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元素氧化态列表

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这是本页的一个历史版本，由Hacter Chang（留言 | 贡献）在2023年5月28日 (日) 07:27编辑。这可能和当前版本存在着巨大的差异。

元素氧化态列表列出目前已知的118種化学元素之所有已知的整数氧化态，其中最常见的氧化态以粗体标记。所有元素以单质存在時（無論單原子或多原子，包括同素異形體）氧化态均为0，因此下表中氧化態0的欄位只列出已發現在化合物中存在氧化態0的元素。

该列表主要参考《元素化学》（Chemistry of the Elements）[1]，显示出元素周期律在元素价态上的一些趋势。

+1 粗體表示其為該元素之主要氧化態
  惰性氣體
化學元素氧化態列表
元素 負氧化態 正氧化態 族 註解
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 +8 +9
Z
1 氫 H −1 +1 1
2 氦 He 0 18 [2]
3 鋰 Li 0 +1 1 [3][4]
4 鈹 Be 0 +1 +2 2 [5][6]
5 硼 B −5 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 13 [7][8][9]
6 碳 C −4 −3 −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 14
7 氮 N −3 −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 15 [10]
8 氧 O −2 −1 0 +1 +2 16
9 氟 F −1 0 17 [11][12]
10 氖 Ne 0 18 [13]
11 鈉 Na −1 0 +1 1 [3][14]
12 鎂 Mg 0 +1 +2 2 [15][16]
13 鋁 Al −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 13 [17][18][19][20]
14 矽 Si −4 −3 −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 14 [21]
15 磷 P −3 −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 15 [22]
16 硫 S −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 16
17 氯 Cl −1 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 17 [23]
18 氬 Ar 0 18 [24]
19 鉀 K −1 +1 1 [3]
20 鈣 Ca +1 +2 2 [25][26]
21 鈧 Sc 0 +1 +2 +3 3 [27][28][29]
22 鈦 Ti −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 4 [30][31][32][33]
23 釩 V −3 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 5 [31]
24 鉻 Cr −4 −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 6 [31]
25 錳 Mn −3 −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 7
26 鐵 Fe −4 −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 8 [34][35][36]
27 鈷 Co −3 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 9 [31]
28 鎳 Ni −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 10 [37]
29 銅 Cu −2 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 11 [36][38]
30 鋅 Zn −2 0 +1 +2 12 [36][39][40][41]
31 鎵 Ga −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 13 [18][42][43][44]
32 鍺 Ge −4 −3 −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 14 [45][21]
33 砷 As −3 −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 15 [18][46][47][48]
34 硒 Se −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 16 [49][50][51][52][53]
35 溴 Br −1 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +7 17 [54]
36 氪 Kr 0 +1 +2 18
37 銣 Rb −1 +1 1
38 鍶 Sr +1 +2 2
39 釔 Y 0 +1 +2 +3 3
40 鋯 Zr −2 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 4
41 鈮 Nb −3 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 5
42 鉬 Mo −4 −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 6
43 鎝 Tc −3 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 7
44 釕 Ru −4 −2 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 +8 8
45 銠 Rh −3 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 9
46 鈀 Pd 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 10
47 銀 Ag −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 11
48 鎘 Cd −2 +1 +2 12
49 銦 In −5 −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 13
50 錫 Sn −4 −3 −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 14
51 銻 Sb −3 −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 15
52 碲 Te −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 16
53 碘 I −1 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 17
54 氙 Xe 0 +2 +4 +6 +8 18
55 銫 Cs −1 +1 1
56 鋇 Ba +1 +2 2
57 鑭 La 0 +1 +2 +3 f區元素
58 鈰 Ce +2 +3 +4 f區元素
59 鐠 Pr 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 f區元素
60 釹 Nd 0 +2 +3 +4 f區元素
61 鉕 Pm +2 +3 f區元素
62 釤 Sm 0 +1 +2 +3 f區元素
63 銪 Eu 0 +2 +3 f區元素
64 釓 Gd 0 +1 +2 +3 f區元素
65 鋱 Tb 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 f區元素
66 鏑 Dy 0 +2 +3 +4 f區元素
67 鈥 Ho 0 +2 +3 f區元素
68 鉺 Er 0 +2 +3 f區元素
69 銩 Tm 0 +1 +2 +3 f區元素
70 鐿 Yb 0 +1 +2 +3 f區元素
71 鎦 Lu 0 +2 +3 3
72 鉿 Hf −2 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 4
73 鉭 Ta −3 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 5
74 鎢 W −4 −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 6
75 錸 Re −3 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 7
76 鋨 Os −4 −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 +8 8
77 銥 Ir −3 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 +8 +9 9
78 鉑 Pt −3 −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 10
79 金 Au −3 −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +5 11
80 汞 Hg −2 +1 +2 12
81 鉈 Tl −5 −2 −1 +1 +2 +3 13
82 鉛 Pb −4 −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 14
83 鉍 Bi −3 −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 15
84 釙 Po −2 +2 +4 +5 +6 16
85 砈 At −1 +1 +3 +5 +7 17
86 氡 Rn +2 +6 18
87 鍅 Fr +1 1
88 鐳 Ra +2 2
89 錒 Ac +3 f區元素
90 釷 Th −1 +1 +2 +3 +4 f區元素
91 鏷 Pa +2 +3 +4 +5 f區元素
92 鈾 U −1 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 f區元素
93 錼 Np +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 f區元素
94 鈽 Pu +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 +8 f區元素
95 鋂 Am +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 f區元素
96 鋦 Cm +3 +4 +5 +6 f區元素
97 鉳 Bk +2 +3 +4 +5 f區元素
98 鉲 Cf +2 +3 +4 +5 f區元素
99 鑀 Es +2 +3 +4 f區元素
100 鐨 Fm +2 +3 f區元素
101 鍆 Md +2 +3 f區元素
102 鍩 No +2 +3 f區元素
103 鐒 Lr +3 3
104 鑪 Rf +4 4
105 𨧀 Db +5 5
106 𨭎 Sg 0 +6 6
107 𨨏 Bh +7 7
108 𨭆 Hs +8 8
109 䥑 Mt 9
110 鐽 Ds 10
111 錀 Rg 11
112 鎶 Cn +2 12
113 鉨 Nh 13
114 鈇 Fl 14
115 鏌 Mc 15
116 鉝 Lv 16
117 鿬 Ts 17
118 鿫 Og 18

下图是欧文·朗缪尔1919年在研究八隅体规则时所画：[55]

参考资料

  1. ^ Greenwood, N. N.; Earnshaw, A. (1997). Chemistry of the Elements, 2nd Edition, Oxford:Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 0-7506-3365-4, p. 28.
  2. ^ Disodium helide, (Na+)2He(e-)2, has been synthesized at high pressure, see Dong, Xiao; Oganov, Artem R.; Goncharov, Alexander F.; Stavrou, Elissaios; Lobanov, Sergey; Saleh, Gabriele; Qian, Guang-Rui; Zhu, Qiang; Gatti, Carlo; Deringer, Volker L.; Dronskowski, Richard; Zhou, Xiang-Feng; Prakapenka, Vitali B.; Konôpková, Zuzana; Popov, Ivan A.; Boldyrev, Alexander I.; Wang, Hui-Tian. A stable compound of helium and sodium at high pressure. Nature Chemistry. 6 February 2017, 9 (5): 440–445. Bibcode:2017NatCh...9..440D. PMID 28430195. S2CID 20459726. arXiv:1309.3827 可免费查阅. doi:10.1038/nchem.2716. 
  3. ^ 3.0 3.1 3.2 Na(−1), K(−1), Rb(−1), and Cs(−1) are known in alkalides; the table by Greenwood and Earnshaw shows −1 only for Na and also erroneously for Li; no lithides are described.
  4. ^ Li(0) atoms have been observed in various small lithium-chloride clusters; see Milovanović, Milan; Veličković, Suzana; Veljkovićb, Filip; Jerosimić, Stanka. Structure and stability of small lithium-chloride LinClm(0,1+) (n ≥ m, n = 1–6, m = 1–3) clusters. Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics. October 30, 2017, (45). doi:10.1039/C7CP04181K. 
  5. ^ Be(0) has been observed; see Beryllium(0) Complex Found. Chemistry Europe. 13 June 2016. 
  6. ^ Be(I) has been observed in beryllium monohydride (BeH); see Shayesteh, A.; Tereszchuk, K.; Bernath, P. F.; Colin, R. Infrared Emission Spectra of BeH and BeD (PDF). J. Chem. Phys. 2003, 118 (3): 1158 [2007-12-10]. Bibcode:2003JChPh.118.1158S. doi:10.1063/1.1528606. （原始内容 (PDF)存档于2007-12-02）.  and in [(CAAC)2Be]+• [CAAC = cyclic (alkyl)(amino)carbene], see Wang, Guocang; Walley, Jacob E.; Dickie, Diane E.; Pan, Sudip; Frenking, Gernot; Gilliard Jr., Robert G. A Stable, Crystalline Beryllium Radical Cation. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2020, 142 (10): 4560–4 [2020-11-17]. PMID 32088963. S2CID 211262005. doi:10.1021/jacs.9b13777. 
  7. ^ B(−5) has been observed in Al3BC, see Schroeder, Melanie. Eigenschaften von borreichen Boriden und Scandium-Aluminium-Oxid-Carbiden. : 139 （德语）. 
  8. ^ B(−1) has been observed in magnesium diboride (MgB2), see Keeler, James; Wothers, Peter. Chemical Structure and Reactivity: An Integrated Approach. Oxford University Press. 2014. ISBN 9780199604135. 
  9. ^ B(0) has been observed in diborynes, see Braunschweig, H.; Dewhurst, R. D.; Hammond, K.; Mies, J.; Radacki, K.; Vargas, A. Ambient-Temperature Isolation of a Compound with a Boron-Boron Triple Bond. Science. 2012, 336 (6087): 1420–2. Bibcode:2012Sci...336.1420B. PMID 22700924. S2CID 206540959. doi:10.1126/science.1221138. 
  10. ^ Tetrazoles contain a pair of double-bonded nitrogen atoms with oxidation state 0 in the ring. A Synthesis of the parent 1H-tetrazole, CH2N4 (two atoms N(0)) is given in Ronald A. Henry and William G. Finnegan, "An Improved Procedure for the Deamination of 5-Aminotetrazole", _J. Am. Chem. Soc._ (1954), 76, 1, 290–291, https://doi.org/10.1021/ja01630a086.
  11. ^ Gold heptafluoride is calculated to be the pentafluoride with a molecular F2 ligand. Himmel, Daniel; Riedel, Sebastian. After 20 Years, Theoretical Evidence That 'AuF7' Is Actually AuF5•F2. Inorganic Chemistry. 2007, 46 (13): 5338–5342. PMID 17511450. doi:10.1021/ic700431s. 
  12. ^ A cluster of elusive SF6+ with helium atoms is known to have fluorine(0) atom as a ligand; see Albertini, Simon; Bergmeister, Stefan; Laimer, Felix; Martini, Paul; Gruber, Elisabeth; Zappa, Fabio; Ončák, Milan; Scheier, Paul; Echt, Olof. SF 6 + : Stabilizing Transient Ions in Helium Nanodroplets. The Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters. 2021-04-22, 12 (17): 4112–4117. ISSN 1948-7185. PMC 8154854 可免费查阅. PMID 33886323. doi:10.1021/acs.jpclett.1c01024 可免费查阅 （英语）. 
  13. ^ Ne(0) has been observed in Cr(CO)5Ne. Perutz, Robin N.; Turner, James J. Photochemistry of the Group 6 hexacarbonyls in low-temperature matrices. III. Interaction of the pentacarbonyls with noble gases and other matrices. Journal of the American Chemical Society. August 1975, 97 (17): 4791–4800. doi:10.1021/ja00850a001. 
  14. ^ The compound NaCl has been shown in experiments to exists in several unusual stoichiometries under high pressure, including Na3Cl in which contains a layer of sodium(0) atoms; see Zhang, W.; Oganov, A. R.; Goncharov, A. F.; Zhu, Q.; Boulfelfel, S. E.; Lyakhov, A. O.; Stavrou, E.; Somayazulu, M.; Prakapenka, V. B.; Konôpková, Z. Unexpected Stable Stoichiometries of Sodium Chlorides. Science. 2013, 342 (6165): 1502–1505. Bibcode:2013Sci...342.1502Z. PMID 24357316. S2CID 15298372. arXiv:1310.7674 可免费查阅. doi:10.1126/science.1244989. 
  15. ^ Low valent magnesium compounds with Mg(I) have been obtained using bulky ligands; see Green, S. P.; Jones C.; Stasch A. Stable Magnesium(I) Compounds with Mg-Mg Bonds. Science. December 2007, 318 (5857): 1754–1757. Bibcode:2007Sci...318.1754G. PMID 17991827. S2CID 40657565. doi:10.1126/science.1150856. 
  16. ^ Mg(0) has been synthesized in a compound containing a Na2Mg22+ cluster coordinated to a bulky organic ligand; see Rösch, B.; Gentner, T. X.; Eyselein, J.; Langer, J.; Elsen, H.; Li, W.; Harder, S. Strongly reducing magnesium(0) complexes. Nature. 2021, 592 (7856): 717–721. Bibcode:2021Natur.592..717R. PMID 33911274. S2CID 233447380. doi:10.1038/s41586-021-03401-w 
  17. ^ Al(II) has been observed in aluminium(II) oxide (AlO); see Tyte, D.C. Red (B2Π–A2σ) Band System of Aluminium Monoxide. Nature. 1964, 202 (4930): 383–384. Bibcode:1964Natur.202..383T. S2CID 4163250. doi:10.1038/202383a0 , and in dialanes (R2Al—AlR2); see Uhl, Werner. Organoelement Compounds Possessing Al—Al, Ga—Ga, In—In, and Tl—Tl Single Bonds. Advances in Organometallic Chemistry. 2004, 51: 53–108. doi:10.1016/S0065-3055(03)51002-4. 
  18. ^ 18.0 18.1 18.2 Negative oxidation states of p-block metals (Al, Ga, In, Sn, Tl, Pb, Bi, Po) and metalloids (Si, Ge, As, Sb, Te, At) may occur in Zintl phases, see: Riedel, Erwin (编). Moderne Anorganische Chemie. 2007: 259 （德语） , and Vorlesung Intermetallische Phasen § 6.2 Binäre Zintl-Phasen （德语）. 
  19. ^ Unstable carbonyl of Al(0) has been detected in reaction of Al2(CH3)6 with carbon monoxide; see Sanchez, Ramiro; Arrington, Caleb; Arrington Jr., C. A. Reaction of trimethylaluminum with carbon monoxide in low-temperature matrixes. American Chemical Society. December 1, 1989, 111 (25): 9110-9111. doi:10.1021/ja00207a023. 
  20. ^ Al(−2) has been observed in Sr14[Al4]2[Ge]3, see Wemdorff, Marco; Röhr, Caroline. Sr14[Al4]2[Ge]3: Eine Zintl-Phase mit isolierten [Ge]4–- und [Al4]8–-Anionen / Sr14[Al4]2[Ge]3: A Zintl Phase with Isolated [Ge]4–- and [Al4]8– Anions. Zeitschrift für Naturforschung B. 2007, 62 (10): 1227. S2CID 94972243. doi:10.1515/znb-2007-1001 （德语）. 
  21. ^ 21.0 21.1 New Type of Zero-Valent Tin Compound. Chemistry Europe. 27 August 2016. 
  22. ^ P(0) has been observed, see Wang, Yuzhong; Xie, Yaoming; Wei, Pingrong; King, R. Bruce; Schaefer, Iii; Schleyer, Paul v. R.; Robinson, Gregory H. Carbene-Stabilized Diphosphorus. Journal of the American Chemical Society. 2008, 130 (45): 14970–1. PMID 18937460. doi:10.1021/ja807828t. 
  23. ^ The equilibrium Cl2O6⇌2ClO3 is mentioned by Greenwood and Earnshaw, but it has been refuted, see Lopez, Maria; Juan E. Sicre. Physicochemical properties of chlorine oxides. 1. Composition, ultraviolet spectrum, and kinetics of the thermolysis of gaseous dichlorine hexoxide. J. Phys. Chem. 1990, 94 (9): 3860–3863. doi:10.1021/j100372a094. , and Cl2O6 is actually chlorine(V,VII) oxide. However, ClO3 has been observed, see Grothe, Hinrich; Willner, Helge. Chlorine Trioxide: Spectroscopic Properties, Molecular Structure, and Photochemical Behavior. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 1994, 33 (14): 1482–1484. doi:10.1002/anie.199414821. 
  24. ^ Ar(0) has been observed in argon fluorohydride (HArF) and ArCF22+, see Lockyear, J.F.; Douglas, K.; Price, S.D.; Karwowska, M.; et al. Generation of the ArCF22+ Dication. Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters. 2010, 1: 358. doi:10.1021/jz900274p. 
  25. ^ Ca(I) has been observed; see Krieck, Sven; Görls, Helmar; Westerhausen, Matthias. Mechanistic Elucidation of the Formation of the Inverse Ca(I) Sandwich Complex [(thf)3Ca(μ-C6H3-1,3,5-Ph3)Ca(thf)3] and Stability of Aryl-Substituted Phenylcalcium Complexes. Journal of the American Chemical Society. 2010, 132 (35): 12492–501. PMID 20718434. doi:10.1021/ja105534w. 
  26. ^ Octacarbonyl complexes isolated of Ca, Sr, Ba have been observed in a neon matrix, but it remains unclear whether these are metal(0) complexes because calculations disagree whether the metal is covalently or ionically bonded to the ligands; see Wu, X.; Zhao, L.; Jin, J.; Pan, S.; Li, W.; Jin, X.; Wang, G.; Zhou, M.; Frenking, G. Observation of alkaline earth complexes M(CO)8 (M = Ca, Sr, or Ba) that mimic transition metals. Science. 2018, 361 (6405): 912–916. Bibcode:2018Sci...361..912W. PMID 30166489. S2CID 52131470. doi:10.1126/science.aau0839 
  27. ^ Sc(0) has been observed; see F. Geoffrey N. Cloke; Karl Khan & Robin N. Perutz. η-Arene complexes of scandium(0) and scandium(II). J. Chem. Soc., Chem. Commun. 1991, (19): 1372–1373. doi:10.1039/C39910001372. 
  28. ^ Sc(I) has been observed; see Polly L. Arnold; F. Geoffrey; N. Cloke; Peter B. Hitchcock & John F. Nixon. The First Example of a Formal Scandium(I) Complex: Synthesis and Molecular Structure of a 22-Electron Scandium Triple Decker Incorporating the Novel 1,3,5-Triphosphabenzene Ring. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1996, 118 (32): 7630–7631. doi:10.1021/ja961253o. 
  29. ^ Sc(II) has been observed; see Woen, David H.; Chen, Guo P.; Ziller, Joseph W.; Boyle, Timothy J.; Furche, Filipp; Evans, William J. Solution Synthesis, Structure, and CO Reduction Reactivity of a Scandium(II) Complex. Angewandte Chemie International Edition. January 2017, 56 (8): 2050–2053. PMID 28097771. doi:10.1002/anie.201611758. 
  30. ^ Ti(I) has been observed in [Ti(η6-1,3,5-C6H3iPr3)2][BAr4] (Ar = C6H5, p-C6H4F, 3,5-C6H3(CF3)2); see Calderazzo, Fausto; Ferri, Isabella; Pampaloni, Guido; Englert, Ulli; Green, Malcolm L. H. Synthesis of [Ti(η6-1,3,5-C6H3iPr3)2][BAr4] (Ar = C6H5, p-C6H4F, 3,5-C6H3(CF3)2), the First Titanium(I) Derivatives. Organometallics. 1997, 16 (14): 3100–3101. doi:10.1021/om970155o. 
  31. ^ 31.0 31.1 31.2 31.3 Ti(−2), V(−3), Cr(−4), Co(−3), Zr(−2), Nb(−3), Mo(−4), Ru(−2), Rh(−3), Hf(−2), Ta(−3), and W(−4) occur in anionic binary metal carbonyls; see [1], p. 4 (in German); [2], pp. 97–100; [3], p. 239
  32. ^ Ti(−1) has been reported in [Ti(bipy)3]−, but was later shown to be Ti(+3); see Bowman, A. C.; England, J.; Sprouls, S.; Weihemüller, T.; Wieghardt, K. Electronic structures of homoleptic [tris(2,2'-bipyridine)M]n complexes of the early transition metals (M = Sc, Y, Ti, Zr, Hf, V, Nb, Ta; n = 1+, 0, 1-, 2-, 3-): an experimental and density functional theoretical study. Inorganic Chemistry. 2013, 52 (4): 2242–56. PMID 23387926. doi:10.1021/ic302799s.  However, Ti(−1) occurs in [Ti(η-C6H6]− and [Ti(η-C6H5CH3)]−, see Bandy, J. A.; Berry, A.; Green, M. L. H.; Perutz, R. N.; Prout, K.; Verpeautz, J.-N. Synthesis of anionic sandwich compounds: [Ti(η-C6H5R)2]– and the crystal structure of [K(18-crown-6)(µ-H)Mo(η-C5H5)2]. Inorganic Chemistry. 1984, 52 (4): 729–731. doi:10.1039/C39840000729. 
  33. ^ Jilek, Robert E.; Tripepi, Giovanna; Urnezius, Eugenijus; Brennessel, William W.; Young, Victor G. Jr.; Ellis, John E. Zerovalent titanium–sulfur complexes. Novel dithiocarbamato derivatives of Ti(CO)6: [Ti(CO)4(S2CNR2)]−. Chem. Commun. 2007, (25): 2639–2641. PMID 17579764. doi:10.1039/B700808B. 
  34. ^ Fe(VII) has been observed in [FeO4]−; see Lu, Jun-Bo; Jian, Jiwen; Huang, Wei; Lin, Hailu; Zhou, Mingfei. Experimental and theoretical identification of the Fe(VII) oxidation state in FeO4−. Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics. 2016, 18 (45): 31125–31131. Bibcode:2016PCCP...1831125L. PMID 27812577. doi:10.1039/C6CP06753K. 
  35. ^ Fe(VIII) has been reported; see Yurii D. Perfiliev; Virender K. Sharma. Higher Oxidation States of Iron in Solid State: Synthesis and Their Mössbauer Characterization – Ferrates – ACS Symposium Series (ACS Publications). Platinum Metals Review. 2008, 48 (4): 157–158. doi:10.1595/147106704X10801.  However, its existence has been disputed.
  36. ^ 36.0 36.1 36.2 Fe(−4), Ru(−4), and Os(−4) have been observed in metal-rich compounds containing octahedral complexes [MIn6−xSnx]; Pt(−3) (as a dimeric anion [Pt–Pt]6−), Cu(−2), Zn(−2), Ag(−2), Cd(−2), Au(−2), and Hg(−2) have been observed (as dimeric and monomeric anions; dimeric ions were initially reported to be [T–T]2− for Zn, Cd, Hg, but later shown to be [T–T]4− for all these elements) in La2Pt2In, La2Cu2In, Ca5Au3, Ca5Ag3, Ca5Hg3, Sr5Cd3, Ca5Zn3(structure (AE2+)5(T–T)4−T2−⋅4e−), Yb3Ag2, Ca5Au4, and Ca3Hg2; Au(–3) has been observed in ScAuSn and in other 18-electron half-Heusler compounds. See Changhoon Lee; Myung-Hwan Whangbo. Late transition metal anions acting as p-metal elements. Solid State Sciences. 2008, 10 (4): 444–449. Bibcode:2008SSSci..10..444K. doi:10.1016/j.solidstatesciences.2007.12.001.  and Changhoon Lee; Myung-Hwan Whangbo; Jürgen Köhler. Analysis of Electronic Structures and Chemical Bonding of Metal-rich Compounds. 2. Presence of Dimer (T–T)4– and Isolated T2– Anions in the Polar Intermetallic Cr5B3-Type Compounds AE5T3 (AE = Ca, Sr; T = Au, Ag, Hg, Cd, Zn). Zeitschrift für Anorganische und Allgemeine Chemie. 2010, 636 (1): 36–40. doi:10.1002/zaac.200900421. 
  37. ^ Ni(−2) has been observed in Li2[Ni(1,5-COD)2], see Jonas, Klaus. Dilithium-Nickel-Olefin Complexes. Novel Bimetal Complexes Containing a Transition Metal and a Main Group Metal. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 1975, 14 (11): 752–753. doi:10.1002/anie.197507521.  and Ellis, John E. Adventures with Substances Containing Metals in Negative Oxidation States. Inorganic Chemistry. 2006, 45 (8): 3167–86. PMID 16602773. doi:10.1021/ic052110i. 
  38. ^ Cu(0) has been observed in Cu(tris[2-(diisopropylphosphino)- phenyl]borane), see Moret, Marc-Etienne; Zhang, Limei; Peters, Jonas C. A Polar Copper–Boron One-Electron σ-Bond. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2013, 135 (10): 3792–3795. PMID 23418750. doi:10.1021/ja4006578. 
  39. ^ Zn(0) has been observed; see Singh, Amit Pratap; Samuel, Prinson P.; Roesky, Herbert W.; Schwarzer, Martin C.; Frenking, Gernot; Sidhu, Navdeep S.; Dittrich, Birger. A Singlet Biradicaloid Zinc Compound and Its Nonradical Counterpart. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2013, 135 (19): 7324–9. PMID 23600486. doi:10.1021/ja402351x.  and Soleilhavoup, Michèle; Bertrand, Guy. Cyclic (Alkyl)(Amino)Carbenes (CAACs): Stable Carbenes on the Rise. Acc. Chem. Res. 2015, 48 (2): 256–266. PMID 25515548. doi:10.1021/ar5003494. 
  40. ^ Zn(I) has been observed in decamethyldizincocene (Zn2(η5–C5Me5)2); see Resa, I.; Carmona, E.; Gutierrez-Puebla, E.; Monge, A. Decamethyldizincocene, a Stable Compound of Zn(I) with a Zn-Zn Bond. Science. 2004, 305 (5687): 1136–8. Bibcode:2004Sci...305.1136R. PMID 15326350. S2CID 38990338. doi:10.1126/science.1101356. 
  41. ^ Zn(III) has been predicted to be stable in compounds with highly stabilized borane-based trianions, but no Zn(III) candidates are known experimentally; see Hong Fang; Huta Banjade; Deepika; Puru Jena. Realization of the Zn3+ oxidation state. Nanoscale. 2021, 13 (33): 14041–14048. PMID 34477685. S2CID 237400349. doi:10.1039/D1NR02816B （English）. 
  42. ^ Ga(−2), Ga(−4), and Ga(−5) have been observed in the magnesium gallides MgGa, Mg2Ga, and Mg5Ga2, respectively; see Patrick Hofmann. Colture. Ein Programm zur interaktiven Visualisierung von Festkörperstrukturen sowie Synthese, Struktur und Eigenschaften von binären und ternären Alkali- und Erdalkalimetallgalliden (PDF). : 72 （德语）. 
  43. ^ Ga(−3) has been observed in LaGa, see Dürr, Ines; Bauer, Britta; Röhr, Caroline. Lanthan-Triel/Tetrel-ide La(Al,Ga)x(Si,Ge)1-x. Experimentelle und theoretische Studien zur Stabilität intermetallischer 1:1-Phasen (PDF). Z. Naturforsch. 2011, 66b: 1107–1121.  已忽略未知参数|lang=（建议使用|language=） (帮助)
  44. ^ Ga(0) has been observed in Gallium monoiodide among other gallium's oxidation states
  45. ^ Ge(−1), Ge(−2), and Ge(−3) have been observed in germanides; see Holleman, Arnold F.; Wiberg, Egon; Wiberg, Nils. Germanium. Lehrbuch der Anorganischen Chemie 101. Walter de Gruyter. 1995: 953–959. ISBN 978-3-11-012641-9 （德语）. 
  46. ^ As(0) has been observed; see Abraham, Mariham Y.; Wang, Yuzhong; Xie, Yaoming; Wei, Pingrong; Shaefer III, Henry F.; Schleyer, P. von R.; Robinson, Gregory H. Carbene Stabilization of Diarsenic: From Hypervalency to Allotropy. Chemistry: A European Journal. 2010, 16 (2): 432–5. PMID 19937872. doi:10.1002/chem.200902840. 
  47. ^ As(I) has been observed in arsenic(I) iodide (AsI); see Ellis, Bobby D.; MacDonald, Charles L. B. Stabilized Arsenic(I) Iodide: A Ready Source of Arsenic Iodide Fragments and a Useful Reagent for the Generation of Clusters. Inorganic Chemistry. 2004, 43 (19): 5981–6. PMID 15360247. doi:10.1021/ic049281s. 
  48. ^ As(IV) has been observed in arsenic(IV) hydroxide (As(OH)4) and HAsO−
    ; see Kläning, Ulrik K.; Bielski, Benon H. J.; Sehested, K. Arsenic(IV). A pulse-radiolysis study. Inorganic Chemistry. 1989, 28 (14): 2717–24. doi:10.1021/ic00313a007. 
  49. ^ Se(−1) has been observed in diselenides(2−) (Se22−).
  50. ^ A Se(0) atom has been identified using DFT in [ReOSe(2-pySe)3]; see Cargnelutti, Roberta; Lang, Ernesto S.; Piquini, Paulo; Abram, Ulrich. Synthesis and structure of [ReOSe(2-Se-py)3]: A rhenium(V) complex with selenium(0) as a ligand. Inorganic Chemistry Communications. 2014, 45: 48–50. ISSN 1387-7003. doi:10.1016/j.inoche.2014.04.003. 
  51. ^ Se(I) has been observed in selenium(I) chloride (Se2Cl2); see Selenium: Selenium(I) chloride compound data. WebElements.com. [2007-12-10]. 
  52. ^ Se(III) has been observed in Se2NBr3; see Lau, Carsten; Neumüller, Bernhard; Vyboishchikov, Sergei F.; Frenking, Gernot; Dehnicke, Kurt; Hiller, Wolfgang; Herker, Martin. Se2NBr3, Se2NCl5, Se2NCl−6: New Nitride Halides of Selenium(III) and Selenium(IV). Chemistry: A European Journal. 1996, 2 (11): 1393–1396. doi:10.1002/chem.19960021108. 
  53. ^ Se(V) has been observed in SeO−
    3     and HSeO2−
    4    ; see Kläning, Ulrik K.; Sehested, K. Selenium(V). A pulse radiolysis study. Inorganic Chemistry. 1986, 90 (21): 5460–4. doi:10.1021/j100412a112. 
  54. ^ Br(II) is known to occur in bromine monoxide radical; see [4]
  55. ^ Langmuir, Irving. THE ARRANGEMENT OF ELECTRONS IN ATOMS AND MOLECULES.. Journal of the American Chemical Society. 1919-06, 41 (6): 868–934 [2022-03-25]. ISSN 0002-7863. doi:10.1021/ja02227a002. （原始内容存档于2020-05-09） （英语）. 
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