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For beauty as a characteristic of a person's appearance, see Physical attractiveness. For other uses, see Beauty (disambiguation).

Rayonnant rose window in Notre Dame de Paris. In Gothic architecture, light was considered the most beautiful revelation of God.

Beauty is a characteristic of an animal, idea, object, person or place that provides a perceptual experience of pleasure or satisfaction. Beauty is studied as part of aesthetics, culture, social psychology, philosophy and sociology. An "ideal beauty" is an entity which is admired, or possesses features widely attributed to beauty in a particular culture, for perfection.

Ugliness is considered to be the opposite of beauty.

The experience of "beauty" often involves an interpretation of some entity as being in balance and harmony with nature, which may lead to feelings of attraction and emotional well-being. Because this can be a subjective experience, it is often said that "beauty is in the eye of the beholder."[1]

There is evidence that perceptions of beauty are evolutionary determined, that things, aspects of people and landscapes considered beautiful are typically found in situations likely to give enhanced survival of the perceiving human's genes.[2][3]

Ancient Greek

The classical Greek noun that best translates to the English-language words "beauty" or "beautiful" was κάλλος, kallos, and the adjective was καλός, kalos. However, kalos may and is also translated as ″good″ or ″of fine quality″ and thus has a broader meaning than mere physical or material beauty. Similarly, kallos was used differently from the English word beauty in that it first and foremost applied to humans and bears an erotic connotation.[4]

The Koine Greek word for beautiful was ὡραῖος, hōraios,[5] an adjective etymologically coming from the word ὥρα, hōra, meaning "hour". In Koine Greek, beauty was thus associated with "being of one's hour".[6] Thus, a ripe fruit (of its time) was considered beautiful, whereas a young woman trying to appear older or an older woman trying to appear younger would not be considered beautiful. In Attic Greek, hōraios had many meanings, including "youthful" and "ripe old age".[6]

The earliest Western theory of beauty can be found in the works of early Greek philosophers from the pre-Socratic period, such as Pythagoras. The Pythagorean school saw a strong connection between mathematics and beauty. In particular, they noted that objects proportioned according to the golden ratio seemed more attractive.[7] Ancient Greek architecture is based on this view of symmetry and proportion.

Plato considered beauty to be the Idea (Form) above all other Ideas.[8] Aristotle saw a relationship between the beautiful (to kalon) and virtue, arguing that "Virtue aims at the beautiful."[9]

Classical philosophy and sculptures of men and women produced according to the Greek philosophers' tenets of ideal human beauty were rediscovered in Renaissance Europe, leading to a re-adoption of what became known as a "classical ideal". In terms of female human beauty, a woman whose appearance conforms to these tenets is still called a "classical beauty" or said to possess a "classical beauty", whilst the foundations laid by Greek and Roman artists have also supplied the standard for male beauty in western civilization.[citation needed] During the Gothic era, the classical aesthetical canon of beauty was rejected as sinful. Later, Renaissance and Humanist thinkers rejected this view, and considered beauty to be the product of rational order and harmonious proportions. Renaissance artists and architects (such as Giorgio Vasari in his "Lives of Artists") criticised the Gothic period as irrational and barbarian. This point of view of Gothic art lasted until Romanticism, in the 19th century.

The Age of Reason

The Birth of Venus, by Sandro Botticelli. The goddess Venus is the classical personification of beauty.

The Age of Reason saw a rise in an interest in beauty as a philosophical subject. For example, Scottish philosopher Francis Hutcheson argued that beauty is "unity in variety and variety in unity".[10] The Romantic poets, too, became highly concerned with the nature of beauty, with John Keats arguing in "Ode on a Grecian Urn" that

Beauty is truth, truth beauty, —that is all.
Ye know on earth, and all ye need to know.

The Romantic period

In the Romantic period, Edmund Burke postulated a difference between beauty in its classical meaning and the sublime. The concept of the sublime, as explicated by Burke and Kant, suggested viewing Gothic art and architecture, though not in accordance with the classical standard of beauty, as sublime.[citation needed]

The 20th century and after

The 20th century saw an increasing rejection of beauty by artists and philosophers alike, culminating in postmodernism's anti-aesthetics.[11] This is despite beauty being a central concern of one of postmodernism's main influences, Friedrich Nietzsche, who argued that the Will to Power was the Will to Beauty.[12]

In the aftermath of postmodernism's rejection of beauty, thinkers have returned to beauty as an important value. American analytic philosopher Guy Sircello proposed his New Theory of Beauty as an effort to reaffirm the status of beauty as an important philosophical concept.[13][14] Elaine Scarry also argues that beauty is related to justice.[15]

Beauty is also studied by psychologists and neuroscientists in the field of experimental aesthetics and neuroesthetics respectively. Psychological theories see beauty as a form of pleasure.[16][17] Correlational findings support the view that more beautiful objects are also more pleasing.[18][19][20] Some studies suggest that higher experienced beauty is associated with activity in the medial orbitofrontal cortex.[21][22] This approach of localizing the processing of beauty in one brain region has received criticism within the field.[23]

Human beauty

Main article: Physical attractiveness
Fresco of a Roman woman from Pompeii, c. 50 AD

The characterization of a person as “beautiful”, whether on an individual basis or by community consensus, is often based on some combination of inner beauty, which includes psychological factors such as personality, intelligence, grace, politeness, charisma, integrity, congruence and elegance, and outer beauty (i.e. physical attractiveness) which includes physical attributes which are valued on an aesthetic basis.

Standards of beauty have changed over time, based on changing cultural values. Historically, paintings show a wide range of different standards for beauty. However, humans who are relatively young, with smooth skin, well-proportioned bodies, and regular features, have traditionally been considered the most beautiful throughout history.

A strong indicator of physical beauty is "averageness".[24][25][26][27][28][29][30][31][32][33][34][35][36][37] When images of human faces are averaged together to form a composite image, they become progressively closer to the "ideal" image and are perceived as more attractive. This was first noticed in 1883, when Francis Galton overlaid photographic composite images of the faces of vegetarians and criminals to see if there was a typical facial appearance for each. When doing this, he noticed that the composite images were more attractive compared to any of the individual images.[38] Researchers have replicated the result under more controlled conditions and found that the computer generated, mathematical average of a series of faces is rated more favorably than individual faces.[39] It is argued that it is evolutionarily advantageous that sexual creatures are attracted to mates who possess predominantly common or average features, because it suggests the absence of genetic or acquired defects.[24][40][41][42] There is also evidence that a preference for beautiful faces emerges early in infancy, and is probably innate,[31][32][33][34][43] and that the rules by which attractiveness is established are similar across different genders and cultures.[44][45][45]

A feature of beautiful women that has been explored by researchers is a waist–hip ratio of approximately 0.70. Physiologists have shown that women with hourglass figures are more fertile than other women due to higher levels of certain female hormones, a fact that may subconsciously condition males choosing mates.[citation needed]

People are influenced by the images they see in the media to determine what is or is not beautiful. Some feminists and doctors[vague] have suggested that the very thin models featured in magazines promote eating disorders,[46] and others have argued that the predominance of white women featured in movies and advertising leads to a Eurocentric concept of beauty, feelings of inferiority in women of color,[47] and internalized racism.[48]

The black is beautiful cultural movement sought to dispel this notion.[49]

Fatima Lodhi, a young diversity and anti-colorism advocate from Pakistan, claims that "Beauty comes in all shapes, shades and sizes".[50]

The concept of beauty in men is known as 'bishōnen' in Japan. Bishōnen refers to males with distinctly feminine features, physical characteristics establishing the standard of beauty in Japan and typically exhibited in their pop culture idols. A multibillion-dollar industry of Japanese Aesthetic Salons exists for this reason.

Effects on society

Chinese jade ornament with flower design, Jin dynasty (1115–1234 AD), Shanghai Museum
The night sky in the Atacama Desert. The concept of noctcaelador describes an emotional attachment to, or adoration of, the night sky.[51]

Beauty presents a standard of comparison, and it can cause resentment and dissatisfaction when not achieved. People who do not fit the "beauty ideal" may be ostracized within their communities. The television sitcom Ugly Betty portrays the life of a girl faced with hardships due to society's unwelcoming attitudes toward those they deem unattractive. However, a person may also be targeted for harassment because of their beauty. In Malèna, a strikingly beautiful Italian woman is forced into poverty by the women of the community who refuse to give her work for fear that she may "woo" their husbands. The documentary Beauty in the Eyes of the Beheld explores both the societal blessings and curses of female beauty through interviews of women considered beautiful.

Researchers have found that good looking students get higher grades from their teachers than students with an ordinary appearance.[52] Some studies using mock criminal trials have shown that physically attractive "defendants" are less likely to be convicted—and if convicted are likely to receive lighter sentences—than less attractive ones (although the opposite effect was observed when the alleged crime was swindling, perhaps because jurors perceived the defendant's attractiveness as facilitating the crime).[53] Studies among teens and young adults, such as those of psychiatrist and self-help author, Eva Ritvo, show that skin conditions have a profound effect on social behavior and opportunity.[54]

How much money a person earns may also be influenced by physical beauty. One study found that people low in physical attractiveness earn 5 to 10 percent less than ordinary looking people, who in turn earn 3 to 8 percent less than those who are considered good looking.[55] In the market for loans, the least attractive people are less likely to get approvals, although they are less likely to default. In the marriage market, women's looks are at a premium, but men's looks do not matter much.[56]

Conversely, being very unattractive increases the individual’s propensity for criminal activity for a number of crimes ranging from burglary to theft to selling illicit drugs.[57]

Discrimination against others based on their appearance is known as lookism.[58]

Writers' definitions

St. Augustine said of beauty "Beauty is indeed a good gift of God; but that the good may not think it a great good, God dispenses it even to the wicked."[59]

Philosopher and novelist Umberto Eco wrote On Beauty: A history of a Western idea (2004)[60] and On Ugliness (2007).[61] A character in his novel The Name of the Rose declares: "three things concur in creating beauty: first of all integrity or perfection, and for this reason we consider ugly all incomplete things; then proper proportion or consonance; and finally clarity and light", before going on to say "the sight of the beautiful implies peace".[62]

See also

References

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  2. ^ The Oxford Handbook for Aesthetics
  3. ^ Denis Dutton: A Darwinian theory of beauty | Video on TED.com
  4. ^ Konstan, David (2014). Beauty - The Fortunes of an Ancient Greek Idea. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 30–35. ISBN 978-0-19-992726-5.
  5. ^ Matthew 23:27, Acts 3:10, Flavius Josephus, 12.65
  6. ^ a b Euripides, Alcestis 515.
  7. ^ Seife, Charles (2000). Zero: The Biography of a Dangerous Idea. Penguin. ISBN 0-14-029647-6. p. 32
  8. ^ Phaedrus
  9. ^ Nicomachean Ethics
  10. ^ An Inquiry Into the Original of Our Ideas of Beauty and Virtue; In Two Treatises
  11. ^ The Anti-Aesthetic: Essays on Postmodern Culture by Hal Foster
  12. ^ The Will to Power
  13. ^ A New Theory of Beauty. Princeton Essays on the Arts, 1. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1975.
  14. ^ Love and Beauty. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1989.
  15. ^ On Beauty and Being Just
  16. ^ Reber, Rolf; Schwarz, Norbert; Winkielman, Piotr (2004). "Processing fluency and aesthetic pleasure: is beauty in the perceiver's processing experience?" (PDF). Personality and Social Psychology Review: An Official Journal of the Society for Personality and Social Psychology, Inc. 8 (4): 364–382. doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr0804_3. hdl:1956/594. ISSN 1088-8683. PMID 15582859.
  17. ^ Armstrong, Thomas; Detweiler-Bedell, Brian (December 2008). "Beauty as an emotion: The exhilarating prospect of mastering a challenging world". Review of General Psychology. 12 (4): 305–329. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.406.1825. doi:10.1037/a0012558. ISSN 1939-1552.
  18. ^ Vartanian, Oshin; Navarrete, Gorka; Chatterjee, Anjan; Fich, Lars Brorson; Leder, Helmut; Modroño, Cristián; Nadal, Marcos; Rostrup, Nicolai; Skov, Martin (June 18, 2013). "Impact of contour on aesthetic judgments and approach-avoidance decisions in architecture". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 110 (Supplement 2): 10446–10453. doi:10.1073/pnas.1301227110. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 3690611. PMID 23754408.
  19. ^ Marin, Manuela M.; Lampatz, Allegra; Wandl, Michaela; Leder, Helmut (November 4, 2016). "Berlyne Revisited: Evidence for the Multifaceted Nature of Hedonic Tone in the Appreciation of Paintings and Music". Frontiers in Human Neuroscience. 10. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2016.00536. ISSN 1662-5161. PMC 5095118. PMID 27867350.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  20. ^ Brielmann, Aenne A.; Pelli, Denis G. (May 22, 2017). "Beauty Requires Thought". Current Biology. 27 (10): 1506–1513.e3. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2017.04.018. ISSN 0960-9822. PMID 28502660.
  21. ^ Kawabata, Hideaki; Zeki, Semir (April 2004). "Neural correlates of beauty". Journal of Neurophysiology. 91 (4): 1699–1705. doi:10.1152/jn.00696.2003. ISSN 0022-3077. PMID 15010496.
  22. ^ Ishizu, Tomohiro; Zeki, Semir (July 6, 2011). "Toward A Brain-Based Theory of Beauty". PLOS ONE. 6 (7): e21852. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0021852. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 3130765. PMID 21755004.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  23. ^ Conway, Bevil R.; Rehding, Alexander (March 19, 2013). "Neuroaesthetics and the Trouble with Beauty". PLOS Biology. 11 (3): e1001504. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1001504. ISSN 1545-7885. PMC 3601993. PMID 23526878.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  24. ^ a b Langlois, J.H., Roggman, L. (1990). "Attractive faces are only average." Psychol. Sci. 1, 115–121
  25. ^ Langlois, J.H., Roggman, L.A., Musselman, L., Acton, S. (1991). "A picture is worth a thousand words: Reply to 'On the difficulty of averaging faces'." Psychological Science 2, 354–357.
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  28. ^ Kalick, S.M., Zebrowitz, L.A., Langlois, J.H., Johnson, R.M. (1998). Does human facial attractiveness honestly advertise health? Longitudinal data on an evolutionary question. Psychological Science 9, 8–13
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  30. ^ Hoss, R.A., Langlois, J.H. (2003). Infants prefer attractive faces. In O. Pascalis & A. Slater (Eds.), The Development of Face Processing in infancy and early childhood: Current perspectives pp. 27–38. New York: Nova Science Publishers.
  31. ^ a b Slater, A.M., Von Der Schulenburg, C., Brown, E., et al. (1998). "Newborn infants prefer attractive faces." Infant Behav. Dev. 21, 345–354.
  32. ^ a b Kramer, S., Zebrowitz, L.A., San Giovanni, J.P., Sherak, B. (1995). "Infants' preferences for attractiveness and babyfaceness." In Bardy, B.G., Bootsma, R.J., Guiard, Y. (Eds.) Studies in perception and action III. pp. 389–392. Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum Associates.
  33. ^ a b Strauss, M.S. (1979). "Abstraction of prototypical information by adults and 10-month-old infants." J. Exp. Psychol.: Human Learn. Mem. 5, 618–632.
  34. ^ a b Rubenstein, A.J, Kalakanis, L., Langlois, J.H. (1999). Infant preferences for attractive faces: a cognitive explanation. Dev. Psychol. 35, 848–855.
  35. ^ Rhodes, G., Tremewan, T. (1997) Averageness, exaggeration, and facial attractiveness. Psychol. Sci. 7, 105–110.
  36. ^ Valentine, T., Darling, S., Donnelly, M. (2004). Why are average faces attractive? The effect of view and averageness on the attractiveness of the attractiveness of female faces. Psychon. Bull. Rev. 11, 482–487
  37. ^ average faces are consistently more attractive than the faces used to generate them
  38. ^ Galton, F. (1878). Composite portraits, made by combining those of many different persons in a single resultant figure. J. Anthropol. Inst. 8, 132–144.
  39. ^ "What is average and what is not average about attractive faces?". Psychological Science. 5: 214–220. 1994. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.1994.tb00503.x. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |authors= ignored (help)
  40. ^ Koeslag, J.H. (1990). "Koinophilia groups sexual creatures into species, promotes stasis, and stabilizes social behaviour." J. theor. Biol. 144, 15–35
  41. ^ Symons, D. (1979) The Evolution of Human Sexuality. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  42. ^ Highfield, Roger. "Why beauty is an advert for good genes". The Telegraph. Retrieved February 13, 2012
  43. ^ Langlois, J.H., Ritter, J.M., Roggman, L.A., Vaughn, L.S. (1991). "Facial diversity and infant preferences for attractive faces." Dev. Psychol. 27, 79–84.
  44. ^ Apicella, C.L., Little, A.C., Marlowe, F.W. (2007). "Facial averageness and attractiveness in an isolated population of hunter-gatherers." Perception 36, 1813–1820.
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  46. ^ "Models link to teenage anorexia". BBC News. May 30, 2000. Retrieved April 26, 2010.
  47. ^ White Skin as a Measure of Beauty: The Impact of the Eurocentric Beauty Standard on Indian Women. [1]
  48. ^ Chris Weedon. "Key Issues in Postcolonial Feminism: A Western Perspective". Gender Forum Electronic Journal. Archived from the original on December 6, 2007. Retrieved December 4, 2007. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  49. ^ DoCarmo (2007). "Dr. DoCarmo's Notes on the Black Cultural Movement". Bucks County Community College. Archived from the original on December 20, 2007. Retrieved December 4, 2007. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  50. ^ http://www.indiawest.com/news/global_indian/forget-fair-and-lovely-dark-is-divine-pakistan-s-first/article_8d1f87ae-1f5d-11e5-8684-0bfe7ff82da8.html
  51. ^ "Academic Orientation, Academic Achievement, and Noctcaelador: Does Interest in Night-Sky Watching Correlate with Students' Approach to the Academic Environment?". Questia. Retrieved August 10, 2014. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |authors= ignored (help)
  52. ^ Sharon Begley (July 14, 2009). "The Link Between Beauty and Grades". Newsweek. Archived from the original on April 20, 2010. Retrieved May 31, 2010. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  53. ^ Amina A Memon, Aldert Vrij, Ray Bull (2003). Psychology and Law: Truthfulness, Accuracy and Credibility. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 46–47. ISBN 047086835X
  54. ^ "Image survey reveals "perception is reality" when it comes to teenagers". multivu.prnewswire.com.
  55. ^ Lorenz, K. (2005). "Do pretty people earn more?" CNN News, Time Warner.
  56. ^ Daniel Hamermesh; Stephen J. Dubner (January 30, 2014). "Reasons to not be ugly: full transcript". Freakonomics. Retrieved March 4, 2014. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help)
  57. ^ Erdal Tekin; Stephen J. Dubner (January 30, 2014). "Reasons to not be ugly: full transcript". Freakonomics. Retrieved March 4, 2014. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help)
  58. ^ Gough, L. (2011). C. Northcote Parkinson's Parkinson's law. Oxford, U.K: Infinite Ideas Ltd. p. 36. ISBN 1283147378
  59. ^ City of God Book 15 Chapter 22
  60. ^ Eco, Umberto (2004). On Beauty: A historyof a western idea. London: Secker & Warburg. ISBN 0436205173.
  61. ^ Eco, Umberto (2007). On Ugliness. London: Harvill Secker. ISBN 9781846551222.
  62. ^ Eco, Umberto (1980). The Name of the Rose. London: Vintage. p. 65. ISBN 9780099466031.
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