Programmable Logic Controllers Basic PDF

This Material is adopted from:
Lessons in Industrial Instrumentation By Tony R. Kuphaldt Version 1.14 Last update January 11, 2011
Chapter 12
Programmable Logic Controllers

Electromechanical relays are versatile and reliable devices, and it is possible to perform virtually any control function given enough relays and wiring. However, they are subject to wear due to their moving parts, and re-conguring a relay-based control system entails disconnecting and re-connecting wires: a tedious task at best. Solid-state logic gates may replace electromechanical relays to avoid problems of wear (as well as vastly increase speed of response), but once again re-conguration would require disconnecting and re-connecting many wires between the gates. A very practical alternative to relay- or gate-based control logic circuits is to use a programmable computer to perform the same functions. A computer equipped with the necessary input and output peripheral circuits, congured to be easily programmed by technical personnel for virtually any logical task, is called a programmable logic controller or PLC. Typical devices connecting to a PLCs inputs include hand switches, process switches, sensors, analog transmitters (4-20 mA), thermocouples, thermistors, and strain gauges. Typical devices connecting to a PLCs outputs include electric lamps, solenoids, relay coils, motor contactors, analog nal control elements (e.g. throttling control valves, variable-speed motor drives), and audible buzzers. While PLCs were originally designed for discrete (on/o) control applications such as conveyor belt management, batch sequencing, and assembly line controls, modern PLCs are equally capable of inputting and outputting analog signals as well. Thus, it is just as likely now to nd a PLC performing PID loop control as it is to nd a PLC turning discrete devices on and o. The relationship between a PLCs inputs and its outputs is a function of the program the engineer or technician writes for that PLC. A PLC received directly from the manufacturer is a blank slate, containing no specic instructions for how to control its outputs in response to input conditions. Rather, PLCs are usually programmed on site where they are to be used. While several dierent standardized languages exist to write PLC programs in, the most common in the United States is Ladder Diagram, which visually resembles ladder-type electrical wiring diagrams. Using contact and coil symbols, the human programmer is able to instruct the PLC how to respond to dierent input conditions, thus forming the brain of a control system. This chapter is a broad overview of PLC input and output capabilities, as well as basic programming conventions and techniques.
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CHAPTER 12. PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLERS
12.1
PLC examples
Programmable logic controllers are essentially nothing more than special-purpose, industrial computers. As such, they are built far more ruggedly than an ordinary personal computer (PC), and designed to run extremely reliable operating system software1 . PLCs as a rule do not contain hard disk drives, cooling fans, or any other components with moving parts. This is an intentional design decision, intended to maximize the reliability of the hardware in harsh industrial environments where the PLC chassis may be subjected to temperature extremes, vibration, humidity, and airborne particulates (dust, bers, and/or fumes). Large PLC systems consist of a rack into which circuit cards are plugged. These cards include processors, input and output (I/O) points, communications ports, and other functions necessary to the operation of a complete PLC system. Such modular PLCs may be congured dierently according to the specic needs of the application. Individual card failures are also easier to repair in a modular system, since only the failed card need be replaced, not all the cards or the whole card rack. Small PLC systems consist of a monolithic brick containing all processor, I/O, and communication functions. These PLCs are typically far less expensive than their modular cousins, but are also more limited in I/O capability and must be replaced as a whole in the event of failure. The following photographs show several examples of real PLC systems, some modular and some monolithic. These selections are not comprehensive by any means, as there are many more manufacturers and models of PLC than those I have photographed. They do, however, represent some of the more common brands and models in current (2010) industrial use. The rst photograph is of a Siemens (Texas Instruments) 505 series PLC, installed in a control panel of a municipal wastewater treatment plant. This is an example of a modular PLC, with individual processor, I/O, and communication cards plugged into a rack. Three racks appear in this photograph (two completely lled with cards, and the third only partially lled):
1 There are such things as soft PLCs, which consist of special-purpose software running on an ordinary personal computer (PC) with some common operating system. Soft PLCs enjoy the high speed and immense memory capacity of modern personal computers, but do not possess the same ruggedness either in hardware construction or in operating system design. Their applications should be limited to non-critical controls where neither main process production nor safety would be jeopardized by a control system failure.
12.1. PLC EXAMPLES
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The next photograph shows an Allen-Bradley (Rockwell) PLC-5 system, used to monitor and control the operation of a large natural gas compressor. Two racks appear in this rst photograph, with dierent types of I/O cards plugged into each rack:
Both the Siemens (formerly Texas Instruments) 505 and Allen-Bradley (Rockwell) PLC-5 systems are considered legacy PLC systems by modern standards, the two systems in the previous photographs being about 20 years old each. It is not uncommon to nd obsolete PLCs still in operation, though. Given their extremely rugged construction and reliable design, these control systems may continue to operate without signicant trouble for decades.
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A newer model of PLC manufactured by Allen-Bradley is the SLC 500 series (often verbally referred to as the Slick 500), which is also modular in design like the older PLC-5 system, although the racks and modules of the SLC 500 design are more compact. The SLC 500 rack shown in the next photograph has 7 slots for processor and I/O cards to plug in to, numbered 0 through 6 (left to right):
The rst three slots of this particular SLC 500 rack (0, 1, and 2) are occupied by the processor card, an analog input card, and a discrete input card, respectively. The slots 3 and 4 are empty (revealing the backplane circuit board and connectors for accepting new cards). The slots 5 and 6 hold discrete output and analog output cards, respectively. A feature visible on all cards in this system are numerous LED indicators, designed to show the status of each card. The processor card has LED indicators for Run mode, Fault conditions, Force conditions (when either input or output bits have been forced into certain states by the human programmer for testing purposes), and communication network indicators. Each discrete I/O card has indicator LEDs showing the on/o status of each I/O bit, and the analog card has a single LED showing that the card is powered.
12.1. PLC EXAMPLES
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A nine-slot SLC 500 system is shown in the next photograph, controlling a high-purity water treatment system for a biopharmaceuticals manufacturing facility:
As you can see in this photograph, not all slots in this particular rack are occupied by I/O cards either.
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A modern PLC manufactured by Siemens appears in this next photograph, an S7-300, which is a dierent design of modular PLC. Instead of individual cards plugging into a rack, this modular PLC design uses individual modules plugging into each other on their sides to form a wider unit:
A modern PLC manufactured by Allen-Bradley (Rockwell) is this ControlLogix 5000 system, shown in this photograph used to control a cereal manufacturing process. The modular design of the ControlLogix 5000 system follows the more traditional scheme of individual cards plugged into a rack of xed size:
12.1. PLC EXAMPLES
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While the Siemens S7 and Rockwell ControlLogix PLC platforms represent large-scale, modular PLC systems, there exist much smaller PLCs available for a fraction of the cost. Perhaps the least expensive PLC on the market at this time of writing is the Koyo CLICK PLC series, the processor module (with eight discrete input and six discrete output channels built in) shown in my hand (sold for 69 US dollars in the year 2010, and with free programming software!):
This is a semi-modular PLC design, with a minimum of input/output (I/O) channels built into the processor module, but having the capacity to accept multiple I/O modules plugged in to the side, much like the Siemens S7-300 PLC.
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Other semi-modular PLCs expand using I/O cards that plug in to the base unit not unlike traditional rack-based PLC systems. The Koyo DirectLogic DL06 is a good example of this type of semi-modular PLC, the following photograph showing a model DL06 accepting a thermocouple input card in one of its four available card slots:
This photograph shows the PLC base unit with 20 discrete input channels and 16 discrete output channels, accepting an analog input card (this particular card is designed to input signals from thermocouples to measure up to four channels of temperature). Some low-end PLCs are strictly monolithic, with no ability to accept additional I/O modules. This General Electric Series One PLC (used to monitor a small-scale hydroelectric power generating station) is an example of a purely monolithic design, having no expansion slots to accept I/O cards:
12.2. INPUT/OUTPUT (I/O) CAPABILITIES
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12.2
Input/Output (I/O) capabilities
Every programmable logic controller must have some means of receiving and interpreting signals from real-world sensors such as switches, and encoders, and also be able to eect control over real-world control elements such as solenoids, valves, and motors. This is generally known as input/output, or I/O, capability. Monolithic (brick) PLCs have a xed amount of I/O capability built into the unit, while modular (rack) PLCs use individual circuit board cards to provide customized I/O capability. Some PLCs have the ability to connect to processor-less remote racks lled with additional I/O cards or modules, thus providing a way to increase the number of I/O channels beyond the capacity of the base unit. The connection from host PLC to remote I/O racks usually takes the form of a special digital network, which may span a great physical distance:
Power supply
Processor
Digital inputs
Digital outputs
Remote I/O interace
L1 L2/N Gnd
Host PLC (base unit)
Network cable
Remote I/O rack Power supply

Remote I/O interace Digital outputs Analog inputs Analog outputs
L1 L2/N Gnd
Input/output capability for programmable logic controllers comes in three basic varieties: discrete, analog, and network ; each type discussed in a following subsection.
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12.2.1
Discrete I/O
A discrete data point is one with only two states on and o. Process switches, pushbutton switches, limit switches, and proximity switches are all examples of discrete sensing devices. In order for a PLC to be aware of a discrete sensors state, it must receive a signal from the sensor through a discrete input channel. Inside the discrete input module is (typically) a light-emitting diode (LED) which will be energized when the corresponding sensing device turns on. Light from this LED shines on a photo-sensitive device such as a phototransistor inside the module, which in turn activates a bit (a single element of digital data) inside the PLCs memory. This opto-coupled arrangement makes each input channel of a PLC rather rugged, capable of isolating the sensitive computer circuitry of the PLC from transient voltage spikes and other electrical phenomena capable of causing damage. Indicator lamps, solenoid valves, and motor starters (assemblies consisting of contactors and overload protection devices) are all examples of discrete control devices. In a manner similar to discrete inputs, a PLC connects to any number of dierent discrete nal control devices through a discrete output channel 2 . Discrete output modules typically use the same form of opto-isolation to allow the PLCs computer circuitry to send electrical power to loads: the internal PLC circuitry driving an LED which then activates some form of photosensitive switching device. Alternatively, small electromechanical relays may be used to interface the PLCs output bits to real-world electrical control devices. An important concept to master when working with DC discrete I/O is the distinction between current-sourcing and current-sinking devices. The terms sourcing and sinking refer to the direction of current (as denoted by conventional ow notation) into or out of a devices control wire3 . A device sending (conventional ow) current out of its control terminal to some other device(s) is said to be sourcing current, while a device accepting (conventional ow) current into its control terminal is said to be sinking current.
2 I/O channels are often referred to as points in industry lingo. Thus, a 32-point input card refers to an input circuit with 32 separate channels through which to receive signals from on/o switches and sensors. 3 By control wire, I mean the single conductor connecting switch and load as opposed to conductors directly common with either the positive or negative lead of the voltage source. If you focus your attention on this one wire, noting the direction of conventional-ow current through it, the task of determining whether a device is sourcing or sinking current becomes much simpler.
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To illustrate, the following illustration shows a PLC output channel is sourcing current to an indicator lamp, which is sinking current to ground:
PLC discrete output channel +V
Indicator lamp
Sourcing current Sinking current
This is a "sourcing" or "PNP" discrete output channel
These terms really only make sense when electric current is viewed from the perspective of conventional ow, where the positive terminal of the DC power supply is envisioned to be the source of the current, with current nding its way down to ground (the negative terminal of the DC power supply). In every circuit formed by the output channel of a PLC driving a discrete control device, or by a discrete sensing device driving an input channel on a PLC, one element in the circuit must be sourcing current while the other is sinking current. An engineering colleague of mine has a charming way to describe sourcing and sinking: blowing and sucking. A device that sources current to another blows current toward the other device. A device that sinks current sucks current from the other device. Many students seem to nd these terms helpful in rst mastering the distinction between sourcing and sinking despite (or perhaps because of!) their informal nature.
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If the discrete device connecting to the PLC is not polarity-sensitive, either type of PLC I/O module will suce. For example, the following diagrams show a mechanical limit switch connecting to a sinking PLC input and to a sourcing PLC input:
Ch 0
PLC discrete input card (sinking) Limit switch
Ch 1
DC power supply
Ch 2
Sinking current Sourcing current
AC power
L1 L2
Ch 3 Com
Gnd
Ch 0
PLC discrete input card (sourcing) Limit switch
Ch 1
DC power supply
Ch 2
Sourcing current Sinking current
AC power
L1 L2
Ch 3 VDC
Gnd
Note the dierences in polarity and labeling between the sinking cards common terminal and the sourcing cards common terminal. On the sinking card, the input channel terminal is positive while the common (Com) terminal is negative. On the sourcing card, the input channel terminal is negative while the common (VDC) terminal is positive.
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Some discrete sensing devices are polarity-sensitive, such as electronic proximity sensors containing transistor outputs. A sourcing proximity switch can only interface with a sinking PLC input channel, and visa-versa:
Current-sourcing (PNP) proximity switch PLC discrete input card (sinking) Switch actuates when object approaches this end
Ch 0
Sourcing current +V Out
Ch 1
Sinking current
Gnd
Ch 2
AC power
L1 L2
Ch 3 Com
Gnd
Current-sinking (NPN) proximity switch PLC discrete input card (sourcing) Switch actuates when object approaches this end
Ch 0
Sinking current +V Out
Ch 1
Sourcing current
Gnd
Ch 2
AC power
L1 L2
Ch 3 VDC
Gnd
In all cases, the sourcing device sends current out of its signal terminal while the sinking device takes current into its signal terminal.
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Two photographs of a DC (sinking) discrete input module for an Allen-Bradley model SLC 500 PLC are shown here: one with the plastic cover closed over the connection terminals, and the other with the plastic cover opened up for viewing the terminals. A legend on the inside of the cover shows the purpose of each screw terminal: eight input channels (numbered 0 through 7) and two redundant DC Com terminals for the negative pole of the DC power supply to connect:
A standard feature found on practically every PLC discrete I/O module is a set of LED indicators visually indicating the status of each bit (discrete channel). On the SLC 500 module, the LEDs appear as a cluster of eight numbered squares near the top of the module. A photograph of discrete output terminals on another brand of PLC (a Koyo model DL06) shows somewhat dierent labeling:
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Here, each output channel terminal is designated with a letter/number code beginning with the letter Y. Several common terminals labeled with C codes service clusters of output channels. In this particular case, each common terminal is common only to four output channels. With sixteen total output channels on this PLC, this means there are four dierent common terminals. While this may seem somewhat strange (why not just have one common terminal for all sixteen output channels?), it more readily permits dierent DC power supplies to service dierent sets of output channels. Electrical polarity is not an issue with AC discrete I/O, since the polarity of AC reverses periodically anyway. However, there is still the matter of whether the common terminal on a discrete PLC module will connect to the neutral (grounded) or hot (ungrounded) AC power conductor. The next photograph shows a discrete AC output module for an Allen-Bradley SLC 500 PLC, using TRIACs as power switching devices rather than transistors as is customary with DC discrete output modules:
This particular eight-channel module provides two sets of TRIACs for switching power to AC loads, each set of four TRIACs receiving AC power from a hot terminal (VAC 1 or VAC 2), the other side of the load device being connected to the neutral (grounded) conductor of the AC power source.
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Fortunately, the hardware reference manual supplied by the manufacturer of every PLC shows diagrams illustrating how to connect discrete input and output channels to eld devices. One should always consult these diagrams before connecting devices to the I/O points of a PLC!
12.2.2
Analog I/O
In the early days of programmable logic controllers, processor speed and memory were too limited to support anything but discrete (on/o) control functions. Consequently, the only I/O capability found on early PLCs were discrete in nature4 . Modern PLC technology, though, is powerful enough to support the measurement, processing, and output of analog (continuously variable) signals. All PLCs are digital devices at heart. Thus, in order to interface with an analog sensor or control device, some translation is necessary between the analog and digital worlds. Inside every analog input module is an ADC, or Analog-to-Digital Converter, circuit designed to convert an analog electrical signal into a multi-bit binary word. Conversely, every analog output module contains a DAC, or Digital-to-Analog Converter, circuit to convert the PLCs digital command words into analog electrical quantities. Analog I/O is commonly available for modular PLCs for many dierent analog signal types, including: Voltage (0 to 10 volt, 0 to 5 volt) Current (0 to 20 mA, 4 to 20 mA) Thermocouple (millivoltage) RTD (millivoltage) Strain gauge (millivoltage)
4 Some modern PLCs such as the Koyo CLICK are also discrete-only. Analog I/O and processing is signicantly more complex to engineer and more expensive to manufacture than discrete control, and so low-end PLCs are more likely to lack analog capability.
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The following photographs show two analog I/O cards for an Allen-Bradley SLC 500 modular PLC system, an analog input card and an analog output card. Labels on the terminal cover doors indicate screw terminal assignments:
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12.2.3
Network I/O
Many dierent digital network standards exist for PLCs to communicate with, from PLC to PLC and between PLCs and eld devices. One of the earliest digital protocols developed for PLC communication was Modbus, originally for the Modicon brand of PLC. Modbus was adopted by other PLC and industrial device manufacturers as a de facto standard5 , and remains perhaps the most universal digital protocol available for industrial digital devices today. Another digital network standard developed by a particular manufacturer and later adopted as a de facto standard is Probus, originally developed by Siemens. For more information on networking standards used in PLC systems, refer to the Digital electronic instrumentation chapter, specically sections on specic network standards such as Modbus and Probus.
5 A de facto standard is one arising naturally out of legacy rather than by an premeditated agreement between parties. Modbus and Probus networks are considered de facto standards because those networks were designed, built, and marketed by pioneering rms prior to their acceptance as standards for others to conform to. In Latin, de facto means from the fact, which in this case refers to the fact of pre-existence: a standard agreed upon to conform to something already in popular use. By contrast, a standard intentionally agreed upon before its physical realization is a de jure standard (Latin for from the law). FOUNDATION Fieldbus is an example of a de jure standard, where a committee arrives at a consensus for a network design and specications prior to that network being built and marketed by any rm.
12.3. LOGIC PROGRAMMING
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12.3
Logic programming
Although it seems each model of PLC has its own idiosyncratic standard for programming, there does exist an international standard for controller programming that most PLC manufacturers at least attempt to conform to. This is the IEC 61131-3 standard, which will be the standard presented in this chapter. One should take solace in the fact that despite dierences in the details of PLC programming from one manufacturer to another and from one model to another, the basic principles are largely the same. There exist much greater disparities between dierent general-purpose programming languages (e.g. C/C++, BASIC, FORTRAN, Pascal, Java, Ada, etc.) than between the programming languages supported by dierent PLCs, and this fact does not prevent computer programmers from being multilingual. I have personally written and/or analyzed programs for over a half-dozen dierent manufacturers of PLCs (Allen-Bradley, Siemens, Square D, Koyo, Fanuc, Moore Products APACS and QUADLOG, and Modicon), with multiple PLC models within most of those brands, and I can tell you the dierences in programming conventions are insignicant. After learning how to program one model of PLC, it is quite easy to adapt to programming other makes and models of PLC. If you are learning to program a particular PLC that does not exactly conform to the IEC 61131-3 standard, you will still be able to apply every single principle discussed in this chapter the fundamental concepts are truly that universal. The IEC 61131-3 standard species ve distinct forms of programming language for industrial controllers: Ladder Diagram (LD) Structured Text (ST) Instruction List (IL) Function Block Diagram (FBD) Sequential Function Chart (SFC) Not all programmable logic controllers support all ve language types, but nearly all of them support Ladder Diagram (LD), which will be the primary focus of this book. Programming languages for many industrial devices are limited by design. One reason for this is simplicity : any programming language simple enough in structure for someone with no formal computer programming knowledge to understand is going to be limited in its capabilities. Another reason for programming limitations is safety : the more exible and unbounded a programming language is, the more potential there will be to unintentionally create complicated run-time errors when programming. The ISA safety standard number 84 classies industrial programming languages as either Fixed Programming Languages (FPL), Limited Variability Languages (LVL), or Full Variability Languages (FVL). Ladder Diagram and Function Block Diagram programming are both considered to be limited variability languages, whereas Instruction List (and traditional computer programming languages such as C/C++, FORTRAN, BASIC, etc.) are considered full variability languages with all the attendant potential for complex errors.
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12.3.1
Relating I/O status to virtual elements
Perhaps the most important yet elusive concept to grasp when learning to program PLCs is the relationship between the electrical status of the PLCs I/O points and the status of variables and other elements in its programming. This is especially true for Ladder Diagram (LD) programming, where the program itself resembles an electrical diagram. Making the mental connection between the real world of the switches, contactors, and other electrical devices connected to the PLC and the imaginary world of the PLCs program consisting of virtual contacts and relay coils is most fundamental. The rst fundamental rule one should keep in mind when examining a Ladder Diagram PLC program is that each virtual contact shown in the program actuates whenever it reads a 1 state in its respective bit (in the PLCs memory). If the contact is a normally-open (NO) type, it will open when its bit is 0 and close when its bit is 1. If the contact is a normally-closed (NC) type, it will close when its bit is 0 and open when its bit is 1. A 0 bit state causes the contact to be in its normal (resting) condition, while a 1 bit state actuates the contact, forcing it into its non-normal (actuated) state. Another rule to remember when examining a Ladder Diagram PLC program is that the programming software oers color highlighting 6 to display the virtual status of each program element: a colored contact is closed, while an un-colored contact is open . The following table shows how the two types of contacts in a PLCs Ladder Diagram program respond to bit states, using red coloring to signify each contacts virtual conductivity:
Contact type
0 Bit state 1
(closed) (open) (open) (closed)
(Normal)
(Actuated)
Just as a pressure switchs contacts are actuated by a high pressure condition, and a level switchs contacts are actuated by a high level condition, and a temperature switchs contacts are actuated by a high temperature condition, so a PLCs virtual contact is actuated by a high bit condition (1). In the context of any switch, an actuated condition is the opposite of its normal (resting) condition. An actuated NO contact will close (be colored), while an actuated NC contact will open (be un-colored).
6 It should be noted that in some situations the programming software will fail to color the contacts properly, especially if their status changes too quickly for the software communication link to keep up, and/or if the bit(s) change state multiple times within one scan of the program. However, for simple programs and situations, this rule holds true and is a great help to beginning programmers as they learn the relationship between real-world conditions and conditions within the PLCs virtual world.
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The following (simplied) illustration shows a small PLC with two of its discrete input channels electrically energized, causing those two bits to have 1 statuses. The color-highlighted contacts in the programming editor softwares display shows a collection of contacts addressed to those input bits in various states (colored = closed ; un-colored = open). As you can see, any contact addressed to a set bit (1) is in its actuated state, while any contact addressed to a cleared bit (0) is in its normal state:
L1
X1 X2 X3 X4 X5 X6
L1
L2
Y1 Y2 Y3 (Inside the PLCs memory) Input register 0 0 1 0 1 0

X3 X4 X6 X1 X2 X5
PLC
Y4 Y5 Y6
Common
Programming port
Source
(Displayed on the editing software)

X2 X6 X3
X4
X1
X2
X5
Remember that a colored contact is a closed contact. The contacts appearing as colored are either normally-closed contacts with 0 bit states, or normally-open contacts with 1 bit states. It is the combination of bit state and contact type (NO vs. NC) that determines whether a particular contact will be open or closed at any given time. Correspondingly, it is a combination of colored highlighting and contact type that indicates the real-world energization status of a particular PLC input at any given time. In my teaching experience, the main problem I see students having with this concept is over-simplication: they want to directly associate electrical energization with color on the screen, and that is not necessarily the case7 !
7 The
over-simplication works like this: students tend to assume a colored contact in the editing software display
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Once again, the fundamental rule one should keep in mind when examining a Ladder Diagram PLC program is that each virtual contact shown in the program actuates whenever it reads a 1 state in its respective bit. Secondly, a colored contact is closed, while an un-colored contact is open . Normally-open (NO) virtual contacts will only pass virtual power (be colored) if their respective bits are set (1). Normally-closed (NC) virtual contacts naturally pass virtual power while in their resting states, when their respective bits are cleared (0). The color highlighting of coils in a Ladder Diagram PLC program follows a similar pattern. Coloring indicates that the bit associated with that coil is set (1), while the absence of color indicates the bit associated with that coil is cleared (0). These bit states are then passed onto the output register of the PLC, where they control the real-world energization of discrete output channels.
means real power is applied to that input, or that the corresponding bit is set (1). For a normally-open (NO) input contact, this truly is the case: an energized input will set that bit and thus close the virtual contact associated with that bit. However, for a normally-closed (NC) contact, the relationship is reversed: an energized input will set that bit, thus forcing the NC contact to open, causing it to un-color on the screen and not pass virtual power in the Ladder Diagram program.
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To further illuminate these fundamental concepts, we will examine the operation of a simple PLC system designed to energize a warning lamp in the event that a process vessel experiences a high uid pressure. The PLCs task is to energize a warning lamp if the process vessel pressure ever exceeds 270 PSI, and keep that warning lamp energized even if the pressure falls below the trip point of 270 PSI. This way, operators will be alerted to both past and present process vessel over-pressure events. 120 volt AC line power (L1 and L2) provides electrical energy for the PLC to operate, as well as signal potential for the input switches and power for the warning lamp. Two switches connect to the input of this PLC: one normally-open pushbutton switch acting as the alarm reset (pressing this switch unlatches the alarm lamp) and one normally-open pressure switch acting as the sensing element for high process vessel pressure:
120 VAC "line" power L1 L2
Alarm reset pushbutton
X1
(NO contacts)
L1
L2
Y1 Y2 Y3
High pressure alarm lamp
X2 X3 X4 X5 X6 Common
Programming port NC NO
Trip point = 270 PSI Com
PLC
Y4 Y5 Y6 Source
Pressure switch
Impulse tube connects to process vessel
< 270 PSI X4 X1 Y5 Personal computer display

(Ladder Diagram program)
Y5
The reset pushbutton connects to discrete input X1 of the PLC, while the pressure switch connects to discrete input X4. The warning lamp connects to discrete output Y5. Red indicator LEDs next to each I/O terminal visually indicate the electrical status of the I/O points, while red-shaded
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highlighting shows the virtual power 8 status of the contacts and coils in the PLCs program, displayed on the screen of a personal computer connected to the PLC through a programming cable. With no one pressing the reset pushbutton, that switch will be in its normal status, which for a normally-open switch is open. Likewise with the pressure switch: with process pressure less than the trip point of 270 PSI, the pressure switch will also be in its normal status, which for a normallyopen switch is open. Since neither switch is conducting electricity right now, neither discrete input X1 nor X4 will be energized. This means the virtual contacts inside the PLC program will likewise be in their own normal states. Thus, any virtual contact drawn as a normally-open will be open (not passing virtual power), and any virtual contact drawn as a normally-closed (a diagonal slash mark through the contact symbol) will be closed. This is why the two normally-open virtual contacts X4 and Y5 have no highlighting, but the normally-closed virtual contact X1 does the colored highlighting representing the ability to pass virtual power.
8 For a PLC program contact, the shading represents virtual conductivity. For a PLC program coil, the shading represents a set (1) bit.
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If the process vessel experiences a high pressure (> 270 PSI), the pressure switch will actuate, closing its normally-open contact. This will energize input X4 on the PLC, which will close the virtual contact X4 in the ladder program. This sends virtual power to the virtual coil Y5, which in turn latches itself on through virtual contact Y5 and also energizes the real discrete output Y5 to energize the warning lamp:
X1
(NO contacts)
L1
L2
Y1 Y2 Y3
PLC
Y4 Y5 Y6 Source
Pressure switch
> 270 PSI X4 X1 Y5 Personal computer display

Y5
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If now the process pressure falls below 270 PSI, the pressure switch will return to its normal state (open), thus de-energizing discrete input X4 on the PLC. Because of the latching contact Y5 in the PLCs program, however, output Y5 remains on to keep the warning lamp in its energized state:
X1
(NO contacts)
L1
L2
Y1 Y2 Y3
PLC
Y4 Y5 Y6 Source
Pressure switch

Y5
Thus, the Y5 contact performs a seal-in function to keep the Y5 bit set (1) even after the highpressure condition clears. This is precisely the same concept as the seal-in auxiliary contact on a hard-wired motor starter circuit, where the electromechanical contactor keeps itself energized after the Start pushbutton switch has been released.
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The only way for a human operator to re-set the warning lamp is to press the pushbutton. This will have the eect of energizing input X1 on the PLC, thus opening virtual contact X1 (normallyclosed) in the program, thus interrupting virtual power to the virtual coil Y5, thus powering down the warning lamp and un-latching virtual power in the program:
Press
(NO contacts) Trip point = 270 PSI Com NC NO
X1 X2 X3 X4 X5 X6
L1
L2
Y1 Y2 Y3
PLC
Y4 Y5 Y6
Pressure switch
Common
Programming port
Source

Y5
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12.3.2
Memory maps and I/O addressing
A wise PLC programmer once told me that the rst thing any aspiring programmer should learn about the PLC they intend to program is how the digital memory of that PLC is organized. This is sage advice for any programmer, especially on systems where memory is limited, and/or where I/O has a xed association with certain locations in the systems memory. Virtually every microprocessor-based control system comes with a published memory map showing the organization of its limited memory: how much is available for certain functions, which addresses are linked to which I/O points, how dierent locations in memory are to be referenced by the programmer. Discrete input and output channels on a PLC correspond to individual bits in the PLCs memory array. Similarly, analog input and output channels on a PLC correspond to multi-bit words (contiguous blocks of bits) in the PLCs memory. The association between I/O points and memory locations is by no means standardized between dierent PLC manufacturers, or even between dierent PLC models designed by the same manufacturer. This makes it dicult to write a general tutorial on PLC addressing, and so my ultimate advice is to consult the engineering references for the PLC system you intend to program. The most common brand of PLC in use in the United States at the time of this writing (2010) is Allen-Bradley (Rockwell), which happens to use a unique form of I/O addressing9 students tend to nd confusing. For these two reasons (popularity and confusion), I will focus on Allen-Bradley addressing conventions for the bulk of this section.
9 The most modern Allen-Bradley PLCs have all but done away with xed-location I/O addressing, opting instead for tag name based I/O addressing. However, enough legacy Allen-Bradley PLC systems still exist in industry to warrant coverage of these addressing conventions.
12.3. LOGIC PROGRAMMING The following table shows a partial memory map for an Allen-Bradley SLC 500 PLC10 : File number 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 through 255 File type Output image Input image Status Binary Timers Counters Control Integer Floating-point Network User dened Logical address range O:0 to O:30 I:0 to I:30 S:0 to S:n B3:0 to B3:255 T4:0 to T4:255 C5:0 to C5:255 R6:0 to R6:255 N7:0 to N7:255 F8:0 to F8:255 x9:0 to x9:255 x10:0 to x255:255
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Note that Allen-Bradleys use of the word le diers from personal computer parlance. In the SLC 500 controller, a le is a block of random-access memory used to store a particular type of data. By contrast, a le in a personal computer is a contiguous collection of data bits with collective meaning (e.g. a word processing le or a spreadsheet le), usually stored on the computers hard disk drive. Within each of the Allen-Bradley PLCs les are multiple elements, each element consisting of a set of bits (8, 16, 24, or 32) representing data. Elements are addressed by number following the colon after the le designator, and individual bits within each element addressed by a number following a slash mark. For example, the rst bit (bit 0) of the second element in le 3 (Binary) would be addressed as B3:2/0. In Allen-Bradley PLCs such as the SLC 500 and PLC-5 models, les 0, 1, and 2 are exclusively reserved for discrete outputs, discrete inputs, and status bits, respectively. Thus, the letter designators O, I, and S (le types) are redundant to the numbers 0, 1, and 2 (le numbers). Other le types such as B (binary), T (timers), C (counters), and others have their own default le numbers (3, 4, and 5, respectively), but may also be used in some of the user-dened le numbers (10 and above). For example, le 7 in an Allen-Bradley controller is reserved for data of the integer type (N), but integer data may also be stored in any le numbered 10 or greater at the users discretion. Thus, le numbers and le type letters for data types other than output (O), input (I), and status (S) always appear together. You would not typically see an integer word addressed as N:30 (integer word 30 in the PLCs memory) for example, but rather as N7:30 (integer word 30 in le 7 of the PLCs memory) to distinguish it from other integer word 30s that may exist in other les of the PLCs memory.
10 Also called the data table, this map shows the addressing of memory areas reserved for programs entered by the user. Other areas of memory exist within the SLC 500 processor, but these other areas are inaccessible to the technician writing PLC programs.
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This le-based addressing notation bears further explanation. When an address appears in a PLC program, special characters are used to separate (or delimit) dierent elds from each other. The general scheme for Allen-Bradley SLC 500 PLCs is shown here:
File separator (colon)

File type (letter) File number Element number
Bit separator (slash)

Word number Bit number
Word separator (point)

Not all le types need to distinguish individual words and bits. Integer les (N), for example, consist of one 16-bit word for each element. For instance, N7:5 would be the 16-bit integer word number ve held in le seven. A discrete input le type (I), though, needs to be addressed as individual bits because each separate I/O point refers to a single bit. Thus, I:3/7 would be bit number seven residing in input element three. The slash symbol is necessary when addressing discrete I/O bits because we do not wish to refer to all sixteen bits in a word when we just mean a single input or output point on the PLC. Integer numbers, by contrast, are collections of 16 bits each in the SLC 500 memory map, and so are usually addressed as entire words rather than bit-by-bit11 . Certain le types such as timers are more complex. Each timer element12 consists of two dierent 16-bit words (one for the timers accumulated value, the other for the timers target value) in addition to no less than three bits declaring the status of the timer (an Enabled bit, a Timing bit, and a Done bit). Thus, we must make use of both the decimal-point and slash separator symbols when referring to data within a timer. Suppose we declared a timer in our PLC program with the address T4:2, which would be timer number two contained in timer le four. If we wished to address that timers current value, we would do so as T4:2.ACC (the Accumulator word of timer number two in le four). The Done bit of that same timer would be addressed as T4:2/DN (the Done bit of timer number two in le four)13 .
is not to say one cannot specify a particular bit in an otherwise whole word. In fact, this is one of the powerful advantages of Allen-Bradleys addressing scheme: it gives you the ability to precisely specify portions of data, even if that data is not generally intended to be portioned into smaller pieces! 12 Programmers familiar with languages such as C and C++ might refer to an Allen-Bradley element as a data structure, each type with a set conguration of words and/or bits. 13 Referencing the Allen-Bradley engineering literature, we see that the accumulator word may alternatively be addressed by number rather than by mnemonic, T4:2.2 (word 2 being the accumulator word in the timer data structure), and that the done bit may be alternatively addressed as T4:2.0/13 (bit number 13 in word 0 of the timers data structure). The mnemonics provided by Allen-Bradley are certainly less confusing than referencing word and bit numbers for particular aspects of a timers function!
11 This
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A hallmark of the SLC 500s addressing scheme common to many legacy PLC systems is that the address labels for input and output bits explicitly reference the physical locations of the I/O channels. For instance, if an 8-channel discrete input card were plugged into slot 4 of an AllenBradley SLC 500 PLC, and you wished to specify the second bit (bit 1 out of a 0 to 7 range), you would address it with the following label: I:4/1. Addressing the seventh bit (bit number 6) on a discrete output card plugged into slot 3 would require the label O:3/6. In either case, the numerical structure of that label tells you exactly where the real-world input signal connects to the PLC. To illustrate the relationship between physical I/O and bits in the PLCs memory, consider this example of an Allen-Bradley SLC 500 PLC, showing one of its discrete input channels energized (the switch being used as a Start switch for an electric motor):
SLC 500 4-slot chassis

Slot 0 Slot 1 Input
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Slot 2 Input
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Slot 3 Output
Power supply
Processor
IN0 IN1 IN2 IN3 IN4 IN5
IN0 IN1 IN2 IN3 IN4 IN5 IN6 IN7 COM COM
VDC1 VDC1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 COM1 COM1
VDC2 VDC2 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 COM2 COM2
L1 L2/N Gnd
IN6 IN7 COM COM
(pressed) 24 VDC power supply "Start" Input bit I:1/3 inside the PLCs memory is "set" Input image element for slot 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
Bit 15 Bit 14 Bit 13 Bit 12 Bit 11 Bit 10 Bit 9 Bit 8 Bit 7 Bit 6 Bit 5 Bit 4 Bit 3 Bit 2 Bit 1 Bit 0
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If an input or output card possesses more than 16 bits as in the case of the 32-bit discrete output card shown in slot 3 of the example SLC 500 rack the addressing scheme further subdivides each element into words and bits (each word being 16 bits in length). Thus, the address for bit number 27 of a 32-bit input module plugged into slot 3 would be I:3.1/11 (since bit 27 is equivalent to bit 11 of word 1 word 0 addressing bits 0 through 15 and word 1 addressing bits 16 through 31):
SLC 500 4-slot chassis

Slot 0 Slot 1 Input
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Slot 2 Input
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Slot 3 Output
Power supply
Processor
IN0 IN1 IN2 IN3 IN4 IN5 IN6 IN7 COM COM
VDC1 VDC1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 COM1 COM1
VDC2 VDC2 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 COM2 COM2
L1 L2/N Gnd
IN6 IN7 COM COM
Lamp Output bit O:3.1/11 inside the PLCs memory is "set"
24 VDC power supply
Output image element for slot 3

Word 0 Word 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Bit 15 Bit 14 Bit 13 Bit 12 Bit 11 Bit 10 Bit 9 Bit 8 Bit 7 Bit 6 Bit 5 Bit 4 Bit 3 Bit 2 Bit 1 Bit 0
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A close-up photograph of a 32-bit DC input card for an Allen-Bradley SLC 500 PLC system shows this multi-word addressing:
The rst sixteen input points on this card (the left-hand LED group numbered 0 through 15) are addressed I:X.0/0 through I:X.0/15, with X referring to the slot number the card is plugged into. The next sixteen input points (the right-hand LED group numbered 16 through 31) are addressed I:X.1/0 through I:X.1/15. Legacy PLC systems typically reference each one of the I/O channels by labels such as I:1/3 (or equivalent14 ) indicating the actual location of the input channel terminal on the PLC unit. The IEC 61131-3 programming standard refers to this channel-based addressing of I/O data points as direct addressing. A synonym for direct addressing is absolute addressing. Addressing I/O bits directly by their card, slot, and/or terminal labels may seem simple and elegant, but it becomes very cumbersome for large PLC systems and complex programs. Every time a technician or programmer views the program, they must translate each of these I/O labels to some real-world device (e.g. Input I:1/3 is actually the Start pushbutton for the middle tank mixer motor) in order to understand the function of that bit. A later eort to enhance the clarity of PLC programming was the concept of addressing variables in a PLCs memory by arbitrary names rather than xed codes. The IEC 61131-3 programming standard refers to this as symbolic addressing in contrast to direct (channel-based) addressing, allowing programmers arbitrarily
14 Some systems such as the Texas Instruments 505 series used X labels to indicate discrete input channels and Y labels to indicate discrete output channels (e.g. input X9 and output Y14). This same labeling convention is still used by Koyo in its DirectLogic and CLICK PLC models. Siemens continues a similar tradition of I/O addressing by using the letter I to indicate discrete inputs and the letter Q to indicate discrete outputs (e.g. input channel I0.5 and output Q4.1).
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name I/O channels in ways that are meaningful to the system as a whole. To use our simple motor Start switch example, it is now possible for the programmer to designate input I:1/3 (an example of a direct address ) as Motor start switch (an example of a symbolic address ) within the program, thus greatly enhancing the readability of the PLC program. Initial implementations of this concept maintained direct addresses for I/O data points, with symbolic names appearing as supplements to the absolute addresses. The modern trend in PLC addressing is to avoid the use of direct addresses such as I:1/3 altogether, so they do not appear anywhere in the programming code. The Allen-Bradley Logix series of programmable logic controllers is the most prominent example of this new convention at the time of this writing. Each I/O point, regardless of type or physical location, is assigned a tag name which is meaningful in a real-world sense, and these tag names (or symbols as they are alternatively called) are referenced to absolute I/O channel locations by a database le. An important requirement of tag names is that they contain no space characters between words (e.g. instead of Motor start switch, a tag name should use hyphens or underscore marks as spacing characters: Motor start switch), since spaces are generally assumed by computer programming languages to be delimiters (separators between dierent variables). Having introduced Allen-Bradleys addressing notation for SLC 500 model PLCs, I will now abandon it in favor of the modern convention of symbolic addressing throughout the rest of this chapter, so as to avoid making the programming examples brand- or model-specic. Each data point within my PLC programs will bear its own tag name rather than a direct (channel-based) address label.
12.4
Ladder Diagram (LD) programming
In the United States, the most common language used to program PLCs is Ladder Diagram (LD), also known as Relay Ladder Logic (RLL). This is a graphical language showing the logical relationships between inputs and outputs as though they were contacts and coils in a hard-wired electromechanical relay circuit. This language was invented for the express purpose of making PLC programming feel natural to electricians familiar with relay-based logic and control circuits. While Ladder Diagram programming has many shortcomings, it remains extremely popular and so will be the primary focus of this chapter.
12.4. LADDER DIAGRAM (LD) PROGRAMMING
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Every Ladder Diagram program is arranged to resemble an electrical diagram, making this a graphical (rather than text-based) programming language. Ladder diagrams are to be thought of as virtual circuits, where virtual power ows through virtual contacts (when closed) to energize virtual relay coils to perform logical functions. None of the contacts or coils seen in a Ladder Diagram PLC program are real; rather, they act on bits in the PLCs memory, the logical interrelationships between those bits expressed in the form of a diagram resembling a circuit. The following computer screenshot shows a typical Ladder Diagram program15 being edited on a personal computer:
Contacts appear just as they would in an electrical relay logic diagram as short vertical line segments separated by a horizontal space. Normally-open contacts are empty within the space between the line segments, while normally-closed contacts have a diagonal line crossing through that space. Coils are somewhat dierent, appearing as either circles or pairs of parentheses. Other instructions appear as rectangular boxes. Each horizontal line is referred to as a rung, just as each horizontal step on a stepladder is called a rung. A common feature among Ladder Diagram program editors, as seen on this screenshot, is
15 This
particular program and editor is for the Koyo CLICK series of micro-PLCs.
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the ability to color-highlight those virtual components in the virtual circuit ready to conduct virtual power. In this particular editor, the color used to indicate conduction is light blue. Another form of status indication seen in this PLC program is the values of certain variables in the PLCs memory, shown in red text. For example, you can see coil T2 energized at the upper-right corner of the screen (lled with light blue coloring), while coil T3 is not. Correspondingly, each normally-open T2 contact appears colored, indicating its closed status, while each normally-closed T2 contact is uncolored. By contrast, each normally-open T3 contact is uncolored (since coil T3 is unpowered) while each normally-closed T3 contact is shown colored to indicate its conductive status. Likewise, the current count values of timers T2 and T3 are shown as 193 and 0, respectively. The output value of the math instruction box happens to be 2400, also shown in red text. Color-highlighting of Ladder Diagram components only works, of course, when the computer running the program editing software is connected to the PLC and the PLC is in the run mode (and the show status feature of the editing software is enabled). Otherwise, the Ladder Diagram is nothing more than black symbols on a white background. Not only is status highlighting very useful in de-bugging PLC programs, but it also serves an invaluable diagnostic purpose when a technician analyzes a PLC program to check the status of real-world input and output devices connected to the PLC. This is especially true when the programs status is viewed remotely over a computer network, allowing maintenance sta to investigate system problems without even being near the PLC!
12.4.1
Contacts and coils
The most elementary objects in Ladder Diagram programming are contacts and coils, intended to mimic the contacts and coils of electromechanical relays. Contacts and coils are discrete programming elements, dealing with Boolean (1 and 0; on and o; true and false) variable states. Each contact in a Ladder Diagram PLC program represents the reading of a single bit in memory, while each coil represents the writing of a single bit in memory. Discrete input signals to the PLC from real-world switches are read by a Ladder Diagram program by contacts referenced to those input channels. In legacy PLC systems, each discrete input channel has a specic address which must be applied to the contact(s) within that program. In modern PLC systems, each discrete input channel has a tag name created by the programmer which is applied to the contact(s) within the program. Similarly, discrete output channels referenced by coil symbols in the Ladder Diagram must also bear some form of address or tag name label. To illustrate, we will imagine the construction and programming of a redundant ame-sensing system to monitor the status of a burner ame using three sensors. The purpose of this system will be to indicate a lit burner if at least two out of the three sensors indicate ame. If only one sensor indicates ame (or if no sensors indicate ame), the system will declare the burner to be un-lit. The burners status will be visibly indicated by a lamp that human operators can readily see inside the control room area.
12.4. LADDER DIAGRAM (LD) PROGRAMMING Our systems wiring is shown in the following diagram:
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Power supply
Processor
Input
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Output
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
VAC 1 OUT0 OUT1 OUT2 OUT3 VAC 2 OUT4 OUT5 OUT6 OUT7
To 120 VAC power source
L1 L2/N Gnd
IN6 IN7 COM COM
"Burner lit" indicator lamp

L1 L2 Gnd
Flame sensor A
Burner
L1 L2 Gnd
Flame sensor B
L1 L2 Gnd
Flame sensor C
Each ame sensor outputs a DC voltage signal indicating the detection of ame at the burner, either on (24 volts DC) or o (0 volts DC). These three discrete DC voltage signals are sensed by the rst three channels of the PLCs discrete input card. The indicator lamp is a 120 volt light bulb, and so must be powered by an AC discrete output card, shown here in the PLCs last slot. To make the ladder program more readable, we will assign tag names (symbolic addresses) to each input and output bit in the PLC, describing its real-world device in an easily-interpreted format16 . We will tag the rst three discrete input channels as IN sensor A, IN sensor B, and IN sensor C, and the output as OUT burner lit.
16 If this were a legacy Allen-Bradley PLC system using absolute addressing, we would be forced to address the three sensor inputs as I:1/0, I:1/1, and I:1/2 (slot 1, channels 0 through 2), and the indicator lamp output as O:2/0 (slot 2, channel 0). If this were a newer Logix5000 Allen-Bradley PLC, the default tag names would be Local:1:I.Data.0, Local:1:I.Data.1, and Local:1:I.Data.2 for the three inputs, and Local:2:O.Data.0 for the output. However, in either system we have the ability to assign symbolic addresses so we have a way to reference the I/O channels without having to rely on these cumbersome labels. The programs showing in this book exclusively use tag names rather than absolute addresses, since this is the more modern programming convention.
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A ladder program to determine if at least two out of the three sensors detect ame is shown here, with the tag names referencing each contact and coil:
IN_sensor_A IN_sensor_B OUT_burner_lit
IN_sensor_B
IN_sensor_C
IN_sensor_A
IN_sensor_C
Series-connected contacts in a Ladder Diagram perform the logical AND function, while parallel contacts perform the logical OR function. Thus, this two-out-of-three ame-sensing program could be verbally described as: Burner is lit if either A and B, or either B and C, or A and C An alternate way to express this is to use the notation of Boolean algebra, where multiplication represents the AND function and addition represents the OR function: Burner lit = AB + BC + AC
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To illustrate how this program would work, we will consider a case where ame sensors B and C detect ame, but sensor A does not. This represents a two-out-of-three condition, and so we would expect the PLC to turn on the Burner lit indicator light as programmed. From the perspective of the PLCs rack, we would see the indicator LEDs for sensors B and C lit up on the discrete input card, as well as the indicator LED for the lamps output channel:
Power supply
Processor
Input
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Output
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
L1 L2/N Gnd
IN6 IN7 COM COM
"Burner lit" indicator lamp

L1 L2 Gnd
Flame sensor A
(does not sense flame)
Burner
L1 L2 Gnd
(lit) Flame (senses flame) sensor B
L1 L2 Gnd
Flame (senses flame) sensor C
Those two energized input channels set bits (1 status) in the PLCs memory representing the status of ame sensors B and C. Flame sensor As bit will be clear (0 status) because its corresponding input channel is de-energized. The fact that the output channel LED is energized (and the Burner lit indicator lamp is energized) tells us the PLC program has set that corresponding bit in the PLCs output memory register to a 1 state.
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A display of input and output register bits shows the set and reset states for the PLC at this moment in time:
Input register 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0
IN7 IN6 IN5 IN4 IN3 IN2 IN1 IN0 OUT7
Output register 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
OUT6 OUT5 OUT4 OUT3 OUT2 OUT1 OUT0
Examining the Ladder Diagram program with status indication enabled, we would see how just one of the series-connected contact pairs are passing virtual power to the output coil:
Contacts read bit status in the PLCs memory

IN_sensor_A IN_sensor_B
Coils write bit status in the PLCs memory

OUT_burner_lit
IN_sensor_B
IN_sensor_C
Color-highlighted coil indicates powered (activated) status

IN_sensor_A IN_sensor_C
Color-highlighted contacts indicate "closed" (conductive) status

Recall that the purpose of a contact in a PLC program is to read the status of a bit in the PLCs memory. These six virtual contacts read the three input bits corresponding to the three ame sensors. Each normally-open contact will close when its corresponding bit has a value of 1, and will open (go to the normal state) when its corresponding bit has a value of 0. Thus, we see here that the two contacts corresponding to sensor A appear without highlighting (representing no conductivity in the virtual relay circuit) because the bit for that input is reset (0). The two contacts corresponding to sensor B and the two contacts corresponding to sensor C all appear highlighted (representing conductivity in the virtual circuit) because their bits are both set (1). Recall also that the purpose of a coil in a PLC program is to write the status of a bit in the PLCs memory. Here, the energized coil sets the bit for the PLC output 0 to a 1 state, thus activating the real-world output and sending electrical power to the Burner lit lamp. Note that the color highlighting does not indicate a virtual contact is conducting virtual power, but merely that it is able to conduct power. Color highlighting around a virtual coil, however, does indicate the presence of virtual power at that coil.
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Contacts and relays are not just useful for implementing simple logic functions, but they may also perform latching functions as well. A very common application of this in industrial PLC systems is a latching start/stop program for controlling electric motors by means of momentary-contact pushbutton switches. As before, this functionality will be illustrated by means of an hypothetical example circuit and program:
Power supply
Processor
Input
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Output
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
L1 L2/N Gnd
IN6 IN7 COM COM
"Start"
Three-phase motor contactor
"Stop"
Reset
In this system, two pushbutton switches are connected to discrete inputs on a PLC, and the PLC in turn energizes the coil of a motor contactor relay by means of one of its discrete outputs17 .
17 The
particular input and output channels chosen for this example are completely arbitrary. There is no particular
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An overload contact is wired directly in series with the contactor coil to provide motor overcurrent protection, even in the event of a PLC failure where the discrete output channel remains energized18 . The ladder program for this motor control system would look like this:
IN_switch_Start IN_switch_Stop OUT_contactor
OUT_contactor
Pressing the Start pushbutton energizes discrete input channel 6 on the PLC, which closes the virtual contact in the PLC program labeled IN switch Start. The normally-closed virtual contact for input channel 7 (the Stop pushbutton) is already closed by default when the Stop button is not being pressed, and so the virtual coil will receive power when the Start pushbutton is pressed and the Stop pushbutton is not. Note the seal-in contact bearing the exact same label as the coil: OUT contactor. At rst it may seem strange to have both a contact and a coil in a PLC program labeled identically19 , since contacts are most commonly associated with inputs and coils with outputs, but this makes perfect sense if you realize the true meaning of contacts and coils in a PLC program: as read and write operations on bits in the PLCs memory. The coil labeled OUT contactor writes the status of that bit, while the contact labeled OUT contactor reads the status of that same bit. The purpose of this contact, of course, is to latch the motor in the on state after a human operator has released his or her nger from the Start pushbutton. This programming technique is known as feedback, where an output variable of a function (in this case, the feedback variable is OUT contactor) is also an input to that same function. The path of feedback is implicit rather than explicit in Ladder Diagram programming, with the only indication of feedback being the common name shared by coil and contact. Other graphical programming languages (such as Function Block) have the ability to show feedback paths as connecting lines between function outputs and inputs, but this capacity does not exist in Ladder Diagram.
reason to choose input channels 6 and 7, or output channel 2, as I have shown in the wiring diagram. Any available I/O channels will serve the purpose quite adequately. 18 While it is possible to wire the overload contact to one of the PLCs discrete input channels and then program a virtual overload contact in series with the output coil to stop the motor in the event of a thermal overload, this strategy would rely on the PLC to perform a safety function which is probably better performed by hard-wired circuitry. 19 A very common misconception among students rst learning PLC Ladder Diagram programming is to always associate contacts with PLC inputs and coils with PLC outputs, thus it seems weird to have a contact bear the same label as an output. However, this is a false association. In reality, contacts and coils are read and write instructions, and thus it is possible to have the PLC read one of its own output bits as a part of some logic function. What would be truly strange is to label a coil with an input bit address or tag name, since the PLC is not electrically capable of setting the real-world energization status of any input channels.
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A step-by-step sequence showing the operation and status of this simple program illustrates how the seal-in contact functions, through a start-up and shut-down cycle of the motor:
Status of program before "Start" switch pressed
Step 1
OUT_contactor
Operator pushes "Start" switch

Step 2
OUT_contactor
Coil immediately activates
IN_switch_Start
IN_switch_Stop
OUT_contactor
Step 3
OUT_contactor
Seal-in contact closes on next scan Operator releases "Start" switch

Step 4
OUT_contactor
Motor continues to run
Operator presses "Stop" switch

Step 5
OUT_contactor
Coil immediately de-activates
IN_switch_Start
IN_switch_Stop
OUT_contactor
Step 6
OUT_contactor
Seal-in contact releases on next scan
This sequence helps illustrate the order of evaluation or scan order of a Ladder Diagram program. The PLC reads a Ladder Diagram from left to right, top to bottom, in the same general order as
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a human being reads sentences and paragraphs written in English. However, according to the IEC 61131-3 standard, a PLC program must evaluate (read) all inputs (contacts) to a function before determining the status of a functions output (coil or coils). In other words, the PLC does not make any decision on how to set the state of a coil until all contacts providing power to that coil have been read. Once a coils status has been written to memory, any contacts bearing the same tag name will update with that status on subsequent rungs in the program. Step 5 in the previous sequence is particularly illustrative. When the human operator presses the Stop pushbutton, the input channel for IN switch Stop becomes activated, which opens the normally-closed virtual contact IN switch Stop. Upon the next scan of this program rung, the PLC evaluates all input contacts (IN switch Start, IN switch Stop, and OUT contactor) to check their status before deciding what status to write to the OUT contactor coil. Seeing that the IN switch Stop contact has been forced open by the activation of its respective discrete input channel, the PLC writes a 0 (or False) state to the OUT contactor coil. However, the OUT contactor feedback contact does not update until the next scan, which is why you still see it highlighted in blue during step 5. A potential problem with this system as it is designed is that the human operator loses control of the motor in the event of an open wiring failure in either pushbutton switch circuit. For instance, if a wire fell o a screw contact for the Start pushbutton switch circuit, the motor could not be started if it was already stopped. Similarly, if a wire fell o a screw contact for the Stop pushbutton switch circuit, the motor could not be stopped if it was already running. In either case, a broken wire connection acts the same as the pushbutton switchs normal status, which is to keep the motor in its present state. In some applications, this failure mode would not be a severe problem. In many applications, though, it is quite dangerous to have a running motor that cannot be stopped. For this reason, it is customary to design motor start/stop systems a bit dierently from what has been shown here.
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In order to build a fail-stop motor control system with our PLC, we must rst re-wire the pushbutton switch to use its normally-closed (NC) contact:
Power supply
Processor
Input
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Output
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
L1 L2/N Gnd
IN6 IN7 COM COM
"Start"
"Stop"
Using the NC contact!

Reset
This keeps discrete input channel 7 activated when the pushbutton is unpressed. When the operator presses the Stop pushbutton, the switchs contacts will be forced open, and input channel 7 will de-energize. If a wire happens to fall o a screw terminal in the Stop switch circuit, input channel 7 will de-energize just the same as if someone pressed the Stop pushbutton, which will automatically shut o the motor.
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In order for the PLC program to work properly with this new switch wiring, the virtual contact for IN switch Stop must be changed from a normally-closed (NC) to a normally-open (NO).
OUT_contactor
This virtual contact maintained in its "closed" state because the real switch contacts are closed and the real input channel is energized with no one pushing the "Stop" button
As before, the IN switch Stop virtual contact is in the closed state when no one presses the Stop switch, enabling the motor to start any time the Start switch is pressed. Similarly, the IN switch Stop virtual contact will open any time someone presses the Stop switch, thus stopping virtual power from owing to the OUT contactor coil. Although this is a very common way to build PLC-controlled motor start/stop systems with an NC pushbutton switch and an NO Stop virtual contact students new to PLC programming often nd this logical reversal confusing20 . Perhaps the most common reason for this confusion is a mis-understanding of the normal concept for switch contacts, be they real or virtual. The IN switch Stop virtual contact is programmed to be normally-open (NO), but yet it is typically found in the closed state. Recall that the normal status of any switch is its status while in a resting condition of no stimulation, not necessarily its status while the process is in a normal operating mode. The normally-open virtual contact IN switch Stop is typically found in the closed state because its corresponding input channel is typically found energized, owing to the normally-closed pushbutton switch contacts, which pass real electrical power to the input channel while no one presses the switch. Just because a switch is congured as normally-open does not necessarily mean it will be typically found in the open state! The status of any switch contact, whether real or virtual, is a function of its conguration (NO versus NC) and the stimulus applied to it. Another concern surrounding real-world wiring problems is what this system will do if the motor contactor coil circuit opens for any reason. An open circuit may develop as a result of a wire falling o a screw terminal, or it may occur because the thermal overload contact tripped open due to an over-temperature event. The problem with our motor start/stop system as designed is that it is
20 In an eort to alleviate this confusion, the Allen-Bradley corporation (Rockwell) uses the terms examine if closed (XIC) and examine if open (XIO) to describe normally open and normally closed virtual contacts, respectively, in their Ladder Diagram programming. The idea here is that a virtual contact drawn as a normally-open symbol will be examined (declared true) by the PLCs processor if its corresponding input channel is energized (powered by a real-life contact in the closed state). Conversely, a virtual contact drawn as a normally-closed symbol (with a slash mark through the middle) will be examined by the PLCs processor if its corresponding input channel is de-energized (if the real-life contact sending power to that terminal is in the open state). In my experience, I have found this nomenclature to be even more confusing to students than simply calling these virtual contacts normally open and normally closed like other PLC manufacturers do. The foundational concept for students to grasp here is that the virtual contact is not a direct representation of the real-life electrical switch contact rather, it is a read instruction for the bit set by power coming from the real-life electrical switch contact.
587
not aware of the contactors real status. In other words, the PLC thinks the contactor will be energized any time discrete output channel 2 is energized, but that may not actually be the case if there is an open fault in the contactors coil circuit. This may lead to a dangerous condition if the open fault in the contactors coil circuit is later cleared. Imagine an operator pressing the Start switch but noticing the motor does not actually start. Wondering why this may be, he or she goes to look at the overload relay to see if it is tripped. If it is tripped, and the operator presses the Reset button on the overload assembly, the motor will immediately start because the PLCs discrete output has remained energized all the time following the pressing of the Start switch. Having the motor start up as soon as the thermal overload is reset may come as a surprise to operations personnel, and this could be quite dangerous if anyone happens to be near the motor-powered machinery when it starts. What would be safer is a motor control system that refuses to latch on unless the contactor actually energizes when the Start switch is pressed. For this to be possible, the PLC must have some way of sensing the contactors status.
588
In order to make the PLC aware of the contactors real status, we may connect the auxiliary switch contact to one of the unused discrete input channels on the PLC, like this:
Power supply
Processor
Input
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Output
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
L1 L2/N Gnd
IN6 IN7 COM COM
"Start"
"Stop"
Reset
Now, the PLC has a way of sensing the contactors actual status.
589
We may modify the PLC program to recognize this status by assigning a new tag name to this input (IN contactor aux) and using a normally-open virtual contact of this name as the seal-in contact instead of the OUT contactor bit:
IN_contactor_aux
Now, if the contactor fails to energize for any reason when the operator presses the Start switch, the PLCs output will fail to latch when the Start switch is released. When the open fault in the contactors coil circuit is cleared, the motor will not immediately start up, but rather wait until the operator presses the Start switch again, which is a much safer operating characteristic than before.
590
A special class of virtual coil used in PLC ladder programming that bears mentioning is the latching coil. These usually come in two forms: a set coil and a reset coil. Unlike a regular output coil that positively writes to a bit in the PLCs memory with every scan of the program, set and reset coils only write to a bit in memory when energized by virtual power. Otherwise, the bit is allowed to retain its last value. A very simple motor start/stop program could be written with just two input contacts and two of these latching coils (both bearing the same tag name, writing to the same bit in memory):
Real-world I/O wiring

"Start" pushbutton
Discrete input card

IN_switch_Start
Discrete output card

Contactor coil OUT_contactor
"Stop" pushbutton IN_switch_Stop
PLC program
IN_switch_Start OUT_contactor
S
IN_switch_Stop OUT_contactor
Note the use of normally-open (NO) pushbutton switch contacts (again!), with no auxiliary contact providing status indication of the contactor to the PLC. This is a very minimal program, shown for the strict purpose of illustrating the use of set and reset latching coils in Ladder Diagram PLC programming. Set and Reset coils21 are examples of what is known in the world of PLC programming as retentive instructions. A retentive instruction retains its value after being virtually de-energized in the Ladder Diagram circuit. A standard output coil is non-retentive, which means it does not latch when de-energized. The concept of retentive and non-retentive instructions will appear again as we explore PLC programming, especially in the area of timers. Ordinarily, we try to avoid multiple coils bearing the same label in a PLC Ladder Diagram program. With each coil representing a write instruction, multiple coils bearing the same name represents multiple write operations to the same bit in the PLCs memory. Here, with latching coils, there is no conict because each of the coils only writes to the OUT contactor bit when its
21 Referred
to as Latch and Unlatch coils by Allen-Bradley.
591
respective contact is energized. So long as only one of the pushbutton switches is actuated at a time, there is no conict between the identically-named coils. This begs the question: what would happen if both pushbutton switches were simultaneously pressed? What would happen if both Set and Reset coils were energized at the same time? The result is that the OUT contactor bit would rst be set (written to a value of 1) then reset (written to a value of 0) in that order as the two rungs of the program were scanned from top to bottom. PLCs typically do not typically update their discrete I/O registers while scanning the Ladder Diagram program (this operation takes place either before or after each program scan), so the real discrete output channel status will be whatever the last write operation told it to be, in this case reset (0, or o). Even if the discrete output is not confused due to the conicting write operations of the Set and Reset coils, other rungs of the program written between the Set and Reset rungs might be. Consider for example a case where there were other program rungs following the Set and Reset rungs reading the status of the OUT contactor bit for some purpose. Those other rungs would indeed become confused because they would see the OUT contactor bit in the set state while the actual discrete output of the PLC (and any rungs following the Reset rung) would see the OUT contactor bit in the reset state:
"Start" and "Stop" pushbuttons simultaneously pressed!

IN_switch_Start OUT_contactor
S
OUT_contactor
...this rung sees OUT_contactor set!

IN_switch_Stop OUT_contactor
R
OUT_contactor
...this rung sees OUT_contactor reset!
Multiple (non-retentive) output coils with the same memory address are almost always a programming faux pax for this reason, but even retentive coils which are designed to be used in matched pairs can cause trouble if the implications of simultaneous energization are not anticipated. Multiple contacts with identical addresses are no problem whatsoever, because multiple read operations to the same bit in memory will never cause a conict. The IEC 61131-3 PLC programming standard species transition-sensing contacts as well as the more customary static contacts. A transition-sensing contact will actuate only for a duration of one program scan, even if its corresponding bit remains active. Two types of transition-sensing Ladder Diagram contacts are dened in the IEC standard: one for positive transitions and another
592
for negative transitions. The following example shows a wiring diagram, Ladder Diagram program, and a timing diagram demonstrating how each type of transition-sensing contact functions when stimulated by a real (electrical) input signal to a discrete channel:
Real-world I/O wiring Discrete input card

"Test" pushbutton IN_test OUT_test2
Discrete output card Test lamp 1

OUT_test1 Test lamp 2
PLC program
IN_test OUT_test1
P
IN_test OUT_test2
Timing diagram IN_test

Duration of one program scan
OUT_test1
Duration of one program scan
OUT_test2
When the pushbutton switch is pressed and the discrete input energized, the rst test lamp will blink on for exactly one scan of the PLCs program, then return to its o state. The positivetransition contact (with the letter P inside) activates the coil OUT test1 only during the scan it sees the status of IN test transition from false to true, even though the input remains energized for many scans after that transition. Conversely, when the pushbutton switch is released and the discrete input de-energizes, the second test lamp will blink on for exactly one scan of the PLCs
593
program then return to its o state. The negative-transition contact (with the letter N inside) activates the coil OUT test2 only during the scan it sees the status of IN test transition from true to false, even though the input remains de-energized for many scans after that transition: It should be noted that the duration of a single PLC program scan is typically very short: measured in milliseconds. If this program were actually tested in a real PLC, you would probably not be able to see either test lamp light up, since each pulse is so short-lived. Transitional contacts are typically used any time it is desired to execute an instruction just one time following a triggering event, as opposed to executing that instruction over and over again so long as the event status is maintained true. Contacts and coils represent only the most basic of instructions in the Ladder Diagram PLC programming language. Many other instructions exist, which will be discussed in the following subsections.
594
12.4.2
Counters
A counter is a PLC instruction that either increments (counts up) or decrements (counts down) an integer number value when prompted by the transition of a bit from 0 to 1 (false to true). Counter instructions come in three basic types: up counters, down counters, and up/down counters. Both up and down counter instructions have single inputs for triggering counts, whereas up/down counters have two trigger inputs: one to make the counter increment and one to make the counter decrement. To illustrate the use of a counter instruction, we will analyze a PLC-based system designed to count objects as they pass down a conveyor belt:
Power supply
Processor
Input
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Output
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
L1 L2/N Gnd
IN6 IN7 COM COM
Light source
Light sensor
Count indicator lamp
L1 L2
L1 L2
"Reset count" pushbutton
In this system, a continuous (unbroken) light beam causes the light sensor to close its output contact, energizing discrete channel IN4. When an object on the conveyor belt interrupts the light beam from source to sensor, the sensors contact opens, interrupting power to input IN4. A pushbutton switch connected to activate discrete input IN5 when pressed will serve as a manual reset of the count value. An indicator lamp connected to one of the discrete output channels will serve as an indicator of when the object count value has exceeded some pre-set limit.
595
We will now analyze a simple Ladder Diagram program designed to increment a counter instruction each time the light beam breaks:
IN_sensor_object
CU
IN_switch_reset
CTU
R Q
OUT_counts_reached
25
PV
CV
parts_counted
This particular counter instruction (CTU) is an incrementing counter, which means it counts up with each o-to-on transition input to its CU input. The normally-closed virtual contact (IN sensor object) is typically held in the open state when the light beam is continuous, by virtue of the fact the sensor holds that discrete input channel energized while the beam is continuous. When the beam is broken by a passing object on the conveyor belt, the input channel de-energizes, causing the virtual contact IN sensor object to close and send virtual power to the CU input of the counter instruction. This increments the counter just as the leading edge of the object breaks the beam. The second input of the counter instruction box (R) is the reset input, receiving virtual power from the contact IN switch reset whenever the reset pushbutton is pressed. If this input is activated, the counter immediately resets its current value (CV) to zero. Status indication is shown in this Ladder Diagram program, with the counters preset value (PV) of 25 and the counters current value (CV) of 0 shown highlighted in blue. The preset value is something programmed into the counter instruction before the system put into service, and it serves as a threshold for activating the counters output (Q), which in this case turns on the count indicator lamp (the OUT counts reached coil). According to the IEC 61131-3 programming standard, this counter output should activate whenever the current value is equal to or greater than the preset value (Q is active if CV PV).
596
This is the status of the same program after thirty objects have passed by the sensor on the conveyor belt. As you can see, the current value of the counter has increased to 30, exceeding the preset value and activating the discrete output:
IN_sensor_object
CU
IN_switch_reset
CTU
R Q
OUT_counts_reached
25
PV
CV
30
parts_counted
If all we did not care about maintaining an accurate total count of objects past 25 but merely wished the program to indicate when 25 objects had passed by we could also use a down counter instruction preset to a value of 25, which turns on an output coil when the count reaches zero:
IN_sensor_object
CU
IN_switch_load
CTD
LD Q
OUT_counts_reached
25
PV
CV
parts_counted
Here, a load input causes the counters current value to equal the preset value (25) when activated. With each sensor pulse received, the counter instruction decrements. When it reaches zero, the Q output activates. A potential problem in either version of this object-counting system is that the PLC cannot discriminate between forward and reverse motion on the conveyor belt. If, for instance, the conveyor belt were ever reversed in direction, the sensor would continue to count objects that had already passed by before (in the forward direction) as those objects retreated on the belt. This would be a problem because the system would think more objects had passed along the belt (indicating greater production) than actually did.
597
One solution to this problem is to use an up/down counter, capable of both incrementing (counting up) and decrementing (counting down), and equip this counter with two light-beam sensors capable of determining direction of travel. If two light beams are oriented parallel to each other, closer than the width of the narrowest object passing along the conveyor belt, we will have enough information to determine direction of object travel:
Sources
Reverse travel
(B breaks before A)
Sensors A B Forward travel timing A B Time
Forward travel
(A breaks before B)
Reverse travel timing A B Time
This is called quadrature signal timing, because the two pulse waveforms are approximately 90o (one-quarter of a period) apart in phase. We can use these two phase-shifted signals to increment or decrement an up/down counter instruction, depending on which pulse leads and which pulse lags.
598
A Ladder Diagram PLC program designed to interpret the quadrature pulse signals is shown here, making use of negative-transition contacts as well as standard contacts:
IN_sensor_A IN_sensor_B
N
IN_sensor_B IN_sensor_A
CU
CTUD
CD QU
OUT_counts_reached
N
IN_switch_reset
QD
LD
25
PV
CV
parts_counted
The counter will increment (count up) when sensor B de-energizes only if sensor A is already in the de-energized state (i.e. light beam A breaks before B). The counter will decrement (count down) when sensor A de-energizes only if sensor B is already in the de-energized state (i.e. light beam B breaks before A). Note that the up/down counter has both a reset (R) input and a load input (LD) to force the current value. Activating the reset input forces the counters current value (CV) to zero, just as we saw with the up counter instruction. Activating the load input forces the counters current value to the preset value (PV), just as we saw with the down counter instruction. In the case of an up/down counter, there are two Q outputs: a QU (output up) to indicate when the current value is equal to or greater than the preset value, and a QD (output down) to indicate when the current value is equal to or less than zero. Note how the current value (CV) of each counter shown is associated with a tag name of its own, in this case parts counted. The integer number of a counters current value (CV) is a variable in the PLCs memory just like boolean values such as IN sensor A and IN switch reset, and may be associated with a tag name or symbolic address just the same22 . This allows other instructions in a PLC program to read (and sometimes write!) values from and to that memory location.
22 This represents the IEC 61131-3 standard, where each variable within an instruction may be connected to its own arbitrary tag name. Other programming conventions may dier somewhat. The Allen-Bradley Logix5000 series of controllers is one of those that diers, following a convention reminiscent of structure element addressing in the C programming language: each counter is given a tag name, and variables in each counter are addressed as elements within that structure. For example, a Logix5000 counter instruction might be named parts count, with the accumulated count value (equivalent to the IECs current value) addressed as parts count.ACC (each element within the counter specied as a sux to the counters tag name).
599
12.4.3
Timers
A timer is a PLC instruction measuring the amount of time elapsed following an event. Timer instructions come in two basic types: on-delay timers and o-delay timers. Both on-delay and o-delay timer instructions have single inputs triggering the timed function. An on-delay timer activates an output only when the input has been active for a minimum amount of time. Take for instance this PLC program, designed to sound an audio alarm siren prior to starting a conveyor belt. To start the conveyor belt motor, the operator must press and hold the Start pushbutton for 10 seconds, during which time the siren sounds, warning people to clear away from the conveyor belt that is about to start. Only after this 10-second start delay does the motor actually start (and latch on):

"Start" pushbutton
Discrete input card

IN_switch_Start
Discrete output card Contactor coil

OUT_contactor Alarm siren
"Stop" pushbutton IN_switch_Stop OUT_siren
PLC program
IN_switch_Start Time_elapsed
IN
TON
10 PT ET 0
OUT_siren
Time_elapsed
IN_switch_Stop
OUT_contactor
OUT_contactor
600
Similar to an up counter, the on-delay timers elapsed time (ET) value increments once per second until the preset time (PT) is reached, at which time its output (Q) activates. In this program, the preset time value is 10 seconds, which means the Q output will not activate until the Start switch has been depressed for 10 seconds. The alarm siren output, which is not activated by the timer, energizes immediately when the Start pushbutton is pressed. An important detail regarding this particular timers operation is that it be non-retentive. This means the timer instruction should not retain its elapsed time value when the input is de-activated. Instead, the elapsed time value should reset back to zero every time the input de-activates. This ensures the timer resets itself when the operator releases the Start pushbutton. A retentive ondelay timer, by contrast, maintains its elapsed time value even when the input is de-activated. This makes it useful for keeping running total times for some event. Most PLCs provide retentive and non-retentive versions of on-delay timer instructions, such that the programmer may choose the proper form of on-delay timer for any particular application. The IEC 61131-3 programming standard, however, addresses the issue of retentive versus nonretentive timers a bit dierently. According to the IEC 61131-3 standard, a timer instruction may be specied with an additional enable input (EN) that causes the timer instruction to behave nonretentively when activated, and retentively when de-activated. The general concept of the enable (EN) input is that the instruction behaves normally so long as the enable input is active (in this case, non-retentive timing action is considered normal according to the IEC 61131-3 standard), but the instruction freezes all execution whenever the enable input de-activates. This freezing of operation has the eect of retaining the current time (CT) value even if the input signal de-activates.
601
For example, if we wished to add a retentive timer to our conveyor control system to record total run time for the conveyor motor, we could do so using an enabled IEC 61131-3 timer instruction like this:
OUT_contactor timer_enabled
EN
OUT_contactor
ENO
TON
IN Q
PT
ET
run_time
When the motors contactor bit (OUT contactor) is active, the timer is enabled and allowed to time. However, when that bit de-activates (becomes false), the timer instruction as a whole is disabled, causing it to freeze and retain its current time (CT) value23 . This allows the motor to be started and stopped, with the timer maintaining a tally of total motor run time. If we wished to give the operator the ability to manually reset the total run time value to zero, we could hard-wire an additional switch to the PLCs discrete input card and add reset contacts to the program like this:
OUT_contactor timer_enabled
EN
IN_switch_Reset
ENO
TON
IN Q
IN_switch_Reset
OUT_contactor
PT
ET
run_time
Whenever the Reset switch is pressed, the timer is enabled (EN) but the timing input (IN) is disabled, forcing the timer to (non-retentively) reset its current time (CT) value to zero.
23 The enable out (ENO) signal on the timer instruction serves to indicate the instructions status: it activates when the enable input (EN) activates and de-activates when either the enable input de-activates or the instruction generates an error condition (as determined by the PLC manufacturers internal programming). The ENO output signal serves no useful purpose in this particular program, but it is available if there were any need for other rungs of the program to be aware of the run-time timers status.
602
The other major type of PLC timer instruction is the o-delay timer. This timer instruction diers from the on-delay type in that the timing function begins as soon as the instruction is deactivated, not when it is activated. An application for an o-delay timer is a cooling fan motor control for a large industrial engine. In this system, the PLC starts an electric cooling fan as soon as the engine is detected as rotating, and keeps that fan running for two minutes following the engines shut-down to dissipate residual heat:
Real-world I/O wiring Discrete input card

Engine speed switch
Discrete output card Cooling fan

contactor coil OUT_contactor_fan
IN_switch_enginespeed
PLC program
IN_switch_enginespeed OUT_contactor_fan
IN
TOF
120 PT ET 0
(120 seconds = 2 minutes)
When the input (IN) to this timer instruction is activated, the output (Q) immediately activates (with no time delay at all) to turn on the cooling fan motor contactor. This provides the engine with cooling as soon as it begins to rotate (as detected by the speed switch connected to the PLCs discrete input). When the engine stops rotating, the speed switch returns to its normally-open position, de-activating the timers input signal which starts the timing sequence. The Q output remains active while the timer counts from 0 seconds to 120 seconds. As soon as it reaches 120 seconds, the output de-activates (shutting o the cooling fan motor) and the elapsed time value remains at 120 seconds until the input re-activates, at which time it resets back to zero.
12.4. LADDER DIAGRAM (LD) PROGRAMMING The following timing diagrams compare and contrast on-delay with o-delay timers:
603
On-delay timer (TON) IN

on-delay time
Off-delay timer (TOF) IN

off-delay time
While it is common to nd on-delay PLC instructions oered in both retentive and non-retentive forms within the instruction sets of nearly every PLC manufacturer and model, it is almost unheard of to nd retentive o-delay timer instructions. Typically, o-delay timers are non-retentive only24 .
24 The enable (EN) input signals specied in the IEC 61131-3 programming standard make retentive o-delay timers possible (by de-activating the enable input while maintaining the IN input in an inactive state), but bear in mind that most PLC implementations of timers do not have separate EN and IN inputs. This means (for most PLC timer instructions) the only input available to activate the timer is the IN input, in which case it is impossible to create a retentive o-delay timer (since such a timers elapsed time value would be immediately re-set to zero each time the input re-activates).
604
12.4.4
Data comparison instructions
As we have seen with counter and timers, some PLC instructions generate digital values other than simple Boolean (on/o) signals. Counters have current value (CV) registers and timers have elapsed time (ET) registers, both of which are typically integer number values. Many other PLC instructions are designed to receive and manipulate non-Boolean values such as these to perform useful control functions. The IEC 61131-3 standard species a variety of data comparison instructions for comparing two non-Boolean values, and generating Boolean outputs. The basic comparative operations of less than (<), greater than (>), less than or equal to (), greater than or equal to (), equal to (=), and not equal to (=) may be found as a series of box instructions in the IEC standard:
EN
ENO
EN
ENO
EN
ENO
EQ
IN1
IN1 = IN2
NE
Q IN1
IN1 IN2
GT
Q IN1
IN1 > IN2
IN2
IN2
IN2
EN
ENO
EN
ENO
EN
ENO
LT
IN1
IN1 < IN2
GE
Q IN1
IN1 IN2
LE
Q IN1
IN1 IN2
IN2
IN2
IN2
The Q output for each instruction box activates whenever the evaluated comparison function is true and the enable input (EN) is active. If the enable input remains active but the comparison function is false, the Q output de-activates. If the enable input de-de-activates, the Q output retains its last state.
605
A practical application for a comparative function is something called alternating motor control, where the run-times of two redundant electric motors25 are monitored, with the PLC determining which motor to turn on next based on which motor has run the least:
"Start" pushbutton
Discrete input card

IN_switch_Start
Discrete output card Motor "A"

OUT_motor_A
contactor coil
"Stop" pushbutton IN_switch_Stop OUT_motor_B
Motor "B" contactor coil
PLC program
IN_switch_Start A_morethan_B IN_switch_Stop OUT_motor_A
OUT_motor_A
EN
ENO
TON
IN Q
PT
IN_switch_Start A_morethan_B IN_switch_Stop
ET
Motor_A_runtime
0
OUT_motor_B
OUT_motor_B
EN
ENO
TON
IN Q
PT
OUT_motor_A OUT_motor_B
ET
Motor_B_runtime
EN
ENO
GT
Motor_A_runtime
A_morethan_B
0
Motor_B_runtime
IN1
IN1 > IN2
IN2
In this program, two retentive on-delay timers keep track of each electric motors total run time, storing the run time values in two registers in the PLCs memory: Motor A runtime and
25 Perhaps two pumps performing the same pumping function, one serving as a backup to the other. Alternating motor control ensures the two motors run times are matched as closely as possible.
606
Motor B runtime. These two integer values are input to the greater than instruction box for comparison. If motor A has run longer than motor B, motor B will be the one enabled to start up next time the start switch is pressed. If motor A has run less time or the same amount of time as motor B (the scenario shown by the blue-highlighted status indications), motor A will be the one enabled to start. The two series-connected virtual contacts OUT motor A and OUT motor B ensure the comparison between motor run times is not made until both motors are stopped. If the comparison were continually made, a situation might arise where both motors would start if someone happened to press the Start pushbutton with one motor is already running.
607
12.4.5
Math instructions
The IEC 61131-3 standard species several dedicated ladder instructions for performing arithmetic calculations. Some of them are shown here:
EN ENO EN ENO EN ENO
ADD
IN1 OUT
IN1 + IN2
SUB
IN1 OUT
IN1 - IN2
MOD
IN1 OUT
IN1 % IN2
IN2
IN2
IN2
EN
ENO
EN
ENO
EN
ENO
MUL
IN1 OUT IN1
IN1 * IN2
DIV
OUT
IN1 IN2
EXPT
IN1
IN1
OUT
IN2
IN2
IN2
IN2
EN
ENO
EN
ENO
cos (IN)
EN
ENO
tan (IN)
SIN
sin (IN)
COS
IN OUT IN
TAN
OUT
IN
OUT
EN
ENO
EN
ENO
log (IN)
EN
eIN
ENO
LN
ln (IN)
LOG
IN OUT IN
EXP
OUT
IN
OUT
EN
IN
ENO
EN
|IN|
ENO
SQRT
IN OUT IN
ABS
OUT
As with the data comparison instructions, each of these math instructions must be enabled by an energized signal to the enable (EN) input. Input and output values are linked to each math instruction by tag name.
608
An example showing the use of such instructions is shown here, converting a temperature measurement in units of degrees Fahrenheit to units of degrees Celsius. In this particular case, the program inputs a temperature measurement of 138 o F and calculates the equivalent temperature of 58.89 o C:
PLC program
Always_ON Always_ON
Always_ON
Always_ON
EN
ENO
SUB
IN_deg_F
IN1
OUT
138 32
Always_ON
IN1 - IN2
106
IN2
EN
ENO
DIV
X
IN1
OUT
OUT_deg_C
106 1.8
IN1 IN2
58.89
IN2
Note how two separate math instructions were required to perform this simple calculation, as well as a dedicated variable (X) used to store the intermediate calculation between the subtraction and the division boxes. Although not specied in the IEC 61131-3 standard, many programmable logic controllers support Ladder Diagram math instructions allowing the direct entry of arbitrary equations. Rockwell
609
(Allen-Bradley) Logix5000 programming, for example, has the Compute (CPT) function, which allows any typed expression to be computed in a single instruction as opposed to using several dedicated math instructions such as Add, Subtract, etc. General-purpose math instructions dramatically shorten the length of a ladder program compared to the use of dedicated math instructions for any applications requiring non-trivial calculations. For example, the same Fahrenheit-to-Celsius temperature conversion program implemented in Logix5000 programming only requires a single math instruction and no declarations of intermediate variables:
Rockwell Logix5000 PLC program

Always_ON Always_ON
Always_ON
Always_ON
Compute Dest Expression

OUT_deg_C
58.89
(IN_deg_F - 32)/1.8
610
12.4.6
Sequencers
Many industrial processes require control actions to take place in certain, predened sequences. Batch processes are perhaps the most striking example of this, where materials for making a batch must be loaded into the process vessels, parameters such as temperature and pressure controlled during the batch processing, and then discharge of the product monitored and controlled. Before the advent of reliable programmable logic devices, this form of sequenced control was usually managed by an electromechanical device known as a drum sequencer. This device worked on the principle of a rotating cylinder (drum) equipped with tabs to actuate switches as the drum rotated into certain positions. If the drum rotated at a constant speed (turned by a clock motor), those switches would actuate according to a timed schedule26 . The following photograph shows a drum sequencer with 30 switches. Numbered tabs on the circumference of the drum mark the drums rotary position in one of 24 increments. With this number of switches and tabs, the drum can control up to thirty discrete (on/o) devices over a series of twenty-four sequenced steps:
26 The operation of the drum is not unlike that of an old player piano, where a strip of paper punched with holes caused hammers in the piano to automatically strike their respective strings as the strip was moved along at a set speed, thus playing a pre-programmed song.
611
A typical application for a sequencer is to control a Clean In Place (CIP ) system for a food processing vessel, where a process vessel must undergo a cleaning cycle to purge it of any biological matter between food processing cycles. The steps required to clean the vessel are well-dened and must always occur in the same sequence in order to ensure hygienic conditions. An example timing chart is shown here:
Caustic wash and circulate (4 min)
Wash at temp. (60 min @ 165 oF)
Pre-rinse pump-down (3 min)
Pre-rinse pump-down (2 min)
Caustic pump-down (2 min)
Wash return to tank (2 min)
Wash at temp. (30 min @ 165 oF)
Acid wash and circulate (4 min)
Wash return to tank (2 min)
Rinse pump-down (2 min)
Pre-rinse drain (2 min)
Pre-rinse drain (2 min)
Pre-rinse (10 min)
Pre-rinse (10 min)
Acid pump-down (2 min)
Rinse (10 min)
Supply pump
Return pump
Pre-rinse supply valve
Rinse supply valve
Caustic supply valve
Caustic return valve
Acid supply valve
Acid return valve
Drain valve
Time
In this example, there are nine discrete outputs one for each of the nine nal control elements (pumps and valves) and seventeen steps to the sequence, each one of them timed. In this particular sequence, the only input is the discrete signal to commence the CIP cycle. From the initiation of the CIP to its conclusion two and a half hours (150 minutes) later, the sequencer simply steps through the programmed routine. In a general sense, the operation of a drum sequencer is that of a state machine : the output
Drain (3 min)
612
of the system depends on the condition of the machines internal state (the drum position), not just the conditions of the input signals. Digital computers are very adept at implementing state functions, and so the general function of a drum sequencer should be (and is) easy to implement in a PLC. Other PLC functions we have seen (latches and timers in particular) are similar, in that the PLCs output at any given time is a function of both its present input condition(s) and its past input condition(s). Sequencing functions expand upon this concept to dene a much larger number of possible states (positions of a drum), some of which may even be timed. Unfortunately, despite the utility of drum sequence functions and their ease of implementation in digital form, there seems to be very little standardization between PLC manufacturers regarding sequencing functions. Sadly, the IEC 61131-3 standard (at least at the time of this writing, in 2009) does not specically dene a sequencing function suitable for Ladder Diagram programming. PLC manufacturers are left to invent sequencing instructions of their own design.
12.5
Structured Text (ST) programming
(Will be addressed in future versions of this book)
12.6
Instruction List (IL) programming
12.7
Function Block Diagram (FBD) programming
12.8
Sequential Function Chart (SFC) programming
12.9. HUMAN-MACHINE INTERFACES
613
12.9
Human-Machine Interfaces
Many modern PLC systems are equipped with computer-based interface panels which human operators use to observe data gathered by the PLC and also enter data to the PLC. These panels are generally referred to as Human27 -Machine Interfaces, or HMI panels. HMIs may take the form of general-purpose (personal) computers running special graphic software to interface with a PLC, or as special-purpose computers designed to be mounted in sheet metal panel fronts to perform no task but the operator-PLC interface. The rst photograph shows an example of the former, and the second photograph an example of the latter:
27 An older term for an operator interface panel was the Man-Machine Interface or MMI. However, this fell out of favor due to its sexist tone.
614
Modern HMI panels and software are almost exclusively tag-based, with each graphic object on the screen associated with at least one data tag name, which in turn is associated to data points (bits, or words) in the PLC by way of a tag name database le resident in the HMI. Graphic objects on the HMI screen either accept (read) data from the PLC to present useful information to the operator, send (write) data to the PLC from operator input, or both. The task of programming an HMI unit consists of building a tag name database and then drawing screens to illustrate the process to as good a level of detail as operators will need to run it. An example screenshot of a tag name database table for a modern HMI is shown here:
The tag name database is accessed and edited using the same software to create graphic images in the HMI. In this particular example you can see several tag names (e.g. START PUSHBUTTON, MOTOR RUN TIMER, ERROR MESSAGE, MOTOR SPEED) associated with data points within the PLCs memory (in this example, the PLC addresses are shown in Modbus register format). In many cases the tag name editor will be able to display corresponding PLC memory points in the same manner as they appear in the PLC programming editor software (e.g. I:5/10, SM0.4, C11, etc.). An important detail to note in this tag name database display is the read/write attributes of each tag. Note in particular how four of the tags shown are read-only : this means the HMI only has permission to read the values of those four tags from the PLCs memory, and not to write (alter) those values. The reason for this in the case of these four tags is that those tags refer to PLC input data points. The START PUSHBUTTON tag, for instance, refers to a discrete input in the PLC energized by a real pushbutton switch. As such, this data point gets its state from the energization of the discrete input terminal. If the HMI were to be given write permission for this data point, there would likely be a conict. Suppose that input terminal on the PLC were energized (setting the START PUSHBUTTON bit to a 1 state) and the HMI simultaneously attempted to write a 0 state to the same tag. One of these two data sources would win, and other other would lose, possibly resulting in unexpected behavior from the PLC program. For this reason, data points in the PLC linked to real-world inputs should always be limited as read-only permission in the HMIs database, so the
12.9. HUMAN-MACHINE INTERFACES
615
HMI cannot possibly generate a conict. The potential for data conict also exists for some of the other points in the database, however. A good example of this is the MOTOR RUN bit, which is the bit within the PLC program telling the real-world motor to run. Presumably, this bit gets its data from a coil in the PLCs Ladder Diagram program. However, since it also appears in the HMI database with read/write permission, the potential exists for the HMI to over-write (i.e. conict) that same bit in the PLCs memory. Suppose someone programmed a toggling pushbutton screen object in the HMI linked to this tag: pushing this virtual button on the HMI screen would attempt to set the bit (1), and pushing it again would attempt to reset the bit (0). If this same bit is being written to by a coil in the PLCs program, however, there exists the distinct possibility that the HMIs pushbutton object and the PLCs coil will conict, one trying to tell the bit to be a 0 while the other tries to tell that bit to be a 1. This situation is quite similar to the problem experienced when multiple coils in a Ladder Diagram program are addressed to the same bit. The general rule to follow here is never allow more than one element to write to any data point. In my experience teaching PLC and HMI programming, this is one of the more common errors students make when rst learning to program HMIs: they will try to have both the HMI and the PLC writing to the same memory locations, with weird results. One of the lessons you will learn when programming large, complex systems is that it is very benecial to dene all the necessary tag names before beginning to lay out graphics in an HMI. The same goes for PLC programming: it makes the whole project go faster with less confusion if you take the time to dene all the necessary I/O points (and tag names, if the PLC programming software supports tag names in the programming environment) before you begin to create any code specifying how those inputs and outputs will relate to each other. Maintaining a consistent convention for tag names is important, too. For example, you may wish to begin the tag name of every hard-wired I/O point as either INPUT or OUTPUT (e.g. INPUT PRESSURE SWITCH HIGH, OUTPUT SHAKER MOTOR RUN, etc.). The reason for maintaining a strict naming convention is not obvious at rst, since the whole point of tag names is to give the programmer the freedom to assign arbitrary names to data points in the system. However, you will nd that most tag name editors list the tags in alphabetical order, which means a naming convention organized in this way will present all the input tags contiguously (adjacent) in the list, all the output tags contiguously in the list, and so on.
616
Another way to leverage the alphabetical listing of tag names to your advantage is to begin each tag name with a word describing its association to a major piece of equipment. Take for instance this example of a process with several data points dened in a PLC control system and displayed in an HMI:
FT
Reactor_feed_flow Reactor_feed_temp
TT
Reactor_jacket_valve
Reactor
Exchanger_preheat_valve
TT
Reactor_bed_temp Exchanger_effluent_temp_out
TT Heat exchanger
Exchanger_preheat_temp_in
Exchanger_effluent_pump
TT
Exchanger_preheat_pump
12.9. HUMAN-MACHINE INTERFACES If we list all these tags in alphabetical order, the association is immediately obvious: Exchanger effluent pump Exchanger effluent temp out Exchanger preheat pump Exchanger preheat temp in Exchanger preheat valve Reactor bed temp Reactor feed flow Reactor feed temp Reactor jacket valve
617
As you can see from this tag name list, all the tags directly associated with the heat exchanger are located in one contiguous group, and all the tags directly associated with the reactor are located in the next contiguous group. In this way, judicious naming of tags serves to group them in hierarchical fashion, making them easy for the programmer to locate at any future time in the tag name database. You will note that all the tag names shown here lack space characters between words (e.g. instead of Reactor bed temp, a tag name should use hyphens or underscore marks as spacing characters: Reactor bed temp), since spaces are generally assumed by computer programming languages to be delimiters (separators between dierent variables). Like programmable logic controllers themselves, the capabilities of HMIs have been steadily increasing while their price decreases. Modern HMIs support graphic trending, data archival, advanced alarming, and even web server ability allowing other computers to easily access certain data over wide-area networks. The ability of HMIs to log data over long periods of time relieves the PLC of having to do this task, which is very memory-intensive. This way, the PLC merely serves current data to the HMI, and the HMI is able to keep a record of current and past data using its vastly larger memory reserves28 .
28 If the HMI is based on a personal computer platform (e.g. Rockwell RSView, Wonderware, FIX/Intellution software), it may even be equipped with a hard disk drive for enormous amounts of historical data storage.
618
12.10
How to teach yourself PLC programming
First and foremost, you need to get your very own PLC to work with. Computer programming of any kind is not a spectator sport, and can only be learned by signicant investment of time and eort at the keyboard. In many ways, learning to program is like learning a new spoken or written language: there is new vocabulary and new grammatical rules to master, and many ways to make mistakes. Fortunately, many low-cost PLCs exist on the market for individuals to purchase. My own personal favorites are the CLICK PLC models manufactured by Koyo and marketed through Automation Direct, and also the Allen-Bradley MicroLogix 1000 PLC. The rst document you should read once you get your PLC is something called a Getting Started guide. Every PLC manufacturer publishes a document with this name (or something similar such as Quick Start or Getting Results ). This manual will step you through all the basic procedures for entering a simple program into your PLC and getting it to run. It is generally far easier to learn programming by copying and adapting a worked example than it is to start from a blank page on your own, just as it is easiest to learn a spoken or written language by practicing sentences spoken in that language by other people before constructing your own sentences from scratch. In order to work with your PLC, you will need a convenient way to simulate dierent input conditions coming from discrete (switch) devices. Any set of hand-operated switches will do, my recommendation being household light switches (very inexpensive and rugged). Attaching an array of these switches to a wooden board along with the PLC and interconnecting terminal blocks forms what is often called a PLC trainer. The following photograph shows one such trainer29 , using an Allen-Bradley MicroLogix 1000 PLC:
29 This particular trainer was partially constructed from recycled materials the wooden platform, light switches, and power cord to minimize cost.
12.10. HOW TO TEACH YOURSELF PLC PROGRAMMING
619
Once you have learned the basic steps for entering, running, and saving a PLC program, you are ready to begin building your knowledge of the languages vocabulary and grammar. In computer programming (of all types), there are dierent functions of the language one must become familiar with in order to do useful tasks. A great way to learn how to use these functions is to create your own demonstration programs illustrating the use of each function. For example, if you open up the pages of almost any computer programming book, somewhere near the beginning you will nd a demonstration program called Hello World! The purpose of a Hello World! program is to do nothing more than display the words Hello World! on the computer screen. It is an entirely useless program to run, but it is highly useful for gaining teaching the programmer the basics of program construction and text message functionality. By the same token, you may learn the basics of each programming function by writing simple Hello World-type programs illustrating each one of those functions. These demonstration programs will not serve any useful purpose (other than to help you learn), and should be kept as simple as possible in order to minimize confusion. For example, every PLC provides instructions to perform the following tasks: Turn discrete outputs on and o Count discrete events Time events Control events in a specic sequence Compare numerical values (greater than, less than, equal, not equal) Perform arithmetic functions Just as every spoken or written language has verbs, nouns, adjectives, and adverbs to describe actions and things, every PLC programming language has specic functions to perform useful tasks. The details of how to perform each function will vary somewhat between PLC manufacturers and models, but the overall functions are quite similar. The reference manuals provided for your PLC will describe in detail how to use each function. Your task is to write simple demonstration programs for each function, allowing you to directly explore how each function works, and to gain an understanding of each function by observing its behavior and also by making (inevitable) mistakes. After writing each demonstration program, you should add a lot of comments to it, so you will be able to understand what you did later when you go back to your demonstration program for reference. These comments should cover the following points: Proper use of the function A verbal description of what the function does A list of possible (practical) uses for the function Idiosyncrasies of the function (i.e. odd or unexpected behavior, tricky points to watch out for) Mistakes you may have made (and thus might make again!) in using the function
620
Years ago when I was teaching myself how to program using the C language, I wrote a set of tutorial programs demonstrating common programming functions and techniques. The following is a partial list of these tutorial programs, which I still keep to this day: Program that accepts and then prints alphanumeric characters (including their equivalent numerical values) Program demonstrating how to use command-line arguments to the main() function Program demonstrating basic curses commands for plotting characters at arbitrary locations on the screen Program illustrating the declaration and use of data structures Program illustrating how to prototype and then call functions (subroutines) Program executing an innite loop Program illustrating how to return a pointer from a function Each one of these tutorial programs is heavily commented, to explain to myself in my own words how they work and what they are doing. Not only did they help me learn how to write programs in C, but they also serve as a handy reference for me any time in the future I need to refresh my knowledge. The act of writing tutorial programs is akin to journaling as a way to work through complex problems in life in a way, it is like having a conversation with yourself.
References
1758 PLC-5 Programmable Controllers Addressing Reference Manual, Publication 5000-6.4.4, Allen-Bradley Company, Inc., Milwaukee, WI, 1995. Allen-Bradley I/O Modules Wiring Diagrams, Publication CIG-WD001A-EN-P, Rockwell Automation, Inc., Milwaukee, WI, 2005. IEC 61131-3, International Standard, Programmable Controllers Part 3: Programming Languages, Edition 2.0, International Electrotechnical Commission, Geneva, Switzerland, 2003. Logix5000 Controllers I/O and Tag Data, Publication 1756-PM004B-EN-P, Rockwell Automation, Inc., Milwaukee, WI, 2008. Programming with STEP 7, Siemens AG, N urnberg, Germany, 2006. S7-200 Programmable Controller System Manual, Order Number 6ES7298-8FA24-8BH0, Edition 09/2007, Siemens AG, N urnberg, Germany, 2007. SLC 500 Family of Programmable Controllers Addressing Reference Manual, Publication 50006.4.23, Allen-Bradley Company, Inc., Milwaukee, WI, 1995. SLC 500 Modular Hardware Style User Manual, Publication 1747-UM011E-EN-P, Rockwell Automation, Inc., Milwaukee, WI, 2004.

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Programmable Logic Controllers

CHAPTER 12. PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLERS

12.1. PLC EXAMPLES

CHAPTER 12. PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLERS

12.1. PLC EXAMPLES

CHAPTER 12. PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLERS

12.1. PLC EXAMPLES

CHAPTER 12. PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLERS

12.2. INPUT/OUTPUT (I/O) CAPABILITIES

Input/Output (I/O) capabilities

Remote I/O interace

Host PLC (base unit)

Remote I/O rack Power supply

CHAPTER 12. PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLERS

12.2. INPUT/OUTPUT (I/O) CAPABILITIES

PLC discrete output channel +V

This is a "sourcing" or "PNP" discrete output channel

CHAPTER 12. PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLERS

PLC discrete input card (sinking) Limit switch

PLC discrete input card (sourcing) Limit switch

12.2. INPUT/OUTPUT (I/O) CAPABILITIES

CHAPTER 12. PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLERS

12.2. INPUT/OUTPUT (I/O) CAPABILITIES

CHAPTER 12. PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLERS

12.2. INPUT/OUTPUT (I/O) CAPABILITIES

CHAPTER 12. PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLERS

12.3. LOGIC PROGRAMMING

CHAPTER 12. PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLERS

Relating I/O status to virtual elements

12.3. LOGIC PROGRAMMING

Y1 Y2 Y3 (Inside the PLCs memory) Input register 0 0 1 0 1 0

(Displayed on the editing software)

CHAPTER 12. PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLERS

12.3. LOGIC PROGRAMMING

120 VAC "line" power L1 L2

Alarm reset pushbutton

High pressure alarm lamp

Trip point = 270 PSI Com

Impulse tube connects to process vessel

< 270 PSI X4 X1 Y5 Personal computer display

CHAPTER 12. PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLERS

12.3. LOGIC PROGRAMMING

120 VAC "line" power L1 L2

Alarm reset pushbutton

High pressure alarm lamp

Trip point = 270 PSI Com

Impulse tube connects to process vessel

> 270 PSI X4 X1 Y5 Personal computer display

CHAPTER 12. PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLERS

120 VAC "line" power L1 L2

Alarm reset pushbutton

High pressure alarm lamp

Trip point = 270 PSI Com

Impulse tube connects to process vessel

< 270 PSI X4 X1 Y5 Personal computer display

12.3. LOGIC PROGRAMMING

120 VAC "line" power L1 L2

Alarm reset pushbutton

High pressure alarm lamp

Impulse tube connects to process vessel

< 270 PSI X4 X1 Y5 Personal computer display

CHAPTER 12. PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLERS

Memory maps and I/O addressing

CHAPTER 12. PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLERS

File separator (colon)

Bit separator (slash)

Word separator (point)

12.3. LOGIC PROGRAMMING

SLC 500 4-slot chassis

IN0 IN1 IN2 IN3 IN4 IN5

VDC1 VDC1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 COM1 COM1

VDC2 VDC2 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 COM2 COM2

IN6 IN7 COM COM

CHAPTER 12. PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLERS

SLC 500 4-slot chassis