Lê dynasty: Difference between revisions
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|native_name = {{lang|vi|黎朝}} ({{lang|vi|大越國}}) |
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The Vietnamese ceramic business had come to the declining and crumble period when in 1567, the Ming [[Emperor Longqing]] had lifted China's [[Haijin]] (Sea Ban) policy that make [[Chinese ceramic]] products be able to flooded and regained dominant in Asia.{{sfnp|Von Glahn|1996|p=[https://books.google.com.hk/books?id=DNlv4f9tV_AC&pg=PA118 118]}} Maritime trade intendancies were reëstablished at [[Guangzhou]] and [[Ningbo]] in 1599, and Chinese merchants turned [[Yuegang]] (modern [[Haicheng, Fujian|Haicheng]], Fujian) into a thriving port.{{sfnp|Shi|2006|p=[https://books.google.co.jp/books?id=mLBgaa8d4aMC&pg=PA7 7]}} The Vietnamese Imperial court now seeked to product more valuable production, mostly [[silk]], to sold them for the Portuguese merchants from [[Macao]], later mainly sold for the [[Dutch East India Company|VOC]] in [[Batavia]] and the British companies. This exchanging period with Westerners gave the Vietnamese unique European and West Asian products. The Portuguese also imported to Vietnam new seeds of [[tomato]], [[potato]], [[corn]] and [[pineapple]] from [[Americas]] as well.<ref>Tú Khôi, [ http://daibieunhandan.vn/default.aspx?tabid=77&NewsId=97265 Chuyện đi sứ của cha ông], Đại biểu nhân dân, truy cập ngày 26 tháng 6 năm 2015.</ref> The VOC ultimately helped the Trinh lords armed his army with new European weapons, military assignment against the Nguyen lords in the south with allied with the Portuguese.<ref name=Dupuy>Dupuy, p. 653.</ref> |
The Vietnamese ceramic business had come to the declining and crumble period when in 1567, the Ming [[Emperor Longqing]] had lifted China's [[Haijin]] (Sea Ban) policy that make [[Chinese ceramic]] products be able to flooded and regained dominant in Asia.{{sfnp|Von Glahn|1996|p=[https://books.google.com.hk/books?id=DNlv4f9tV_AC&pg=PA118 118]}} Maritime trade intendancies were reëstablished at [[Guangzhou]] and [[Ningbo]] in 1599, and Chinese merchants turned [[Yuegang]] (modern [[Haicheng, Fujian|Haicheng]], Fujian) into a thriving port.{{sfnp|Shi|2006|p=[https://books.google.co.jp/books?id=mLBgaa8d4aMC&pg=PA7 7]}} The Vietnamese Imperial court now seeked to product more valuable production, mostly [[silk]], to sold them for the Portuguese merchants from [[Macao]], later mainly sold for the [[Dutch East India Company|VOC]] in [[Batavia]] and the British companies. This exchanging period with Westerners gave the Vietnamese unique European and West Asian products. The Portuguese also imported to Vietnam new seeds of [[tomato]], [[potato]], [[corn]] and [[pineapple]] from [[Americas]] as well.<ref>Tú Khôi, [ http://daibieunhandan.vn/default.aspx?tabid=77&NewsId=97265 Chuyện đi sứ của cha ông], Đại biểu nhân dân, truy cập ngày 26 tháng 6 năm 2015.</ref> The VOC ultimately helped the Trinh lords armed his army with new European weapons, military assignment against the Nguyen lords in the south with allied with the Portuguese.<ref name=Dupuy>Dupuy, p. 653.</ref> |
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Silk trading was important at that time and Chinese and Japanese traders came to Dong Kinh to buy both high quality silks and raw silks. Besides silk textiles were made by villages, majority of them were produced in state-owned factories in Dong Kinh, which produced for the Royal family, noblemen and foreigners.<ref name=hat/> In 1637, the Dutch successfully established commercial and diplomatic relations with Tonkin and maintained their trading station in the capital of Thăng Long (present-day Hanoi) until 1700. The lucrative Dutch ‘Vietnamese-silk-for-Japanese-silver trade‘ later also attracted the English and the French to Tonkin in 1672 and early 1682 respectively. The British imported Vietnamese silk around 1670s, but not regularly. The city had a Chinatown, factories owned by Dutch, English companies along the Red river.<ref>History of Vietnam, 2017, p. 240</ref> In 1594, the Imperial court allows the Western presence in the capital, encouraged Dutch, Spanish and British to open trading ports. In 1616, the British established a factory in Đông Kinh, but their business were ended in failure due to the pressures from the Lê court, and finally withdrew in 1720.<ref>History of Vietnam, 2017, p. 262-264</ref> During the 17th and 18th century, Westerners commonly used the name Tonkin (from ''Đông Kinh'') to refer to northern Vietnam, then ruled by the [[Trịnh lords]] (while [[Cochinchina]] was used to refer to Southern Vietnam, then ruled by the [[Nguyễn lords]], and ''Annam'', from the name of the former [[Annam (Chinese province)|Chinese province]] was used to refer to Vietnam as a whole). Tonkin had been a major industrial factory and trading center in Asia until 1730s.<ref>Bruce McFarland Lockhart, William J. Duiker, ''The A to Z of Viêt Nam'', Scarecrow Press, 2010, pages 40, 365–366 |
Silk trading was important at that time and Chinese and Japanese traders came to Dong Kinh to buy both high quality silks and raw silks. Besides silk textiles were made by villages, majority of them were produced in state-owned factories in Dong Kinh, which produced for the Royal family, noblemen and foreigners. From 1600 to 1682, the Japanese paid the Vietnamese court 20 million silver coins just for silks.<ref name=hat/> In 1637, the Dutch successfully established commercial and diplomatic relations with Tonkin and maintained their trading station in the capital of Thăng Long (present-day Hanoi) until 1700. The lucrative Dutch ‘Vietnamese-silk-for-Japanese-silver trade‘ later also attracted the English and the French to Tonkin in 1672 and early 1682 respectively. The British imported Vietnamese silk around 1670s, but not regularly. The city had a Chinatown, factories owned by Dutch, English companies along the Red river.<ref>History of Vietnam, 2017, p. 240</ref> In 1594, the Imperial court allows the Western presence in the capital, encouraged Dutch, Spanish and British to open trading ports. In 1616, the British established a factory in Đông Kinh, but their business were ended in failure due to the pressures from the Lê court, and finally withdrew in 1720.<ref>History of Vietnam, 2017, p. 262-264</ref> During the 17th and 18th century, Westerners commonly used the name Tonkin (from ''Đông Kinh'') to refer to northern Vietnam, then ruled by the [[Trịnh lords]] (while [[Cochinchina]] was used to refer to Southern Vietnam, then ruled by the [[Nguyễn lords]], and ''Annam'', from the name of the former [[Annam (Chinese province)|Chinese province]] was used to refer to Vietnam as a whole). Tonkin had been a major industrial factory and trading center in Asia until 1730s.<ref>Bruce McFarland Lockhart, William J. Duiker, ''The A to Z of Viêt Nam'', Scarecrow Press, 2010, pages 40, 365–366</ref> |
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In 1612, [[Joseon]] army encountered a Vietnamese merchant ship from Tonkin wrecked in [[Jeju Island]] carried a lot of treasures and money. The Koreans killed all sailors, looted treasures on board then falsely reported the ship "was a pirate ship".<ref>[http://nestofpnix.egloos.com/1179020 {{lang|ko|사헌부에서 전 제주 목사 이기빈과 전 판관 문희현의 치죄를 청하여 윤허하다}}] 「……{{lang|ko|그런데 이기빈과 문희현 등은 처음에는 예우하면서 여러 날 접대하다가 배에 가득 실은 보화를 보고는 도리어 재물에 욕심이 생겨 꾀어다가 모조리 죽이고는 그 물화를 몰수하였는데, 무고한 수백 명의 인명을 함께 죽이고서 자취를 없애려고 그 배까지 불태우고서는 끝내는 왜구를 잡았다고 말을 꾸며서 군공을 나열하여 거짓으로 조정에 보고했습니다.}}……」</ref> |
In 1612, [[Joseon]] army encountered a Vietnamese merchant ship from Tonkin wrecked in [[Jeju Island]] carried a lot of treasures and money. The Koreans killed all sailors, looted treasures on board then falsely reported the ship "was a pirate ship".<ref>[http://nestofpnix.egloos.com/1179020 {{lang|ko|사헌부에서 전 제주 목사 이기빈과 전 판관 문희현의 치죄를 청하여 윤허하다}}] 「……{{lang|ko|그런데 이기빈과 문희현 등은 처음에는 예우하면서 여러 날 접대하다가 배에 가득 실은 보화를 보고는 도리어 재물에 욕심이 생겨 꾀어다가 모조리 죽이고는 그 물화를 몰수하였는데, 무고한 수백 명의 인명을 함께 죽이고서 자취를 없애려고 그 배까지 불태우고서는 끝내는 왜구를 잡았다고 말을 꾸며서 군공을 나열하여 거짓으로 조정에 보고했습니다.}}……」</ref> |
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Revision as of 01:33, 24 May 2020
Lê Triều 黎朝 (大越國) | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1428–1789 | |||||||||
.svg) Map of Đại Việt in 1770 under the reign of emperor Lê Hiển Tông which also showed the division of Vietnamese territory among Nguyễn lords in Cochinchina, Trịnh lords in Tonkin. | |||||||||
| Status | Sovereign state[a] | ||||||||
| Capital | Đông Kinh (1428–1527 and 1597–1789) Tây Kinh (temp) (1533–1597) | ||||||||
| Common languages | Middle to Early modern Vietnamese and others | ||||||||
| Religion | Vietnamese folk religion, Confucianism (state ideology)[1], Buddhism, Taoism, Islam[2], Roman Catholicism | ||||||||
| Government | Absolute monarchy | ||||||||
| Emperor (Hoàng đế) | |||||||||
• 1428–1433 (first) | Lê Thái Tổ | ||||||||
• 1522–1527 | Lê Cung Hoàng | ||||||||
• 1533–1548 | Lê Trang Tông | ||||||||
• 1786–1789 (last) | Lê Chiêu Thống | ||||||||
| Historical era | Early modern | ||||||||
| 1418–1427 | |||||||||
• Coronation of Lê Lợi | 29 April 1428 | ||||||||
• Mạc Đăng Dung usurped the throne | 15 June 1527 | ||||||||
• Recapture of Đông Kinh | December 1592 | ||||||||
| January 30 1789 | |||||||||
| Area | |||||||||
| 1479 | 420,000 km2 (160,000 sq mi) | ||||||||
| 1490 | 300,000 km2 (120,000 sq mi) | ||||||||
| 1770 | 330,000 km2 (130,000 sq mi) | ||||||||
| Population | |||||||||
• 1490 | 8,500,000[3] | ||||||||
| Currency | Văn (文) | ||||||||
| |||||||||
| Today part of | Vietnam Laos Cambodia China | ||||||||
| Lê dynasty | |
.png) "Later Lê dynasty" in Chữ Nôm | |
| Vietnamese alphabet | Nhà Hậu Lê |
|---|---|
| Hán-Nôm | [Hậu Lê triều] Error: {{Lang}}: Latn text/non-Latn script subtag mismatch (help) |
| Chữ Hán | 後黎朝 |
| Chữ Nôm | 家後黎 |
| History of Vietnam |
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 Vietnam portal |
The Lê dynasty, better known as Later Lê dynasty (Template:Lang-vi 家後黎 or Hậu Lê triều 後黎朝), was the longest-ruling Vietnamese dynasty, ruling from 1428 to 1789 with a brief six-year interruption by the Mạc dynasty (1527–1533). It is usually divided into two historical periods – the Early Lê dynasty (1428–1527) in which emperors ruled in their own right, and the Restored Lê dynasty (1533–1789), in which figurehead emperors reigned under the rule of the Trịnh family.
The dynasty officially began in 1428 with the enthronement of Lê Lợi after he drove the Ming army from Vietnam. The dynasty reached its peak during the reign of Lê Thánh Tông. After Lê Thánh Tông passed away in 1497, the Imperial court began declining because two next incompetent kings who were cruel and interested in entertaining rather than the ruler's jobs. In 1527, the Mạc dynasty usurped the throne; when the Lê dynasty was restored in 1533, the Mạc fled to the far north and continued to claim the throne during the period known as Southern and Northern Dynasties. The restored Lê emperors held no real power, and by the time the Mạc dynasty was finally eradicated in 1677, actual power lay in the hands of the Trịnh lords in the North and Nguyễn lords in the South, both ruling in the name of the Lê emperor while fighting each other. The Lê dynasty officially ended in 1789, when the peasant uprising of the Tây Sơn brothers defeated both the Trịnh and the Nguyễn in an attempt to restore power to the Lê dynasty.
The Lê dynasty expanded Vietnam's borders through the domination of the Kingdom of Champa nearly reaching its current size the time the Tây Sơn brothers took over. It also saw massive changes to Vietnamese society: the previously Buddhist state became Confucian after 20 years of Ming rule. The Lê emperors instituted many changes modeled after the Chinese system, including the civil service and laws. Their long-lasting rule was attributed to the popularity of the early emperors. Lê Lợi's liberation of the country from 20 years of Ming rule and Lê Thánh Tông's bringing the country into a golden age. Even though the restored Lê emperors' rule was marked by civil strife and constant peasant uprisings, few dared to openly challenge their power, at least in name, for fear of losing popular support. The Lê Dynasty also was the period Vietnam saw the coming of Western Europeans and Christianity in early 16th-century.[4]
History
Background and founding
Ming occupation
The short-live Hồ dynasty (1400–1407) was defeated in battle of Đa Bang and Hàm Tử by the larger Ming invasion in January 1407. Hồ Quý Ly, Hồ Hán Thương and Hồ Nguyên Trừng were taken as prisoners of war in and sent to Nanjing by 16 June 1407, Vietnam felt under Fourth Chinese domination of Vietnam. The Ming dynasty established Jiaozhi province encompassing modern-day northern Vietnam under direct Chinese control with ethnic Vietnamese collaborators and the Tran noblemen such as Nguyễn Huân, Mạc Thúy, Lương Nhữ Hốt, Trần Phong, Đỗ Duy Trung, and Phan Liêu.[5] The rule over the local population involved harsh rules, ban local traditions, burn most books in the library. The Ming invaders seized 235,900 cows, horses, sheeps, elephants; 8,365 ships, and 2,533,900 military weapons;[6] took most of high-skill builders, architects, teachers, artisans, workers, writers, scientists, martial, medicine doctors, total 41,000 people, sent to Ming's capital Beijing[7], including Nguyễn An (1381–1453) who was a talented architect, hydraulics specialist, the one in four chief architects and engineers of Forbidden City.[8] The Ming Chinese court put very heavy taxes and restriction on Vietnamese businessmen, ban foreign trade, control the mining industrial, ban the Vietnamese paper banknotes Hội Sao Thông Bảo (1396–1407), introduced the Chinese currency Yongle Tongbao made by copper.
Lam Sơn uprising (1418–1427)
Previously Ming military successfully crushed rebellions of two Vietnamese princes Trần Ngỗi and Trần Quý Khoáng in 1409 and 1413, but the Vietnamese people still felt great frustrated to the occupiers. The Lê clan (黎) in Thanh Hoá, Vietnam may had Chinese mixed-local origins since 7th-century from a Han Chinese governor of Jiuzhen Lê Ngọc 黎玉 (535–618) who with local supports, led a failed rebellion against the newly Tang Empire in 618 CE[9]. Lê Lợi was a son of wealthy Vietnamese aristocrat in Thanh Hoá. He early life was briefly mentioned in the Chinese source as a low-rank official serving the Ming governor Hoang Fu.[10] He joined a secret Taoist swearing commentary in Lũng Nhai, Thanh Hoá in winter 1916, with other 18 men, all swore will fought against the Ming Chinese, restore the Vietnamese independence and sovereign.[11] In after Tết (New Year) February 1418, they decided revolt against the Ming invaders with only initial 1,000 people, and were called the Lam Sơn (blue mountain).[12][13][14][15][16][17] The Ming military responded by sent an army 60,000, circled the rebels' based on mount Chí Linh in the modern border between Laos and Vietnam for four years (1420-1423), pursed the Lam Sơn to nearly defeated by cold, exhausted diseases and starvation. Finally, Lê Lai, a soldier of Lam Sơn, dressed as Lê Lợi, led a army attacked to breakthrough the Ming lines. He was killed, but the commander Lê Lợi and the Lam Sơn remnants were able to escaped to the south and rebuilt his army.[18] In November 1424, the Lam Sơn from Laos surprisingly attacked and captured Nghệ An citadel, the ethnic-Vietnamese Ming commander Lương Nhữ Hốt (Liang Juihu) was chased and escaped to the north. From the new base in high-density population Nghệ An, the Lê Lợi's rebel forces attacked, captured all lands in today Central Vietnam, from Thanh Hoá to Đà Nẵng.[19]
By August 1426, the rebels had grew up to 100,000-strong forces, and Lê Lợi launched offensive to the north. By respond, Ming Emperor Xuande sent a new 80,000-men force to Jiaozhi led by general Wang Tong, plus with another 50,000 Ming soldiers in Đông Đô-Dongdu (Hanoi), and 30,000 auxiliaries, total 160,000 men, for defending Northern Vietnam. In the decisive Battle of Tốt Động – Chúc Động lasted from October 5 to 7, in south of Dongdu, Lam Sơn army with only 6,000 men led by general Lý Triện and Nguyễn Xí—successful using cannons eliminated 54,000 Ming soldiers on the open field terrain—ended with 30,000 Ming soldiers killed, 10,000 were captured[20], had turned the tide of the war.[21] By early 1427, Lê Lợi's forces had liberated most of the country, even gained further to southern tip of Chinese provinces Guangxi. Ming dynasty began sending negotiator to Vietnam and they wanted to set up a king which belongs to Trần clan. Lê Lợi selected a man names Trần Cảo as puppet king of Annam, which nominate ruled from 1426 to 1428. By the night of January 3 1428, Ming military and Lam Son leader Lê Lợi reached the agreement that the Ming dynasty cedes to have affair rule in Annam, recognizes and respects the Independence and sovereignty of Annam (Vietnam).[22][23] After Trần Cảo was murdered in 1428, Lê Lợi officially succeed the throne, opened a new page in Vietnamese history. Nguyễn Trãi wrote Bình Ngô đại cáo (Great proclamation upon the pacification of the Wu[24]) in early 1428, is considered the second declaration of independence of Vietnam.[25]
Early period (1428–1527)
Thuận Thiên (Lê Lợi, 1428–1433)
In 1428, Lê Lợi established the Lê dynasty, renamed the capital Dongdu to Đông Kinh and took the reign name Thuận Thiên 順天 (Heaven's joy), receiving recognition from the Ming dynasty in a tributary relationship.[26][27][28][29] In 1429, he introduced new law Thuận Thiên code which mostly based on the Tang code, with severely charges for illegal gambling, bribery and corruption.[30][31]Thuận Thiên's goal was to establish a long-stable society which base on the ideas of Confucian. He granted a new land reform in 1429 that took lands from people who collaborated with the Chinese and distributed them among landless peasants and soldiers. He had distrusts many of his old generals. The most famous case during Thuận Thiên's rule was the deaths of two generals Trần Nguyên Hãn and Phạm Văn Xảo in 1430, which was been considered by Vietnamese historians a political purge of Lê Lợi.[32] Lê Lợi's reign would be short-lived, as he died in 1433.[33] After death was granted the Temple name Thống Thiên Khải Vận Thánh Đức Thần Công Duệ Văn Anh Vũ Khoan Minh Dũng Trí Hoàng Nghĩa Chí Minh Đại Hiếu Cao Hoàng đế (統天啟運聖德神功睿文英武寬明勇智弘義至明大孝高皇帝) temple name Thái Tổ 太祖 (Taizu) by his son Lê Thái Tông, and was burial in Vĩnh Lăng, Lam Sơn.
Lê Thái Tông (ruled 1433–1442)
Lê Thái Tông (黎太宗, ruled 1433–1442) [34] was the official heir to Lê Lợi. However, he was just eleven, so a close friend of Lê Lợi, Lê Sát, assumed the regency of the kingdom. Not long after he assumed the official title as Emperor of Vietnam in 1438, Lê Thái Tông accused Lê Sát of abuse of power and had him executed. In December 1435, Thái Tông ordered general Tư Mã Tây to subdue the Tày chief Cầm Quý who having a ten-thousand army of raiders in the northwest region.[35] In January 1436, the emperor ordered to make roads and canals from northwest region to the capital for showing the superior power of the Imperial court to the local tribes men.[36] From 1437 to 1441, tribe men from Ai-Lao crossed the Annamite Range, raided in Thanh Hóa and southern Hưng Hóa (now Sơn La province) with the help of the local raiders led by Nghiễm Sinh Tượng were suppressed by the Imperial army.[37] The Lê Dynasty started treating hostilely to the ethnic minorities in western region. On a stone monument that was carved in 1439 under Thái Tông's reign said "Bồn-Man (Muang Phuan) barbarians were against our assimilation, they need to be exterminated to their roots, and with the Sơn-Man (Mường and Chứt) barbaric raiders, we need to eliminated all of them,..."[38]
According to a Mạc–Trịnh version of Complete Annals of Đại Việt, the new Emperor had a weakness for women. He had many wives, and he discarded one favorite after another. The most prominent scandal was his affair with Nguyễn Thị Lộ, the wife of his father's chief advisor Nguyễn Trãi. The affair started early in 1442 and continued when the Emperor traveled to the home of Nguyễn Trãi, who was venerated as a great Confucian scholar.
Shortly after the Emperor left Trãi's home to continue his tour of the western province, he fell ill and died. At the time the powerful nobles in the court argued that the Emperor had been poisoned to death. Nguyễn Trãi was executed as were his three entire relations, the normal punishment for treason at that time.
Lê Nhân Tông (ruled 1442–1459)
With the Emperor's sudden death at a young age, his infant heir Bang Co was made emperor- although he was the second son of his father, his older brother Nghi Dân had been officially passed over due to his mother's low social status. Bang Co assumed the throne as Lê Nhân Tông (黎仁宗) [34] but the real rulers were Trịnh Khả and the child's mother, the young Empress Nguyễn Thị Anh. The next 17 years were good years for Vietnam – there were no great troubles either internally or externally. Two things of note occurred: first, the Vietnamese sent an army south to attack the Champa kingdom in 1446; second, the Dowager Empress ordered the execution of Trịnh Khả, for reasons lost to history, in 1451.
In 1453 at the age of twelve, Lê Nhân Tông was formally given the title of Emperor. This was unusual as according to custom, youths could not ascend the throne till the age of 16. It may have been done to remove Nguyễn Thi Anh from power, but if that was the reason, it failed and the Dowager Empress still controlled the government up until a coup in 1459.
In 1459, Lê Nhân Tông's older brother, Nghi Dân, plotted with a group of followers to kill the Emperor. On October 28, the plotters with some 100 "shiftless men" infiltrated the palace and murdered the Emperor (he was just 18). The next day, facing certain execution the Dowager Empress committed suicide. The rule of Nghi Dân was brief, and he was never officially recognized as a sovereign by later Vietnamese historians. Revolts against his rule started almost immediately and the second revolt, occurring on June 24, 1460, succeeded. The rebels, led by Lê Lợi's surviving former advsiors Nguyễn Xí and Dinh Liêt captured and killed Nghi Dân along with his followers. The rebels then selected the youngest son of Lê Thái Tông to be the new Emperor, who they proclaimed to be Lê Thánh Tông.
Lê Thánh Tông (ruled 1460–1497)
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Quang Thuận Hoàng Đế (光順皇帝)[34] was the most prominent of all the Lê rulers and one of the greatest Emperors in Vietnamese history[citation needed]. His rule, Hồng Đức Thịnh Thế or Prospered reign of Hồng Đức (洪德之盛治) (洪德, meaning "Flood of Virtue") was one of the most notable and prosperity in Vietnamese history. He instituted a wide range of government reforms, legal reforms, and land reforms. He restarted the examination system for selecting men for important government positions. He reduced the power of the noble families and reduced the degree of corruption in the government. He built temples to Confucius throughout the provinces of Đại Việt. In nearly all respects, his reforms mirrored those of the Ming dynasty. Thánh Tông was strongly influenced by his Confucian teachers and he resolved to make Việt Nam more like the Ming Dynasty with its Neo-Confucianist philosophy and the key idea that the government should be run by men of noble character as opposed to men from noble families. This meant that he needed to take power away from the ruling families (mostly from Thanh Hóa province) and give power to the scholars who did well on the official examinations. The first step on this path was to revive the examination process, which had continued sporadically in the 1450s. The first examination was held in 1463 and, as expected, the top scholars were men from elsewhere- usually from the river delta surrounding the capital, not from Thanh Hóa.
Thánh Tông encouraged the spread of Confucian values throughout Vietnam by having "temples of literature" built in all the provinces. There, Confucius was venerated and classic works on Confucianism could be found. He also halted the building of any new Buddhist or Taoist temples and ordered that monks were not to be allowed to purchase any new land.
Following the Chinese model, Lê Thánh Tông divided the government into six ministries; they were Finance, Rites, Justice, Personnel, Army, and Public Works. Nine grades of rank were set up for both the civil administration and the military. A Board of Censors was set up with royal authority to monitor governmental officials and reported exclusively to the emperor. However, governmental authority did not extend all the way to the village level. The villages were ruled by their own councils in Vietnam (Vietnam, Trials and Tribulations of a Nation D. R. SarDesai, ppg 35–37, 1988).
With the death of Nguyễn Xí in 1465, the noble families from Thanh Hóa province lost their leader. Soon they were mostly relegated to secondary positions in the new Confucian government of Thánh Tông. However, they still retained control over Vietnam's armies as the old general, Đinh Liệt, was still in command of the army.
In 1465, Vietnam was attacked by Ryukyuan pirates from the northeast. This was dealt with by sending additional forces to the north to fight the pirates. Thánh Tông also sent a military force to the west to subdue the Ai-lao mountain tribes that was raiding the northwest border.
In 1469, all of Vietnam was mapped and a full census was taken, listing all the villages in the Empire. Around this time the country was divided into 13 dao (provinces). Each was administrated by a Governor, Judge, and the local army commander. The emperor Thánh Tông also ordered that a new census should be taken every six years. Other public works that were undertaken included building and repair of granaries, using the army to rebuild and repair irrigation systems after floods, and sending out doctors to areas afflicted by outbreaks of disease. Even though the emperor, at 25, was relatively young, he had already restored Vietnam's stability, which was a marked contrast from the turbulent times marking the reigns of the two emperors before him.
Several Malay envoys from the Malacca sultanate were attacked and captured in 1469 by Vietnamese navy as they were returning to Malacca from China. The Vietnamese enslaved and castrated the young from among the captured.[39][40][41][42][43] A 1472 entry in the Ming Shilu reported that some Chinese from Nanhai escaped back to China after their ship had been blown off course into Vietnam, where they had been forced to serve as soldiers in Vietnam's military. The escapees also reported that up to 100 Chinese men remained captives in Vietnam after they were caught and castrated by the Vietnamese after their ships were blown off course into Vietnam. The Chinese Ministry of Revenue responded by ordering Chinese civilians and soldiers to stop going abroad to foreign countries.[44][45][46] China's relations with Vietnam during this period were marked by the punishment of prisoners by castration.[47][48]
Under the order of Lê Thánh Tông, the official historical text of the Lê Dynasty, Đại Việt sử ký toàn thư (大越史記全書), was compiled and finished in 1479. The 15-volume book covered the entirety of Vietnamese history at that point, from the Hồng Bàng Dynasty to the enthronement of Lê Thái Tổ.
Hồng Đức's campaigns against Champa and Lan Xang (1471–1480)
In 1471, Lê Thánh Tông conquered Champa and captured the Cham capital Vijaya, ending independent Cham rule in the south. The Kingdom of Champa was reduced to a small enclave near Panduranga (modern day Phan Rang–Tháp Chàm) and Kauthara (now Nha Trang) with many Chams fleeing to Cambodia[49][50]. Lê Thánh Tông created a new province out of former Cham land and allowed ethnic Vietnamese settlers to settle it. The conquest of the Cham kingdoms started a rapid period of expansion by the Vietnamese southwards into this newly conquered land. The government used a system of land settlement called đồn điền (屯田).[citation needed].
From 1478 to 1480, Lê Thánh Tông led an expedition against kingdoms Lan Xang and Lanna in today Laos and Northern Thailand.[51] Laotians were overwhelmed, their capital Luang Prabang was captured. Laotians retreated to the jungles, waged two-years guerrilla warfare against the Vietnamese.[51] King of Lan Xang Chakkaphat Phaen Phaeo seek refugee in Lanna.[51] Some of the Vietnamese army had reached the kingdom of Ava.[52] The expedition ended in inclusive, many Vietnamese soldiers died because hostile climates and rampant disease[53]; Vietnamese forces unable suppressed Laotian guerrillas, and then Laotians able to recaptured their capital.[51] As the Vietnamese withdrew their army through kingdom of Muang Phuan in December 1479, they annexed and incorporated it into Ninh Protectorate (Trấn Ninh) in 1480.[54]
Downfall and the rise of the Mạc clan
With the death of Lê Thánh Tông, the Lê dynasty fell into a swift decline (1497–1527). Especially after Lê Hiến Tông and Lê Túc Tông, the successors like Lê Uy Mục, Lê Tương Dực were no interested in ruling, incompetent and enjoyed on entertaining, relaxing, sexual,... Economy failed, while natural disasters such as typhoons and diseases occurred without state preparation, caused the dissatisfied among the peasantry even the bureaucrats within the court to the kings.
At barely 14 years old, nephew of Lê Tương Dực, prince Lê Y, was enthroned as the new emperor Lê Chiêu Tông (ruled 1516–1522)[34]. As usual when a young Emperor came to the throne, factions within the court vied with one another for control of the government. One powerful and growing faction was led by Mạc Đăng Dung. Mạc Đăng Dung was a military man who rose through the ranks.[55] His growing power was resented by the leaders of two noble families in Vietnam: the Nguyễn, under Nguyễn Hoàng Dụ and the Trịnh, under Trịnh Duy Đại and Trịnh Duy Sản. After several years of increasing tension, the Nguyễn and the Trịnh left the capital Hanoi (then called Đông Đô) and fled south, with the Emperor "under their protection".
In 1524, Mạc Đăng Dung forces captured and executed the leaders of the revolt (Nguyễn Hoàng Du, Trịnh Duy Đại, and Trịnh Duy Sản). The revolt by the Trịnh clan and the Nguyễn clan was defeated for the moment. This was the start of a civil war with Mạc Đăng Dung and his supporters on one side and the Trịnh and the Nguyễn on the other side. Thanh Hóa Province, the ancestral home to the Trịnh and the Nguyễn, was the battle ground between the two sides. After several years of warfare, Emperor Lê Chiêu Tông was assassinated in 1522 by Mạc Đăng Dung's supporters. Not long after, the leaders of the Nguyễn and the Trịnh were executed. Mạc Đăng Dung was now the most powerful man in Vietnam.
Mạc Đăng Dung usurps the throne
The degenerated Lê dynasty, which endured under six rulers between 1497 and 1527, in the end was no longer able to maintain control over the northern part of the country, much less the new territories to the south. The weakening of the monarchy created a vacuum that the various noble families of the aristocracy were eager to fill. Soon after Lê Chiêu Tông fled south with the Trịnh and the Nguyễn in 1522, Mạc Đăng Dung proclaimed the Emperor's younger brother, Lê Xuân, as the new Emperor under the name Lê Cung Hoàng. In reality, the new Emperor had no power. Three years after Mạc's forces killed his older brother Lê Chiêu Tông, was pressured from Mạc Đăng Dung, in Bắc Sứ garden, Lê Cung Hoàng hanged himself on 18 June 1527. Mạc Đăng Dung, being a scholar-official who had effectively controlled the Lê for a decade, murdered all the Lê royal family member then proclaimed himself the new Emperor of Vietnam on 15 June 1527, ending (so he thought) the Lê dynasty (see Mạc dynasty for more details).
Mạc Đăng Dung's seizure of the throne prompted other families of the aristocracy, notably the Nguyễn and Trịnh, to rush to the support of the Lê royalists. With the usurpation of the throne, the civil war broke out anew. Again the Nguyễn and the Trịnh gathered an army and fought against Mạc Đăng Dung, this time under the leadership of Nguyễn Kim and Trịnh Kiểm. The Trịnh and the Nguyễn were nominally fighting on behalf of the Lê emperor but in reality, for their own power.
Later period (1533–1789)
Southern and Northern Dynasties (1533–1592)
The Lê royalists under Lê Ninh, a descendant of the Royal family, escaped to Muang Phuan (today Laos). Marquis of An Thanh Nguyễn Kim summoned the people who were still loyal to the Lê emperor and formed a new army to begin a revolt against Mạc Đăng Dung. Subsequently, Nguyễn Kim returned to Đại Việt and led the Lê royalists in a sixty-year-long civil war. In 1536 and 1537, Nguyên Hòa sent two envoys to Beijing to ask Jiajing Emperor of Ming Dynasty to send army fight against the Mạc to restore the Lê Dynasty.[56] Many Ming officials like Mao Bá Ôn showed strong supports for the Lê royalists and urged Jiajing Emperor for prepare a military campaign.[57] The Ming Emperor agreed.[58]
In 1527, the Vũ Văn (Wuwen) clan in Hà Giang and northern Hưng Hóa (now southern Yunnan) rebelled against Mạc Đăng Dung and set up their own government. Vũ Văn Uyên and his family rules were called Bầu Lords. In 1534, after Nguyễn Kim forces recaptured Thanh Hóa, Vũ Văn Uyên declared allied with Lê royalists and Ming army to fought against the Mạc Dynasty.[59] But Mạc Đăng Dung himself in 1540 went and surrendered the Ming army, wished for peace. Mạc Đăng Dung ceded the northeast Vietnamese coastal to the Ming Dynasty for exchanging that the Ming dynasty would never invade Vietnam again.[60] The Chinese now recognized both Mạc and Lê legitimacy over Đại Việt and withdrew their army.[61] Bầu Lords showed strong support for the Lê dynasty and refused to accept Trịnh family at the early stage of Trịnh–Nguyễn War. Later, they cooperated with the Trịnh. Bầu Lords lasted for nearly 200 years from 1527 to 1699.
In 1542, Lê army from Muang Phuan recaptured Nghệ An. Mạc general Dương Chấp Nhất surrendered.[62] After capturing the region of Thanh Hóa and Nghệ An, the Revival Lê dynasty eventually recaptured three-quarters of their former kingdom. Inasmuch as the Mac dynasty ruled the northern portion of Đại Việt while the Lê dynasty ruled the remainder of the country, this time became known as the period of Northern and Southern dynasties.
In 1545, Nguyễn Kim was poisoned by Dương Chấp Nhất), a surrendered general of the Mạc dynasty. The power of royal court was then passed to Nguyễn Kim's son-in-law Trịnh Kiểm who became the founder of the Trịnh lords. Since then the emperor has only become a figurehead, Trịnh Kiểm and his successors were the de facto rulers of the country and continue the war with the Mạc. The war has three actual fighting periods: 1533–1537, 1551–1564 and 1584–1592. During the early confront period, the Lê dynasty introduced personnel firearm like matchlocks into their army and surprised the Mạc army.[63][64]
Trịnh Tùng succeed his father in 1570, established the Trịnh lords and launched a large-scale offensive against the Mạc army in January 1592.[65] Unable to resist the forces of the Lê royalists, in December 1592 the Mạc dynasty retreated to the north and established a new capital at Cao Bằng Province, supporting from the Ming dynasty of China as a vassal, continued fighting against the Vietnamese Imperial court.
Restored Lê (1597–1789)
In 1597, the Ming dynasty recognized the legitimacy of the Lê monarch.[66] However, the Ming recorded that the Lê rulers were very dissatisfied to the Ming Empire because the Chinese had supported for the Northern Mạc. In 1589, Toyotomi Hideyoshi sent an envoys to Lê court in Thanh Hoá, called Vietnamese to join Japan's alliance against Ming China and Joseon Korea, but they were rufused.[67]
Later, the first son of Nguyễn Kim, (Nguyễn Uông) was assassinated by Trịnh Kiểm. Nguyễn Kim's second son, Nguyễn Hoàng, relocated to the south, became the Viceroy of Thuận Hoá province, founded the line of Nguyễn lords, and started a revolt against the reign of the Trịnh lords. As such, Đại Việt was divided for 232 years as the two lords fought each other in what is now known as the Trịnh–Nguyễn civil War.
Trịnh–Nguyễn contention
In 1620, Nguyễn Phúc Nguyên officially refused to send taxes to the court in Hanoi. A formal demand was made to the Nguyễn to submit to the authority of the court, and it was formally refused. In 1623 Trịnh Tùng died and was succeeded by his son Trịnh Tráng. Now Trịnh Tráng made a formal demand for submission, and again Nguyễn Phúc Nguyên refused. Finally in 1627 open warfare broke out between the Trịnh and the Nguyễn. For four months a large Trịnh army battled against the Nguyễn army but were unable to defeat them. [citation needed] The result of this war was that Vietnam had effectively been partitioned into northern and southern regions, with the Trịnh controlling most of the north and the Nguyễn controlling most of the south; the dividing line was the Gianh River in Quảng Bình Province. This border was very close to the Seventeenth parallel (in actuality the Bến Hải River located just to the south in Quảng Trị Province), which was imposed as the border between North Vietnam and South Vietnam during the Partition of Vietnam (1954–75). [citation needed]
While the Trịnh ruled over a much more populous territory, the Nguyễn had several advantages. First, they were on the defensive. Second, the Nguyễn were able to take advantage of their contacts with the Europeans, specifically the Portuguese, to purchase advanced European weapons and hire European military experts in fortifications. Third, the geography was favorable to them, as the flat land suitable for large organized armies is very narrow at this point of Vietnam; the mountains nearly reach to the sea.[68]
After the first assault, the Nguyễn built two massive fortified lines which stretched a few miles from the sea to the hills. The walls were built north of Huế near the city of Đồng Hới. The Nguyễn defended these lines against numerous Trịnh offensives which lasted till 1672.[68] The story from this time is that the great military engineer was a Vietnamese general who was hired away from the Trịnh court by the Nguyễn. This man is given the credit in Vietnam for the successful design of the Nguyễn walls. Against the walls the Trịnh mustered an army of 100,000 men, 500 elephants, and 500 large ships (Dupuy "Encyclopedia of Military History" pg. 596). The initial attacks on the Nguyễn wall was unsuccessful. The attacks lasted for several years.
In 1633 the Trịnh tried an amphibious assault on the Nguyễn to get around the wall. The Trịnh fleet was defeated by the Nguyễn fleet at the battle of Nhat-Le.[68] Around 1635 the Trịnh learned the Nguyễn and sought military aid from the Europeans. Trịnh Tráng hired the VOC to make European cannons and ships for the Royal army. In 1642–43, the Trịnh army attacked the Nguyễn walls. With the aid of the Dutch cannons, the Trịnh army broke through the first wall but failed to break through the second. At sea, the Trịnh, with their Dutch ships Kievit, Nachtegaels and Woekende Book were destroyed in a humiliating defeat by the Nguyễn fleet with their Chinese style galleys.[69][70][71][72][73] Trịnh Tráng staged yet another offensive in 1648 but at the battle of Truong Duc, the Royal army was badly beaten by the Nguyễn.[68] The new Lê king died around this time, perhaps as a result of the defeat. This now left the door open for the Nguyễn to finally go on the offensive.
The Nguyễn launched their own invasion of northern Vietnam in 1653. The Nguyễn army attacked north and defeated the weakened Royal army. Quảng Bình Province was captured. Then Hà Tĩnh Province fell to the Nguyễn army. In the following year, Trịnh Tráng died as Nguyễn forces made attacks into Nghệ An Province. Under a new Trịnh Lord, the capable Trịnh Tạc, the Royal army attacked the Nguyễn army and defeated it. The Nguyễn were fatally weakened by a division between their two top generals who refused to cooperate with each other. In 1656 the Nguyễn army was driven back all the way to their original walls. Trịnh Tạc tried to break the walls of the Nguyễn in 1661 but this attack, like so many before it, failed to break through the walls.
In 1672, the Trịnh army made a last effort to conquer the Nguyễn. The attacking army was under the command of Trịnh Tạc's son, Trịnh Căn, while the defending army was under the command of Nguyễn Phúc Tần's son Prince Nguyễn Phúc Thuận. [citation needed] The attack, like all the previous attacks on the Nguyễn walls, failed. This time the two sides agreed to a peace. With mediation supplied by the government of the Kangxi Emperor, the Trịnh and the Nguyễn finally agreed to end the fighting by making the Linh River the border between their lands (1673). Although the Nguyễn nominally accepted the Lê King as the ruler of Vietnam, the reality was, the Nguyễn ruled the south, and the Trịnh ruled the north. This division continued for the next 100 years. The border between the Trịnh and the Nguyễn was strongly guarded but peaceful. Despite the partition, both the two families claimed themselves loyal to the Royal family, and their territories were all counted as Đại Việt's land.
Tây Sơn rebellion and the end of dynasty
The stalemate between the Trịnh and the Nguyễn lords that began at the end of the 17th century did not, however, mark the beginning of a period of peace and prosperity. Instead the decades of continual warfare between the two families had left the ruists and peasantry in a weakened state, the victim of taxes levied to support the courts and their military adventures. Having to meet their tax obligations had forced many peasants off the land and facilitated the acquisition of large tracts by a few wealthy landowners, nobles, and scholar—officials. Because scholar—officials were exempted from having to pay a land tax, the more land they acquired, the greater was the burden that fell on those peasants who had been able to retain their land. In addition, the peasantry faced new taxes on staple items such as charcoal, salt, silk, and cinnamon, and on commercial activities such as fishing and mining. The disparate condition of the economy led to neglect of the extensive network of irrigation systems as well.
As they fell into disrepair, disastrous flooding and famine resulted, unleashing great numbers of starving and landless people to wander aimlessly about the countryside. The widespread suffering in North Vietnam led to numerous peasant revolts between 1730 and 1770, notable the peasant rebellion of Nguyễn Hữu Cầu from 1748 to 1751. Although the uprisings took place throughout the country, they were essentially local phenomena, breaking out spontaneously from similar local causes. The occasional coordination between and among local movements did not result in any national organization or leadership. Moreover, most of the uprisings were conservative, in that the leaders supported the restoration of the Lê dynasty. They did, however, put forward demands for land reform, more equitable taxes, and rice for all. Landless peasants accounted for most of the initial support for the various rebellions, but they were often joined later by craftsmen, fishermen, miners, and traders, who had been taxed out of their occupations. Some of these movements enjoyed limited success for a short time, but it was not until 1771 that any of the peasant revolts had a lasting national impact.
Dissatisfaction against two ruling families Trịnh and Nguyễn spread through out the country. In 1771, three brothers Nguyễn Nhạc, Nguyễn Lữ and Nguyễn Huệ in An Khê, Bình Định with local peasants support, revolted against the Nguyễn lord.[74][75][76] In 1773, the Tây Sơn captured Quy Nhơn fort in 1773, gave them financial and manpower support, thus made the rebellion and became widespread. In 1774, Trịnh army from the north launched an offensive against the Nguyễn. Unable to fight two-front war, Lord Nguyễn Phúc Thuần lost the control of Cochinchina, fled by ship to the Mekong delta. He later was taken and executed by the Tây Sơn in 1777.[77] The renmant Nguyen led by Nguyễn Ánh with help from the French priest Pigneau de Behaine (Bá Đa Lộc)[78][79][80][81][82], he soon recruited his army by enlisted French, Cambodian troops and weapons, but mostly were defeated by the superior and numberior Tây Sơn rebels in four times, and Ánh went exiled in Siam.[83] The Tây Sơn rebellion were not content to simply conquer the southern provinces of the country. After a decade of fairly successful fighting in the south against the Nguyễn Lords, Nguyễn Huệ (the leading general of the Tây Sơn and no relation to the Nguyễn ruling family) and his army marched north in 1786. The Royal army under Trịnh Tông vanquished by Nguyễn Huệ. Trịnh Tông committed suicide and the Lê Emperor submitted to the wishes of the victorious Huệ by giving his daughter in marriage to him. Huệ returned south and a few months later, the old emperor died.
When Lê Chiêu Thống assumed the throne, the Trịnh tried to reassert control over the government. This provoked another march north from Nguyễn Huệ and so the Emperor and the Trịnh fled from Dongkinh. Lê Chiêu Thống sent envoy to the Imperial court of the Qing Empire to ask for aid against the Tây Sơn. The Qianlong Emperor of the Qing Empire under the pretense of restoring Lê dynasty dispatched a large force of 200,000 soldiers, to invade Northern Vietnam, captured the capital Thăng Long.
At the beginning of the war, Nguyễn Huệ's troops retreated to the South, refused to engage the Qing army. He raised a large army of his own and defeated the invader in the Lunar New year Eve of 1789. Chiêu Thống and the Royal family fled north into China, never to return. The Lê Dynasty finally ended after ruled Vietnam for 356 years. He went to Beijing where "he was appointed a Chinese mandarin of the fourth rank and was enrolled under the Tatar banners. His family also remained in China, and from that date many former Lê followers, who had not lost their hatred for the Tây Sơn, expected to find in every rebel who raised the flag of rebellion in their country a descendant of the old royal bloodline. The last of these insurrections was that of the Brigadier General Li Hung Tsai in 1878".[84] The descendants of the monarch now are living somewhere in southern Vietnam and fews in Urumqi, Xinjiang.[85][86][87]
Government
Central government
The new government of Lê Lợi was modeled prefectly on the Ming dynasty system. Previous Trần dynasty had only Three ministries: Lại, Lễ, Dân, now under Lê Dynasty it was expanded to Six Ministries: Lại bộ; Lễ bộ; Hộ bộ; Binh bộ; Hình bộ; Công bộ. During the reign of Lê Thánh Tông, every mandarin have limited to serve until 65 years old and be gain pension. He prefers to choose both talented and ethic bureaucrats. To help the emperor and the system, five institutions mutually worked: Thông Chính ty (to report all papers for the government); Quốc Tử Giám (to held examination, testing); Quốc sử viện (to record events happened); Khuyến nông sứ (to care crop farming) and Hà đê sứ (to care dikes and dams).
By level-administrative, population
The administrative census An Nam quốc đồ (安南國圖) in 24 April, 1490 showed Đại Việt had 13 thừa tuyên (provinces), 52 phủ (urbanized cities, towns), 178 huyện (districts), 50 châu (mountain districts), 20 hương , 36 phường (Đông Kinh's urbanite districts), 6851 xã (communes), 322 thôn (rural villages), 637 trang (mountain villages) with total 5,370 administrative bureaucrats and officers, plus with tens of thousands civil servants. Each was administrated by a Governor, Judge, and the local army commander.[88] Total population was various estimated about 8,000,000–10,000,000 people.[89] In contrast to the overpopulation Red river delta, Thuan Hoa and Quang Nam region were still less dense. Vietnamese people had begun settling in the conquered Cham land at least since the 1400s. After Nguyễn Hoàng appointed the governor of southern provinces in 1572, million people migrated to the south, resulted in the degenerated Champa kingdom and Cambodia's land were being taken by the Vietnamese authorities.
Law
In 1429, Lê Lợi introduced new Thuận Thiên code which mostly based on the Tang Code, with severely charges for illegal gambling, bribery and corruption.[90][91] To sought a consolidation of a powerful central government, in 1483 Emperor Thánh Tông introduces a new code name Hồng Đức Code which was heavily influenced from the Ming Dynasty Laws and Neo-Confucianism thought, restricting the free of expressing in society, banning illegal marriages, banning divorce, limiting women right.[92][93][94] The law lasted until late 18th century.
Society, culture and science
Clothing and society
After ending the Fourth Chinese domination of Vietnam, people of Đại Việt started to rebuild the country. Because the Ming invaders had destroyed almost documents from the previous dynasties of Vietnam, the government had to reconstruct, reused old clothes from previous dynasties, mostly Trần dynasty. From 1428 to 1437, Vietnamese bureaucrats wore red and green round-neck viền lĩnh, Toàn Hoa hat, while the emperor dressed yellow viền lĩnh and wore on his head Tongtianguan or Putou (襆頭) which were some similar to the Tang empire's clothing. In 1435 Lê Lợi had appointed the high-rank mandarin Nguyễn Trãi to find the new costume adoption, but Nguyễn Trãi had failed on a debating with another mandarin name Lương Đặng, who strongly suggests adopting Ming clothing.[95] Since November 1437, the new dress regulation for emperor and whole bureaucracy system was adopted, which resembled from the Ming dynasty, included for every commune, district to province quan in the country. High-rank mandarins from 3rd to 1st wore red robes, medium-rank mandarin from 5th to 4th wore green robes, and all lowers wore blue robes, and all Mandarins wore mũ Ô Sa (a Vietnamese longer variant Wushamao 烏紗帽).[96] During the first period, Lê emperors wore the mũ Xung Thiên (Yishanguan 翼善冠), which was sent from Ming Dynasty, for examples, in October 1442, Lê Nhân Tông received mũ Xung Thiên from Emperor Yingzong of Ming.[97] During this period, cross-collared robe called áo giao lĩnh was popular among civilians.[98][99] Before 1744, people of both Đàng Ngoài (the north) and Đàng Trong (the south) wore giao lãnh y with thường (a kind of long skirt). Both male and female had loose long hair. In 1744, Lord Nguyễn Phúc Khoát of Đàng Trong (Huế) decreed that both men and women at his court wear trousers and a gown with buttons down the front. That the Nguyen Lord introduced early variant of áo dài (áo ngũ thân). The members of the Đàng Trong court (southern court) were thus distinguished from the courtiers of the Trịnh Lords in Đàng Ngoài (Hanoi), who wore giao lĩnh with long skirts. The partition between two families over the country too long so caused the some major differences in Vietnamese dialect and culture between Northern and Southern Vietnamese.
The seventeenth century was also a period in which European missionaries and merchants became a serious factor in Vietnamese court life and politics. Some early intermarriages between Vietnamese and Westerners had been occurred sixteenth century. There were the beginning of Although both had arrived by the early sixteenth century, neither foreign merchants nor missionaries had much impact on Vietnam before the seventeenth century. The Portuguese, Dutch, English, and French had all established trading posts and factories in Đông Kinh and Phổ Hiền by 1680. Fighting among the Europeans and tax pressures from the Vietnamese court made the enterprises later unprofitable, however, and all of the foreign trading posts were closed by 1800.
The class tension between the main population of landless peasants, poor workers to landlords, factory owners, bureaucrats and the noble class had been climbed to the peak in mid 1700s, with many peasant rebellions, protests, uprising through out the country.[100] However they didn't had well and totally effective until the Tây Sơn rebellion which ultimately successful overthrew two powerful Trinh-Nguyen families and the Imperial court in 1789. The 17-vol historical novel Hoàng Lê nhất thống chí (皇黎一統志) written from 1770 to 1802 had full discovered of this chaotic period in the Vietnamese history.[101]
Entry of Christianity in Vietnam
European missionaries had occasionally visited Vietnam for short periods of time, with some impacts, beginning in the early sixteenth century. Khâm định Việt sử Thông giám cương mục recorded the first Christian missionary name Inácio in the first year of Nguyên Hoà (1533) in Nam Định.[102] From 1580 to 1586, two Portuguese and French missionaries Luis de Fonseca and Grégoire de la Motte worked in Quảng Nam and Quy Nhơn region under lord Nguyễn Hoàng. After the Lê–Mạc War ended and peace was restored in 1593, more missionaries from Spain, Portugal France, Italy and Poland came to Vietname to make efforts for Christianity conversion. The best known of the early missionaries was Alexandre de Rhodes, a French Jesuit who was sent to Hanoi in 1627, where he quickly learned the language and began preaching in Vietnamese. Initially, Rhodes was well received by the Trinh court, and he reportedly baptized more than 6,000 converts; however, his success probably led to his expulsion in 1630. He is credited with perfecting a romanized system of writing the Vietnamese language (quốc ngữ), which was probably developed as the joint effort of several missionaries, including Rhodes. He wrote the first catechism in Vietnamese and published a Vietnamese-Latin-Portuguese dictionary; these works were the first books printed in quốc-ngữ. Quốc-ngữ was used initially only by missionaries; hán tự or chữ nôm continued to be used by the court and the bureaucracy. The French later supported the use of quốc ngữ, which, because of its simplicity, led to a high degree of literacy and a flourishing of Vietnamese literature. After being expelled from Vietnam, Rhodes spent the next thirty years seeking support for his missionary work from the Vatican and the French Roman Catholic hierarchy as well as making several more trips to Vietnam. However, since 1910, Latinized Quốc ngữ was adopted by the French governor as the main writing system of Vietnam[103], while hán tự and nôm tự fell into declinine. Vietnamese Christianity developed and became stronger, thanked to efforts of Western missionaries, till the end of XVII century, there were about 100,000 followers in North Vietnam and 40,000 in South Vietnam, but still was a minority part compared to the country.
Science and Philosophy
The Lê period was the continuously flourish era of Vietnamese scientific and Confucianism scholaric. Nguyễn Trãi was a 15th-century Lê official, author of geography book Dư địa chí, also was a Neo-Confucianist scholar. Lê Quý Đôn was a poet, encyclopedist, and government official, author of the geography book Phủ biên tạp lục. Hải Thượng Lãn Ông was a famous Vietnamese doctor and pharmacist with his full collection 28-volumes Hải Thượng y tông tâm lĩnh about traditional Vietnamese medicine. Gunpowder usage had been appeared in Vietnam very long time, some said it spread to Annam during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period, or being sooner during the Tang dynasty.[104] However, until 1380, the Vietnamese had begun building their own bronze guns, which were transferred from Ming Chinese technologies.[105] Matchlock firearms technology also spread from India and Portugal to Đại Việt in 1516, and was adopted and produced by the Lê army by 1530s.[106]
Literature and arts
The Lê Dynasty also saw the very flourish era of Vietnamese literature, especially written in chữ nôm, a Vietnamese variant of Chinese characters but in native Vietnamese words. Many types of entertainment and artistic sports, poetry, painting, stories, books, hát tuồng, chèo, cải lương, ca trù, ... developed to the peak and official annually held in theaters. Many writers that were author of many popular stories and poets in Hán tự or chữ nôm; for examples, Nguyễn Du with his infamous The Tale of Kiều, Đoàn Thị Điểm with Chinh phụ ngâm, Nguyễn Gia Thiều with Cung oán ngâm khúc,...
Emperor Lê Thánh Tông himself was a great author of many books and collections of his own poems and others in classic Chinese, some records:
- Thiên Nam dư hạ tập (天南餘暇集)
- Quỳnh Uyển cửu ca (瓊苑九歌) - collection of 9 musical essays
- Minh lương cẩm tú (明良錦繡) - 18 poems about beauties of beaches in Central Vietnam
- Văn minh cổ súy (文明鼓吹) - collection of poems about ancestors
- Chinh Tây kỷ hành (征西紀行) - collection of 30 chronicles about Champa Kingdom
- Cổ Tâm bách vịnh (古心百詠) - a collection of Ming Chinese poet Tianzi Yi
- Châu cơ thắng thưởng (珠璣勝賞) - collection of 20 poems about temples in the country
- Anh hoa hiếu trị (英華孝治)
- Cổ kim cung từ thi tập (古今宮詞詩集)
- Xuân vân thi tập (春雲詩集) - Poems about the Lunar New Year.
From XVI century in northern Vietnam, around Hanoi born new woodblock painting and silk painting traditions, for examples the Đông Hồ and Hàng Trống. Another form of Vietnamese paintings are Taoist painting, Buddhist painting and New Year painting (tranh Tết). The art forms of that time prospered and produced items of great artistic value, despite the upheavals and wars. Woodcarving was especially highly developed and produced items that were used for daily use or worship. The Vietnamese art later was also influenced by Japanese and Western arts. Many of these items can be seen in the National Museum in Hanoi.
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Woodcut paintings "Thánh Cung vạn tuế" ("Long live his Imperial Majesty") from the 18th-century Nghệ An. -
Wooden Arhats, 1646-1647 -
Statue of Avalokiteshvara Bodhisattva, crimson and gilded wood, Revival Lê dynasty, autumn of Bính Thân year (1656), from Bút Tháp pagoda in Bắc Ninh Province. -
Wooden art pieces of the seventeenth century. -
Nghe (mythological beast) figurines, crimson and gilded wood, eighteenth century. -
Lion decorate in seventeenth century. -
Dragon of the Later Lê dynasty. -
Buddhanandi statue of the Le dynasty. -
Ceramic Lion bush , sixteenth century. -
Bronze bell in Hoi An, 1677.
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Education and imperial examination system
In late 1426, Lê Lợi held a small Confucian examination in Đông Kinh, graduated 30 tiến sĩ. From 1431, the court annually held Provincial and metropolitan exams were organized in three sessions. The first session took place in every province, consisted of three questions on the examinee's interpretation of the Four Books, and four on the Classics corpus. Everyone who passed the first session were called Sinh đồ and Hương cống. The second session took place in the capital one year later, and consisted of a discursive essay, a based Tang poetry, five critical judgments, and one in the style of an edict, an announcement and a memorial. Three days after that, the third session was held by the emperor, consisting of five essays on the Classics, historiography, and contemporary affairs. From 1486, every mandarin candidates must participated both first and second session to approve the chain. The Le's examination system reflected the Ming's imperial examination.[107]During the period from 1426 to 1527, the Lê dynasty held 26 Imperial examinations in the capital, graduated 989 tiến sĩ and 20 trạng nguyên.[108] By the 1750s, Neo-Confucianism were declining, the imperial examinations began having surplus graduates, downgrading quality of jinshi and mandarin, corruptions, the court prefer children of noble families to be mandarins that take check, thus made the downfall of Confucian examination system in Vietnam in the late 18th century until the established of Nguyễn dynasty.[109]
Some examples of notable graduated people during the period from 1428 to 1789 are listed below:
Foreign relations
In 1428, Lê Lợi established a tributary relationship with the Ming dynasty in exchange for the recognition and formal protection of his kingdom. Xuande Emperor gave Lê Lợi the title "An Nam Quốc Vương" (king of Annam), thus recognized Vietnamese independent and sovereignty and this tradition lasted to 1526.[26][27][28][29] Also part of the tributary relationship was the responsibility of the Ming to provide external military support to the Lê state.[28] Ming support for the Lê against the Mạc uprising arrived in 1537.[28] After the 1540 surrender of the Mạc to the Ming, the Ming court ceremonially revoked the Mạc dynasty's status as an independent kingdom and reclassified it as a dutongshisi: a category only slightly higher than a chieftaincy.[28] After 1540, the Ming received tribute from both the Lê dynasty and the Mạc, a state of affairs that continued through the Qing dynasty.[28][29] From 1647, the Southern Ming reclassified Annam as a independent kingdom, giving Lê Duy Kỳ the title "An Nam Quốc Vương" (安南国王) again.[110] In 1667, the Kangxi Emperor of the Qing empire gave the title An Nam Quốc Vương to Viet king Lê Duy Vũ through a successful Vietnamese diplomatic mission.[111]
Outside China, the Lê dynasty had its own tributary relationships with Panduranga,Lan Xang, Cambodia.[112] Vietnamese historiography notes that contact between Vietnam and the Holy See or Vatican was established during the reign of emperor Lê Thế Tông (1572–1599) through a diplomacy letter in Classical Chinese that is held in a Vatican library in the modern day.[113]
Economic development
Early period (1428–1567)
Since Annam gained fully independent from China in 939, the capital Đại La of the kingdom continued being a economy and trading center of Vietnam, with small amounts of foreigner merchants came from Song China, Champa, Dali kingdom, Srivijaya, Western Xia and Đại Thực (Arab).[114][115]. When the Mongol-ruled Yuan Dynasty set a blockade to Dai Viet and Champa kingdom from 1282 to 1330 that cut of the Maritime trade route from Vietnam to Southeast Asia and West Asia that severely weakened the kingdom's economy. In 1371, Zhu Yuanzhang of Ming China imposed the Sea Ban in China that gave opportunities for surrounding kingdoms, including Vietnam. However in 1406 the Ming dynasty invaded Vietnam, overthrew the short-live Hồ dynasty (1400–1407) and set up the occupied Fourth Chinese domination of Vietnam. The Ming army looted, destroyed and burned many valuable books, treasures back to China, attempt to total restriction on local population's monetary hands and to assimilate Vietnamese into Ming Empire, that causing severely damages on Vietnamese economy.[116]
After Lê Lợi led the Lam Sơn rebellion drove out the Chinese in 1427, he sought to restore the agriculture by made a Land reform in April 1428, sized lands from Ming collaborators and the wealthy noblemen to distribute land to peasants and the growing population. Approximately 250,000 reserve soldiers were back to their home to help restore the farming crops.[117] Lê Lợi also replaced the previous Hồ's paper banknotes Hội Sao Thông Bảo by the new currency Thuận Thiên thông bảo (Yuantian Tongbao), which 50 bronze đồngs equal 1 bronze-silver tiền. Each đồng weights 2,67 gram. Supported by the scholar-bureaucrats, he accepted the Confucian viewpoint that merchants were solely parasitic, but still encouraged the handicraft industry, ceramics manufacturing, metal mining and silk trade however he put them under the state control to prevent Chinese infiltrators. Because the restriction on trading, Đông Kinh and Vân Đồn were only two places where foreigners could exchange for goods. Lê Vietnamese's blue and white underglaze-cobalt celadon ceramics made from Chu Đậu were the most finest and gained dominant ceramics in Asian market at that time. They were exported to Southeast Asia, China and West Asia. The Ottomans called them "Annam wares". Estimated, about up to 10% of ceramics exported to Europe during 1400-1567 were Vietnamese products.[118] By the year of 1460, Vietnam's economy had been fully recovered and gained triple by size of crops and reverse golds in national storage.[119] During the conquest of Champa and occupation of Laos, Emperor Lê Thánh Tông's campaign took 1,000 liangs of gold each day[120], looted gold treasures and new conquered lands improved the court's reserve monetary. Vietnam enjoyed a period of political stability and prosper society.
However, after king Thái Trinh Lê Thuần died in 1505, the country's economy began shrinking down because following kings like Lê Uy Mục, Lê Tương Dực who were incompetent and only interested in eating, entertaining, sexual than doing as rulers of the country caused disruptive peasant and military rebellions through out the country. There was series of severe famines in Hải Dương prefecture and Kinh Bắc prefecture (Bắc Ninh, Bắc Giang) occurred in 1517 to 1521 during the reign of Lê Tương Dực.[121] The sixteen-century political crisis caused severe damages to Vietnamese's agriculture and conscription required by incessant military campaigns, compounded by natural disasters, largely contributed to regular crop failures. Number of landless peasant grew quickly, causing a disproportionate surplus of unemployed labours, and the wealthy factory owners, landowners grew in numbers. After Mạc Đăng Dung gained power in 1527, he sought to recover the economy again by employed landless peasants into cities, opening ceramic, silk factories and mining fields. The Mac rulers maintained their economy closely to the Ming China, later in 1572 the Northeast coast of Vietnam was raided by Wakou pirates.[112] After recaptured Dong Kinh in 1592, the Lê-Trịnh court acknowledge the benefits of oversea trading, continue encourages handicraft industrial and opened some international ports like Hoi An, Dong Kinh for the presence of foreign merchants. About 80% of the population were farmers and peasants; they worked on lands mostly were held by địa chủ or the landlords.
Later period (1567–1789)
The Vietnamese ceramic business had come to the declining and crumble period when in 1567, the Ming Emperor Longqing had lifted China's Haijin (Sea Ban) policy that make Chinese ceramic products be able to flooded and regained dominant in Asia.[122] Maritime trade intendancies were reëstablished at Guangzhou and Ningbo in 1599, and Chinese merchants turned Yuegang (modern Haicheng, Fujian) into a thriving port.[123] The Vietnamese Imperial court now seeked to product more valuable production, mostly silk, to sold them for the Portuguese merchants from Macao, later mainly sold for the VOC in Batavia and the British companies. This exchanging period with Westerners gave the Vietnamese unique European and West Asian products. The Portuguese also imported to Vietnam new seeds of tomato, potato, corn and pineapple from Americas as well.[124] The VOC ultimately helped the Trinh lords armed his army with new European weapons, military assignment against the Nguyen lords in the south with allied with the Portuguese.[68]
Silk trading was important at that time and Chinese and Japanese traders came to Dong Kinh to buy both high quality silks and raw silks. Besides silk textiles were made by villages, majority of them were produced in state-owned factories in Dong Kinh, which produced for the Royal family, noblemen and foreigners. From 1600 to 1682, the Japanese paid the Vietnamese court 20 million silver coins just for silks.[112] In 1637, the Dutch successfully established commercial and diplomatic relations with Tonkin and maintained their trading station in the capital of Thăng Long (present-day Hanoi) until 1700. The lucrative Dutch ‘Vietnamese-silk-for-Japanese-silver trade‘ later also attracted the English and the French to Tonkin in 1672 and early 1682 respectively. The British imported Vietnamese silk around 1670s, but not regularly. The city had a Chinatown, factories owned by Dutch, English companies along the Red river.[125] In 1594, the Imperial court allows the Western presence in the capital, encouraged Dutch, Spanish and British to open trading ports. In 1616, the British established a factory in Đông Kinh, but their business were ended in failure due to the pressures from the Lê court, and finally withdrew in 1720.[126] During the 17th and 18th century, Westerners commonly used the name Tonkin (from Đông Kinh) to refer to northern Vietnam, then ruled by the Trịnh lords (while Cochinchina was used to refer to Southern Vietnam, then ruled by the Nguyễn lords, and Annam, from the name of the former Chinese province was used to refer to Vietnam as a whole). Tonkin had been a major industrial factory and trading center in Asia until 1730s.[127]
In 1612, Joseon army encountered a Vietnamese merchant ship from Tonkin wrecked in Jeju Island carried a lot of treasures and money. The Koreans killed all sailors, looted treasures on board then falsely reported the ship "was a pirate ship".[128]
However, by the last quarter of the 1600s, Tonkin was no longer a profitable trading place. Vietnamese silk no longer reaped a handsome profit in Japan and Vietnamese ceramics proved unmarketable in the insular Southeast Asian markets. In Tonkin, trading conditions also deteriorated rapidly. Subsequently, natural disasters ravaged the economy of the country and a wave of successive famines discouraged local craftsmen from producing goods for export. Worse still, after the protracted civil war with the southern Vietnamese kingdom of Quinam (or Đàng Trong) ended in 1672, the Tonkinese rulers seemed to be more indifferent towards foreign trade as they were no longer in urgent need of a supply of weapons from the Westerners. Bearing in mind their long-term strategy, especially the prospect of opening up trading relations with China, the Dutch still wanted to maintain their Tonkin trade despite its current unprofitable state, perceiving that it would be extremely difficult to re-establish the relationship with Tonkin once they left the country.[112] Despite the Dutch persistence, the relationship between the VOC and Tonkin deteriorated rapidly during the last two decades of the seventeenth century, especially after Chúa (Lord) Trịnh Căn (r. 1682–1709) succeeded to the throne.[112] All European trading ports in North Vietnam were being closed by late 1780s due to the unstable during the Tây Sơn rebellion was spreading north and overthrew the dynasty in 1789.
Expand settling lands in Southern Vietnam to Cambodian land
The area of Quảng Nam river original was part of Champa kingdoms and was annexed by Đại Việt since 1471. It was opened for foreign merchants trade and reside. In 1535 Portuguese explorer and sea captain António de Faria, coming from Da Nang, tried to establish a major trading centre at the port village of Faifo.[129] Hội An was founded as a trading port by the Nguyễn Lord Nguyễn Hoàng in 1570. The Nguyễn lords were far more interested in commercial activity than the Trịnh lords who ruled the north. As a result, Hội An flourished as a trading port and became the most important trade port on the East Vietnam Sea. Captain William Adams, the English sailor and confidant of Tokugawa Ieyasu, is known to have made one trading mission to Hội An in 1617 on a Red Seal Ship.[130] The early Portuguese Jesuits also had one of their two residences at Hội An.[131] In 1640, Nguyễn lord Nguyễn Phúc Lan ordered to close all Dutch stores and factories in Hội An, ban the Dutch for trading in Cochinchina because he suspected the VOC allying with the Trịnh lord in the north.[132] In the 17th century, Polish Jesuit missionary Wojciech Męciński was believed to visited Hội An.[133]
In the 18th century, Hội An was considered by Chinese and Japanese merchants to be the best destination for trading in all of Southeast Asia, even Asia.[citation needed] Trading activities and handicraft manufacturing had been shifted from Tonkin to Hội An.[112] The city also rose to prominence as a powerful and exclusive trade conduit between Europe, China, India, and Japan, especially for the ceramic industry. Shipwreck discoveries have shown that Vietnamese and Asian ceramics were transported from Hội An to as far as Sinai, Egypt.[134]
Hội An's importance waned sharply at the end of the 18th century because of the collapse of Nguyễn rule (thanks to the Tây Sơn Rebellion – which was opposed to foreign trade). [citation needed] Then, with the triumph of Emperor Gia Long, he repaid the French for their aid by giving them exclusive trade rights to the nearby port town of Đà Nẵng. Đà Nẵng became the new centre of trade (and later French influence) in central Vietnam while Hội An was a forgotten backwater. Local historians also say that Hội An lost its status as a desirable trade port due to silting up of the river mouth. The result was that Hội An remained almost untouched by the changes to Vietnam over the next 200 years. The efforts to revive the city were only done by a late Polish architect and influential cultural educator, Kazimierz Kwiatkowski, who finally brought back Hội An to the world. There is still a statue for the late Polish architect in the city, and remains a symbol of the relationship between Poland and Vietnam, which share many historical commons despite its distance.[135]
Beginning in the early 17th century, colonization of the area by Vietnamese settlers gradually isolated the Khmer of the Mekong Delta from their brethren in Cambodia proper and resulted in their becoming a minority in the delta. [citation needed] In 1623, King Chey Chettha II of Cambodia (1618–28) allowed Vietnamese refugees fleeing the Trịnh–Nguyễn civil war in Vietnam to settle in the area of Prey Nokor and to set up a customs house there.[136] Increasing waves of Vietnamese settlers, which the Cambodian kingdom could not impede because it was weakened by war with Thailand, slowly Vietnamized the area. In time, Prey Nokor became known as Saigon. Prey Nokor was the most important commercial seaport to the Khmers.[citation needed] The loss of the city and the rest of the Mekong Delta cut off Cambodia's access to the East Sea. Subsequently, the only remaining Khmers' sea access was south-westerly at the Gulf of Thailand e.g. at Kampong Saom and Kep.
In 1698, Nguyễn Hữu Cảnh, a Vietnamese noble and explorer, was sent by the Nguyễn rulers of Huế by ship[137] to establish Vietnamese administrative structures in the area, thus detaching the area from Cambodia, which was not strong enough to intervene. He is often credited with the expansion of Saigon into a significant settlement of Kinh and Hoa people. A large Vauban citadel called Gia Định was built[138] by Victor Olivier de Puymanel, one of the Nguyễn Ánh's French mercenaries. The citadel was later destroyed by the French following the Battle of Kỳ Hòa (see Citadel of Saigon). [citation needed] Initially called Gia Dinh, the Vietnamese city became Saigon in the 18th century. At the time, the population of Gia Định was around 200,000 people with 35,000 households.[139] Vietnamese people began settling in the Mekong Delta region, at least since 1623 when it was still uninhabited region of Cambodia. In 1707, Principality of Hà Tiên was set up by a Chinese refugee Mạc Cửu and his family, declared loyal to the Nguyen lord. Since that the Mekong Delta region now is belonged to Vietnam, but was treated as an autonomous principality.[140]
For centuries the Nguyễn's economy mostly depended on profitable semi-industrial and international trade, didn't pay attention for the large number of landless peasants.[141] Until later 18th century, due to deadly epidemic, severe flood in Red River Delta, the immense corruption of the government and the rise of Tây Sơn peasant rebellion in Southern Vietnam, that later spread entire country, devastated most of the economy and international trading, played a important role for the collapse of the dynasty.
Emperors
The following list is the emperors of the Lê dynasty from 1428 to 1527, which have meaning in latin Vietnamese and Hán tự.
| Temple name | Posthumous name | Personal name | Lineage | Reign | Regnal name | Tomb | Events | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
Thái Tổ | Thống Thiên Khải Vận Thánh Đức Thần Công Duệ Văn Anh Vũ Khoan Minh Dũng Trí Hoàng Nghĩa Chí Minh Đại Hiếu Cao Hoàng đế (統天啟運聖德神功睿文英武寬明勇智弘義至明大孝高皇帝) | Lê Lợi (黎利) | Lam Sơn rebellion | 1429–1433 | Thuận Thiên (順天) | Vĩnh Tomb, Lam Sơn | Founder of the Lê dynasty, recognized by the Ming dynasty as legitimate ruler of Đại Việt in 1431.[142] |
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Thái Tông | Kế Thiên Thể Đạo Hiển Đức Thánh Công Khâm Minh Văn Tư Anh Duệ Triết Chiêu Hiến Kiến Trung Văn Hoàng đế (繼天體道顯德功欽明文思英睿仁哲昭憲建中文皇帝) | Lê Nguyên Long (黎元龍) | Son | 1433–42 (2) | Thiệu Bình (紹平 1434 – 1439) , Đại Bảo (大寶 1440 – 1442) | Hựu Lăng, Lam Kinh | |
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Nhân Tông | Khâm Văn Nhân Hiếu Tuyên Minh Thông Duệ Tuyên Hoàng đế (欽文仁孝宣明聰睿宣皇帝) | Lê Bang Cơ (黎邦基) | Son | 1442–1459 (3) | Thái Hòa (太和 1443 – 1453), Diên Ninh (延寧 1454 – 1459) | Mục Lăng | The youngest emperor, murdered by Duke Lê Nghi Tân |
|
Thánh Tông | Sùng Thiên Quảng Vận Cao Minh Quang Chính Chí Đức Đại Công Thánh Văn Thần Vũ Đạt Hiếu Thuần Hoàng đế (崇天廣運高明光正至德大功聖文神武達孝淳皇帝) | Lê Tư Thành (黎思誠) | Son | 1460–97 (4) | Quang Thuận (光順 1460–1469), Hồng Đức (洪德 1470–1497) | Chiêu Lăng | Annexed Champa and Northwest Lao |
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Hiến Tông | Thể Thiên Ngưng Đạo Mậu Đức Chí Nhân Chiêu Văn Thiệu Vũ Tuyên Triết Khâm Thành Chương Hiếu Duệ Hoàng Đế (體天凝道懋德至仁昭文紹武宣哲欽聖彰孝睿皇帝) | Lê Tranh | Son | 1497–1504 (5) | Cảnh Thống (景統) | Dụ Lăng | Declining of the dynasty |
| Túc Tông | Chiêu Nghĩa Hiển Nhân Ôn Cung Uyên Mặc Hiếu Doãn Cung Khâm Hoàng đế (昭義顯仁溫恭淵默惇孝允恭欽皇帝) | Lê Thuần (黎㵮) | Son | 1504–1505 (6) | Tự Hoàng (嗣皇) | Kính Lăng | Six-month emperor (17 July 1504 – 12 January 1505) | |
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Uy Mục | Mẫn Lệ công (愍厲公) | Lê Tuấn (黎濬) | Younger brother | 1504–1509 (7) | Đoan Khánh (端慶) | An Lăng | Evil king/Quỷ vương (鬼王) |
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Tương Dực | Linh Ẩn vương (靈隱王) | Lê Oanh (黎瀠) | Cousin (son of Duke Lê Tân) | 1509–1516 (8) | Hồng Thuận (洪順) | Nguyên Lăng | Rebellion ursupred the throne, assassinated by general Trịnh Duy Sản |
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Chiêu Tông | Thần Hoàng đế (神皇帝) | Lê Y (黎椅) | cousin | 1517–1522 (9) | Quang Thiệu (光紹) | Vĩnh Hưng Lăng | Murdered by Mạc Đăng Dung in 1525 |
|
Cung Hoàng | Cung Hoàng đế (恭皇帝) | Lê Xuân (黎椿) | Brother of Chiêu Tông | 1522–1527 (10) | Thống Nguyên (統元) | Hoa Dương lăng | Hanged by himself, End of the Lê Dynasty. |
The following list is the Emperors of the Revival Lê Dynasty, which continued the Lê Dynasty from 1533 after Mạc Đăng Dung usurped the throne, occupied capital Thăng Long for 55 years. After Quang Hưng Emperor, the Trịnh lords de facto controlled most the country, and the emperor became the figurehead of the country. This political situation is similar to Tokugawa shogunate in Japan.
| Temple name | Posthumous name | Personal name | Lineage | Reign | Regnal name | Tomb | Events | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
Trang Tông | Dụ Hoàng đế (裕皇帝) | Lê Ninh (黎寧) | descendant of Lê Lợi | 1533–1548 (11) | Nguyên Hòa (元和) | Cảnh lăng | Jiajing Emperor of Ming dynasty sent 110,000 soldiers to help the Lê family restore the throne in 1536 to 1540. |
| Trung Tông | Vũ Hoàng đế (武皇帝) | Lê Huyên (黎暄) | Son | 1548–1556 (12) | Thuận Bình (顺平) | Diên lăng | Lê army recaptured Thuận Hóa and Quảng Nam from Mạc in 1553. | |
| Anh Tông | Tuấn Hoàng đế (峻皇帝) | Lê Duy Bang (黎維邦) | Son | 1556–1573 (13) | Thiên Hựu (天祐 1557), Chính Trị (正治 1558 – 1571), Hồng Phúc (洪福 1572) | Bố Vệ lăng | The rise of Nguyễn clan in Thuận Hóa and Quảng Nam. | |
| Thế Tông | Tích Thuần Cương Chính Dũng Quả Nghị Hoàng đế (積純剛正勇果毅皇帝) | Lê Duy Đàm (黎維潭) | Son | 1573–99 (14) | Gia Thái (嘉泰 1573 – 1577), Quang Hưng (光興 1578 – 1599) | Hoa Nhạc lăng | Recaptured Thăng Long, the Mạc dynasty collapsed. | |
| Kính Tông | Hiển Nhân Dụ Khánh Tuy Phúc Huệ Hoàng đế (显仁裕庆绥福惠皇帝)[143], Giản Huy Hoàng đế (簡輝皇帝) | Lê Duy Tân (黎維新) | Son | 1599–1619 (15) | Thận Đức (慎德 1600 – 1601), Hoằng Định (弘定 1601 – 1619) | Trịnh Lords held most powers of the Lê court. | ||
| Portrait of Emperor Dương Hòa | Thần Tông | Uyên Hoàng đế (淵皇帝) | Lê Duy Kỳ (黎維祺) | Son | 1619–1643, 1649–1662 (16) | Vĩnh Tộ (永祚 9/1619 – 1628), Đức Long (德隆 1629 – 1634), Dương Hòa (陽和 1635 – 9/1643), Khánh Đức (慶德 10/1649 – 1652), Thịnh Đức (盛德 1653 – 1657), Vĩnh Thọ (永壽 1658 – 8/1662), Vạn Khánh (萬慶 9/1662) | Quần Ngọc lăng | Has 11 Consorts with difference nationalities, 4 foster children: Princess Lê Thị Ngọc Duyên, second crown prince Lê Duy Tào, prince Lê Duy Lương and Các Hắc Sinh (Willem Carel Hartsinck)[144] (1638–1689), the Dutch tradesman who deputized the Dutch East India Company in Taiwan. |
| Chân Tông | Thuận Hoàng đế (順皇帝) | Lê Duy Hựu (黎維祐) | Son | 1643–1649 (17) | Phúc Thái (福泰) | Hoa Phố lăng | The Lê court hired 3 VOC ships to helped battle against Nguyễn Lord in Cochinchina but were defeated in 1643. | |
| Huyền Tông | Mục Hoàng đế (穆皇帝) | Lê Duy Vũ (黎維禑) | Son of Thần Tông, younger brother of Chân Tông | 1662–1671 (18) | Cảnh Trị (景治) | An Lăng | The emperor passed away when he was only 17 | |
| Gia Tông | Khoan Minh Mẫn Đạt Anh Quả Huy Nhu Khắc Nhân Đốc Nghĩa Mỹ Hoàng đế (寬明敏達英果徽柔克仁篤義美皇帝) | Lê Duy Cối (黎維禬) | Son of Thần Tông | 1671–1675 (19) | Dương Đức (陽德 1672 – 1674), Đức Nguyên (德元 1674 – 1675) | Phúc An lăng | The emperor passed away when he was 15 because cholera | |
|
Hy Tông | Chương Hoàng đế (章皇帝) | Lê Duy Cáp (黎維祫) | Son of Thần Tông | 1675–1705 (20) | Vĩnh Trị (永治 1676 – 1680), Chính Hoà (正和 1680 – 1705) | Phú lăng | War with the Nguyễn Lords in Cochinchina over, the remnant Mạc and Bầu lords were total defeated. |
| Portrait of Emperor Vĩnh Thịnh | Dụ Tông | Thuần Chính Huy Nhu Ôn Giản Từ Tường Khoan Huệ Tôn Mẫu Hòa Hoàng đế (純正徽柔溫簡慈祥寬惠遜敏和皇帝) | Lê Duy Đường (黎維禟) | Son of Hy Tông | 1705–1729 (21) | Vĩnh Thịnh (永盛 1706 – 1719), Bảo Thái (保泰 1720 – 1729) | Kim Thạch | The Lê court recognized the Manchu Qing legitimates over China, Kangxi Emperor sent envoy and gave the title An Nam quốc vương 安南国王 (King of Annam) for Dụ Tông in 1718.[145] |
| Duệ Tông | Hôn Đức công (昏德公), Thời Hoàng Đế (萬恩皇帝) | Lê Duy Phường (黎簡皇) | Son | 1732–1735 (22) | Vĩnh Khánh (永慶) | Kim Lũ | Was ascended the throne by Lord Trịnh Giang. | |
| Thuần Tông | Giản Hoàng đế (簡皇帝) | Lê Duy Tường (黎維祥) | Son of Dụ Tông | 1732–1735 (23) | Long Đức (龍德) | Bình Ngô Lăng | Poisoned by Trịnh Giang in 1735. | |
| Ý Tông | Ôn Gia Trang Túc Khải Túy Minh Mẫn Khoan Hồng Uyên Duệ Huy Hoàng đế (溫嘉莊肅愷悌通敏寬洪淵睿徽皇帝) | Lê Duy Thận (黎維祳) | Son of Thuần Tông | 1735–1740 (24) | Vĩnh Hựu (永佑) | Phù Lê lăng | The last retired emperor[disambiguation needed] of Vietnam. | |
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|
Hiển Tông | Vĩnh Hoàng đế (永皇帝) | Lê Duy Diêu (黎維祧) | First son of Thuần Tông | 1740–1786 (25) | Cảnh Hưng (景興) | Bàn Thạch lăng | Trịnh Giang was overthrew. Prince Lê Duy Mật even rebelled against the Trinh family but was suppressed quickly. |
|
Mẫn Hoàng đế (愍皇帝) | Lê Duy Kỳ (黎維祁) | Grandson of Hiển Tông | 1786–1789 (26) | Chiêu Thống (昭統) | Hoa Dương lăng | The last Emperor of the Later Lê Dynasty. |
See also
Notes
- ^ Annam (Vietnam) had nominal tributary relations with dynasties in China. See #Foreign relations.
Citations
- ^ J. Gordon Melton, Martin Baumann (21 September 2010). Religion of the World: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of beliefs and practices. p. 426. ISBN 9781598842043. Retrieved 13 April 2014.
- ^ Taouti 1985, pp. 197–198
- ^ Đại Việt's Office of History 1993, pp. 509.
- ^ "Open Doors International : Vietnam". Archived from the original on 2007-12-14. Retrieved 2007-03-29.
- ^ Ming Shilu, sixth year of Yongle, vol. 80, pp. 613–614《明實錄·太宗實，錄卷八十，永樂六年六月己丑條，茲參考李國祥主編。》
- ^ Ming Shilu, sixth year of Yongle, vol. 80, pp. 613–614《明實錄·太宗實，錄卷八十，永樂六年六月己丑條，茲參考李國祥主編。》
- ^ Ming Shilu, fifth year of Yongle, vol. 68, pp. 603《明實錄·太宗實錄，卷六十八，永樂五年六月癸卯條，茲參考李國祥主編。》
- ^ Tsai, Shih (March 2002). Perpetual Happiness: The Ming Emperor Yongle. Seattle : University of Washington Press, c2001, p126. ISBN 978-0-295-98124-6.
- ^ Đào Duy Anh 2005, History of Vietnam by period, p 92
- ^ Ming Shilu, thirteenth year of Yongle, vol. 196, pp 659《卷一百九十六，永樂十六年春正月甲寅條。這裡參考》
- ^ Chan Chung Jin, p. 149
- ^ Asia: Local Studies / Global Themes - Volume 3 Hue-Tam Ho Tai - 2001 - Page 91 "... an anti-Ming resistance — the Lam Son uprising, begun in 1418 — and the two men became the movement's key exponents. As emperor (1428-33), Le Loi would retain Nguyen Trai as his chief official; thereafter, their relationship was made ..."
- ^ Lonely Planet Vietnam 10 -Nick Ray, Yu-Mei Balasingamchow, Iain Stewart - 2009 Page 30 "In 1418 wealthy philanthropist Le Loi sparked the Lam Son Uprising by refusing to serve as an official for the Chinese Ming dynasty. By 1428, local rebellions had erupted in several regions and Le Loi travelled the countryside to rally ..."
- ^ H. K. Chang - From Movable Type Printing to the World Wide Web 2007 Page 128 "However, in 1418, another leader, Lê Lợi, staged an uprising, which led in 1428 to the establishment of the Lê dynasty, from which time Vietnam broke free of China and became independent".
- ^ Ngọc Đĩnh Vũ Hào kiệt Lam Sơn: trường thiên tiểu thuyết lịch sử Volume 1 - 2003 "The Lam Sơn uprising, 1418-1428, is one of the greatest historical events in Vietnamese history, when a small country tried to gain independence from the firm grab of a bigger neighbor".
- ^ Laurel Kendall Vietnam: Journeys of Body, Mind, and Spirit 2003- Page 27 "Le Loi led a successful ten,year (1418,1428) uprising against the Chinese. According to legend, Le Loi returned the sword that gave him victory to Hoan Kiem Lake (now the center of Hanoi), where it was retrieved by a giant turtle".
- ^ Le Loi. The Encycloaedia Britannica. Micropedia, Volume VI, 15th Edition. ISBN 0-85229-339-9
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- ^ Trần Trọng Kim, Việt Nam sử lược, vol. I, part. III, sec. XIV(1418 – 1427)
- ^ 《明史·王通传》
- ^ Sun Laichen (2003), "Chinese Military Technology and Dai Viet: c.1390-1597," Asia Research Institute Working Paper Series, No.11, September.
- ^ Ngô Sĩ Liên 1993, University of Tokyo's Toyo Cultural Research Institute, p，546－548
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- ^ a b Le Loi at the Encyclopædia Britannica
- ^ a b Womack, B. (2012). "Asymmetry and China's Tributary System". The Chinese Journal of International Politics. 5 (1): 37–54. doi:10.1093/cjip/pos003. ISSN 1750-8916.
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- ^ Việt Nam sử lược, p. 96.
- ^ Ngô Sĩ Liên 1993, pp 361.
- ^ "...Our Thái tổ majesty just had retaken the Tianxia, the country was not recovered, and Hãn, Xảo wanted to conspired against the court...", Nguyễn Trực 1441
- ^ "Lê, Lợi King of Vietnam 1385-1433". worldcat.
- ^ a b c d Theobald
- ^ Đại Việt sử ký toàn thư, Ngô Sĩ Liên, 1993, volume XI, p. 391
- ^ Đại Việt sử ký toàn thư, Ngô Sĩ Liên , 1993, volume XI, p. 392
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- ^ ereka.vn (13 April 2018). "Nomadic people in Vietnamese history".
- ^ Tsai (1996), p. 15 The Eunuchs in the Ming Dynasty (Ming Tai Huan Kuan), p. 15, at Google Books
- ^ Rost (1887), p. 252 Miscellaneous papers relating to Indo-China: reprinted for the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society from Dalrymple's "Oriental Repertory," and the "Asiatic Researches" and "Journal" of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Volume 1, p. 252, at Google Books
- ^ Rost (1887), p. 252 Miscellaneous papers relating to Indo-China and Indian archipelage: reprinted for the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. Second Series, Volume 1, p. 252, at Google Books
- ^ Wade 2005, p. 3785/86
- ^ "首页 > 06史藏-1725部 > 03别史-100部 > 49-明实录宪宗实录-- > 203-大明宪宗纯皇帝实录卷之二百十九". 明實錄 (Ming Shilu) (in Chinese). Retrieved 26 July 2013.
- ^ Wade 2005, p. 2078/79
- ^ Leo K. Shin (2007). "Ming China and Its Border with Annam". In Diana Lary (ed.). The Chinese State at the Borders (illustrated ed.). UBC Press. p. 92. ISBN 978-0774813334. Retrieved 5 January 2013.
- ^ "首页 > 06史藏-1725部 > 03别史-100部 > 49-明实录宪宗实录-- > 106-明宪宗纯皇帝实录卷之一百六". 明實錄 (Ming Shilu) (in Chinese). Retrieved 5 January 2013.
- ^ Tsai (1996), p. 16 The Eunuchs in the Ming Dynasty (Ming Tai Huan Kuan), p. 16, at Google Books
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- ^ Schliesinger 2015, p. 18.
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- ^ Annam and its Minor Currency, chapter 16.
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{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link) - ^ Thái Mỹ (24 April 2019). "Con trai vua Lê Thế Tông ở đất Thanh Châu" (in Vietnamese).
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- ^ [2]
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- ^ Ming Shilu - Yingzong era - vol 90, 7th year of Zhengtong. 《明史、安南國使臣黎昚陛辤，命賫敕并皮弁冠服、金織襲衣等物歸賜其安南國王黎麟》
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- ^ Đào, Phương Bình; Phạm, Tú Châu; Nguyễn, Huệ Chi; Đỗ, Văn Hỷ; Hoàng, Lê; Trần, Thị Băng Thanh; Nguyễn, Đức Vân (1977). Thơ văn Lý Trần (PDF). Vol. 1. Hanoi: Nhà xuất bản Khoa học Xã hội. p. 58.
- ^ George Dutton (2006). The Tay Son Uprising: Society and Rebellion in Eighteenth-Century Vietnam (Southeast Asia: Politics, Meaning, and Memory). Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.
- ^ The Han Tu version of Hoàng Lê nhất thống chí
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- ^ Tran 2006, p. 107.
- ^ History of Vietnam from the beginning to early 19th century, Đào Duy Anh 2002
- ^ History of Vietnam, 2017, volume 3
- ^ History of Vietnam, 2017, p. 567-572
- ^ 《明史·安南傳》
- ^ 《清史》
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- ^ Biên Niên Lịch sử Cổ Trung Đại Việt Nam 1987, p. 308
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- ^ Hoàng thành Thăng Long (8 August 2013). "10th-century Egyptian and Muslim ceramics found in Hanoi".
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- ^ Tú Khôi, [ http://daibieunhandan.vn/default.aspx?tabid=77&NewsId=97265 Chuyện đi sứ của cha ông], Đại biểu nhân dân, truy cập ngày 26 tháng 6 năm 2015.
- ^ History of Vietnam, 2017, p. 240
- ^ History of Vietnam, 2017, p. 262-264
- ^ Bruce McFarland Lockhart, William J. Duiker, The A to Z of Viêt Nam, Scarecrow Press, 2010, pages 40, 365–366
- ^ 사헌부에서 전 제주 목사 이기빈과 전 판관 문희현의 치죄를 청하여 윤허하다 「……그런데 이기빈과 문희현 등은 처음에는 예우하면서 여러 날 접대하다가 배에 가득 실은 보화를 보고는 도리어 재물에 욕심이 생겨 꾀어다가 모조리 죽이고는 그 물화를 몰수하였는데, 무고한 수백 명의 인명을 함께 죽이고서 자취를 없애려고 그 배까지 불태우고서는 끝내는 왜구를 잡았다고 말을 꾸며서 군공을 나열하여 거짓으로 조정에 보고했습니다.……」
- ^ Spencer Tucker, "Vietnam", University Press of Kentucky, 1999, ISBN 0-8131-0966-3, p. 22
- ^ [3]
- ^ Roland Jacques Portuguese pioneers of Vietnamese linguistics prior to 1650 2002 Page 28 "At the time Pina wrote, early 1623, the Jesuits had two main residences, one in Hội An in Quàng Nam, the other at Quy Nhon."
- ^ Đào Trinh Nhất 2015, p. 47.
- ^ http://misjejezuici.blogspot.com/2012/07/wojciech-mecinski.html
- ^ Li Tana (1998). Nguyen Cochinchina p. 69.
- ^ https://culture.pl/en/artist/kazimierz-kwiatkowski
- ^ Mai Thục, Vương miện lưu đày: truyện lịch sử, Nhà xuất bản Văn hóa – thông tin, 2004, p.580; Giáo sư Hoàng Xuân Việt, Nguyễn Minh Tiến hiệu đính, Tìm hiểu lịch sử chữ quốc ngữ, Ho Chi Minh City, Công ty Văn hóa Hương Trang, pp.31–33; Helen Jarvis, Cambodia, Clio Press, 1997, p.xxiii.
- ^ The first settlers, "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 29 September 2008. Retrieved 25 September 2008.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) - ^ "Ho Chi Minh City and around Guide – Vietnam Travel". Rough Guides. Archived from the original on 5 March 2016. Retrieved 27 February 2016.
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- ^ Choi, p. 23-24
- ^ HA. Tuấn 2007, p.26
- ^ Hoàng Minh thông kỷ, An Nam truyện
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- Taylor, K. W. (2013). A History of the Vietnamese. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521875868.
- Chapuis, Oscar (1995). A History of Vietnam: From Hong Bang to Tu Duc. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 113–119. ISBN 0-313-29622-7.
- Ooi, Keat Gin (2004). Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, From Angkor Wat to East Timor. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1576077702.
Further reading
- Trần, Thị Vinh (2017), Nguyễn, Ngọc Mão (ed.), Lịch Sử Việt Nam: Volume 4, History of Vietnam from XVII to XVIII century, Institute of History of Vietnam: Social Science, pp. 212–265, ISBN 893-5-075-40833-3.
{{citation}}: Check|isbn=value: invalid prefix (help) - Ngô, Sĩ Liên (1993), Đào, Duy Anh (ed.), Đại Việt Sử Ký toàn thư: Book XI, Imperial library of Vietnam: Lê Dynasty, ISBN 978-5-020-18267-7.
External links
- Lê Dynasty on Encyclopædia Britannica.
- Hoàng Lê Nhất Thống Chí History of the Lê Dynasty on Leipzig University Library.
- Lê Dynasty on GlobalSecurity.org
- Articles with links needing disambiguation from April 2020
- Later Lê dynasty
- 1428 establishments
- 1428 establishments in Asia
- 1527 disestablishments
- 1533 establishments in Vietnam
- 1789 disestablishments
- Former monarchies of Asia
- States and territories established in 1428
- States and territories established in 1533
- Vietnamese dynasties
- Vietnamese royalty
- Revival Lê dynasty