Computer 

Engineering Group 

Programming in C

T. B. Kute
tbkute@gmail.com
 Programming in C
(Sub Code: 9017)
Computer Engineering Group, Semester: II

First Edition
( March 2009 )

T. B. Kute
(B. E. Computer)
Lecturer in Information Technology,
K. K. Wagh Polytechnic,
Nashik, India, 422003.
Windows of Knowledge are Wide and Open

Dedicated to All the Learners…….

who want to start their basics of
Programming from C
Syllabus Structure Given by Maharashtra State Board of Technical Education,
Mumbai as per revised syllabus introduced from academic year 2006-2007.

Course Name : Computer Engineering Group Course Code: CO/CM/IF

Semester : Second

Subject Title : Programming in ‘C’ Subject Code: 9017

Teaching and Examination Scheme:

Teaching Scheme Examination Scheme

Paper
TH TU PR TH TEST PR OR TW TOTAL
Hrs
04 -- 02 03 80 20 50# -- 25@ 175

Rationale:
‘C’ is the most widely used computer language, which is being taught as a
core subject. C is general-purpose structural language that is powerful, efficient
and compact, which combines features of high-level language and low-level
language. It is closer to Man and Machine both. Due to this inherent flexibility
and tolerance it is suitable for different development environments .Due to
these powerful features C has not lost its importance and popularity in recently
developed and advanced software industry C can also be used for system level
programming, C is still considered as first priority programming language.
This subject covers from the basic concept of C to pointers in C. This
subject will act as “programming concept developer” for students. It will also
act as “Backbone” for subjects like OOPS, VB, Windows Programming, JAVA,
OOMD, etc.

Objectives:
The students will be able to
• Describe the concepts of constants, variables, data types and operators.
• Develop programs using input and output operations.
• Write programs using different looping and branching statements.
• Write programs based on arrays and strings handling functions.
• Write programs using user-defined functions, structures and union.
• Write programs using C pointers.
Chap. Contents Hours Marks
01 Basics of C 10 16
1.1 History of C, where C stands
1.2 C character set, tokens, constants, variables,
keywords
1.3 C operators (arithmetic, Logical, assignment,
relational, increment and decrement,
conditional, bit wise, special, operator
precedence), C expressions data types
1.4 Formatted input, formatted output.
02 Decision Making and Branching 12 24
2.1 Decision making and branching
if statement (if, if-else, else-if ladder, nested
if-else) Switch case statement, break statement.
2.2 Decision making and looping while, do, do-
while statements for loop, continue statement
03 Arrays and Strings 14 12
3.1 Arrays
Declaration and initialization of one
dimensional, two dimensional and character
arrays, accessing array elements
3.2 Declaration and initialization of string
variables, string handling functions from standard
library (strlen(), strcpy(), strcat(), strcmp()).
04 Functions and Structures 14 12
4.1 Functions
Need of functions, scope and lifetime of
variables, defining functions, function call (call
by value, call by reference), return values,
storage classes. category of function( No
argument No return value, No argument with
return value, argument with return value),
recursion
4.2 Structures
Defining structure, declaring and accessing
structure members, initialization of structure,
arrays of structure.
05 Pointers 14 16
5.1 Understanding pointers, declaring and
accessing pointers, Pointers arithmetic, pointers
and arrays

Total 64 80
 Chapter 01 Basics of C

Chapter 01
Basics of ‘C’

Lectures allotted: 10
Marks Given: 16

Contents:

1.1 History of C, where C stands

1.2 C character set, tokens, constants, variables, keywords
1.3 C operators (arithmetic, Logical, assignment, relational, increment and
decrement, conditional, bit wise, special, operator precedence), C
expressions data types Formatted input, formatted output.

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 Chapter 01 Basics of C

Compiler
It is system software, collection of intelligence program which converts
higher level language program into machine code (Binary code). Compiler
checks for syntactical errors in the program.
Compiler of ‘C’ is designed by Dennis Ritchie at AT&T Bell laboratory
in 1974, which generally used for system programming. The name of ‘C’
language was derived from ‘BCPL’ (Basic Combine Programming Language).

Programming Languages
Language Year Originator Purpose
FORTRAN 1954-57 John Backus, IBM Numerical processing
ALGOL 60 1958-60 Committee Numerical processing
COBOL 1959-60 Committee Business Data Processing
APL 1956-60 K. Iverson Array Processing
LISP 1956-62 John McCarthy Symbolic Computation
SNOBOL 1962-66 R. Griswold String processing
PL/I 1963-64 IBM General purpose
SIMULA 67 1967 O. J. Dahl General purpose
ALGOL 68 1963-68 Committee General purpose
BLISS 1971 Wulf et. al. System Programming
PASCAL 1971 Niklaus Wirth General and Education
C 1974 Dennis Ritchie System Programming
MESA 1974 Xerox PARC System Programming
CONCURRENT 1975 P. Brinch Concurrent Programming
CLU 1974-77 B. Liskov Abstraction Methodology
EUCLID 1977 Committee Verifiable System Programs
GYPSY 1977 Good et. al. Verifiable System Programs
PLZ 1977 Zilog inc. System Programming
MODULA 1977 Niklaus Wirth System Programming
ADA 1979 J. Ichbiah General and Embedded
C++ 1983 Bjarne Stroustrup Object Oriented Prog.
JAVA 1991 James Gosling OOP + Embedded + N/W

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 Chapter 01 Basics of C

Computer Languages

Imperative Declarative

Procedural Logical
e.g. C e.g. PROLOG
Object Based
e.g. ADA Functional
Object Oriented e.g. LISP
e.g. C++, JAVA
Database
Block Structured e.g. SQL
e.g. PASCAL

FLOW CHART SYMBOLS

Start / Stop

General Processing

Decision

Input / Output

Connector

Function / Subroutine

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 Chapter 01 Basics of C

Example1: Calculating the area of the circle.

Start

Input radius in
cm.

Calculate area =
3.14 * (radius * radius)

Display area

Stop

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 Chapter 01 Basics of C

Example1: Calculating the grade obtained by students as per the

marks.

Start

Accept five different

subjects’ marks i.e.
m1, m2, m3, m4, m5.

Calculate, per =
(m1+m2+m3+m4+m5) / 5

Yes
Display
per >=75 “Distinction”
No
Yes
Display
per >=60 “First Class”
No
Yes
Display “Second
per >=50 Class”
No
Yes
Display
per >=40 “Pass Class”
No
Display
“Fail”

Stop

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 Chapter 01 Basics of C

[Ref. 2a]
Forming a C program

Alphabets, Digits,
Special Symbols
Program

Constants,
Variables,
And Instructions
Keywords

Compiler process in ‘C’

Editor Source Code

Pre-processor Expanded Source

Code

Compiler

Assembly Language
Assembler Code

Linker Object Code

Loader
Executable Code

.exe file of your program

1. Editor
It is a system program in which we have written the programming
code.
2. Pre-Processor
The processes, which are done before the actual compilation of the
program are done by the pre-processor.
3. Compiler
It checks for the syntactical error in the program, if there are no errors
creates the machine code of the same program
4. Assembler

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 Chapter 01 Basics of C

It converts the assembly language code (Micro Processor Language)

into the machine understandable code.
5. Linker
It links various files of the compiler to from the object code (.obj file)
6. Loader
It loads the program for memory to create the executable file.

Features of the ‘C’ Language

ƒ ‘C’ is processor oriented structured programming language.
ƒ It is Higher Level system programming language.
ƒ It supports all the features of basic programming language.
ƒ ‘C’ is 80% platform independent & 20% dependent.

Programming Features [Ref. 2b]

ƒ Character set

A-Z, a-z,-(under score),0-9 digits, and special symbols

Remember ‘C’ is case sensitive language.
e.g. a ≠ A

ƒ Constants. [Asked in S’08]

Primary Constants
a. Integer Constants
b. Real Constants
c. Character Constants
Secondary Constants
a. Array
b. Pointer
c. Structures and Unions
d. Enum

Primary Constants

Integer Constant:
1. Integer constant must have at least one digit.
2. They must not have a decimal point.
3. They can be positive or negative.
4. If there is no any sign to integer it is assume to be positive.
5. No comma or blank spaces are allowed within the integer constant.
e.g. 426, +756,-588 etc.

Real Constant:
1. These are generally called as floating point constant. They can be
written two forms. That is, fractional form & exponential form.
2. Real constant can be positive or negative.

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 Chapter 01 Basics of C

3. They must have decimal point.

4. Default sign is positive.
5. No comma or blank spaces are allowed in the real number.
e.g. 22.45, -85.23, -11.20, +3.211e-4, 5.6e4 etc.

Character Constants:
1. The character constant is a single alphabet or a single digit or a single
special symbol enclosed within the single quotation marks.
2. Maximum length of a character is one character.
e.g. ‘f’, ‘h’, ‘=’, ‘8’ etc.

ƒ Variables
[Asked in W’07, S’08, W’08]
It is an entity that may vary during the program is executing. Variable
is the name given to the location of the memory. This location can contain
integer, real or character constants.

Rules for creating variable’s name:

1. Variable name is the combination of alphabets, digit & underscore.

2. First character in the variable name must be an alphabet.
3. A keyword can not be a variable.
4. No commas, blanks and special symbols are allowed in the variable
name.

ƒ Keywords
[Asked in S’08]
Keyword is the word who’s meaning as already being given to the ‘C’
compiler. The keywords can not be given as variable name in ‘C’. These are
also called as reserve words. The C supports 32 different keywords listed
below:
auto break case char const continue
default do double else enum extern
float for goto if int long
register return short signed sizeof static
struct switch typedef union unsigned void
while volatile near for asm
[Ref. 1a]
ƒ Operators

Operators are the special symbol use to perform special operation (for
example, arithmetic & logical) on operands. Operands are the variables,
constants or expressions on which operators perform operation.
As per the number of operands required by the operator, it is classified
in three categories:
1. Unary operators
2. Binary operators
3. Ternary operators

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 Chapter 01 Basics of C

These operators require one, two and three operands respectively for
performing their operation.

Numerical or Arithmetic Operators:

Operator Type Meaning Example

+ Addition 9 + 45
– Subtraction 89 – 12
* Binary Multiplication 10 * 3
/ Division 18 / 6
% Modulo Division 14 % 3
+ Unary Plus +51
Unary
– Unary Minus –92
= Binary Assignment a = 45 + 10/2
Increment Post increment: a++
++
[Asked in S’W’07] Pre increment: ++a
Unary
Decrement Post decrement: a––
––
[Asked in S’W’07] Pre decrement: ––a
a += 10 implies that
+= Add and assign
a = a + 10
a –= 10 implies that
–= Subtract and assign
a = a – 10
a *= 10 implies that
*= Binary Multiply and assign
a = a * 10
a /= 10 implies that
/= Divide and assign
a = a / 10
a %= 10 implies that
%= Mod and assign
a = a % 10

Last five operators are also called as assignment operators.

Relational Operators
[Asked in S’W’08]
These operators are used to check the relation between the operands.

Operator Type Meaning

< Less than
> Greater than
<= Less than or equal to
Binary
>= Greater than or equal to
== Equal to
!= Not equal to

Logical Operators
[Asked in S’07’08, W’08]
These operators are used to combine two conditions.

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 Chapter 01 Basics of C

Operator Type Meaning Use

Logical Combines two condition to check
&&
AND whether both are true or not
Binary
Combines two condition to check
|| Logical OR
whether any one of these is true or not
Logical Inverses the condition
! Unary
NOT

Conditional Operator
[Asked in W’08]
The only ternary operator (operator having three operands) is defined
in ‘C’ called as conditional operator. The character pair ? : is termed as
conditional operator. This is used to construct the conditional expression of
the following form:

condition ? expression2 : expression3

When the condition written is true then the expression1 is evaluated

else expression2 is executed. Means, any one of the expression1 and 2 is
executed in any case. It can also be called as if-then-else operator.

x = 45;
y = 22;
(y>25) ? x = y : x = 50;

After completion of third statement execution, value of x will become

50. Because, the condition y>25 is false so first expression will not be
executed. Only second expression is evaluated. That is, 50 will be assigned
to variable x.

Bitwise operators
[Asked in S’W’07]
Operator Type Meaning
& Bitwise AND
| Binary Bitwise OR
^ Bitwise EX-OR
~ Unary Bitwise NOT
<< Left shift
Binary
>> Right shift

Special Operators

Operator Type Meaning

. Binary Member selection operator
# Unary Preprocessor operator
-> Binary Pointer member selection operator
\ Unary Escape sequence operator

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 Chapter 01 Basics of C

Used for case value declaration as well as goto label

: Unary
declaration
sizeof Binary Finding size of data or variable
(type) Unary Type casting

ƒ Separators

These are the symbols which are used to indicate where groups of
codes are divided and arranged. They are basically used to define the shape
and function of the program code. The most commonly used separator is
semicolon. All these separators are listed below:

Separator Name Purpose

Used to contain lists of parameters in function
definition and call. Also used for defining
() Parenthesis precedence in expressions, containing
expressions in control statements, and
surrounding cast types.
Used to contain the values of automatically
Curly
{} initialized arrays. Also used to define a block of
Braces
code for classes, functions, and local scopes.
Square Used to declare array types. Also used when
[]
brackets dereferencing array values.
Angle Used to include header files in the program.
<>
Brackets
; Semicolon Terminating the statement/line
Separates consecutive variable declarations. Also
, Comma used to chain statements together inside a ‘for’
loop statement.
Double Used to declare any string or group of more than
“ ”
quotes one characters
Single Used to declare a single character constant
‘ ’
quotes

ƒ Comments

Comments are the statements written inside /*…….*/ will not be

executed by the compiler. Compiler will not check for any syntactical or
logical error for the statement written inside the comments. There are two
types of comments used in C.
1. /*……*/ multi-line comments
2. // single line comments
[Ref. 2c, 1b]
Arithmetic Expressions

An arithmetic expression is combination of variables, constants and

operators as per the syntax of the ‘C’ programming language. ‘C’ can handle

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 Chapter 01 Basics of C

any complex arithmetic expression. But, we have to take care of converting

it into the format and appropriate syntax of the ‘C’ language.
Table gives some examples of arithmetic expressions.

Arithmetic Expression ‘C’ expression

(x+y)2 (x + y) * ( x + y)
x2 + y2+ 5 x*x+y*y+5
(xy)(m-n) x * y * (m – n)
ab
a*b/c
c
x+c
(x / y) + c
Y

These expressions are evaluated using an assignment statement of the

form:

variable = expression;

Here, ‘variable’ is a valid ‘C’ variable name. When the statement is

encountered, the expression is evaluated first. The result then replaces
previous value of variable on the left-hand side (referred as Lvalue). All the
variables used in the expressions must be assigned values before evaluation
is attempted.
For example:

a = (x + y) * (x + y);
b = (x / y) + c;
x = a * b / c;
[Ref. 2d, 1c]
Precedence and Associativity of operators

When the expression involves more than one operation, then which
operation is to be performed first is decided by the precedence of that
operator. Highest precedence operation is solved first. Each operator of ‘C’
has precedence associated with it. The operators with the same precedence
are evaluated according to there associativity. That is, the expression is
evaluated either from left to right or right to left. The precedence and
associativity of all these operators is given in the following table.

No. Operator Description Asso.

1 () Parentheses (grouping) L to R
[] Brackets (array subscript)
. Member selection via object name, Member
-> selection via pointer,
++ -- Postfix increment / decrement [Asked in S’07]
2 ++ -- R to L
Prefix increment/decrement [Asked in S’07]
+ -
Unary plus/minus
! ~

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 Chapter 01 Basics of C

(type)Logical negation/bitwise complement

* Cast (change type)
& Dereference
sizeofAddress
Determine size in bytes
3 * / % Multiplication/division/modulus L to R
4 + - Addition/subtraction L to R
5 << >> Bitwise shift left, Bitwise shift right L to R
6 < <= less than/less than or equal to L to R
> >= greater than/greater than or equal to
7 == != Relational is equal to/is not equal to L to R
8 & Bitwise AND L to R
9 ^ Bitwise exclusive OR L to R
10 | Bitwise inclusive OR L to R
11 && Logical AND L to R
12 || Logical OR L to R
13 ?: Ternary conditional R to L
14 Assignment R to L
=
Addition / subtraction assignment
+= -=
Multiplication / division assignment
*= /=
Modulus / bitwise AND assignment Bitwise
%= &=
exclusive / inclusive OR assignment Bitwise
^= |=
shift left/
<<= >>=
right assignment
15 , Comma (separate expressions) L to R

[Ref. 2e]
Hierarchy of operations

i = 5 * 6 – 8 + 9 – (43 + 2) /5 – 5;
i = 30 – 8 + 9 – 45/5 – 5;
i = 30 – 8 + 9 – 9 – 5;
i = 22 + 0 – 5;
i = 17;

Data types
[Asked in S’W’07, S’08]
int a; /* General declaration */
int a = 10; /* Valued Declaration */
float b = 12.6;
float b;
char c;
char c = ‘y’;

[Ref. 1d]
Maximum values of Data Types

• int requires 2 bytes to store in memory.

-32768 to 32767
• float requires 4 bytes to store.

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 Chapter 01 Basics of C

-3.4e38 to 3.4e38
• char requires 1 byte to store.
A….Z and a….z also special symbols
• long int requires 4 bytes to store.
-2147483648 to 2147483647.
• double requires 8 bytes to store.
-1.7e308 to 1.7e308
• long double requires 10 bytes to store.
-1.7e4932 to 1.7e4932
[Ref. 1e]
Structure of a C program

Preprocessor Directives

Global variables declaration

main( )
{

Local variables
Declaration
Actual
Processing Processing Statements
starts here

} // End of main( )

Functions other than main( )

[Ref. 1f, 1g]

Formatting input and output statements

1. printf
[Asked in S’08]
This formatted output function statement defined in stdio.h file used to
print the string or the values of variables on the output screen.

Syntax:
printf(“<format string>”, <variables-list>);

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 Chapter 01 Basics of C

Here, the format string will contain the string and the format specifiers
or format codes to display the values of variables in the sequence of
format specifiers.
e.g.
printf(“Welcome to C”);

it will print following string on the output screen.

Welcome to C

In order to print the values of the variables printf can also be used as:

int y = 14, s = 10;

printf(“Values are : %d and %d”,s, y);

this will print the following statement on the screen:

Values are: 10 and 14

Here the %d is called as integer format specifier and used to print the
integer value of variable on the screen. Such 16 different format
specifiers / format codes are used in printf as well as scanf. These are
listed below:
[Ref. 1h]
Format Specifiers / format codes
[Asked in S’W’08]
%c Character format specifier.
%d Decimal integer format specifier.
%e Scientific notation for floating point format specifier.
%E Scientific notation for floating point format specifier.
%f Floating-point format specifier.
%g Uses %f or %e, whichever result is shorter.
%G Uses %f or %E, whichever result is shorter.
%i Integer format specifier (same as %d).
%n Records the number of characters written so far.
%o Unsigned octal format specifier.
%p Displays the corresponding argument that is a pointer.
%s String format specifier.
%u Unsigned integer format specifier.
%x Unsigned hexadecimal format specifier.
%X Unsigned hexadecimal format specifier.
%% Outputs a percent sign (%).

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 Chapter 01 Basics of C

[Ref. 1i]
Escape Sequences

Character Meaning
\n New line
\t Tab
\b Backspace
\v Vertical tab
\a Audible Alert (Bell)
\r Carriage return
\f Farm Feed
\\ Backslash
\‘ Single Quote
\“ Double Quote

2. scanf
[Asked in S’08]
This formatted input function statement defined in stdio.h file and used
to accept the values of variables from the keyboard.

Syntax:
scanf(“<format string>”, <variables-list>);

Here, the format string will contain the format specifiers or format codes
to accept the values of variables in the sequence of format specifiers.

For example:

int var1;
float var2;
scanf(“%d%f”, &var1, &var2);

This statement will read an integer number and a float number from
keyboard and store these values in var1 and var2 respectively. The scanf
allows all the above format specifiers to use for inputting the values.
[Ref. 1j]
ƒ Type casting or Type conversion

The C programming language has ability to convert one type of the

data into another type tempoparily. This is called as type casting or type
conversion. When a C expression contains different types of the data, the
result of that expression is always be in highest data types in the
expression. For example:

int num1, num2;

float x;
long y;

here, when we write the expression,

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 Chapter 01 Basics of C

num1 * num2 + x/y;

will always result in the long type of the data. And the expression,

num2 + x * num1;

will result in float type of the data. This is because, it is the property of
the expression. It is referred as automatic type casting. The type cast
operator - ( ) can be used to convert one data type into another
temporarily. This is referred as manual type casting. Such as:

int x = 10, y = 4;
float result;
result = x / y;
printf(“Division: %f”, result);

Here, the printf statement will output:

Division: 2.000000

But, it is not the accurate answer. So type casting is required. Such as,

result = (float) x / y;

This statement will convert value of x temporarily into float type. So

result of expression will automatically be float. Now the printf statement
will output:

Division: 2.500000

This concept is referred as type casting, which is found to be one of the

useful concepts in ‘C’.

Sample Programs:

1) Basic salary of employee is input through the keyboard. DA is 40% of

basic salary & house rent allowance (HRA) is 20% of the basic salary.
Calculate his gross salary?

Ans : #include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main( )
{
float Basic, DA, HRA, GS;
clrscr( );
printf(“Enter the basic salary”);
scanf(“%f”, &basic);
DA = (40/100) * basic;

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 Chapter 01 Basics of C

HRA = (20/100)* basic;

GS = DA + HRA + Basic;
printf (“Gross salary = %f ”,GS);
getch ( );
}

2) Temperature of a city is Fahrenheit degrees is input to keyboard write a

program to convert this temperature into centigrade.
[TC = (TF-32)*5/9]

Ans : #include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main( )
{
float centi;
int faren;
printf(“Enter Fahrenheit temp”);
scanf(“%d”, &faren);
centi = (( float) faren -32) * 5 / 9;
printf(“ cent temp = %f”, cent);
getch( );
}

3) The length and breadth of the rectangle & radius of the circle are input
through key board. Write a program to calculate the area, perimeter & the
circumference of the circle.

Ans : #include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main( )
{
float l, b, r, area, perim, circumf;
clrscr( );
printf(“Enter length & breadth”, l, b,);
scanf(“%f%f”, &l,&b);
area = l * b;
perim = 2 * (l + b);
printf(“\n area =%f ”, area);
printf(“\n perim = %f ”, perim);
printf(“\n enter radius ”,r);
scanf(“%f ”, &r);
area = 3.14 * r * r;
circumf = 2 * 3.14 * r;
printf(“\n area = %f ”,area);
printf(“\n circumf = %f ”, circumf);
getch( );
}

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 Chapter 01 Basics of C

4) Two numbers are input through keyboard into two locations C & D. Write
a program to interchange the content of C & D.

Ans : #include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main( )
{
int a, b, c;
clrscr( );
printf(“a = %d, b = %d ”, a, b);
c = a;
a = b;
b = c;
printf(“\n a = %d, b = %d”, a, b);
getch( );
}

-----------

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 Chapter 01 Basics of C

Review Questions
Summer 2007 Marks
1. State different data types supported by ‘C’ language (W-2007). 2
2. Write a ‘C’ statement for each of the following: 2
i. Relational operator.
ii. Assignment operator.
3. State the use of increment and decrement operator and give its
precedence and Associativity. 4
4. Define the following: 4
i. Expressions
ii. Data types
iii. Bitwise operators
iv. Logical operators

Winter 2007
1. Explain the use of bitwise operator. 2
2. State the use of increment and decrement operators. Also give
difference between i++ and ++i with example. 4
3. What is variable? How to declare it? How variable differs from
constant? 4

Summer 2008
a) What is variable declaration and variable initialization? 2
b) What are the uses of printf( ) and scanf( )? 2
c) List different relational and logical operators. What will be the output of
following program? 4
#include<stdio.h>
void main( )
{
float a = 5, b = 2;
int c;
c = a % b;
printf(“%d”,c);
}
d) State use of %c %d and %f. 4
Write output of following:
#include<stdio.h>
main( )
{
float y = 123.456;
printf(“%f %.3f %.1f \n\n”, y, y, y);
}
e) Define the following: 4
1) Keyword
2) Variable.
3) Data types
4) Constants.

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 Chapter 01 Basics of C

Winter 2008
a) State four relational operators with its meaning. 2
b) State four printf format codes. 2
c) State the arithmetic and logical operators with its meaning. 4
d) Write a program to take marks of five subjects and display the total
and average. 4
e) State four rules of choosing variable’s name. 4
f) What is the output of the following code? 4
void main( )
{
int i = 1, j = -1, k = 0, w, x, y, z;
w = i || j ||k ;
x = i && j && k ;
y = i || j && k ;
z = i && j && k ;
printf(« w=%d x=%d y=%d z=%d »,w,x,y,z) ;
}

Other:
1. Differentiate between unary, binary and ternary operators. 4
2. What is precedence and associativity of operators? 2
3. Explain the use of manual and automatic type casting with suitable.
Example. 4
4. What is comment? Explain its use. 2

Programming Exercises
1. Write a program to input the temperature in Celsius and display its
equivalent Fahrenheit temperature value.
2. The distance between two cities (in km.) is input through the
keyboard. Write a program to convert and print this distance in
meters, feet, inches and centimeters.
3. Write a program to input the radius of the circle in centimeters and
find the area of that circle.
4. Write a program to input the height and base of the right angle
triangle and find the hypotenuse of it using Pythagoras’ Theorem.
5. Input to the program is length and width of rectangle. Find the area
and perimeter of it.
6. Two numbers are input through the keyboard into two locations C and
D. Write a program to interchange the contents of C and D.

----------------

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 Chapter 01 Basics of C

References
1. Programming in ANSI C
by, E Balagurusamy, Tata McGraw Hill, 4th Edition
a. Chapter 3, Page 52
b. Chapter 3, Table 3.6, Page 64
c. Chapter 3, Table 3.8, Page 73
d. Chapter 3, Table 2.7, 2.8, Page 32
e. Chapter 1, Fig. 1.3, 1.9, Page 6, 13
f. Chapter 1, Topic 1.3, Page 3
g. Chapter 2, Topic 2.10, Page 38
h. Chapter 4, Table 1.4, Page 104
i. Chapter 2, Table 2.5, Page 29
j. Chapter 3, Topic 3.14, Page 68

2. Let us C
By, Yashwant Kanetkar, BPB Publications, 7th Edition
a. Chapter 1, Fig. 1.1, Page: 5
b. Chapter 1, Page: 5
c. Chapter 1, Fig. 1.19, Page: 35
d. Appendix A, Page 707
e. Chapter 1, Example 1.1, Page 33

-----------

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 Chapter 02 Decision Making and Branching

Chapter 02
Decision Making and Branching

Lectures allotted: 12
Marks Given: 24

Contents:

2.1 Decision making and branching

if statement (if, if-else, else-if ladder, nested if-else)
2.2 The switch case statement, break statement.
2.3 Decision making and looping
while, do-while statements, for loop, continue statement

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 Chapter 02 Decision Making and Branching

Decision Making Statements

Many times in the program such conditions occur when we want to
take the exact decisions in order to make an error free program. This kind of
situations can be handled using decision control instructions of C. It includes
if - else statements and the conditional operators. The decision control
structure in C can be implemented using:

a) The if statement
b) The if - else statement
c) Nested if – else
d) The else – if ladder
[Ref. 1a, 2a]
The if Statement

The general form or syntax of if statement looks like this:

if (condition)
{
//execute these statements;
}

Here, the keyword ‘if’ tells the compiler that what follows, is a decision
control instruction. The condition following the keyword if is always enclosed
within a pair of parentheses. If the condition is true, then the statements in
the parenthesis are executed. It the condition is not true then the statement
is not executed instead the program skips this part. The condition in C is
evaluated using C’s relational operators as well as logical operators. These
operators help us to build expression, which are either true or false.
For example:

X == Y X is equal to Y
X != Y X is not equal to Y
X < Y X is less than Y
X > Y X is greater than Y
X <= Y X is less than or equal to Y
X >= Y X is greater than or equal to Y

Demonstration of if statement:

/* Example 2.1 */
#include<stdio.h>
main( )
{
int num;
printf(“Enter a number less than 10 :”);
scanf(“%d”, &num);
if(num < = 10)

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 Chapter 02 Decision Making and Branching

printf(“The number is less than 10”);

}
Sample output of this program will be:
Enter a number less than 10 : 7
The number is less than 10

Executing this another time:

Enter a number less than 10 : 15

After second statement there will no output because the condition

given in the ‘if’ statement is false. The ‘if’ statements are only executed
when the condition is true.
[Ref. 1b]
Flowchart

true condition

false

Statement-1 Statement-2

Statement-3

See the above flowchart. If the condition is true then statement-1 is

executed else and if false it won’t be executed. Remember, statements2 and
3 are executed always. The ‘condition’ can be the combination of relational
and logical operators also. Such as:

if (i > 1 || j!=5)
{
printf("i = %d “, i );
}
[Ref. 2b]
Multiple Statements within if

If it is desired that more than one statement is to be executed if the

condition following if is satisfied, then such statements must be placed within
pair of braces.
e.g The following program demonstrate that if year of service greater than 3
then a bonus of Rs. 2500 is given to employee. The program illustrates the
multiple statements used within if.

/* Example 2.2 calculation of bonus */

#include<stdio.h>

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 Chapter 02 Decision Making and Branching

main( )
{
int bonus, cy, yoj, yos;
printf(“Enter current year and year of joining : ”);
scanf(“%d%d”,&cy,&yoj);
yos = cy - yoj;
if(yos > 3)
{
bonus = 2500;
printf(“Bonus = Rs. %d”, bonus);
}
}

Let’s see the output of this program:

Enter current year and year of joining : 2006 2001

Bonus = Rs. 2500

In this program, value of cy and yoj are taken from user i.e. 2006 and
2001. Value of yos will become 5. The condition within ‘if’ will check whether
the value of yos is greater than 3 or not. Here, condition will become true
and the statements followed by if are executed.

The if-else statement [Ref. 1c, 2c]

[Asked in S’07]
The ‘if’ statement by itself will execute a single statement or a group of
statements when the condition following if is true, it does nothing when the
condition is false. If the condition is false then a group of statements can be
executed using ‘else’ statement. Its syntax is as given below:

if(condition)
{
//statements1
}
else
{
//statements2
}

Here, if the condition is true then statements1 are executed else

statements2 are executed. It is demonstrated in following program.
[Ref. 2d]

/* Example 2.3 Calculation of gross salary */

#include<stdio.h>
main( )
{
float bs, gs, da, hra;
printf(“Enter basic salary”);
scanf(“%f”, & bs);

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 Chapter 02 Decision Making and Branching

if(bs <1500)
{
hra = bs * 10/100;
da = bs * 90/100;
}
else
{
hra = 500;
da = bs * 98/100;
}
gs = bs+hra+da;
printf(“gross salary = Rs. %f”, gs);
}

When, we used if – else statements, either ‘if’ or ‘else’ statement block

will execute depending upon the condition given in the ‘if’ statement. The
‘else’ doesn’t require condition. Execution of ‘else’ block also depends on
if(condition). When it is false program control transfers to ‘else’ block.
[Ref. 1d, 2e]
Flowchart

true condition

false

Statement-1 Statement-2

Statement-3

Note:
1. Statements inside the ‘if’s curly braces are called as ‘if block’ and
statements for else’s curly braces are called as ‘else block’.
2. There is no necessity to have an else for if but, each else must match
an if statement else there will be a compiler error. The error will be
‘Misplaced else’.
3. If there is only one statement inside ‘if’ as well as ‘else’ block, we can
eliminate the curly braces.

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 Chapter 02 Decision Making and Branching

Nested if – else [Ref 1e, 2f]

[Asked in S’07, W’07, S’08]
If we write an entire if - else construct within the body of the ‘if’
statement or the body of an ‘else’ statement. This is called ‘nesting’ of if-
else.

Syntax:

if(condition)
{
//statements1
if (condition)
{
//statements2
}
else
{
//statements3
}
}
else
//statements4

Here, the inner condition executed only when the outer condition of ‘if’
is true. This hierarchy of nesting of ‘if’ can be extended in deep with any
number of ‘if-else’ statements.

false
condition1

true
Statements-4
Statements-1

false
condition2

true
Statements-3
Statements-2

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 Chapter 02 Decision Making and Branching

Observe the following example.

/* Example 2.4 */
#include<stdio.h>
main( )
{
int y;
printf(“Enter year : “);
scanf(“%d”, &y);
if(y > 2000)
{
printf(“\n Number is greater than 2000”);
if(y % 4 == 0)
{
printf(“\n This is leap year”);
}
else
printf(“\n This is not leap year”);
}
else
{
printf(“\n Number is less than 2000);
if(y % 4 ==0)
{
printf(“\n This is leap year”);
}
else
printf(“\n This is not leap year”);
}

Output:
Enter year : 1988
Number is less than 2000
This is leap year

When the user enters 1988, first if condition checks whether it is

greater than 2000 or not? Here this condition will become false and control
will transfer to else block. Again if(y % 4==0) inside else block will check
whether it is totally divisible by 4 or not? If it is yes, ‘if block’ will be
executed else ‘else block’ will be executed.

Several forms of if – else [Ref. 2g]

[Asked in S’08]
a) if (condition)
//perform this;

b) if (condition)
{

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 Chapter 02 Decision Making and Branching

//perform this;
//as well as this;
}

c) if (condition)
//perform this;
else
//perform this;

d) if (condition)
{
//perform this;
//as well as this;
}
else
{
//perform this;
//as well as this;
}
e) if (condition)
{
//if (condition)
//perform this;
}
else
{
//perform this;
//as well as this;
}
f) if (condition)
{
if (condition)
//perform this;
else
//perform this;
}
else
{
if (condition)
//perform this;
else
//perform this;
}
[Ref. 2h]
Using Logical operators

As we have already seen the logical operators. The basic use of these
is related to if – else statement. These conditional operators are:
a) && (AND operator)
b) || (OR operator)

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 Chapter 02 Decision Making and Branching

c) ! (NOT operator)
When, we want to specify more than one condition in the single if
statement we can use logical operators among these conditions. Though,
there are two & (and) in the operator it is pronounced as AND and || as OR.
&& Operator is used when there is necessity that both the conditions to be
true. || Operator is used when there is necessity that any one conditions to
be true. e.g.

if (a > 15 && b < 10)

{
printf(“Hello”);
}

Here, if value of ‘a’ is greater than 15 as well as value of ‘b’ is less

than 10 then printf(“Hello”); statement will be executed. Else it will perform
the statements after the if block. Similarly, see the example of OR operator.

if (a > 15 || b < 10)

{
printf(“Hello”);
}

Here, if value of ‘a’ is greater than 15 or value of ‘b’ is less than 10

then printf(“Hello”); statement will be executed. Else it will perform the
statements after the ‘if’ block.
Now, let’s focus on the NOT operator (!). This operator reverses the
value of expression it operates on; it makes true expression false and false
expression true. e.g.

! (a > 10)

This means that whether ‘a’ is not greater than 10. In other words, it
can be written as (a <= 10).

The else-if ladder [Ref. 1f, 2i]

[Asked in W’08]
There is another way of putting multiple ‘if’s together when multi-
path decisions are involved. A multipath decisions is a chain of ‘if’s in which
the statement is associated with each else in an ‘if’. It takes the following
general form:
if(condition1)
//statements1;
else if(condition2)
//statements2;
else if(condition3)
//statements3;
else if(condition n)
//statements n;
else

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 Chapter 02 Decision Making and Branching

//statements-default;
//statements-x;

This construct is known as else-if ladder. The conditions are evaluated

from top to the bottom of ladder. As soon as true condition is found,
statements associated with it are executed and then program control is
transferred to the ‘statements-x’, skipping the rest of the ladder. When all
the conditions become false, then final else containing default statements
will be executed. This is shown in the following flowchart [Ref 1g].

false
condition

true condition false

Statement-1
false
true condition

Statement-2
true

Statement-3

Default
Statements

See the practical example on this.

/* Example 2.5 */
#include<stdio.h>
main( )
{
int a, b, c, d, e, per;
printf(“Enter marks of four subjects : “);
scanf(“%d %d %d %d”, &a, &b, &c, &d);
if(a < 40 || b < 40 || c < 40 || d < 40)
printf(“\n You have failed in one subject”);
per = (a + b + c + d) / 4;
if(per > = 60)
printf(“\n First class”);
else

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 Chapter 02 Decision Making and Branching

{
if (per <=59 && per >=55)
printf(“\n Higher second class”);
else
if(per <=54 && per >=40)
printf(“Second class);
else
printf(“\n Fail”);
}
}
In this example we have used else – if ladder as well as logical
operators.

if(a < 40 || b < 40 || c < 40 || d < 40)

This statement will check whether marks of any one subjects is less
than 40 or not? If it is, it will execute the statement followed by ‘if’ i.e.

printf(“\n You have failed in one subject”);

Now, see the following statement,

if (per <=59 && per >=55)

Here, if the value of ‘per’ is less than or equal to 59 as well as greater

than or equal to 55 then the statement followed by this will be executed i.e.

printf(“\n Higher second class”);

Else, the control will move to the else block.

The ‘switch’ Statement [Ref. 1h, 2j]

[Asked in W’07, S’08, W’08]
This is another form of the multi-way decision statement. It is well
structured, but can only be used in certain cases. The switch statement tests
value of a given variable (or expression) against the list of case values and
when the match is found, a block of statements associated with that
statements are executed. The general form of switch statement is as follows:

switch(variable)
{
case value-1:
//statements1;
break;
case value-2:
//statements2;
break;
case value-3:
//statements3;
break;

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 Chapter 02 Decision Making and Branching

- - - - -
- - - - -
default:
//default-statements;
break;
}
statements-x;

In the above given syntax, value-1, value-2, value-3…. are the set the
constants. When the value of the variable given in the switch brackets is
matched with any one of these values, the particular set of statements are
executed and then program control transfers out of the switch block. For
example, if value of variable is matched with ‘value-2’ then statements2 are
executed and the break statement transfers the program control out of the
switch. If the match is not found, the ‘default’ block is executed. Remember,
statements-x are executed in any case. Generally, switch case are executed
for menu selection problems.

For example:
/* Example 2.6 */
int number = 2;
switch(number)
{
case 0 :
printf("None\n");
break;
case 1 :
printf("One\n");
break;
case 2 :
printf("Two\n");
break;
case 5 :
printf("Several\n");
break;
default :
printf("Many\n");
break;
}

Here, the output of this program will be:- Two

Flowchart: there are two ways in which a switch flowchart can be drawn.

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 Chapter 02 Decision Making and Branching

Variable
Value1 default
Value2

Stmt-1 Stmt-2 last

Next Statement

OR

Variable

Value1
Statements1
Value2
Statements2

Value3
Statements3

default
default-block

Statements-x

[Ref. 1i]

[Ref. 1j]
Rules of switch statement

ƒ The switch variable must be an integer or character type.

ƒ Case labels must be constants of constant expressions.
ƒ Case labels must be unique. No two labels can have the same value.
ƒ Case labels must end with a colon.
ƒ The break statement transfers the program control out of the switch
block. [Asked in W’07]

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 Chapter 02 Decision Making and Branching

ƒ The break statement is optional. When the break is not written in any
‘case’ then the statements following the next case are also executed
until the ‘break’ is not found.
ƒ The default case is optional. If present, it will be executed when the
match with any ‘case’ is not found.
ƒ There can be at most one default label.
ƒ The default may be placed any where but generally written at the end.
When placed at end it is not compulsory to write the ‘break’ for it.
ƒ We can nest the switch statements.

Difference between if statement and switch statement

[Asked in S’07]

No. If statement Switch statement

It checks whether the condition is It is multi-way decision
1
true or false statement
It contains the condition which will It contains the variable whose
2
evaluates to true or false value is to be checked
It supports all types of conditions It supports checking only integer
3
and character values
Syntax: Syntax:
if(condition) switch(variable)
{ {
//statements case value1:
4 } break;
else case value2:
{ break;
//statements default:
} }

The loop control structures [Ref. 1k, 2k]

Many times it is necessary to execute several statements repetitively
for certain number of times. In such cases, we can use looping statements of
C programming language. The statements are executed until a condition
given is satisfied. Depending upon the position of the condition in the loop,
the loop control structures are classified as the entry-controlled loop and
exit-controlled loop. They are also called as pre-test and post-test loops
respectively.
[Ref. 1l, 2l]
The ‘while’ loop

The ‘while’ is an entry-controlled loop statement having following

general form:

while(condition)

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 Chapter 02 Decision Making and Branching

{
//loop statements or body of loop
}

Here, the condition is evaluated first, if it is true then loop statements

or body of the loop is executed. After this the program control will transfer to
condition again to check whether it is true or false. If true, again loop body is
executed. This process will be continued until the condition becomes false.
When is becomes false, the statements after the loop are executed. This is
also called as pre-test loop.
[Ref. 2m]
Flowchart

false
condition

true

Loop body

Statements after
the loop

For example: If we want to print the number from 1 to 30 using a ‘while’

loop, it can be written as:

int num = 1; /* initialize counter */

while(num<=30) /* check the condition */
{ /* start of loop */
printf(“\n%d”,num); /* print the number */
num++; /* increment the counter */
} /* end of loop */

See one more practical example of ‘while’ loop. That is, if we want to
find the addition of all the numbers from 10 to 20. It can be written as:

int x = 10, sum = 0; /* initialize variables */

while(x <=20) /* check the condition */
{ /* start of the loop */
sum = sum + x; /* add the values */
x++; /* increment counter */
} /* end of the loop */
printf(“\nAddition is : %d”,sum); /* print addition */

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 Chapter 02 Decision Making and Branching

The do-while loop [Ref. 1m, 2n]

[Asked in W’08]
This is exit-controlled loop statement in which the condition of the
loop statement is written at the end of the loop. It takes the following
general form:

do
{
//loop statements or loop body
}
while(condition);

Here, when the program control is reached at do statement the loop

body or the statements inside the loop are executed first. Then at the end
the condition is the ‘while’ is checked. If it is true, then program control
again transfers to execute the loop statements. This process continues until
the condition becomes false. In short, we can say that the loop statements
are executed at least once without checking condition for its trueness.
[Ref. 2o]
Flowchart

Loop body

true
condition

false
Statements after
the loop

This loop is also referred as post-test loop structure. Consider the

same examples used above: If we want to print the number from 1 to 30
using a ‘do-while’ loop, it can be written as:

int num = 1; /* initialize counter */

do /* do-statement */
{ /* start of loop */
printf(“\n%d”,num); /* print the number */
num++; /* increment the counter */
} /* end of loop */
while(num<=30); /* condition */

See one more practical example of ‘do-while’ loop. That is, if we want
to find the addition of all the numbers from 10 to 20. It can be written as:

int x = 10, sum = 0; /* initialize variables */

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 Chapter 02 Decision Making and Branching

do /* do-statement */
{ /* start of the loop */
sum = sum + x; /* add the values */
x++; /* increment counter */
} /* end of the loop */
while(x <=20); /* check the condition */
printf(“\nAddition is : %d”,sum); /* print addition */

Depending upon the problem statement given we can use either

‘while’ or ‘do-while’ loop statements.

Difference between ‘while’ and ‘do-while’

[Asked in S’07, W’07, S’08, W’08]

No. ‘while’ loop ‘do-while’ loop

It checks the condition at the It checks the condition at the end
1
start of the loop of the loop
This is of type entry controlled This is of type exit controlled loop
2
loop structure structure
The while loop is called as pre- The do-while loop is called as
3
test loop post-test loop
It is not guaranteed that how The loop body will be executed at
4 many times the loop body will get least once.
executed
Syntax: Syntax:
while(condition) do
5 { {
//loop body //loop body
} }while(condition);

[Ref. 1n, 2p]

The ‘for’ loop

The ‘for loop is an entry controlled loop structure which provides more
concise loop structure having following general form:

for(initialization ; condition ; increment/decrement)

{
//loop statements or loop body
}

The execution of ‘for’ loop statement takes as follows:

1. Initialization of loop control variables is done first using assignment
operators such as: i = 1 or count = 0 etc. Remember this part is
executed only once.
2. The condition given afterwards is checked then. If this condition is
true, the statements inside the loop are executed. Else program
control will get transferred nest statement after the loop. The

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 Chapter 02 Decision Making and Branching

condition can be combination of relational as well as logical operators

such as:
count < 10
3. When the body of the loop is executed, program control will get
transferred back to ‘for’ statement for executing the third statement
that is, ‘increment/decrement’. In this part the loop control variable’s
value is incremented or decremented. Then program controls the
condition again to check whether it is true or not. If true, the loop
body executed again. And the process is continued again until the
condition evaluates to false.

Consider the following code of the program:

int x;
for(x = 0; x < 10; x++)
{
printf(“%d”, x);
}

This for loop is executed for 10 times and prints the 0 to 9 digits in one
line. In short the statements are executed in following sequence:

1. x = 0;
2. if(x<10)
print value of x on screen
3. increment value of x by one
4. if(x<10)
print value of x on screen
5. increment value of x by one
……….
When the condition becomes false, the loop gets terminated.

For example if we want to print all the even numbers from 1 to 25 it can be
written using ‘for’ loop as:

int i;
for(i = 1;i < 25; i++)
{
if(i%2 == 0)
printf(“\n%d”, i);
}

The flowchart [Ref. 2q] of for loop can be shown as below:

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 Chapter 02 Decision Making and Branching

Initialization

false
condition

true
Increment/
decrement Loop body

Statements after
the loop

Program to find the factorial of the number using ‘for’ loop

/* Example 2.7 */
#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
int fact, num;
printf("Enter the number: ");
scanf("%d", &num);
for(fact=1 ; num>0 ; num--)
fact = fact * num;
printf("Factorial: %d", fact);
}

[Ref. 1o]
Additional features of ‘for’ loop

The ‘for’ loop have lot of capabilities that are not easily found in other
loop constructs. These are listed below:
a. More than one variable can be initialized at a time in the ‘for’ statement.
For example:

p = 1;
for(n = 0;n<10;n++)

can be re-written as–

for(p=1,n=0;n<10;n++)

b. Like initialization section, the increment section can also contain more
than one increment or decrement statements.
For example:

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 Chapter 02 Decision Making and Branching

for(n=1, m=50 ; n<=0 ; n++, m––)

c. The condition may have any compound relation and the testing need not
be only loop control variable such as–

sum=0;
for(i=1; i<20 && sum<100; i++)
{
sum = sum + i;
}

d. It is also permissible to use expressions in initialization and increment/

decrement sections such as–

for(x= (m+n)/2; x>0; x= x/2)

e. One or more sections can be omitted, if necessary. Such as–

m = 5;
for( ; m!=100 ; )
{
printf(“%d\n”, m);
m = m + 5;
}

f. Giving a semicolon at the end of ‘for’ will not give any syntactical error
but, all the iterations of the loop will be taken place. (Note: iteration is
one execution of the loop). Such as–

for(i=0;i<100;i++);

This loop will be executed for 100 times without any output.

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 Chapter 02 Decision Making and Branching

[Ref. 1p, 2r]

Nesting of the loops

Nesting of the loop statements is allowed in C programming language.

That is, we can write a ‘for’ loop inside another ‘for’ loop or any other loop in
another loop statement. It can be written as follows:

for(i = 0 ; i < 10 ; i++)

{
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
for(j = 0 ; j < 10 ; j++)
{
. . . . . . inner outer
. . . . . . loop loop
}
. . . . . .
}

The nesting may be continued up to any desired level. Here, for each
iteration of outer loop inner loop completes its all iterations. In above
example, the inner loop statements will be executed for 10 X 10 = 100
number of times. See one application of this concept. For example we
require following output:
*
**
***
****
In this case, the loops must be nested as shown below:

/* Example 2.8 */
#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
int x,y;
for(x = 0 ; x <= 3 ; x++)
{
for( y = 0 ; y <= x ; y++)
printf("*");
printf("\n");
}
}

[Ref. 1q]
Jumps in the loop

The break statement [Ref. 1r, 2s]

[Asked in W’08]
As we have already seen, the ‘break’ statement is used to exit out of
the switch statement. It is having another useful application in loop control

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 Chapter 02 Decision Making and Branching

structures. That is, the ‘break’ statement is used to jump out of the loop.
When the ‘break’ is executed inside the loop, the program control will not
execute the loop for further iterations. Generally, the ‘break’ is associated
with if-statement. General form of using ‘break’ is:

break;

Flowchart

false
condition

true
break;
Loop body

Statements after
the loop

The dotted line shows the path where the program control will transfer.
For example:

/* Example 2.9 */
int x;
for(x = 10;x < 20; x++)
{
if(x%4==0)
break;
printf(“%d\n”);
}

The output of this program will be:

10
11

Because, when value of x becomes 12, the condition will be evaluated

to true and break get executed.

The ‘continue’ statement [Ref. 1s, 2t]

[Asked in S’07, W’07, S’08]
The continue statement is used to continue the next iteration of the
loop by skipping the statements in between. That is, when the ‘continue’ is

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 Chapter 02 Decision Making and Branching

executed the statements following is will not be executed, the program

control will directly transfer to next iteration of the loop by increment or
decrement. Generally, the ‘continue’ is associated with if-statement. General
form of using ‘continue’ is–

continue;

Flowchart:

false
condition

Statements after true

continue
Statements before
continue
continue;

Statements after
the loop

The dotted line shows the path where the program control will transfer.
For example:

/* Example 2.10 */
int x;
for(x = 10;x < 20; x++)
{
if(x%4==0)
continue;
printf(“%d\n”);
}

The output of this program will be:

10
11
13
14
15
17
18
19

It has skipped the numbers which are divisible by 4, for which we have
skipped the printf statement.

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 Chapter 02 Decision Making and Branching

Review Questions

Summer 2007: Marks = 36

1. State the use of ‘continue’ statement. 2
2. Describe if-else statement. 2
3. Write a program to display even numbers from 1 to n. Where n is
accepted from user. 4
4. In what way does switch statement differ from an if statement 4
5. The following is the program segment:
x = 1;
y = 1;
if(n > 0)
x = x + 1;
else
y = y – 1;
printf(“%d %d”,x, y);
What will be the values of x and y if n assumes a value of 1 and if
n=0? 4
6. Write a program in ‘C’ to reverse the entered integer number as
input through keyboard. 4
7. Compare while and do-while loop. 4
8. Explain nested if-else statement execution with its flowchart. 4
9. Write a program to print factorial of a number (W-07) 4
10. Write a program to find whether a given number is prime or not. 4

Winter 2007: Marks = 36

1. State difference between while and do-while loop 2
2. Write syntax for nested if-else statement. 2
3. Give syntax and example of switch-case statement 4
4. Explain importance of ‘break’ statement with switch-case. Give proper
example. 4
5. Write a program to enter values of a and b variables. Calculate
addition, division, multiplication, subtraction of a and b and display
results. 4
6. Explain ‘continue’ statement with example. 4
7. Debug following program and write only errors if any:
#include<stdio.h>
main( )
{
char X;
while(X=0;X<=255;X++)
printf(“\n character is %c”, X);
}
8. Write a program to display series of 11 to 30 numbers in reverse
order as 30,29,28,……..2,1. Also calculate sum of 11 to 30 numbers
and display it. 4
9. Write a menu driven program for the following options: 4
i. To find whether entered no. is even or odd.

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 Chapter 02 Decision Making and Branching

ii. To display sum of two entered numbers.

Summer 2008: Marks = 32

a) What is difference between while and do-while? 2

b) Describe nested if-else statement. 2
c) Write a program to display table up to 30. Use for loop. 4
d) Give any four forms of nested if-else statement. 4
e) Explain switch statement with suitable example. 4
f) Using while loop, write a program to print all Armstrong numbers
between 1 and 500. If sum of cubes of each digit of the numbers is
equal to the number itself, then number is called Armstrong number.
For example: 153 = (1*1*1) + (5*5*5) + (3*3*3) 4
g) State use of continue statement over break statement using suitable
example. 4
h) Write a program to print first 10 odd numbers using while loop. 4
i) Write a program which will print largest of three numbers using
if-else. 4

Winter 2008: Marks = 32

a) State the use of break statement. 2

b) Explain conditional operator. 2
c) Write a program to display the sum of all even numbers from one to
‘n’. Accept ‘n’ from user. 4
d) Explain else – if ladder with example. 4
e) Explain switch statement with flowchart. 4
f) Explain the working of do – while loop with example. 4
g) Differentiate between do-while and while loop. 4
h) Write a program to find sum of digits of five digit integer number. 4
i) Write a program to find out largest number among 3 integer nos. 4

Programming Exercises

1. Write a program to input two numbers from keyboard and find the
result of subtraction of greater number – smaller number.
2. Input a year from keyboard and determine whether it is leap year or
not using the conditional operator.
3. Accept three numbers from user and determine which of the two
numbers or all three numbers are equal or not using logical
operators.
4. Enter the amount saved in the bank from keyboard to a program.
The interest rate to this amount is 5% per six months. Find out how
much interest will be obtained on the amount saved for 1.5 years.
5. Imran’s basic salary is input through the keyboard. His dearness
allowance is 40% of basic salary, and house rent allowance is 20% of
basic salary. Write a program to calculate his gross salary.

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 Chapter 02 Decision Making and Branching

6. Input a number from user and determine whether it is fully divisible

by 2 and 5 both or not?
7. Write a program to input a single character as input from user and
determine whether it is vowel or not using else – if ladder.
8. Accept the height, base and hypotenuse values of right angled
triangle from user and determine whether these values are satisfying
the criteria being the triangle as right angled. (Hint: use Pythagoras
theorem).
9. Input the marks of five different subjects CMS, CPR, ELC, EMT, and
ETE from user and determine whether the student is fully passed in
all subjects or not. If yes calculate the percentage obtained. (Use
maximum marks of paper as 100).
10. Accept a four digit number from keyboard and determine whether all
four digits of that number are same or not.
11. Write a program to input the year from user and find how many days
will be there on this year in the month of February. Use nested if-
else?
12. Input two numbers from keyboard and determine whether their
multiplication is negative or not? If no check whether it is odd or
even?
13. Create a menu driven program to input a character from user and
determine:
i. Whether it is alphabet or not.
ii. Whether it is in upper – case or not.
14. Create a menu driven program to input a number from user for
following options:
i. To find the last digit of that number.
ii. To find whether it is positive or not.
15. Create a menu driven program to input two numbers from user for
following options:
i. To find larger number between them.
ii. To find remainder in their division.
16. Create a menu driven program to input a float number from user for
following options:
i. To find cube of that number.
ii. To find square root of that number.
17. Create a menu driven program to input a character from user for
following options:
i. To determine whether it is vowel or not.
ii. To display the character next to it alphabetically.
18. Create a menu driven program to input total marks of one student
from user for following options:
i. To check whether he/she has passed the exam or not.
ii. To find how much percentage obtained by him/her.
(Consider marks are aggregated by 5 subjects.)
19. Write a program to print following output using for loop:
*
* *

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 Chapter 02 Decision Making and Branching

* * *
* * * *
20. Accept a number from user and print it in reverse order using do-
while loop.
21. Write a program to find sum of all even numbers from n to m. Accept
values of variables n and m from keyboard.
22. Generate the following Fibonacci series using while loop till ‘n’
number. Accept n from user.
0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 … … … n
23. Find the addition of all the numbers from n to –n. Take value of n as
input from keyboard. Use for loop.
24. Using while loop, write a program to print all Armstrong numbers
between 1 and 500. If sum of cubes of each digit of the numbers is
equal to the number itself, then number is called Armstrong number.
For example: 153 = (1*1*1) + (5*5*5) + (3*3*3)

---------------

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 Chapter 02 Decision Making and Branching

References
1. Programming in ANSI C
by, E Balagurusamy, Tata McGraw Hill, 4th Edition
a. Chapter 5, Topic 5.2, Page No. 114
b. Chapter 5, Figure 5.2, Page 116
c. Chapter 5, Topic 5.4, Page 119
d. Chapter 5, Figure 5.5, Page 120
e. Chapter 5, Topic 5.5, Page 122
f. Chapter 5, Topic 5.6, Page 126
g. Chapter 5, Figure 5.9, Page 127
h. Chapter 5, Topic 5.7, Page 129
i. Chapter 5, Figure 5.11, Page 131
j. Chapter 5, Page 133
k. Chapter 6, Topic 6.1, Page 152
l. Chapter 6, Topic 6.2, Page 154
m. Chapter 6, Topic 6.3, Page 157
n. Chapter 6, Topic 6.4, Page 159
o. Chapter 6, Page 161
p. Chapter 6, Page 164
q. Chapter 6, Topic 6.5, Page 166
r. Chapter 6, Topic 6.5, Page 167
s. Chapter 6, Page 171

2. Let us C
By, Yashwant Kanetkar, BPB Publications, 7th Edition
a. Chapter 2, Page 51
b. Chapter 2, Page 56
c. Chapter 2, Page 58
d. Chapter 2, Page 59
e. Chapter 2, Figure 2.5, Page 60
f. Chapter 2, Page 61
g. Chapter 2, Page 62
h. Chapter 2, Page 64
i. Chapter 2, Page 67
j. Chapter 4, Page 136
k. Chapter 3, Page 98
l. Chapter 3, Page 99
m. Chapter 3, Figure 3.2, Page 101
n. Chapter 3, Page 121
o. Chapter 3, Figure 3.5, Page 121
p. Chapter 3, Page 108
q. Chapter 3, Figure 3.4, Page 111
r. Chapter 3, Page 114
s. Chapter 3, Page 118
t. Chapter 3, Page 120

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 Chapter 03 Arrays and Strings

Chapter 03
Arrays and Strings

Lectures allotted: 14
Marks Given: 12

Contents:

3.1 Arrays
Declaration and initialization of one dimensional array,
Two dimensional and character arrays,
Accessing array elements
3.2 Declaration and initialization of string variables,
String handling functions from standard library:
strlen( ), strcpy( ), strcat( ), strcmp( )

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 Chapter 03 Arrays and Strings

Array [Ref. 1a]

[Asked in S’08]
An array is a fixed-size collection of elements having same data-type.
It is simply a grouping of like-type data. Array is one of the derived data-
type (derived from other types of the data). That is array can be used to
represent a list of numbers, a list of names etc.

One Dimensional Array [Ref. 1b]

A list of items can be given one variable name using only one
subscript; such a variable is called as one dimensional array. It is very
generalized form of the array.

Declaration of one dimensional array [Ref. 1c]

[Asked in W’08]
Like other general variables, the array is also declared in the program
before its use. The C programming language follows following syntax to
declare an array as –

data-type variable-name[size];
[Asked in S’07]
The ‘data-type’ specifies type of the array. That is, int, char, float etc.
The ‘variable-name’ is the name given to the array, by which we will refer it.
Finally, size is the maximum number of elements that an array can hold.
For example:

int var[10];

This declares the array ‘var’ containing 10 different integer elements.

We can store 10 integer constants in the variable ‘var’.

Initialization of one dimensional array [Ref. 1d]

[Asked in W’08]
After an array is declared, it must be initialized. Otherwise they will
contain the garbage values. There are two different ways in which we can
initialize the array:

1. Compile time
2. Run time

Compile time initialization

This initialization is done while writing the program itself. Following is

the syntax of initialization of the array.

data-type array-name[size] = { list of values };

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 Chapter 03 Arrays and Strings

For example:

int var[5] = {5, 7, 9, 3, 4};

Here, the array variables are initialized with the values given in front of
it. That is, the 0th element of array will contain 5, 1st will contain 7 and so on.
Remember, the array indexing or subscripting is always done from 0th
position. The values of the array will be get stored as following manner

5 var[0]

7 var[1]

9 var[2]

3 var[3]

4 var[4]

Each element in the array will be referred individually by its index such
as, var[0], var[1], var[2], . . .
They can also be initialized individually such as:

var[0] = 5;
var[1] = 7;
var[2] = 9;
etc. after declaration of the array.

In the array declaration, the size can also be omitted. In such cases
the compiler will automatically identify the total number of elements and size
will be given to it. For example:

int max[ ] = {8, 6, 7, 4, 5, 3, 0, 1};

This array is not declared with size, but initialized with values. Here,
size of the array will be automatically set to 8. Now it can be referred as the
general array onwards.
Compile time initialization can also be done partially. Such as –

float x[5] = {1.2, 6.9, 4.1};

Here, array ‘x’ is having size 5, but only 0th, 1st, and 2nd elements are
declared with values. The remaining 3rd and 4th element of the array will be
automatically set to 0. This property is applicable to all numerical type of the
array in C. remember, however, if we have more values than the declared
size, the compiler will give an error. For example –

int arr[5] = {56, 10, 30, 74, 56, 32};

This is the illegal statement in C.

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 Chapter 03 Arrays and Strings

Run time initialization

An array can initialized at run time by the program or by taking the

input from the keyboard. Generally, the large arrays are declared at run time
in the program it self. Such as –

int sum[20];
for (i = 0;i<20;i++)
sum[i] = 1;

Here, all the elements of the array ‘sum’ are initialized with the value
1. Remember the loop control structures are applicable in these cases.
We can also use the scanf function to input the values from the user.
In such cases, the loop control structure is applicable. For example:

int sum[10], x;
printf(“Enter 10 numbers: ”);
for(x=0;x<10;x++)
scanf(“%d”,&sum[x]);

Here, the array ‘sum’ is initialized by taking the values as input from
the keyboard.

/* Program 3.1 */
/* Input 10 numbers from user and find the total of all of
them */
#include<stdio.h>
main( )
{
int val[10], i, total=0;
printf(“Enter any ten numbers: ”);
for(i=0;i<10;i++)
scanf(“%d”, &val[i]); // input numbers

for(i=0;i<10;i++)
total = total + val[i]; // find total

printf(“\nTotal is: %d”, total);

}

Sample Output:

Enter any ten numbers: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Total is: 55

Find maximum number from the array of 10 float values.

Algorithm:
1. Start

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 Chapter 03 Arrays and Strings

2. Initialize the array of 10 elements.

3. Let i = 1,
4. Consider max = 0th element of the array.
5. If ith element of array > max
then max = ith element of array
6. Increment value of i by 1.
7. If i ≠ 10 go to step 5.
8. Print the value of max.
9. Stop.

Two dimensional arrays [Ref. 1e]

[Asked in S’07, W’07, S’08, W’08]

It is also called as array of arrays. Many times it is required to
manipulate the data in table format or in matrix format which contains rows
and columns. In these cases, we have to give two dimensions to the array.
That is, a table of 5 rows and 4 columns can be referred as,

table[5][4]

The first dimension 5 is number of rows and second dimension 4 is

number of columns. In order to create such two dimensional arrays in C,
following syntax should be followed.

datatype arrayname[rows][columns];

For example:

int table[5][4];

This will create total 20 storage locations for two dimensional arrays
as,
Columns
[0][0] [0][1] [0][2] [0][3]
[1][0] [1][1] [1][2] [1][3]
Rows [2][0] [2][1] [2][2] [2][3]
[3][0] [3][1] [3][2] [3][3]
[4][0] [4][1] [4][2] [4][3]

We can store the values in each of these memory locations by referring

there respective row and column number as,

table[2][3] = 10;
table[1][1] = -52;

Like one dimensional arrays, two dimensional arrays can also be

initialized at compile time as,

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 Chapter 03 Arrays and Strings

int table[2][2] = {8, 5, 9, 6};

[Ref. 1f]
It will initialize the array as shown below,

8 5
9 6

Following declaration and initialization is more understandable than

previous one.

int table[][] = {{8, 5}, {9, 6}};

or

int table[][] = {
{8, 5},
{9, 6}
};

The large two dimensional arrays can also be initialized using loops
such as,

int arr[5][5];
int z = 0, x, y ;
for(x=0;x<5;x++)
{
for(y=0;y<5;y++)
{
arr[x][y] = z;
z++;
}
}

This will initialize the array ‘arr’ as,

0 1 2 3 4
5 6 7 8 9
10 11 12 13 14
15 16 17 18 19
20 21 22 23 24

Same can be printed using nesting of two loops as,

for(x=0 ; x<5 ; x++)

for(y=0 ; y<5 ; y++)
printf(”%d”, arr[x][y]);

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 Chapter 03 Arrays and Strings

Basically, the two dimensional array are used for manipulating

different matrix operations. Program 3.2 shows the application of two
dimensional arrays.

//Addition of matrices Program 3.2

#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
int x[][] = { {8,5,6},
{1,2,1},
{0,8,7}
};

int y[][] = { {4,3,2},

{3,6,4},
{0,0,0}
};
int i,j;
printf("First matrix: ");
for(i=0;i<3;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<3;j++)
printf(“%d”, x[i][j]);
printf("\n");
}
printf("Second matrix: ");
for(i=0;i<3;i++)
{
for(int j=0;j<3;j++)
printf(“%d”, y[i][j]);
printf("\n");
}
printf("Addition: ");
for(i=0;i<3;i++)
{
for(int j=0;j<3;j++)
printf(“%d”, x[i][j]+y[i][j]);
printf("\n");
}

}
}
Output:

First matrix:
8 5 6
1 2 1
0 8 7

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 Chapter 03 Arrays and Strings

Second matrix:
4 3 2
3 6 4
0 0 0
Addition:
12 8 8
4 8 5
0 8 7

Strings [Ref. 1g]

[Asked in W’07]
The string is sequence of characters that is treated as a single data
item. In general, the character array is called as string. Any group of
characters defined between double quotation marks is a string constant.
Such as –
“The C Programming Language.”
[Ref. 1h]
Declaring a string

C does not support string as the data type. However is allows us to

represent strings as character arrays. It can be declared as –

char string_name[size];

Here, string_name is the valid variable name given to the string and
‘size’ determines the number of characters in the string. For example:

char city[10];
char name[30];

Here, ‘city’ is the character array or a string can be stored with 10

characters. The ‘name’ will store 30 characters as well.
[Ref. 1h, 1i]
Initializing a string

Like numerical arrays the strings can also be initialized when they are
declared which is referred as compile time initialization. It can be done in
following three forms:

char city[6] = “Nashik”;

char city[ ] = “Nashik”;
char city[6] = {‘N’, ‘a’, ‘s’, ‘h’, ‘i', ‘k’ };

For initializing the string at run-time, we use scanf function with %s

format specifier such as:

char str[10];
scanf(“%s”, str);

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 Chapter 03 Arrays and Strings

This statement will initialize the string ‘str’ by taking the input from the
keyboard. This will read the character sequence until occurrence of first
separator such as space character, tab or enter and store it into ‘str’. We can
also use the following function to input the string including spaces.

char str[10];
gets(str);

The gets() function defined in stdio.h file reads the string from the
keyboard until the enter is not pressed.
For printing the string, we can use the printf function in the similar
format such as:

printf(“%s”, str);
[Ref. 1j]
Arithmetic operations on character

C allows us to manipulate the character as the same way we do for the

integers. Every character is associated with an integer value with it. This
value is called as ASCII value. If we add two characters in each other, the
ASCII values of them are added in each other. This concept is most useful in
solving most of the problems in C. for example, if we want to print the ASCII
value or integer value of character ‘m’ on screen we can use:

printf(“%d”, ‘m’);
or
char ch = ‘m’;
printf(“%d”,ch);

If we want to change value of any character variable to its next

subsequent character value, we can write as:

ch = ch + 1;

/* Program 3.3: to count the length of the string */

#include<stdio.h> [Asked in W’08]
main()
{
char str[20];
int x;
printf(“Enter the string: ”);
scanf(“%s”, str);
for(x=0;str[x]!=’\0’;x++);

printf(“\nLength of the string is: %d”,x);

}

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 Chapter 03 Arrays and Strings

/* Program 3.4: to count the upper-case characters from the

string */
#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
char str[20];
int x, upper=0;
printf(“Enter the string: ”);
scanf(“%s”, str);
for(x=0;str[x]!=’\0’;x++)
{
if(str[i]>=’A’ && str[i]<=’Z’)
upper++;
}
printf(“\nUpper case characters are: %d”,upper);
}

String handling functions [Ref. 1k]

C library is supporting a large collection of string handling functions.

They all are defined in string.h file.

1. strlen()
[Asked in W’07, W’08]
This function counts and returns number of characters from the string.
It takes the following form:

n = strlen(string);

here, n is an integer variable, which receives value of length of the string.

The argument to this function may be a string constant or string variable.
The counting ends at the first null character.
For example:

char name[10] = “Yellow”;

int len;
len = strlen(name); //’len’ will be 6.

2. strcat()
[Asked in W’07, S’08]
This function joins two strings together. That is, this function is used to
concatenate the strings. It takes the following general form:

strcat(string1, string2);

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 Chapter 03 Arrays and Strings

here, string1 and string2 are character arrays. When this function is
executed, content of string2 is attached at the end of string1. Content
of string2 remains unchanged.
For example:

char str1[ ] = “New”;

char str2[ ] = “Delhi”;
strcat(str1, str2);
printf(“%s”, str1); //outputs “NewDelhi”
printf(“%s”, str2); //outputs “Delhi”

We can concatenate / join a string constant to the string variable such

as:

strcat(str1, “York”);
printf(“%s”, str1); //outputs “NewYork”

3. strcpy()
[Asked in S’07, W’07, W’08]
This function almost works like string-assignment operator. That
is, strcpy() function is used to copy contents of one string into another.
It takes the following general form:

strcpy(string1, string2);

This will copy contents of string1 into string2.

For example:

char city1[5] = “Pune”;

char city2[5];
strcpy(city2, city1);
printf(“%s”, city1); //outputs “Pune”
printf(“%s”, city2); //outputs “Pune”

We can also use the constant as the parameter to the strcpy(). Such
as:

strcpy(city2, “Pimpri”);

4. strcmp()
[Asked in S’07, S’08]
This function is used to compare two strings and accordingly
returns the value. That is, it returns the numerical difference between
the strings. It takes the following general form:

strcmp(string1, string2);

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 Chapter 03 Arrays and Strings

Here, string1 and string2 may be string variables or strings

constants. The function will compare the strings and returns the value.
if this value of 0, implies that both the strings are equal. If it is
positive, implies that string1 is greater and if negative, implies that
string2 is greater. For example:

strcmp(city1, city2);
strcmp(“Pune”, city1); etc.

This function is case-sensitive function. The case-insensitive form of

this function is also available given below:

strcmpi(string1, string2); or
stricmp(string1, string2);

5. strrev()

This function reverses the contents of the string. It takes the following
general form:

strrev(string);

Here, the ‘string’ is the string variable whose value is to be reversed.

For example:

char str[10] = “Sakeena”;

strrev(str);
printf(“%s”, str); //print aneekaS on the screen.

/* Program 3.5: Use of string handling functions */

#include<stdio.h>
#include<string.h>
main()
{
char str1[10], str2[10];
printf(“\nEnter first string: ”);
scanf(“%s”, str1);
printf(“\nEnter second string: ”);
scanf(“%s”, str2);

printf(“\nLength of second string: %d”, strlen(str2));

printf(“\nReverse of first string: %s”, strrev(str1));

if(strcmp(str1, str2)==0)
printf(“\nStrings are equal”);
else
printf(“\nStrings are not equal”);

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 Chapter 03 Arrays and Strings

printf(“Joined string: %s”, strcat(str1, str2));

strcpy(str1,str2);
printf(“\nCopied second string in first: %s”, str1);

Array of Strings [Ref. 1l]

We can also create the array of the string. It is basically a two-

dimensional array of characters and declared in the same way as that of
general two-dimensional array given below:

char tab[5][10] = { “Thomas”,

“Rajneesh”,
“Atish”,
“Aneeta”,
“Nilofar”
};

In above example, 5 specify total number of strings that the array may
contain and 10 specifies maximum length of each string in the array. This
will create the following table in memory.

T h o m a s \0
R a j n e e s h \0
A t i s h \0
A n e e t a \0
N i l o f a r \0

We can access these elements using the array in the following manner.

for(x=0;x<5;x++)
printf(“\n%s”, tab[x]);

For initializing the array of strings, we can also use the same way but
using scanf function.

/* Program 3.6: Print reverse of 5 different strings */

#include<string.h>
#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
char str[10][10];
int i;

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 Chapter 03 Arrays and Strings

printf(“\nEnter 10 strings: ”);

for(i=0;i<10;i++)
scanf(“%d”,str[i]);
for(i=0;i<10;i++)
scanf(“%d”,strrev(str[i]));
}

------------------

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 Chapter 03 Arrays and Strings

Review Questions

Summer 2007: Marks = 16

a) Define and declare two dimensional array. 2
b) State use and syntax of strcmp ( ) function. 2
c) Explain the need for array variables. 4
d) Explain strcpy () function in detail. 4
e) Write a program to accept a string and display a list of ASCII codes
which represent accepted string. 4

Winter 2007: Marks = 16

a) What do you mean by character array? 2
b) Give syntax for strcat ( ) string function. 2
c) Explain what is two dimensional array. Also explain how to declare and
initialize two dimensional array with example. 4
d) Explain strlen ( ) and strcmp ( ) string functions with example. 4
e) Write a program to find the largest number from given array. 4

Summer 2008: Marks = 16

a) What is array? How it is declared? 2
b) State use and syntax of strcat( ) function. 2
c) Explain representation of two dimensional array with example. 4
d) Explain strcmp( ) function in detail. 4
e) Write a program to copy contents of one array into another array. 4

Winter 2008: Marks = 16

a) Declare and initialize the one dimensional integer array with 10
elements. 2
b) State the use and syntax of strlen( ) function. 2
c) Describe a method of declaring and initialization of two dimensional
array with example. 4
d) Explain strcpy( ) function. 4
e) Write a program to accept a string and display the length of it without
using standard library function. 4

Programming Exercises

1. Enter ages of ten different men from user and find out who is the
eldest in all?
2. Accept 10 different values from keyboard; determine their average and
find out is there any number in the array whose value equals to
average.
3. Write a program to copy contents of one array into another array.
Accept size of both arrays as 7.
4. Input 10 different numbers from user. Count and display total even
numbers from it.

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 Chapter 03 Arrays and Strings

5. Accept values of two different arrays (size 5) from user and determine
how many numbers they are having common.
6. Write a program to accept 15 different float number from user and
display those numbers which are positioned on odd index positions in
reverse order. For example, you have to print the numbers on
array[13], array[11], array[9], array[7]………so on.
7. Initialize the matrix of 3 X 3 from user and determine whether it is
zero matrix or not?
8. Accept the values of 2 X 2 matrix from keyboard and find determinant
of it.
9. Initialize a 3 X 3 matrix and copy the contents of it into a single
dimensional array whose size is 9. Print all the values of 1D array.
10. Declare a 2D array of 4 X 3. Initialize first row values with 5, second
row values with 9, third row values with 3, and fourth row values with
7 using loop control structures.
11. Accept a 3 X 5 matrix from keyboard and copy the contents of it into
another 5 X 3 matrix by finding the transpose.
12. Input a 4 X 4 matrix and find the diagonal positions of it contains all
values same or not?
13. Accept any sentence from keyboard using gets( ) function and count
total number of words in it.
14. Accept any string from keyboard, convert it into the upper case and
display it.
15. Read a string from keyboard and inverse the case of it. That is, convert
lower case letters to upper-case and vice versa.
16. Input any two strings from user and find whether these are equal or
not. Don’t consider the case.
17. Read a string from user and analyze it. That is, count total number of
alphabets, digits, special symbols and display their counts.
18. Write a program to accept a string and display a list of ASCII codes
which represent accepted string (Asked in Summer 2007 Examination)

------------------

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 Chapter 03 Arrays and Strings

References
1. Programming in ANSI C
by, E Balagurusamy, Tata McGraw Hill, 4th Edition
a. Chapter 7, Topic 7.1, Page 190
b. Chapter 7, Topic 7.2, Page 192
c. Chapter 7, Topic 7.3, Page 193
d. Chapter 7, Topic 7.4, Page 195
e. Chapter 7, Topic 7.5, Page 199
f. Chapter 7, Topic 7.6, Page 204
g. Chapter 8, Topic 8.1, Page 229
h. Chapter 8, Topic 8.2, Page 230
i. Chapter 8, Topic 8.3, Page 231
j. Chapter 8, Topic 8.5, Page 231
k. Chapter 8, Topic 8.8, Page 244
l. Chapter 8, Topic 8.9, Page 250

------------------

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 Chapter 04 Functions and Structures

Chapter 04
Functions and Structures

Lectures allotted: 14
Marks Given: 12

Contents:

4.1 Functions
Need of functions,
Scope and lifetime of variables,
Defining functions,
Function calls (call by value, call by reference),
Return values,
Storage classes,
Category of function (No argument No return value, No argument with
return value, argument with return value), recursion
4.2 Structures
Defining structure,
Declaring and accessing structure members,
Initialization of structure,
Arrays of structure.

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 Chapter 04 Functions and Structures

Function
[Asked in W’07, W’08]
A function is self-contained block of statements that performs
particular task. C functions can be classified into two types:
• Library functions
• User-defined functions
The library functions are the functions which are already defined in C’s
functions library i.e. header files. For example, the functions scanf() and
printf() are the library functions defined in file stdio.h same as functions
sqrt() is defined in math.h and getch() is defined in conio.h. User defined
function is the function defined by the programmer who has written the
program. The task to perform is decided by the user. For example, the
main() function is an user-defined function. We decide what is to be written
in this function.

Need of user-defined function

[Asked in W’08]
1. The functional program facilitates top-down modular programming
approach as shown in figure below.

Main Program

Function A Function B Function C

B1 B2

Fig. Top down modular programming approach

2. The length of source program can be reduced by using functions at
appropriate places.
3. It is easy to locate and isolate a faulty function for further
investigations.
4. A function may be used by many other programs. This means that a C
programmer can build on what others have already done. That is we
can reuse the functions already defined in some program files.

Elements of user-defined functions

There are some similarities exists between functions and variables in
C.
1. Both function name and variable names are considered as identifiers
and therefore they must follow the rules of creating variable’s name.

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 Chapter 04 Functions and Structures

2. Like variables, functions have data types associated with them.

3. Like variables, function names and their types must be declared and
defined before they are used in the program.

In order to make use of user defined functions, we need to establish

three elements that are related to functions.
1. Function definition
2. Function call
3. Function declaration

Definition of functions
[Asked in S’08]
The function definition is an independent program module that is
specially written to implement the requirements of the function. So it is also
called as function implementation. It includes following topics:
• Function Header
• Function Body
The general form of function definition is as given below:

function_type function_name(parameters list)

{
local variables declaration;
executable statement1;
executable statement2;
- - - - - -;
- - - - - -;
return statement;
}

The first line function_type function_name(parameters list)

is known as function header and the statements enclosing the curly braces
are known as function body.

Function Header

It includes three parts:

1. Function type
It specifies type of the value that the function is expected to return to
the program calling the function. It is also called as return type. If
function is not returning any values we have to specify it as void.
2. Function name
It is any valid C identifier name and therefore must follow the rules for
creation of variable names in C.
3. Parameters list
It declares variables that will receive the data sent by the calling
program. They serve as input data to the function to carry out specific

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 Chapter 04 Functions and Structures

task. Since, they represent the actual input values they are referred as
formal parameters or formal arguments.
For example:

int findmax(int x, int y int x)

{
--------
}

double power(double x, int n)

{
--------
}

float quad(int a, int b, int c)

{
--------
}

void print_line()
{
--------
}

Function Body

It contains the declarations and statements necessary for performing

required task. The body enclosed in braces, contains three parts:
1. Local variables declaration
It specifies the variables needed by the function locally.
2. Function Statements
That actually performs task of the function.
3. The return statement
It returns the value specified by the function.

For example:

float mul(float x, float y)

{
float result; /* local variable */
result = x * y; /* find the result */
return(result); /* return the result */
}
void display(void)
{
printf(“Hello World!”); /* only print the value */
}
void sub(int a, int b)

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 Chapter 04 Functions and Structures

{
printf(“Subtraction: %d”, a – b); /* no variables */
return; /* optional */
}

Return values
A function may or may not send back any value to the calling function.
If it does, it is done by return statement. The return statement also sends
the program control back to the calling function. It is possible to pass a
calling function any number of values but called function can only return one
value per call, at most.
The return statement can take one of the following forms:

return;
return(value);
return(variable);
return(expression);

The first plain return does not return any value; it acts much as closing
brace of the function. The remaining three statements can eliminates the
brackets also. When the return is executed, the program control immediately
transfers back to the calling function. None of the statements written after
return are executed afterwards. For example:

return(x);
printf(“Bye…Bye”);

In this case the printf statement will not be executed in any case.
Because the return statement will transfer program control immediately back
to the calling function. Some examples of return are:

int div(int x, int y)

{
int z;
z = x / y;
return z;
}

Here, instead of writing three statements inside the function div(), we

can write a single statement as,

return(x*y);
OR
return x*y;

A function may have more than one return statement when it is

associated with any condition such as,

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 Chapter 04 Functions and Structures

if(x>y)
return x;
else
return y;

In this code, in any condition, only one return statement will be

executed.

Function calls
A function can be called by simply using function name followed by a
list of actual parameters (or arguments) if any, enclosed in parentheses. For
example:

main()
{
float m;
m = mul(5.2, 3.71); /* function call */
printf(“\n%d”,m);
}

When compiler encounters the function call, it transfers program

control to the function mul() by passing values 5.2 and 3.71 (actual
parameters) to the formal parameters on the function mul(). The mul() will
performs operations on these values and then returns the result. It will be
stored in variable m. We are printing the value of variable m on the screen.
There are a number of different ways in which the function can be
called as given below:

mul(5.2, 3.71);
mul(m, 3.71);
mul(5.2, m);
mul(m, n);
mul(m+5.1, 3.71);
mul(m+3.6, m+9.1);
mul(mul(6.1,8.2), 4.5);

Only we have to remember that the function call must satisfy type and
number of arguments passed as parameters to the called function.

Function Prototype / Function Declaration

[Asked in S’07]
Like variables, all functions in C program must be declared, before
they are used in calling function. This declaration of function is known as
function prototype. It is having following syntax to use:

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 Chapter 04 Functions and Structures

function_type function_name (parameter list);

this is very similar to function header except the terminating

semicolon. For example, the function mul() will be declared as,

float mul(float, float);

Generally, prototype declarations as not necessary, if the function have

been declared before it is used. A prototype declaration may be placed in
two places in the program.
• Above all the functions
• Inside function definition
We place declaration above all the functions this prototype is known
as global prototype. That is, we can use this function in any part on the
program. When we place the function definition in the local declaration
section of another function it is referred as local prototype.

Categories of the function

Depending upon whether arguments are present or not and whether
value is returned or not functions are categorized as:
Category 1: Functions with no arguments and no return value
Category 2: Functions with arguments and no return value
Category 2: Functions with arguments and a return value
Category 2: Functions with no arguments and a return value

Functions with no arguments and no return value

For example:

void printline(void)
{
int i;
for(i=0;i<25;i++)
printf(“–”);
}

Functions with arguments and no return value

For example:

void findmax(int a, int b)

{
if(a>b)
printf(“%d”, a);
else
printf(“%d”, b);
}

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 Chapter 04 Functions and Structures

Functions with arguments and return value

For example:

int addition(int x, int y)

{
int s;
s = x + y;
return (s);
}

Functions with arguments and a return value

For example:

float value_of_PI(void)
{
float pi = 22/7;
return pi;
}

Recursion
[Asked in W’08]
It is a special case of calling a function when a function calls itself
again and again. It forms a chaining of calling a function. For example:

void main(void)
{
printf(“\nHello”);
main(); /* recursive call */
}

When executed, this program will display “Hello” on the screen

indefinitely.
Another useful example of recursion is evaluation of factorial of a
number. The factorial of number is expressed as a series of repetitive
multiplications as, for example:

factorial of 5 = factorial of 4 × 5
factorial of 4 = factorial of 3 × 4
factorial of 3 = factorial of 2 × 3
factorial of 2 = factorial of 1 × 2
factorial of 1 = 1

This statement will be transferred into recursive process in function as

given below:

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 Chapter 04 Functions and Structures

int factorial(int n)
{
int fact;
if(n==1)
return 1;
else
return(n*factorial(n-1));
}

Consider another example of finding value of Xy using recursion:

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
int power(int x, int y)
{
if(y<1)
return(1);
else
return( x * power(x,--y));
}
void main()
{
printf("%d", power(4, 3));
getch();
}

Scope, Lifetime and Visibility of variables

Scope is the region in which a variable is available for use. Depending
upon this region, the scope is categorized into two types, that is local scope
and global scope. For example:

int num1; /* global scope */

main()
{
int num2; /* local scope */
------
------
}

In this code, the variable num1 declared globally so it is available for

use in the whole program. The variable num2 is declared locally, so it can be
used only in main() (that is, in the function where it is declared).
The program’s ability to access a variable from memory is called as
visibility of variable. Whereas, the lifetime of the variable is duration of the
time in which a variable exists in the memory during execution.

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 Chapter 04 Functions and Structures

Rules of use

1. Scope of global variable is the entire program.

2. The scope of local variable begins at point of declaration and ends at
the end of block or function in which it is declared.
3. The scope of a formal function is its own function.
4. Lifetime of a variable declared in main is the entire program execution
time, although its scope is only main function.
5. All variables have visibility in their scope, provided they are not
declared again.
6. If a variable is re-declared within its scope again, it loses its visibility in
the scope of the re-declared variable.

Storage Classes
The properties of the variables tell us about following things, referred
as storage class:
1. Where the variable would be stored?
2. What will be the initial value of the variable? (i. e. default initial value)
3. What is scope of the variable?
4. What is lifetime of the variable?

There are four different types of storage classes:

1. Automatic
2. Register
3. Static
4. External

1. Automatic Storage class

They are created when the function is called and destroyed

automatically when the function is exited.

Storage: Memory.
Default initial Value: Garbage.
Scope: Local (to block in which variable defined)
Lifetime: Till control remains within block where it is defined.

Example:
main()
{
auto int x, y;
x = 10;
printf(“Values : %d %d”, x, y);
}

2. Register Storage Class

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 Chapter 04 Functions and Structures

We can tell the compiler that a variable should be kept in one of the
microprocessor’s register, instead of keeping in memory.

Storage: CPU Registers.

Default initial Value: Garbage.
Scope: Local (to block in which variable defined)
Lifetime: Till control remains within block where it is defined.

Example:
main()
{
register int a;
for(a=0;a<10;a++)
printf(“\nValues : %d ”, a);
}

3. Static Storage class

The value of this local variable remains as it is until the end of the
program.

Storage: Memory.
Default initial Value: Zero.
Scope: Local (to block in which variable defined)
Lifetime: Value of the variable remains as it is between
function calls.
Example:

void insert()
{
static int m;
m++;
printf(“\n%d”, m);
}
main()
{
insert();
insert();
insert();
}

4. External Storage class

Accessing the value of the variable which is defined somewhere in the

program globally.

Storage: Memory.
Default initial Value: Zero.

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 Chapter 04 Functions and Structures

Scope: Global
Lifetime: As long as the program execution doesn’t come to an
end.

Example:
main()
{
extern int y;
printf(“Value: %d ”, y);
}
int y = 30;

Flowchart for function

main()
{
int x, y, z;
printf(“Enter values: ”);
scanf(“%d%d”, &x, &y);
z = mul(x, y);
printf(“Multiplication: %d”, z);
}
int mul(int a, int b)
{
int m;
m = a * b;
return(m);
}

Start
int mul(a, b)

Accept values of x
and y Let, m = a × b

Let,
z = mul(x, y) return (m)

Print value of z

Stop

Fig. Flowchart for function

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 Chapter 04 Functions and Structures

Structure
[Asked in W’07, W’08]
It is a derived data-type in C, which is a collection of different data-
type elements. It is a convenient tool for handling a group of logically related
data items. Structure helps to organize the complex data in more meaningful
way.

Defining a structure
[Asked in W’07, W’08]
Unlike arrays, structures must be defined first for their format that
may be used later to declare structure variables. The general format or
syntax to create a structure is:

struct tag_name
{
data_type variable1;
data_type variable1;
- - - - -;
- - - - -;
};

Remember, this template is terminated by a semicolon. The keyword

struct declares a structure to hold the details of different data elements. For
example:

struct book
{
char title[20];
char author[15];
int pages;
float price;
};

Here, the fields: title, author, pages and price are called as structure
elements or members. Each of these members belongs to different data
types. The name of structure ‘book’ is called structure tag. It simply
describes a format called template to represent information as shown below:

title Array of 20 characters

author Array of 15 characters

pages Integer

price Float

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 Chapter 04 Functions and Structures

Arrays vs Structures

Both arrays and structures are classified as structured data types as

they provide mechanism that enable us to access and manipulate data in a
relatively easy manner. But they differ in number of ways.
1. An array is a collection of related data elements of same type. But
structure can have elements of different types.
2. An array is derived data type whereas structure is a user-defined or
programmer-defined one.
3. Any array behaves like a built-in data type. All we have to do is to
declare an array variable and use it. But in the case of structure, first
we have to design and declare a data structure before variables of that
type are declared and used.

Declaring structure variables

[Asked in S’07]
After declaring a structure format we can declare variables of that
type. A structure variable declaration is similar to the declaration of variables
of another type. It includes following elements:
1. The keyword struct
2. The structure tag name
3. List of variable names separated by commas
4. A terminating semicolon
For example, the statement:

struct book book1, book2, book3;

declares book1, book2, book3 as variables of type struct book. Each of

these variables has four members as specified by template. The declaration
might look like this:

struct book
{
char title[20];
char author[15];
int pages;
float price;
};
struct book book1, book2, book3;

The members of structure themselves are not variables. They do not

occupy any memory until they are associated with structure variables such
as book1. It is also allowed to combine both the structure definition and
variables declaration in one statement.
The declaration,

struct book
{

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 Chapter 04 Functions and Structures

char title[20];
char author[15];
int pages;
float price;
}book book1, book2, book3;

Is valid. Use of tag name is also optional. For example:

struct
{
char title[20];
char author[15];
int pages;
float price;
}book book1, book2, book3;

It declares book1, book2, book3 as structure variables representing

three books but does not include tag name.

Accessing Structure Variables

Members of structure should be linked to the structure variables in

order to make them meaningful members. The link between a member and a
variable is established using the member operator ‘.’ which is also known as
member operator or period operator. For example:

book1.price

is the variable representing the price of book1 and can be treated like
any other ordinary variable. Here is how we would assign values to the
members of book1:

strcpy(book1.title, “Programming”);
strcpy(book1.author, “T.B.Kute”);
book1.pages = 375;
book1.price = 275.00;

We can also use scanf to give values through the keyboard.

scanf(“%s”, book1.title);
scanf(“%s”, book1.author);
scanf(“%d”, book1.pages);

are valid input statements.

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 Chapter 04 Functions and Structures

Structure Initialization
[Asked in S’07]
Like any other data type, a structure variable can be initialized at
compile time.

struct time
{
int hrs;
int mins;
int secs;
};
struct time t1 = {4, 52, 29};
struct time t2 = {10, 40, 21};

This assigns value 4 to t1.hrs, 52 to t1.mins, 29 to t1.secs and value

10 to t2.hrs, 40 to t2.mins, 21 to t2.secs. There is one-to-one
correspondence between the members and their initializing values.
C does not permit the initialization of individual structure members
within the template. The initialization must be done only in the declaration of
actual variables.

/* Program to declare the structure student having member

variables roll_no, name and age. Accept and display data */

#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
struct student
{
int roll_no;
char name[10];
int age;
}s;
printf(“Enter roll, name and age: ”);
scanf(“%d%s%d”, &s.roll_no, s.name, &s.age);
printf(“\nEntered information: \n”);
printf(“Roll number: %d”, s.roll_no);
printf(“\nName: %s”, s.name);
printf(“\nAge: %d”,s.age);
}

Copying and comparing structure variables

Two variables of the same structure type can be copied the same way
as ordinary variables. if person1 and person2 belongs to the same structure,
then the following statements are valid:

person1 = person2;

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 Chapter 04 Functions and Structures

person2 = person1;

However, the statements such as,

person1 == person2
person2 != person1

are not permitted. C does not permit any logical operation on structure
variables. In case, we need to compare them, we may do so by comparing
members individually.

Operations on individual members

The individual members are identified using the member operator, the
dot. A member with dot operator along with its structure variable can be
treated like any other variable name and therefore can be manipulated using
expressions and operators. Consider the following structure,

struct person
{
char name[15];
int age;
int salary;
} p1, p2, p3;

We can perform following operations on it:

if(p1.age > p2.age)

p1.sarary = p2.salary * 2;
int sum = p1.age + p2.age;
strcpy(p3.name, p2.name);

We can also apply increment and decrement operators to numeric type

members. For example, the following statements are valid:

p1.age++;
––p2.salary;

Arrays of structure
[Asked in W’07, W’08]
We use structure to describe the format of number of related variables.
For example, in analyzing the marks obtained by a class of students, we may
use a template to describe student name and marks obtained in various
subjects and then declare all the students as structure variables. In such
cases, we may declare an array of structures, each element of the array
representing a structure variable. For example:

struct marks student[60];

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 Chapter 04 Functions and Structures

It defines an array called student that consists of 100 elements. Each

element is defined to be of the type struct marks. Consider the declaration of
the structure marks:

struct marks
{
int subject1;
int subject2;
int subject3;
};
main()
{
struct marks student[3] =
{{52,96,86}, {42, 49, 52}, {81, 89, 84}};
}

This declares the student as an array of three elements student[0],

student[1], student[3] and initializes their member as follows:

student[0].subject1 = 52;
student[0].subject2 = 96;
student[0].subject3 = 86;
------
------
student[2].subject3 = 84;

An array of structures is stored inside the memory in the same way as

a multidimensional array. The array will look like as following:

student[0] student[1] student[2]

52 96 86 subject1

42 49 subject1
52

81 89 84 subject1

/* Program to input information of 10 students and display it */

#include<stdio.h>
void main( )
{
struct student
{
int roll;
char name[10];

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 Chapter 04 Functions and Structures

float marks;
} a[10];
int i;
printf(“Enter info. of students:”);
for(i = 0 ; i < 10 ; i++)
{
scanf(“%d %s %f”, &a.roll[i],
a.name[i], &a.marks[i]);
}
for(i = 0 ; i < 10 ; i++)
{
printf(“\n%d %s %f”,
a.roll[i], a.name[i], a.marks[i]);
}
}

------------------

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 Chapter 04 Functions and Structures

Review Questions

Summer 2007: Marks = 12

a) Define function prototype. 2
b) Declare and define a structure employee having
member variables as emp_id, emp_name & salary. 2
c) Explain with example: structure initialization and declaration. 4
d) Write a program to declare the structure student
having member variables roll_no and name. Accept
data for three students and display it. 4

Winter 2007: Marks = 12

a) Give the syntax of declaring structure. 2
b) Define function. 2
c) Explain what is structure and array of structure.
Declare a structure with elements as roll_no and name.
Declare array of structure for 10 students. 4
d) Declare a structure ‘book’ having data members as
title, author and price. Accept this data for one structure
variable and display accepted data. Write a program. 4

Summer 2008: Marks = 16

a) Explain function definition. Give syntax for function. 2
b) Give general form of structure and define a structure student having
member variables as roll_no, name and dob. 2
c) Write the output of following program. Take suitable input. 4
#include<stdio.h>
void large( )
{
int a,b;
printf(“Enter values of a and b :”);
scanf(“%d %d”,&a,&b);
if(a<b)
printf(“large : %d”,b);
else
printf(large : %d”,a);
}
main( )
{
large( );
large( );
}
d) Define two structures date and account.
Date has members: day, month, year
Account has members as: acc_no, balance, dob
Assign initial values to them. 4
e) Declare a structure ‘Book’ having data members title, author and price.
Accept this data for one variable and display accepted result. 4

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 Chapter 04 Functions and Structures

Winter 2008: Marks=16

a) What do you by structure? Give syntax of declaring it. 2
b) Define recursion. 2
c) What is function? Explain the need of function. 4
d) Explain with example the array of structure. 4
e) Write a program to define a structure employee with members
emp_name,
emp_id and salary. Accept data for one employee and display it. 4

Other: Marks
a) Explain recursion with example 4
b) State types of the functions. 2
c) Describe the use of static and extern variables. 4
d) Explain the meaning of register and auto storage classes. 4
e) Define scope, lifetime & visibility of variables. 2
f) Differentiate structure and array with example. 4
g) Give syntax of declaring a function. 2
h) Define global and local variables. 2

Programming Exercises

1. Create a function add( ) which will calculate the sum of the array
elements passed as parameters to it.
2. Write a function to calculate the factorial of the number.
3. Create a user defined function to find the minimum value of three
float numbers which are passed as the arguments to it.
4. Write a function range( ) which will take value of A and B as
parameter and displays total numbers divisible by 3 in the range A to
B.
5. Write a function which will take a year as argument and find whether
that year is a leap year or not?
6. Create a function to pass any string as argument. This function will
find the total number of vowels in that string. Take integer as the
return type of the function.
7. Define a structure Cricket having data members as team name,
player name and average. Accept the values of 5 different players
and display their data team-wise.
8. Define a structure Nation contains data members as name, capital
and population. Accept the data for 10 nations and display it in
reverse order.
9. Define a structure Book having data members as book name, author,
pages and price. Accept this data for 7 different books and display
those data having pages greater than 300.
10. Declare two structures named Date and Time. Date contains day,
month and year whereas Time contains hours, minutes and seconds.
Accept the date and time and display date in month day, year (e.g.
February 9, 2009) and time in hh:mm:ss (e.g. 12:56:02) format.

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 Chapter 04 Functions and Structures

11. Define a structure Student having data members as name, age, class
and marks. Accept this data for 5 students and display this data for
student who is youngest?
12. Define a structure College having data members as name, branches,
result. Accept this data for 5 colleges and identify whose result is
worst?

------------------

Programming in ‘C’ by Mr. Kute T. B. - 22 -

 Chapter 04 Functions and Structures

References

1. Programming in ANSI C
by, E Balagurusamy, Tata McGraw Hill, 4th Edition
Chapter 9: User-defined functions
Chapter 10: Structures and Unions

------------------

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 Chapter 05 Pointers

Chapter 05
Pointers

Lectures allotted: 14
Marks Given: 16

Contents:

5.1 Understanding pointers,

5.2 Declaring and accessing pointers,
5.3 Pointers arithmetic,
5.4 Pointers and arrays

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 Chapter 05 Pointers

Pointers
[Asked in S’07, W’07, S’08, W’08]
A pointer is a derived data type in ‘C’. It is built from any one of the
primary data type available in ‘C’ programming language. Pointers contain
memory addresses as their values. Since these memory addresses are the
locations in the computer memory where the program instructions and data
are stored. Pointers can be used to access and manipulate data in memory.

Advantages of Pointers
1) Pointers are most efficient in handling arrays.
2) They can be used to return multiple values from function through
function argument.
3) They permit references to functions and thereby they provide facility
to pass function as argument to another function.
4) The use of pointer arrays to character string saves the data storage
space in the memory.
5) Pointers allow C to supports dynamic memory management.
6) They provide an efficient tool for manipulating dynamic data
structures such as structures, link lists, quos, stacks, trees and
graphs.
7) Pointers reduce the complexity and length of the program.
8) Pointers increase the execution speed and thus reduce the program
execution time. Of course the real power of C lies in the proper use of
pointers.

Understanding Pointers
Computer memory is sequential collection of storage cells as shown
in figure. Each cell is commonly known as byte and has a number called as
address associated with it. Typically the addresses are numbered
sequentially starting from zero. The last address depends upon the memory
size. A computer having 64KB memory will have its last address as 65535.

Memory Cell Address

1
2
.
.
.
.
65535

Fig. Memory Representation

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 Chapter 05 Pointers

Whenever we declare variable, the system allocates it somewhere in

the memory. An appropriate location holds the value of variable. Since every
byte has a unique address number, this location will have its own address
number. Consider the following statement:

int quantity=150;

This statement instructs the system complier system to find a location

for integer variable quantity and store value 150 in that location. Let us
assume that the system has chosen the address location 4096 for quantity,
so it will be visualized as:
quantity variable

150 value

4096 address
During the execution of program computer always associates the name
quantity with address 4096. We may have access to the value 150 by using
either the name quantity or the address 4096. Since memory addresses are
simply numbers they can be assigned to some variables which can be stored
in memory like any other variables. Such variables that hold memory
addresses are called as ‘pointer variables’ the pointer variable is nothing but
a variable that contains an address which is location of another variable in
memory.
Remember: pointer is a variable. Its value is stored in memory in
another location. Suppose we assign the address of quantity to a variable ‘p’,
the link between the variable ‘p’ and quantity can be visualized as:

variables value address

quantity 160 4096

p 4096 1012

Since the value of variable ‘p’ is the address of variable quantity for
using the value of ‘p’ and therefore we say that the variable p points to the
variable quantity. Thus p is called as ‘pointer’.

Pointer Constant Pointer Value Pointer Variable

Pointer

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 Chapter 05 Pointers

The memory addresses within a computer are referred as pointer

constants. We cannot change them; we can only use them to store the data
values. The value that is stored as the memory location pointed by pointer is
known as pointer value. It can be changed. The pointer value can be stored
in another variable. The variable that contains the pointer value is called as
pointer variable.

Accessing the address of variable

The actual location of variable in the memory is computer dependent
and therefore the address of variable is unknown to immediately. If we want
to identify address any variable we can use the unary operator & of C
programming language. It is known as ‘address of’ operator. [Asked in W’07]
Example:

int x=10;
printf(“%u”,&x);

These statements will print the address of variable x where it is stored

in the memory. The & operator can only be used with a simple variable or an
array element. Following are the illegal use of & operator
int x[10];
&9; /* invalid statement */
&x; /* invalid statement */
&(x+y); /* invalid statement */

Declaring pointer variable

[Asked in W’07, S’08, W’08]
In C every variable must be declared for its data type. Since pointer
variables contain addresses that belong to a separate data type they must
be declared as pointers. The declaration of pointer variable takes following
form:

data-type *variable-name;

The statement tells that the variable-name is a pointer variable of

data-type which will store address of the same data-type variable. For
example:

int *p;

It declares the variable ‘p’ as a pointer that will point to an integer

data type variable. The p can store address of another integer variable only.
Similarly,

float *x;

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 Chapter 05 Pointers

It declares x as pointer variable a floating point type.

Initialization of pointer variable

[Asked in S’07, W’07]
The process of assigning the address of a variable to a pointer variable
is known as initialization. For example:

int *p;
int x = 10;
p = &x;

Pointer declaration styles

Pointer variables are declared similar to normal variable except for
addition of unary * operator. The symbol can appear anywhere between the
data type name and the pointer variable name such as,

int * p; /*style 1 */
int *p; /*style 2 */
int * p; /*style 3 */

Multiple declarations
int *p, x, *q;

Pointer’s flexibility
Pointers are flexible. We can make the same pointer to point different
data variables in different statements.
Example:

int x, y, z, *p; y x z
. . . . . . .
p = &x;
. . . . . . .
p = &y;
. . . . . . . p
p = &z;

We can also use different pointers to point the same data variable. For
example:
int x; p1 p2 p3
int *p1=&x;
int *p2=&x;
int *p3=&x;
. . . . . .
. . . . . . x

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 Chapter 05 Pointers

Assessing a variable through pointer

Once a pointer has been assigned address of a variable, the value of
that variable can be accessed using the pointer. This is done by using unary
operator * (asterisk) usually known as indirection operator, dereferencing
operator or ‘contain of’ operator. For example:

int marks,*p,n;
marks=79;
p=&marks;
n=*p;

The first line declares marks and n as integer variables and p as a

pointer variable pointing to an integer. The second line assigns value 79 to
variable marks and third line assigns address of variable marks to pointer p.
The fourth line contains indirection operator *. When * is placed before a
pointer variable in an expression, the pointer returns value of the variable of
pointer. In above case *p returns value of variable marks because p contains
the address of marks. The * can be remembered as ‘value at address’. Thus
value of n would be 79.

p=&marks;
n=*p;

is equivalent to:

n=*&marks;

Chain of pointers
It is possible to make a pointer to point to another pointer thus
creating a chain of pointer as shown below:

Address 2 Address 1 value

p2 p1 variable

Fig. Multiple Indirections

Here a variable p2 contains the address of pointer variable p1 which

points to the location that contains the desired value. This is known as
multiple indirections. A variable that is a pointer to a pointer must be
declared using additional indirection operation in front of the name.
Example:

int **p;

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 Chapter 05 Pointers

This declaration tells us that p2 is a pointer to a pointer of int type.

Remember, the pointer p2 is not a pointer to an integer but a pointer to a
pointer integer. We can access the variable value indirectly pointed by
pointer by applying the indirection operation twice in front of the double
pointer. Example:

void main()
{
int x,*p,**p;
x=100;
p1=&x; /* pointer to variable*/
p2=&p1; /* pointers to pointer*/
printf(“%d”,**p2);
}

Output: 100

Pointer’s Arithmetic
[Asked in S’07, W’07, S’08, W’08]
Addition on pointers

1. Like other variables pointer variables can be used in arithmetic

operations. Example:

int *p, x=10;

p = &x;
*p=*p+5;

This statement with add the value 5 in the value pointed by p.

2. Integer pointers are incremented or decremented in the multiples of 2.
Similarly character by 1, float by 4 and long pointers by 8 etc.

p++; /* valid */

3. We cannot add or subtract one pointer from another. Example:

int *p1, *p2;

p1 = p1 + p2; /* invalid */

4. We can add or subtract the constant from pointer variable. In this case
value of pointer is incremented or decremented by the scaling factor of
respective data type. Example:

p = p + 2; /* valid */

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 Chapter 05 Pointers

Multiplication and Division on pointers

1. The value stored at pointers Address can be added or subtracted by
any constant value. Example:

*p = *p * 4; /* valid */

2. We cannot use two pointers for multiplication or division. That is,

x = x * y;
x = x / y;

is not allowed.
3. We cannot multiply or divide a pointer by constant. Example:

p = p * 4; /* invalid */
p = p / 2; /* invalid */

Rules for pointer operation

1. A pointer variable can be assigned address of another variable.
2. Pointer variable can be assigned value of another pointer variable.
3. Pointer variable can be initialized by NULL value of zero value.
4. Pointer variable can be used with pre increment or decrement or post
increment or decrement operators.
5. An integer value may be subtracted or added from the pointer
variable.
6. When two pointers point to the same array one pointer variable can
be subtracted from another.
7. When two pointers point to the object of same data type we can use
the relational operators to compare them.
8. Pointer variable cannot be multiplied or divided by a constant.
9. Two pointer variables cannot be added, subtracted, multiplied or
divided.
10. A value cannot be assigned to any particular address. Example:

int a=20;
&a=1000; // It is illegal.

Pointers and arrays

[Asked in S’07, W’07, S’08]
When an array is declared the compiler allocates base address and
sufficient amount of storage memory to contain all the elements of the array
in contiguous memory location. The base address is the location first element
that is 0th element of the array. The compiler also defines the array name as
a constant pointer to the first element. For example:

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 Chapter 05 Pointers

int x[5] = {8, 4, 9, 6, 3};

Suppose the base address of x is 9092 and assuming each integer

requires 2 bytes the five elements are stored as shown below . . . .

Index Value Address

x[0] 8 9092
x[1] 4 9094
x[2] 9 9096
x[3] 6 9098
x[4] 3 9100

The name x is defined as a constant pointer pointing to the first

element x[0] and therefore value of x is 9092. If we declare p as an integer
pointer then we can make the pointer p to point the array x by following
assignment.

int *p;
p = &x[0];
OR
p = x;

Now we can access every value of x using p++ to move from first
element to another i. e.

p = &x[0]; = 9092
p = &x[1]; = 9094
p = &x[2]; = 9096
p = &x[3]; = 9098
p = &x[4]; = 9100

For initializing an array at run time:

for(i=0;i<5;i++)
printf(“\n%d”,*(p+i));

/* Program to find the average of five students using pointers */

#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
int x[5],*p, sum = 0,i;
for(i=0;i<5;i++)
scanf(“%d”, &x[i]);
p=x;
for(i=0;i<5;i++)
sum=sum + *(p+i);

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 Chapter 05 Pointers

printf(“%d”, sum/5);
}

Pointers to String

Strings are created like character array. Therefore, they are declared
and initialized as:

char city[10] = “Mumbai”;

M u M b a i \0 \0 \0 \0

Compiler automatically inserts NULL character ‘\0’ at the end of a

string. ‘C’ supports an alternative method to create strings using pointer
variables of type ‘char’. Such as,

char *city = “Mumbai”;

M u M b a i \0

city

This creates a string and then stores its address in the pointer variable
city. This pointer variable now points to the first character of the string. That
is, the statements:

printf(“%c”,*city);

will print the current pointing character ‘M’ on the screen and the
statement,

printf(“%s”, city);

will print all the sets of characters from current pointing location to the
first occurrence of ‘\0’. We can also use the runtime assignment for
initializing the pointer such as,

char *city;
city = “Mumbai”;

This is not a string copy. It will only copy the address of first constant
from array i.e. ‘M’ into the character pointer city. We can also use scanf
statement to initialize the string using pointers. Example:

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 Chapter 05 Pointers

char *name;
printf(“Enter your name: ”);
scanf(“%s”, name);
printf(“%s”, name);
OR
while(*name!= ‘\0’)
{
printf(“%c”,*name);
name++;
}

/* Program to input the string and print it in reverse order */

[Asked in W’07]
char *str;
int len = 0;
printf(“Enter the String: ”);
gets(str);
for( ;str!=’\0’;str++);
str--;
for( ;len>0;len--,str--)
printf(“%c”,*str);

Array of Pointers
[Asked in W’08]
We can create the array of pointers also with the same declaration of
the array. For example:

int *a[10];

here, the array of pointers will be created i.e. the array will point to 10
different integers, such as:

a[0]=&x;
a[1]=&y;
a[2]=&z;
.
.
.

Example:

for(i=0;i<10;i++)
scanf(“%d”,a[i]);
for(i=0;i<10;i++)
printf(“%d”,*a[i]);

char nations[3][3];

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 Chapter 05 Pointers

This declaration says that ‘nations’ is a table containing 3 names each

with maximum length of 15 characters. So, the total storage requirement for
this array is 45 bytes. We know that very rarely the individual string will be
of equal lengths. Therefore instead of making each row of a fixed number of
characters we can make it a pointer to a string of variable length.Example:

char *nations[3]={“India”, “Australia”, “New Zealand”};

This declares nations to be an array of three pointers each pointing to

particular names as:

name[0] “India”
name[1] “Australia”
name[2] “Newzeland”

This declares declaration allocates only 25 bytes of memory to store

the string. Following statement will print the strings on the screen:

for(i=0;i<3;i++)
printf(“\n %s”, nations[i]);

Pointers to Function

When an array is passed as function argument only the address of first

element of the array is passed but not the actual value of array elements.
When we pass address to a function the parameters receiving the address
should be pointers. The process of calling a function using pointers is called
as ‘call by reference’. In general when we call a function is called as call by
value. [Asked in S’08] Example:

change(int x)
{
x=x+10;
}
main()
{
int a=5;
change(a); //call by value
printf(“%d”, a);
}

Here function change() is called by value in the function main(). The ‘a’
is the actual parameter of the function and ‘x’ is the formal parameter of the
function. When the function is called by value, the value of variable ‘a’ is
passed into variable ‘x’. Therefore, it is called as ‘call by value’. The ‘x’ & ‘a’
are the local variables of individual functions that is main() and change().
Therefore, the changes made on variable ‘x’ will not affect variable ‘a’.
Therefore the ‘call by value’ doesn’t reflect the change. Instead of doing this

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 Chapter 05 Pointers

we call the function by reference that is by passing addresses of the variable.

The Function; which is called by reference can change value of variable used
in the call. Example:

change(int *x)
{
*x=*x+10;
}
main()
{
int a+5;
change(&a); // call by reference
printf(“%d”,a);
}

When the function change() is called, the address of variable ‘a’ (not
the value) is passed into the function change(). Inside change(), variable ‘x’
is declared as a pointer. Therefore ‘x’ will contain the address of variable ‘a’.
The statement:

*x = *x + 10;

means add 10 to the value stored at address of ‘a’ that is ‘x’. Since ‘x’
represents the address of ‘a’, value of ‘a’ is changed from 5 to 15. Therefore
call by reference provides mechanism by which the function can change the
stored value in the calling function. This mechanism is also known as ‘call by
address’ or ‘pass by pointers’. Example:

void swap(int *x, int *y) [Asked in S’08 twice, W’08]

{
int t;
t = *x;
*x = *y;
*y = t;
}
main()
{
int a = 5, b = 10;
swap(&a, &b);
printf(“%d%d”, a, b);
}

Example:

void copy(int *n, int *m)

{
int i;
for(i=0;i<10;i++, n++, m++)

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 Chapter 05 Pointers

*n = *m;
}
main()
{
int a = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 0};
int b[10];
copy(b, a); //call by reference
for(i=0;i<10;i++)
printf(“\n%d”, b[i]);
}

Differences between Call by Value and Call by Reference

[Asked in S’07, W’07]
Sr. No. Call by Value Call by Reference
The function is called by The function is called by
1 directly passing value of directly passing address of
variable as argument variable as argument
We need to declare a general We need to declare a pointer
2
variable as function argument variable as argument.
Calling function by value does Calling function by reference
3 not changes actual values of changes actual values of
variables variables
It is a slow way of calling It is a fast way of calling
4 function as we are calling it by function as we are calling it by
passing value passing address of a variable
For example: For example:
Change(int p) Change(int *p)
{ {
5 p = p + 10 *p = *p + 10
} }
Call: Call:
Change(a); Change(&a);

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 Chapter 05 Pointers

Review Questions

Summer 2007: Marks = 28

a) Justify following statements: 2
int a = 10;
int *b = &a;
int *c = b;
int d = *b + *c;
b) What is pointer? 2
c) Distinguish between call by value and call by
reference (W’07). 4
d) Write a program using pointers to compute sum of all
elements stored in an array. 4
e) What will be the output of the following program? 4
#include<stdio.h>
void main ( )
{
float a = 13.5;
float *b, *c;
b = &a; c = b /* suppose address of a is 1006*/
printf(“%u %u %f %f”, &a, b, *(&a), *b);
}
f) Explain use of pointers and arrays. 4
g) Explain the concept of pointer’s arithmetic operations
with examples. (W’07) 4
h) How pointer is initialized? 4

Winter 2007: Marks = 28

a) What is pointer variable? 2
b) Give syntax of declaring and initializing pointer. 2
c) Explain concept of array with pointer. 4
d) Write a program to reverse the string using pointer. 4
e) Explain the difference between call by value and call by reference
methods for calling function. 4
f) Explain the concept of pointer arithmetic operations. 4
g) What is pointer? Give the use of ampersand (&) and
asterisk (*) operators in pointer. 4
h) Explain the meaning of following statement with
reference to pointers. 4
int *P, X;
X = 10;
*P = X;
P = &X;

Summer 2008: Marks = 28

a) Define call by value. 2
b) What is pointer? Give its declaration. 2
c) Write a simple program for accessing the data through pointer
variable. 4

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 Chapter 05 Pointers

d) Two numbers are input through keyboard into two locations C and D.
Write a program to interchange the contents of C and D. 4
e) Write a program for exchanging values of two variables using call by
reference. 4
f) Explain concept of pointer arithmetic operations. 4
g) Explain how array elements are accessed by using pointers. 4
h) What will be the output of the following program? 4
#include<stdio.h>
void main( )
{
int i = 3; int * j;
j = &i;
printf(“\n Address of i = %u”, &i);
printf(“\n Address of i = %u”, j);
printf(“\n Address of j = %u”, &j);
printf(“\n value of j = %u”, j);
printf(“\n value of i = %d”, i);
printf(“\n value of i = %d”, *(&i));
printf(“\n value of i = %d”, *j);
}

Winter 2008: Marks = 24

a) Give the meaning of declaration int *ptr; 2
b) What is pointer? 2
c) Write a program using pointer to accept an integer array and print it
in reverse order. 4
d) Explain the concept array of pointers with example. 4
e) Write a function to swap (exchange) the values of two integer
numbers using pointers. 4
f) Explain pointer arithmetic with example. 4
g) Explain the meaning of following statements with reference to
pointer:
int *ptr, m = 8;
*ptr = m;
ptr = &m; 4

Programming Exercises

a) Write a program to reverse the string using pointers.

b) Find the largest number from a float array using pointers.
c) Calculate the addition of two 4 X 4 matrices using pointers. Take the
input from user.
d) Print the Fibonacci series using pointers.
e) Compare two string using pointers and concatenate them if both of
them are equal.
f) Sort the character array in descending order using pointers.
g) Exchange the values of two variables using pointers.
h) Count the number of vowels in a string using pointers.

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 Chapter 05 Pointers

i) Print the array of integers using pointers to the array.

j) Calculate the addition of all the numbers stored in an array using
pointers.
k) Find the number of occurrences of specific character in the string.
(Make the use of pointers).
l) Declare the array of 20 integer numbers. Find and display the
average of only even numbers by using pointers.
m) Check whether the string is palindrome or not, make the use of
pointers.
n) Inverse the case of characters of a string by using pointers. Upper
case letters must be converted to lower case and lower case to the
upper case.
o) Analyze the string i.e. take the string as the input from user and
count number of characters, numbers and special symbols in it.
(Hint: Make the use of ASCII equivalent of the characters.)
p) Take the sentence as the input and count number of words existed in
it.
q) Sort the array of strings by using pointers.
r) Print the ASCII equivalents of the characters from the string by using
pointers.
s) Check whether the string inputted is a valid variable name or not.
That is, check whether it is following all the rules of creating variables
name or not?
t) Print the addresses of all the elements stored in the integer array,
float array and character array.
u) Accept the string as the input from user and replace a specific
character with another specific character. Take all three inputs from
user.
v) Input an arithmetic expression from keyboard and check whether it
contains number of opening brackets equal to closing brackets or not.
w) Find all the prime numbers from 1 to 100 using pointers.
x) Pass the whole array to a function and print it using pointers.
y) Input a string from keyboard and check whether it is starting and
ending with a number or not?
z) Compare two strings are equal or not by ignoring the case.

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 Chapter 05 Pointers

References
1. Programming in ANSI C
by, E Balagurusamy, Tata McGraw Hill, 4th Edition
(All the data is referred from this book, Chapter No. 11 Pointers)

You can use the following dedicated book on pointers also:

Understanding Pointers in C
by, Yashvant Kanetkar, BPB Publications, First Edition, 2006

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 Chapter 05 Pointers

Notes
¾ Most of the books used as reference for the chapters are available in e-
copy on the following sites. You can use them for reference too.
• www.esnips.com
• www.4shared.com
• www.isbnonline.com
• www.pdfchm.com
• www.scribd.com
¾ The reference material that is not been included in this book such as
transparencies, objective questions, notes, MSBTE and Sample
question papers, program’s soft copy are available on following link of
Google sites:
http://sites.google.com/site/tusharkute
¾ The following software are used for compiling programs:
Borland Turbo C++ Compiler
¾ The following software are used for formatting this documents:
Editing: Microsoft Office Word 2003, Windows notepad.
PDF Creation: Adobe PDF Maker 6.0
¾ By analyzing last 4 questions papers of MSBTE, I have analyzed the
format of the paper. This will be beneficial for the students learning
diploma in Computer group under MSBTE. It is given on the next page.
¾ You are free to send the queries and suggestions at:
tbkute@gmail.com

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 Chapter 05 Pointers

Programming in ‘C’ (9017)

Question Paper Analysis
Overall Questionnaire:

Chapter Marks
Chapter 1 16 / 20
Chapter 2 32 / 36
Chapter 3 16
Chapter 4 12 / 16
Chapter 5 28
Total 108

Programs:

Ch: 1 Ch: 2 Ch: 3 Ch: 4 Ch: 5 Total

Summer 07 -- 16 04 04 04 28
Winter 07 -- 16 04 04 04 28
Summer 08 -- 16 04 04 08 32
Winter 08 04 12 04 04 08 32
Summer 09 ? ? ? ? ? ?

Programming in ‘C’ by Mr. Kute T. B. - 20 -

 Chapter 05 Pointers

Compulsory Questions

1. Operators
02 + 04 Marks
2. If-else, else-if
04 Marks
3. Difference between while and do-while
02 / 04 Marks
4. The switch statement
02 / 04 Marks
5. break / continue
02 Marks
6. 2D Array
04 Marks
7. Two string library functions
02 + 04 Marks
8. A Program on simple structure
04 Marks
9. Call by reference
04 Marks
10. Pointer Arithmetic
04 Marks
11. What is pointer?
02 Marks

All the Best

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Programming in ‘C’ by Mr. Kute T. B. - 21 -