4

4.1

Odd, Even, and Periodic Functions

Denition: We say a function f (x) is even if f (x) = f (x). Of course, the graph of an even function is symmetric about the y -axis. A famous example is the cosine function:
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Figure 1:

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The prototypical examples are even powers: x2 , x4 , x6 , etc. (these are probably the reason for the use of the word even). Reciprocal even powers are also even: x2 , x4 , etc., and so is the absolute value function, |x|. It might interest you to note that we can obtain an even function in between x2 and x4 by writing x3 . Denition: We say a functionf (x) is odd if f (x) = f (x). The graph of an odd function is said to be symmetric about the origin, or antisymmetric. By this we mean that it is unchanged by a 180 rotation, or equivalently, unchanged by a pair of successive reections, across both axes. The sine function is odd, of course:
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Figure 2:

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So are odd powers and reciprocal powers: x, x3 , x5 , etc., x1 , x3 , etc. Heres a little

challenge: can you think of a way to construct an odd function in between x and x3 ? (Answer at end of le). Facts about symmetric functions: It can be shown1 that (EVEN) (EVEN) = EVEN (ODD) (ODD) = EVEN (EVEN) (ODD) = ODD Most functions are neither even nor odd. However, any function whose domain is symmetric about x = 0 (so that f (x) is dened whenever f (x) is dened) can be expressed as the sum of an even component and an odd component. Heres how: 1 1 f ( x) = f ( x) + f ( x) f ( x) 2 2 1 1 1 1 = f ( x) + f ( x) + f ( x) f ( x) 2 2 2 2 = 1 1 [f (x) + f (x)] + [f (x) f (x)] 2 2 := g (x) + h (x) . Now, g (x) =
1 2

[f (x) + f (x)] = g (x), so g is even. Meanwhile, h (x) =

1 2

[f (x) f (x)] =

1 2 [f (x) f (x)], so h is odd. Thus we have obtained a formula for the even and odd components of f . We dont often use this formula, but it is the basis for two useful functions; if we break the exponential function up into its even and odd components we obtain ex = 1 x 1 x e + e x + e e x , 2 2

and from this we dene the hyperbolic functions: 1 x e + e x , 2

cosh (x) :=
1

sinh (x) :=

To prove the rst one, let f (x) and g (x) be even functions, and let h (x) = f (x) g (x). Then h (x) = f (x) g (x) = f (x) g (x) = h (x), and so h is even. To remember the rules, just think of the simplest examples: x2 x4 = x6 , x x3 = x4 , and x x2 = x3 . From these you can see why the rules for products of even and odd functions correspond to the rules for sums of even and odd integers!

1 x e e x . 2

Well discuss the reasons for the names hyperbolic cosine and hyperbolic sine later on. As you learn more and more calculus youll discover several reasons why symmetry can be important. For the time being, just observe that noticing symmetry can make sketching easier: Example: Sketch the graph of the function f (x) = x2 |x|. Solution: First note that f is even, so we can start by sketching the part of the graph for x 0, and just reect it. For x 0, we have f ( x) = x2 x = 1 x 2 2 1 4

This tells us that this part of the graph is part of a upward-opening parabola with its vertex 1 at 1 2 , 4 . Finding the intercepts might be helpful: x2 x = 0 = x (x 1) = 0 = x = 0 or x = 1. Now we just sketch this, and reect it!
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Figure 3:

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4.2

Periodicity

Denition: A function f (t) is periodic, with period T , if f (t + nT ) = f (t) for every integer n. 3

The graph of a periodic function can be divided into vertical strips which are replicas of each other:
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Figure 4:

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There are a few terms used to describe periodic functions that you should know: Frequency = 1 . If the period is measured in seconds, then the frequency is in Period Hertz: 1 Hz = 1s1 . This is the number of complete cycles per second. In engineering, its common to use the letter f for frequency, while physicists tend to use the Greek letter instead. Angular Frequency = 2 = 2 f . This has units of radians per second (well review Period what radians are shortly). We will actually refer to the angular frequency much more often than to the frequency; so much so that well often get tired of saying angular! When we say frequency, we often mean angular frequency - watch out for this. Our notation will help; it is customary to denote the angular frequency by the Greek letter (or a, b, m, n, or ... but never f ). Periodic Extensions Occasionally, in applications to analog electronics, well be given a voltage or a current over a certain time interval, and well need to create a function which matches the given one over the given interval, but is dened over the entire real line, and is periodic. The same task may be required in other applications as well. For example, we might be given this as our original function:

We could extend this as an even periodic function (of period 1), like this:
-1 2

2x, f (x) = 2 2x, 0

if x 0, if x 1

1 2

2, 1

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elsewhere

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Figure 5:

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Alternatively, we could extend it as an odd function of period 2, like this:

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Figure 6:

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Notice that both of these reproduce f (x) over the original interval (0, 1). You may see some more examples of these in the assignments.

Answer to little challenge involving odd functions: | x3 | f (x) = x , which is exactly the same function). 5

We can let f (x) =

x3 | x|

(or