless Access Protocol. It is used for internet
access.
• TCS: It is short for Telephony Control Protocol. It provides telephony
service. The basic function of this layer is call control (setup &
release) and group management for the gateway serving multiple
devices.
• Application Layer: It enables the user to interact with the application.
 Architecture of Bluetooth
• The architecture of Bluetooth defines two types of
networks:
1. Piconet
2. Scatternet
Piconet
• Piconet is a type of Bluetooth network that contains one primary
node called the master node and seven active secondary nodes
called slave nodes.
• Thus, we can say that there is a total of 8 active nodes which are
present at a distance of 10 meters.
• The communication between the primary and secondary nodes can
be one-to-one or one-to-many.
• Possible communication is only between the master and slave;
Slave-slave communication is not possible.
• It also has 255 parked nodes, these are secondary nodes and cannot
take participation in communication unless it gets converted to the
active state.
•
Scatternet
• It is formed by using various piconets.
• A slave that is present in one piconet can act as master or we can
say primary in another piconet.
• This kind of node can receive a message from a master in one
piconet and deliver the message to its slave in the other piconet
where it is acting as a master.
• This type of node is referred to as a bridge node. A station cannot be
mastered in two piconets.
•
Operational States
• Figure shows the state diagram of Bluetooth communications.
Operational States
• Initially, all the devices would be in the standby mode.
• Then some device (called the master) could begin the inquiry and
get to know the nearby devices and, if needed, join them into its
piconet.
• After the inquiry, the device could formally be joined by paging,
which is a packet-exchange process between the master and a
prospective slave to inform the slave of the master's clock.
• If the device was already inquired, the master could get into the
page state bypassing the inquiry state.
• Once the device finishes getting paged, it enters the connected state.
• This state has three power-conserving sub-states – hold, sniff, and
park.
• A device in the connected state can participate in the data
transmission.
Inquiry State
• A device which is initially in the standby state enters the inquiry
state.
• The sole purpose of this state is to collect information about other
Bluetooth devices in its vicinity.
• This information includes the Bluetooth address and the clock
value, as these form the crux of the communication between the
devices.
• This state is classified into three sub- states: inquiry, inquiry scan,
and inquiry response.
• A device (slave) that wants to be discovered will periodically enter
the inquiry scan state and listen for these inquiry packets.
• When an inquiry message is received in the inquiry scan state, a
response packet called the frequency hopping sequence (FHS)
containing the responding device address must be sent.
• Devices respond after a random jitter to reduce the chances of
collisions.
Page State
• A device enters this state to invite other devices to join its piconet.
A device could invite only the devices known to itself.
• So normally the inquiry operation would precede this state. This
state also is classified into three sub-states:
1. page, 2. page scan, 3. page response
• In the page mode, the master estimates the slave's clock based on
the information received during the inquiry state, to determine
where in the hop sequence the slave might be listening in the page
scan mode.
• In order to account for inaccuracies in estimation, the master also
transmits the page message through frequencies immediately
preceding and succeeding the estimated one.
• On receiving the page message, the slave enters the slave page
response sub-state. It sends back a page response consisting of its
ID packet which contains its device access code (DAC).
Page State
• Finally, the master (after receiving the response from a slave) enters
the page response state and informs the slave about its clock and
address so that the slave can go ahead and participate in the piconet.
• The slave now calculates an offset to synchronize with the master
clock, and uses that to determine the hopping sequence for
communication in the piconet.
Middleware Protocol Group
• The basic functionality of the middleware protocol group is to
present to the application layers a standard interface.
• It may be used for communicating across the transport layer, that is,
the applications need not know the transport layer's complexities.
• They can just use the application programming interfaces (APIs) or
higher level functions provided by the middleware protocols.
• This group consists of the RFCOMM layer, service discovery
protocol (SDP), IrDA interoperability protocols, telephony
control specification (TCS), and audio.
• The RFCOMM layer presents a virtual serial port to applications
using the serial interface.
• In the case of Bluetooth devices, there is no device which will be
static and hence services offered by the other devices have to be
discovered by using the service discovery protocol (SDP)
• The IrDA interoperability protocol is not for communication
Middleware Protocol Group
• Audio is the distinguishing part of Bluetooth. Audio is given the
highest priority and is directly carried over the baseband at 64 Kbps
so that a very good quality of voice is provided.
• Telephony control is implemented using the telephony control
specification – binary (TCS-BIN) protocol.
 TCS defines three major functional areas: i) call control, ii) group
management, and iii) connectionless TCS.
i. Call control is used to set up calls which can be subsequently used
to carry voice and data traffic. TCS operates in both point-to-point
and point-to-multipoint configurations. One of the main concepts
of TCS is that of the wireless user group (WUG)
ii. Group management enables multiple telephone extensions, call
forwarding, and group calls.
iii. The functionalities of TCS include configuration distribution and
fast intermember access.
Bluetooth Profiles
• These profiles have been developed to promote interoperability
among the many implementations of the Bluetooth protocol stack.
• Each Bluetooth profile specification has been defined to provide a
clear and transparent standard that can be used to implement a
specific user end function.
• Two Bluetooth devices can achieve a common functionality only if
both devices support identical profiles.
• In all, 13 profiles have been listed and these can be broadly
classified into the following four categories:
1. Generic profiles
2. Telephony profiles
3. Networking profiles
4. Serial and object exchange profiles
Bluetooth Profiles
1. Generic profiles: The Generic access profile, which is not really an
application, provides a way to establish and maintain secure links
between the master and the slaves.
The service discovery profile enables users to access SDP to find out
which applications (Bluetooth services) are supported by a specific
device.

2. Telephony profiles: The cordless telephony profile is designed for

three-in-one phones. The Intercom profile supports two-way voice
communication between two Bluetooth devices within range of each
other.
The Headset profile specifies how Bluetooth can provide a wireless
connection to a headset (with earphones/microphones) for use with a
computer or a mobile phone.
Bluetooth Profiles
3. Networking profiles: The LAN Access profile enables Bluetooth
devices to either connect to a LAN through APs or form a small
wireless LAN among themselves.
The dial-up networking profile is designed to provide dial-up
connections via Bluetooth-enabled mobile phones. The FAX profile,
very similar to the dial-up networking profile, enables computers to
send and receive faxes via a Bluetooth-enabled mobile phone.

4. Serial and object exchange profiles: The serial port profile

emulates a serial line (RS232 and USB serial ports) for (legacy)
applications that require a serial line.
The other profiles, generic object exchange, object push, file transfer,
and synchronization, are for exchanging objects between two wireless
devices.
Advantages
• It is a low-cost and easy-to-use device.
• It can also penetrate through walls.
• It creates an Ad-hoc connection immediately without any wires.
• It is used for voice and data transfer.

Disadvantages
• It can be hacked and hence, less secure.
• It has a slow data transfer rate of 3 Mbps.
• Bluetooth communication does not support routing.
HIPER LAN STANDARD
• HIPERLAN stands for high performance local area network, defined
by the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI).
• It is primarily a European standard alternative for the IEEE 802.11
standards and was published in 1996.
• It is to be noted that while the IEEE 802.11 standards can use either
radio access or infrared access, the HIPERLAN standards are based
on radio access only.
• The standards have been defined as part of the ETSI broadband radio
access networks (BRAN) project.
• It is It does not necessarily require any type of access point
infrastructure for its operation, although a LAN extension via access
points can be implemented.
• In general, broadband systems are those in which user data rates are
greater than 2 Mbps (and can go up to 100s of Mbps). Four standards
have been defined for wireless networks by the ETSI.
HIPERLAN/1:
• It is a wireless radio LAN (RLAN) without a wired infrastructure,
based on one-to-one and one-to-many broadcasts.
• It can be used as an extension to a wired infrastructure, thus making it
suited to both ad hoc and infrastructure-based networks.
• It employs the 5.15 GHz and the 17.1 GHz frequency bands and
provides a maximum data rate of 23.5 Mbps
HIPERLAN/2:
• This standard intends to provide short-range (up to 200 m) wireless
access to Internet protocol (IP), asynchronous transfer mode (ATM1),
and other infrastructure-based networks and, more importantly, to
integrate WLANs into cellular systems.
• It employs the 5 GHz frequency band and offers a wide range of data
rates from 6 Mbps to 54 Mbps.
• HIPERLAN/2 has been designed to meet the requirements of future
wireless multimedia services.
HIPERACCESS:
• (originally called HIPERLAN/3) covers "the last mile" to the
customer;
• it enables establishment of outdoor high-speed radio access networks,
providing fixed radio connections to customer premises.
• It provides a data rate of 25 Mbps. It can be used to connect
HIPERLAN/2 deployments that are located far apart (up to 5 Km
away). It offers point-to multipoint communication.
The HIPERLINK:
• (originally called HIPERLAN/4) standard provides highspeed radio
links for point-to-point static interconnections.
• This is used to connect different HIPERLAN access points or
HIPERACCESS networks with high-speed links over short distances
of up to 150 m. HIPERLINK operates on the 17 GHz frequency range
• For example, the HIPERLINK can be employed to provide links
between different rooms or floors within a large building.
• The ETSI-BRAN systems.
Figure shows a typical deployment of the ETSI standards. The standards
excluding HIPERLAN/1 are grouped under the BRAN project.
HIPERLAN/2
The HIPERLAN/2 network has a typical topology as shown in Figure
HIPERLAN/2
• The figure shows MTs being centrally controlled by the APs which
are in turn connected to the core network (infrastructure-based
network).
• It is to be noted that, unlike the IEEE standards, the core network for
HIPERLAN/2 is not just restricted to Ethernet.
• Also, the AP used in HIPERLAN/2 consists of one or many
transceivers called access point transceivers (APTs) which are
controlled by a single access point controller (APC).

• There are two modes of communication in a HIPERLAN/2 network,

which are described by the following two environments:
1. Business environment: The ad hoc architecture of
HIPERLAN/1 has been extended to support a centralized mode of
communication using APs. This topology corresponds to business
environments. Accordingly, each AP serves a number of MTs.
HIPERLAN/2
2. Home environment: The home environment enables a direct
mode of communication between the MTs. This corresponds to
an ad hoc architecture that can be operated in a plug-and-play manner.
The direct mode of communication is, however, managed by a central
control entity elected from among the nodes called the central
controller (CC).

There are several features of HIPERLAN/2 that have attracted many a

cellular manufacturer. These features are part of the discussion on the
protocol stack of HIPERLAN/2 below.
The HIPERLAN/2 protocol stack consists of the
 physical layer,
 convergence layer (CL), and
 data link control (DLC) layer.
The Physical layer
• The physical layer is responsible for the conversion of the PDU train
from the DLC layer to physical bursts that are suitable for radio
transmission.

• HIPERLAN/2, like IEEE 802.11a, uses OFDM for transmission.

• The HIPERLAN/2 allows bit rates from 6 Mbps to 54 Mbps using a

scheme called link adaptation.

• This scheme allows the selection of a suitable modulation method for

the required bit rate.

• This scheme is unique to HIPERLAN/2 and is not available in the

IEEE standards and HIPERLAN/1.
Convergence Layer (CL)
• The topmost layer in the HIPERLAN/2 protocol stack is the CL.
• The functions of the layer are to adapt the requirements of the
different higher layers of the core network with the services provided
by the lower layers of HIPERLAN/2
• And convert the higher layer packets into ones of fixed size that can
be used by the lower layers.
• A CL is defined for every type of core network supported.
• In short, this layer is responsible for the network-independent feature
of HIPERLAN/2.
• The CL is classified into two types, namely,
the packet-based CL and the cell-based CL.
• The packet-based CL processes variable-length packets (such as IEEE
802.3, IP, and IEEE 1394).
• The cell-based CL processes fixed sized ATM cells. The CL has two
sublayers, namely, the common part (CP) and the service-specific
convergence sublayer (SSCS).
Convergence Layer (CL)
• The CP is independent of the core network. It allows parallel
segmentation and reassembly of packets.
• The CP comprises of two sublayers, namely, the common part
convergence sublayer (CPCS) and the segmentation and reassembly
(SAR) sublayer.
• The CPCS processes the packets from the higher layer and adds
padding and additional information, so as to be segmented in the
SAR.

• The SSCS consists of functions that are specific to the core network.

• The SSCS adapts the different data formats to the HIPERLAN/2 DLC
format.
• It is also responsible for mapping the QoS requests of the higher
layers to the QoS parameters of HIPERLAN/2 such as data rate,
delay, and jitter.
Data Link Control (DLC) layer
• The DLC layer constitutes the logical link between the AP and the
MTs.
• This ensures a connection-oriented communication in a HIPERLAN/2
network, in contrast to the connectionless service offered by the IEEE
standards.
• The DLC layer is organized into three functional units,
namely,
i) the radio link control (RLC) sublayer on the control plane,

ii) the error control (EC) sublayer on the user plane, and
iii) the MAC sublayer.
i) Radio Link Control (RLC) sublayer: The RLC sublayer takes care
of most of the control procedures on the DLC layer. The tasks of the
RLC can be summarized as follows.
• Association control function (ACF): The ACF handles the
registration and the authentication functions of an MT with an AP within
a radio cell. Only after the ACF procedure has been carried out can the
MT ever communicate with the AP.

• DLC user connection control (DCC): The DCC function is used to

control DLC user connections. It can set up new connections, modify
existing connections, and terminate connections.

• Radio resource control (RRC): The RRC is responsible for the

surveillance and efficient utilization of the available frequency resources.
It performs the following tasks:
1. Dynamic frequency selection:
2. Handoff:
3. Power saving:
1. Dynamic frequency selection: This function is not available in
IEEE 802.11, IEEE 802.11a, IEEE802.11b, and HIPERLAN/1,
and is thus unique to HIPERLAN/2. It allows the AP to select a
channel (frequency) for communication with the MTs depending on
the interferences in each channel, thereby aiding in the efficient
utilization of the available frequencies

2. Handoff: HIPERLAN/2 supports three types of handoff, namely,

sector handoff (moving to another sector of the same antenna of an
APT), radio handoff (handoff between two APTs under the same
APC), and network handoff (handoff between two APs in the same
network).

3. Power saving: Power-saving schemes much similar to those in

HIPERLAN/1 and IEEE 802.11 have been implemented.
ii) Error Control (EC): Selective repeat (where only the specific
damaged or lost frame is retransmitted) protocol is used for controlling
the errors across the medium.
To support QoS for stringent and delay-critical applications, a discard
mechanism can be provided by specifying a maximum delay.

iii) The MAC Sublayer: The MAC protocol is used for access to the
medium, resulting in the transmission of data through that channel.
• However, unlike the IEEE standards repeat and the HIPERLAN/1 in
which channel access is made by sensing it, the MAC protocol
follows a dynamic time division multiple access/time division
duplexing (TDMA/TDD) scheme with centralized control.
• The protocol supports both AP-MT unicast and multicast transfer, and
at the same time MT-MT peer-to-peer communication.
• The centralized AP scheduling provides QoS support and collision-
free transmission.
• The MAC protocol provides a connection-oriented communication
between the AP and the MT (or between MTs).
HOME RF
• Wireless home networking represents the use of the radio frequency
(RF) spectrum to transmit voice and data in confined areas such as
homes and small offices.
• One of the visionary concepts that home networking intends to
achieve is the establishment of communication between home
appliances such as computers, TVs, telephones, refrigerators, and air
conditioners.
• HomeRF technology intends to integrate devices used in homes into a
single network and utilize RF links for communication.
• HomeRF is a strong competitor to Bluetooth as it operates in the ISM
band.
Technical Features:
 The HomeRF provides data rates of 1.6 Mbps, a little higher than the
Bluetooth rate, supporting both infrastructure-based and ad hoc
communications.
 It provides a guaranteed QoS delivery to voice-only devices and best-
effort delivery for data-only devices.
Technical Features:
 A typical HomeRF network consists of resource providers (through
which communication to various resources such as the cable modem
and phone lines is effected), and the devices connected to them (such
as the cordless phone, printers, and file servers).

 The HomeRF technology follows a protocol called the shared wireless

access protocol (SWAP).

 The SWAP has been derived from the IEEE 802.11 and the European
digitally enhanced cordless telephony (DECT) standards.

 It employs a hybrid TDMA/CSMA scheme for channel access.

 The SWAP can support up to 127 devices, each identified uniquely by

a 48-bit network identifier.
Technical Features:
 The supported devices can fall into one (or more) of the following
four basic types:

1. Connection point that provides a gateway to the public switched

telephone network (PSTN), hence supporting voice and data
services.

2. Asynchronous data node that uses the CSMA/CA mechanism to

communicate with other nodes.

3. Voice node that uses TDMA for communication.

4. Voice and data node that can use both CSMA/CA and TDMA for
channel access.
Infrared:

The infrared technology (IrDA) uses the infrared region of the light for
communication. Some of the characteristics of these communications are
as follows:

• The infrared rays can be blocked by obstacles, such as walls and

buildings.
• The effective range of infrared communications is about one meter. But
when high power is used, it is possible to achieve better ranges.
• The power consumed by infrared devices is extremely low.
•Data rates of 4 Mbps are easily achievable using infrared
communications.
• The cost of infrared devices is very low compared to that of Bluetooth
devices
Although the restriction of line of sight (LoS) is there on the infrared
devices, they are extremely popular because they are cheap and consume
less power.
The infrared technology has been prevalent for a longer time than
Bluetooth wireless communications. So it has more widespread usage
than Bluetooth.