美国宪法第十四修正案:修订间差异

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清理跨語言連結洛克纳诉纽约州案成為內部連結:編輯摘要的紅色內部連結乃正常現象,經繁簡轉換後存在,非bot錯誤編輯 (本次機械人作業已完成0.2%)
 
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====实质性正当程序====
从1897年的{{link-en|奥尔盖耶诉路易斯安那州案|Allgeyer v. Louisiana}}开始,法院就认为正当程序条款需要向私人契约提供实质性保护,从而禁止政府的各类社会和经济调节、管控,这一原则被称为[[契约自由原则]]<ref>''Allgeyer v. Louisiana'', {{ussc|165|578|1897}}</ref><ref name="Wests">{{Cite book |url=http://law.jrank.org/pages/6312/Due-Process-Law-Substantive-Due-Process.html |title=West's Encyclopedia of American Law |publisher=Thomson Gale |accessdate=2013-09-05 |year=1998 |chapter=Due Process of Law – Substantive Due Process |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130606021952/http://law.jrank.org/pages/6312/Due-Process-Law-Substantive-Due-Process.html |archivedate=2013-06-06 |deadurl=no}}</ref>。根据这一原则,法院在1905年的{{link-en|[[洛克纳诉纽约州案|Lochner v. New York}}]]中宣布一项规定面包工人最高工时的法律违宪<ref>''Lochner v. New York'', {{ussc|198|45|1905}}</ref>,又于1923年的{{link-en|阿德金斯诉儿童医院案|Adkins v. Children's Hospital}}中判决一项规定最低工资标准的法律无效<ref>''Adkins v. Children's Hospital'', {{ussc|261|525|1923}}</ref>,同年的{{link-en|迈耶诉内布拉斯加案|Meyer v. Nebraska}}中,法院指出“自由”受正当程序条款保护<ref>''Meyer v. Nebraska'', {{ussc|262|390|1923}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=CRS Annotated Constitution |url=http://www.law.cornell.edu/anncon/html/amdt14cfrag8_user.html |access-date=2013-06-12 |publisher=Cornell University Law School Legal Information Institute |quote=[w]ithout doubt...denotes not merely freedom from bodily restraint but also the right of the individual to contract, to engage in any of the common occupations of life, to acquire useful knowledge, to marry, establish a home and bring up children, to worship God according to the dictates of his own conscience, and generally to enjoy those privileges long recognized at common law as essential to the orderly pursuit of happiness by free men. |archivedate=2013-06-12 |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/6HKNGO94g?url=http://www.law.cornell.edu/anncon/html/amdt14cfrag8_user.html |deadurl=no}}</ref>。
 
不过,在1887年的{{link-en|马格勒诉堪萨斯案|Mugler v. Kansas}}中,法院支持了一些经济调节政策<ref>''Mugler v. Kansas'', {{ussc|123|623|1887}}</ref>,到了1898年的{{link-en|霍顿诉哈迪案|Holden v. Hardy}}中,法院裁决有关煤矿工人最高工时的法律合宪<ref>''Holden v. Hardy'', {{ussc|169|366|1898}}</ref>,1908年的{{link-en|穆勒诉俄勒冈州案|Muller v. Oregon}}则认可了规定女性工人最高工时的法律<ref>''Muller v. Oregon'', {{ussc|208|412|1908}}</ref>。在1917年的威尔逊诉纽案({{lang|en|Wilson v. New}})中,法院认可了总统[[伍德罗·威尔逊]]对[[铁路]][[罢工]]的干预措施<ref>''Wilson v. New'', {{ussc|243|332|1917}}</ref>,还在1919年的美国诉多雷姆斯案({{lang|en|United States v. Doremus}})中认定监管[[毒品]]的联邦法院合宪<ref>''United States v. Doremus'', {{ussc|249|86|1919}}</ref>。在1937年的[[西海岸旅馆公司诉帕里什案]]案中,法院否定了原本契约自由的广泛认定,但没有明确地将之全盘推翻<ref>''West Coast Hotel v. Parrish'', {{ussc|300|379|1937}}</ref>。
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在1954年的{{link-en|埃尔南德斯诉得克萨斯州案|Hernandez v. Texas}}中,最高法院判决第十四修正案同样对既非白人,也不是黑人的其他种族和族裔群体提供保护,例如本案中的[[墨西哥裔美国人]]<ref>''Hernandez v. Texas'', {{ussc|347|475|1954}}</ref>。在布朗案之后的半个世纪里,法院将平等保护条款延伸到其他历史上的弱势群体,如女性和非婚生子女,虽然判定这些群体是否受到歧视的标准不如种族歧视那么严格<ref>''United States v. Virginia'', {{ussc|518|515|1996}}</ref><ref>''Levy v. Louisiana'', {{ussc|361|68|1968}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/constitutionalun00gers |title=The Constitutional Underclass: Gays, Lesbians, and the Failure of Class-Based Equal Protection |last=Gerstmann |first=Evan |publisher=University Of Chicago Press |year=1999 |isbn=0-226-28860-9}}</ref>。
 
在1978年的[[加州大学董事会诉巴基案]]中,最高法院判定[[公立大学]]招生中的根据[[平权法案]]制订的{{link-en|种族配额|racial quota}}政策违反了《[[1964年民權法案]]》第6条,但是种族可以作为招生中考虑的一个因素,并且不会违反第6条和第十四修正案的平等保护条款<ref>Regents of the University of California v. Bakke, {{ussc|438|265|1978}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |author=Supreme Court Drama: Cases That Changed America |year=2001 |title=Regents of the University of California v. Bakke 1978 |url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G2-3457000109.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160206004636/https://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G2-3457000109.html |archive-date=2016-02-06 |access-date=2013-09-05 |website=Supreme Court Drama: Cases that Changed America |publisher={{Subscription required|via=HighBeam Research}} |dead-url=yes}}</ref>。在2003年的{{link-en|[[格拉茨诉布林格案|Gratz v. Bollinger}}]]和[[格鲁特诉布林格案]],[[密歇根大学]]声称要通过两类向少数族裔提供招生倾斜的政策来实现学校的[[文化差異|种族多样性]]<ref>Gratz v. Bollinger, {{ussc|539|244|2003}}</ref><ref>Grutter v. Bollinger, {{ussc|539|306|2003}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Alger |first=Jonathan |date=2003-10-11 |title=Grutter/Gratz and Beyone: the Diversity Leadership Challenge |url=http://www.vpcomm.umich.edu/admissions/overview/challenge.html |access-date=2013-09-05 |publisher=University of Michigan |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110813090527/http://www.vpcomm.umich.edu/admissions/overview/challenge.html |archivedate=2011-08-13 |deadurl=yes}}</ref>。在格拉兹案中,法院认为该校以分数为标准的本科招生制度中,为少数族裔加分的做法违反了平等保护条款;而在格鲁兹案里,法院同意该校法学院在招生时,把种族作为确定录取学生的多个考虑因素之一<ref>{{Cite web |author=Eckes, Susan B. |date=2004-01-01 |title=Race-Conscious Admissions Programs: Where Do Universities Go From Gratz and Grutter? |url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P3-535368561.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160206004636/https://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P3-535368561.html |archive-date=2016-02-06 |access-date=2013-09-05 |website=Journal of Law and Education |publisher={{Subscription required|via=HighBeam Research}} |dead-url=yes}}</ref>。在2013年的{{link-en|费舍尔诉德州大学案|Fisher v. University of Texas}}中,法院要求公立学校只有在没有可行的种族中立替代方案时,才能把种族因素纳入招生制度进行考虑<ref>{{Cite web |last=Howe |first=Amy |date=2013-06-24 |title=Finally! The Fisher decision in Plain English |url=http://www.scotusblog.com/?p=165685 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130629185348/http://www.scotusblog.com/?p=165685 |archive-date=2013-06-29 |access-date=2013-09-05 |publisher=SCOTUSblog |dead-url=no}}</ref>。
 
在1971年的[[里德诉里德案]]中,最高法院推翻了爱达荷州偏袒男性的遗嘱认证法律<ref>''Reed v. Reed'', {{ussc|404|71|1971}}</ref>,这是最高法院首度裁定任意的性别歧视违反平等保护条款<ref name="Reed" />。在1976年的{{link-en|克雷格诉博伦案|Craig v. Boren}}中,法律判决法定或行政性的[[性别]]分类必须接受不偏不倚的司法审查<ref>''Craig v. Boren'', {{ussc|429|190|1976}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |author=Karst, Kenneth L. |date=2000-01-01 |title=Craig v. Boren 429 U.S. 190 (1976) |url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G2-3425000655.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160206004636/https://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G2-3425000655.html |archive-date=2016-02-06 |access-date=2013-09-05 |website=Encyclopedia of the American Constitution |publisher={{Subscription required|via=HighBeam Research}} |dead-url=yes}}</ref>。之后,里德和克雷格案成为先例,被多次援引并推翻了多个州的性别歧视法律<ref name="Reed">{{Cite web |date=2001-01-01 |title=Reed v. Reed 1971 |url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G2-3457000128.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160206004636/https://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G2-3457000128.html |archive-date=2016-02-06 |access-date=2013-09-05 |website=Supreme Court Drama: Cases that Changed America |publisher={{Subscription required|via=HighBeam Research}} |dead-url=yes}}</ref>。