2008

BoundNotes
VCESpecialistMathematics,MAT1085
MaoYuanLiu

Page2

u
u.1

Writtenby MaoYuanLiu
Createdwith MicrosoftWord2007
VCAAStudentNumber 86348260R
MonashStudentNumber 21513856
Lastupdate Version1.43,29
th
September2008

TableofContents

Page3

u.2 Table of Contents
u.2.1
TableofContents
1 Algebra........................................................................................................................................................5
1.1 LinearAlgebra.......................................................................................................................................6
1.1.1 SystemsandMatrices...................................................................................................................6
1.1.2 Vectors.......................................................................................................................................18
1.2 AlgebraofFunctions...........................................................................................................................28
1.2.1 CircularFunctions.......................................................................................................................28
1.2.2 HyperbolicFunctions..................................................................................................................34
1.2.3 FunctionsandtheirGraphs........................................................................................................36
1.3 ComplexNumbers...............................................................................................................................39
1.3.1 ArgandDiagram..........................................................................................................................40
1.3.2 Operations..................................................................................................................................40
1.3.3 PolarForm..................................................................................................................................41
1.3.4 ComplexRoots............................................................................................................................45
1.3.5 RelationshipsintheComplexPlane...........................................................................................46
2 Calculus.....................................................................................................................................................49
2.1 SingleVariableCalculus.......................................................................................................................50
2.1.1 Limits..........................................................................................................................................50
2.1.2 MethodsofDifferentiation........................................................................................................54
2.1.3 ApplicationsofDifferentialCalculus..........................................................................................57
2.1.4 MethodsofAntidifferentiation..................................................................................................63
2.1.5 ApplicationsofIntegralCalculus................................................................................................73
2.1.6 DifferentialEquations.................................................................................................................81
2.1.7 PhysicalApplications..................................................................................................................93
2.1.8 SequencesandSeries...............................................................................................................107
2.2 VectorCalculus..................................................................................................................................115
2.2.1 SpaceCurveandContinuity.....................................................................................................115
2.2.2 Derivative.................................................................................................................................115
2.2.3 VectorTangent.........................................................................................................................116
2.2.4 Curvature..................................................................................................................................116
2.2.5 NormalandBiNormal..............................................................................................................116
2.3 MultivariableCalculus.......................................................................................................................117
2.3.1 Continuity.................................................................................................................................117
2.3.2 PartialDerivatives.....................................................................................................................117
2.3.3 Tangentplanes.........................................................................................................................119
2.3.4 Chainrule.................................................................................................................................119
2.3.5 DirectionalDerivatives.............................................................................................................120
2.3.6 CriticalPointsofaSurface........................................................................................................121

Page4

u.S
u.S.1

Algebra

Page5

1.u Algebia
1.u.1

Algebia
Lineai Algebia (Systems anu Natiices, vectois), Algebia of Functions,
Complex Numbeis

LinearAlgebra
SystemsandMatrices

Page6

1.1 LinearAlgebra
1.1.1 SystemsandMatrices
Am nmatrixisarectangulararrayofmrowsandncolumns,denotedbyA
mn
.Itsentriesatirow
andjcolumnisdenotedaso
]
.ThematrixcanalsobeexpressedasA = (o
]
)
mn

Addition/subtractionareonlylegalwheretheorder(dimension)ofthematricesarethesame.
A
mn
+ B
mn
= (o
]
+ b
]
)
mn

Twomatricesareconsideredequaliftheirorderandalltheirentriesarethesame.
Propertiesofaddition:
Commutative,(A+B)=(B+A)
Associative,A+(B+C)=(A+B)+C
Additionofzeromatrixhasnoeffect,A+0=A
ThereexistanegativematrixDofA,whereeachandallitsentriesarenegativethatofA,
suchthat,D+A=A+D=0
Scalarmultipleofamatrixisobtainedbymultiplyingeachentrybythescalar.
Propertiesofscalarmultiplication:
Scalar1hasnoeffect,1A=A
Collective,kA+nA=(k+n)A
Distributive,k(A+B)=kA+kB
Associativeandcommutative,k(nA)=n(kA)=(nk)A
Zeroscalarnullsthematrix,0A=0

LinearAlgebra
SystemsandMatrices

Page7

1.1.1.1 MatrixMultiplication
MatrixmultiplicationbetweenAandBisonlylegalifthenumberofcolumnsisthesameasthe
numberofrows.TheproductinheritthenumberofrowsofA,andthenumberofcolumnsofB
A
mp
B
pn
= C
mn

c
]
= (o
t
b
t ]
)
p
t=1

Forexample
j
o
1 1
o
1 2
o
1 3
o
2 1
o
2 2
o
2 3
[ _
b
1 1
b
1 2
b
2 1
b
2 2
b
3 1
b
3 2
_ = _
o
11
b
11
+ o
12
b
21
+ o
13
b
31
o
11
b
12
+o
12
b
22
+ o
13
b
32
o
21
b
11
+o
22
b
21
+ o
23
b
31
o
21
b
12
+o
22
b
22
+ o
23
b
32
_
Wherethematriceshavetherightdimensionstomultiplyeachother,theyaresaidtobe
conformable
Matrixdivisioninvolvesthematrixinverse,whichdoesntalwaysexist.Thiswillbeexploredlateron
inthenotes.
Propertiesofmultiplication:
Associative,A(BC)=(AB)C
Distributive,A(B+C)=AB+AC
NOTcommutative
1.1.1.2 Transpose
Atransposematrixisamatrixwithrowsandcolumnsswitched,orinvertedaboutitsprimaryaxis[a
11
,
a
22
,a
33
]
[(o
]
)
mn

1
= (o
]
)
nm

Forexample
_
o b c
J c
_
1
= _
o J
b c
c
_
Propertiesoftranspose:
Thetransposeofatransposeisitself,(A
T
)
T
=A
Transposeofasumisthesumoftransposes,(A+B)
T
=A
T
+B
T

Transposeofascalarmultipleisthescalarmultipleofthetranspose,(kA)
T
=k(A
T
)
TransposeofamatrixproductistheproductofthetransposesintheREVERSEORDER,
(AB)
T
=B
T
A
T

LinearAlgebra
SystemsandMatrices

Page8

1.1.1.3 SpecialTypesofMatrices
1.1.1.3.1 Zero
Zeromatricesarematriceswhereallentriesare0:
u
mn
= _
u u
. .
u u
_
1.1.1.3.2 Square
Squarematricesarematriceswhichhasthesamehorizontalandverticaldimension,suchasA
mm

Onlyasquarematrixcanhavedeterminants,inversesandpowers.
1.1.1.3.3 Symmetrical
Thetransposeofasymmetricalmatrixisequaltoitself.I.e.thematrixisequivalentoneithersideof
itsprimaryaxis.
_
a x z
x h y
z y c
_issquare.
1.1.1.3.4 Diagonal
Adiagonalmatrixisasymmetricalmatrixwhereallentriesexceptthoseontheprimaryaxisarezero.
_
a u u
u h u
u u c
_isadiagonalmatrix.
Thenonzeroentriesoftheinverseofthediagonalmatrixarethereciprocalofthenonzeroentries
ofthediagonalmatrix._
1a u u
u 1h u
u u 1c
_
1.1.1.3.5 Identity
Anidentitymatrixisadiagonalmatrixwhereallthenonzeroentriesare1.
I
n
= _
1 u
. .
u 1
_, I
3
= _
1 u u
u 1 u
u u 1
_
Amatrixmultipliedbyaconformableidentitymatrixisitself.IA=AI=A.
Theinverseoftheidentitymatrixisitself.
1.1.1.3.6 Orthogonal
Orthogonalmatricesaresquarematriceswheretheirtransposeisequaltotheirinverse.
A A
1
= A
1
A = I
Oneofsuchcaseistherotationalmatrix,j
cos 0 sin 0
-sin 0 cos 0
[.

LinearAlgebra
SystemsandMatrices

Page9

1.1.1.4 LinearTransformation
Foranndimensionalspace,thepositionvectorcanbetransformedlinearlybyann n
transformationmatrixT,suchthat:
_
y
1
.
y
n
_ = I
nn
_
x
1
.
x
n
_
1.1.1.4.1 HomogenousLinearTransformation
HomogenouslineartransformationaretransformationintheR
2
spacebya2x2matrix.
j
y
1
y
2
[ = j
o
11
o
12
o
21
o
22
[ j
x
1
x
2
[
Generally,wherex
2
=mx
1
+c(astraightline),giventhato
11
o
22
-o
12
o
21
= u:
y
2
= m
i
y
1
+ c
i

m
i
=
o
21
+mo
22
o
11
+mo
12
, c
i
=
c(o
11
o
22
- o
12
o
21
)
o
11
+ mo
12

1.1.1.4.1.1 SpecialCases
Whereo
11
o
22
- o
12
o
21
= u,
y
2
=
o
22
o
12
y
1
, o
12
= u
Ory
1
= o
22
wherea
22
isnot0.Ory
2
=
u
21
u
11
y
1
wherebotha
12
anda
22
are0.
1.1.1.4.2 Dilation
j
b u
u k
[,wherehisthedilationfactorfromtheyaxis(paralleltox),andkisthedilationfactorfromx
axis(paralleltoy)
1.1.1.4.3 Reflection
j
-1 u
u 1
[reflectsabouttheyaxis.
j
1 u
u -1
[reflectsaboutthexaxis.
j
u 1
1 u
[reflectsaboutthey=xline,ortakestheinverseoftherelationship.
1.1.1.4.4 Rotation
j
cos 0 sin 0
-sin 0 cos 0
[rotatesby0intheanticlockwisedirection.
1.1.1.4.5 Shearing
j
1 b
k 1
[,wherehistheamountofsheerinthexdirection,andkistheamountofsheerinthey
direction.

LinearAlgebra
SystemsandMatrices

Page10

1.1.1.5 RowOperations
Therearethreeelementaryrowoperations:
Rowswapswapanyrowwithanotherrow
Multiplybyascalar(nonzero)multiplyanyrowbyanumber(notzero)
Addamultipleofanotherrow
Byusingrowoperations,amatrixcanbemadeintoreforrref.
1.1.1.5.1 RowEchelonForm
Entriesbelowanyleadingentries(thefirstnonzeroentryinarow)arezero.Thisalsoimpliesthatall
entriestotheleftofanyleadingentriesarezero.Leadingentriesarepreferredtobe,butnot
necessarily,1.
_
1
u u 1
u u u
_
1.1.1.5.2 ReducedRowEchelonForm
Entriesbelowandaboveanyleadingentries(thefirstnonzeroentryinarow)arezero.Thisalso
impliesthatallentriestotheleftofanyleadingentriesarezero.Allleadingentriesare1.
_
1 u u
u u 1 u
u u u 1
_
1.1.1.6 Determinants
Thedeterminantisanumericalvaluedfunctionofasquarematrixthatdetermineswhetheritis
invertible.Thisallowsthecalculationofthematrixinverse,andhenceallowsdivision.
Determinantsaredenotedbyuet A = _
o
11
o
1n
. .
o
n1
o
nn
_.
Itisgrantedthatuet [(o
]
)
11
= o
11
.
Fora2by2matrix,wecanexpressalinearsystemas
o
11
x
1
+ o
12
x
2
= b
1

o
21
x
1
+ o
22
x
2
= b
2

Bytheprocessofelimination,(o
11
o
22
-o
12
o
21
)x
1
= o
22
b
1
-o
12
b
2

Forx
1
tohaveauniquesolution,itscoefficientmustnotbe0.Thiscoefficientisthedeterminant.
uet [(o
]
)
22
= o
11
= o
11
o
22
-o
12
o
21

LinearAlgebra
SystemsandMatrices

Page11

1.1.1.6.1 Minor
Theminor(ij)ofmatrixAisthematrixwiththei
th
rowandj
th
columnstruckout:
A = _
o
11
o
12
o
13
o
21
o
22
o
23
o
31
o
32
o
33
_, H
11
= j
o
22
o
23
o
32
o
33
[
1.1.1.6.2 Cofactor
Thecofactoristhedeterminantoftheminormultipliedby1tothepoweroftherowpluscolumn:
A
]
= (-1)
+]
|H
]
|
Fortheabovecase,A
(11)
= (-1)
1+1
(o
22
o
23
- o
23
o
32
) = o
22
o
23
- o
23
o
32

The1termwillmeanthatthecofactorsofdifferententrieswillhavedifferingsigns.Theyfollowthis
generalpattern:
+ - +
- + -
+ - +

1.1.1.6.3 CofactorExpansion
Cofactorexpansioncantakeanyrowandanycolumn.Thedeterminantisthesumoftheproductof
eachentryanditscofactorinaparticularroworcolumn.FormatrixA
mm

Bycolumn:
uet A = o
k
A
k
m
=1
= (-1)
+k
o
k
|H
k
|
m
=1
, wheie k is a constant
Byrow:
uet A = o
k ]
A
k ]
m
]=1
= (-1)
k+]
o
k ]
|H
k ]
|
m
]=1
, wheie k is a constant
Forexample:
A = _
1 u 1
1 2 S
S 2 1
_,tofinddetA,expandingbyfirstrow:
uet A = (-1)
1+1
1
2 S
2 1
+ (-1)
1+2
u
1 S
S 1
+ (-1)
1+3
1
1 2
S 2

= (2 -6) +u +(2 -6) = -8

LinearAlgebra
SystemsandMatrices

Page12

1.1.1.6.4 PropertiesofDeterminants
Somepropertiesofdeterminantsare:
Det(A)=Det(A
T
)
Ifthereisanyroworcolumnthatisentirelyconsistedofzeros,thedeterminantiszero
Ifanyroworcolumnsareidentical,thedeterminantiszero
Ifanyroworcolumnaremultiplesofanotherrow/column,thenthedeterminantiszero
Scalarmultipleofasingleroworcolumngivesthescalarmultipleofthedeterminant,
_
ko
11
o
12
o
13
ko
21
o
22
o
23
ko
31
o
32
o
33
_ = k _
o
11
o
12
o
13
o
21
o
22
o
23
o
31
o
32
o
33
_
Decompositionofrows/columns,
_
o
11
+b
11
o
12
o
13
o
21
+b
21
o
22
o
23
o
31
+b
31
o
32
o
33
_ = _
o
11
o
12
o
13
o
21
o
22
o
23
o
31
o
32
o
33
_ +_
b
11
o
12
o
13
b
21
o
22
o
23
b
31
o
32
o
33
_
Multiplesofanotherroworcolumn,
_
o
11
+ko
12
o
12
o
13
o
21
+ko
22
o
22
o
23
o
31
+ko
32
o
32
o
33
_ = _
o
11
o
12
o
13
o
21
o
22
o
23
o
31
o
32
o
33
_
Rowswap,
_
o
12
o
11
o
13
o
22
o
21
o
23
o
32
o
31
o
33
_ = -_
o
11
o
12
o
13
o
21
o
22
o
23
o
31
o
32
o
33
_
Det(AB)=Det(A)Det(B)
1.1.1.7 Inverse
AmatrixinverseisonesuchthatA(A
1
)=(A
1
)A=I
1.1.1.7.1 ByCofactor
Thematrixinverseisthetransposeofthecofactormatrixdividedbyitsdeterminant.Henceamatrix
witha0determinanthasnoinverse.
A
-1
=
1
uet(A)
(A
]
)
mm

Thetransposeofthecofactormatrixiscalledtheadjointmatrix,denotedbyadj(A).
A
-1
=
auj A
uet A

Forexample,A = _
1 u 1
1 2 S
S 2 1
_,A
]
= _
-4 8 -4
2 -2 -2
-2 -2 2
_ , uet(A) = -8
A
-1
=
1
-8
_
-4 u -4
8 -2 -2
-2 -2 2
_
1
= -
1
8
_
-4 2 -2
8 -2 -2
-4 -2 2
_ =
l
l
l
l
l
l
1
2
-
1
4
1
4
-1
1
4
1
4
1
2
1
4
-
1
4
1
1
1
1
1
1

LinearAlgebra
SystemsandMatrices

Page13

1.1.1.7.2 ByRowOperations
Byaugmentingthesquarematrixwiththeidentityofequaldimensionontheright,usingelementary
rowoperationstomakethelefthandmatrixintoidentity,therighthandmatrixwillbetheinverse.
_
1 u 1 1 u u
1 2 S u 1 u
S 2 1 u u 1
_ -
l
l
l
l
l
l1 u u
1
2
-
1
4
1
4
u 1 u -1
1
4
1
4
u u 1
1
2
1
4
-
1
4
1
1
1
1
1
1

Whereanentireroworcolumnofthelefthandsidebecomesentirely0,theidentitymatrixcan
neverbeobtained,i.e.nomatrixinverse.
1.1.1.7.3 PropertiesofInverse
Amatrixhasaninverseifandonlyifithasanonzerodeterminant.
o Ifamatrixhasnoinverse,itissingular
o Ifamatrixhasaninverse,itisnonsingularorinvertible
det(A)det(A
1
)=1
(A
T
)
1
=(A
1
)
T

(AB)
1
=B
1
A
1

1.1.1.8 ElementaryMatrices
Elementarymatricesaresquaretransformationmatricesthatperformasingleelementaryrow
operation.Thesematricesareinvertible.
Anm mmatrixisconsideredanelementarymatrixifitdiffersfromtheidentitymatrixbyasingle
rowoperation.
1.1.1.8.1 TypesandProperties
TypeIInterchangetworows
_
u 1 u
1 u u
u u 1
_
TypeIIMultiplyarowbyanonzeronumber
_
1 u u
u 2 u
u u 1
_
TypeIIIaddamultipleofanotherrow
_
1 u -2
u 1 u
u u 1
_
IfweletEbeanm melementarymatrix,andAbeanm n.ThematrixproductEAwouldbethe
sameasapplyingthatrowoperationtoA.

LinearAlgebra
SystemsandMatrices

Page14

1.1.1.8.2 InverseElementaryMatrices
TypeIInterchangetworows
_
u 1 u
1 u u
u u 1
_ - _
u 1 u
1 u u
u u 1
_
(Thistypeofelementarymatrixisitsselfinverse.)
TypeIIMultiplybythereciprocal
_
1 u u
u 2 u
u u 1
_ - _
1 u u
u 12 u
u u 1
_
TypeIIISubtractmultipleofanotherrow
_
1 u -2
u 1 u
u u 1
_ - _
1 u 2
u 1 u
u u 1
_
Elementarymatricesfundamentallycharacterisesmatrixinverses:
IfAistheproductofelementarymatricesE
k
E
3
E
2
E
1
,then:
A = E
k
E
3
E
2
E
1
I
E
1
-1
E
2
-1
E
3
-1
E
k
-1
A = E
1
-1
E
2
-1
E
3
-1
E
k
-1
E
k
E
3
E
2
E
1
I = I
A
-1
= E
1
-1
E
2
-1
E
3
-1
E
k
-1

Amatrixhasaninverseifandonlyifitistheproductofelementarymatrices.
1.1.1.9 SystemsofLinearEquations
Asystemoflinearequationcanbegeneralisedtobe:
o
11
x
1
+ o
12
x
2
+ o
13
x
3
+ o
1n
x
n
= b
1

o
21
x
1
+o
22
x
2
+o
23
x
3
+ o
2n
x
n
= b
2

.
o
k1
x
1
+ o
k2
x
2
+ o
k3
x
3
+ o
kn
x
n
= b
k

Fornvariablenequationssystem,itcanbeexpressedasthematrixequation:
(o
]
)
nn
_
x
1
x
2
.
x
n
_ = _
b
1
b
2
.
b
n
_
Ax = B

LinearAlgebra
SystemsandMatrices

Page15

1.1.1.9.1 Solving
1.1.1.9.1.1 UsingInverses
InthecasethatAisanonsingularmatrix,
Ax = B = x = A
-1
B
A_
x
1
x
2
.
x
n
_ = _
b
1
b
2
.
b
n
_ = _
x
1
x
2
.
x
n
_ = A
-1
_
b
1
b
2
.
b
n
_
1.1.1.9.1.2 CramersRule
Cramersruleisconsideredtobeeasierthanusingmatrixinverses.
SinceA
-1
=
ud](A)
dct A
,thesolutionofthesystemcanbeexpressedas:
_
x
1
x
2
.
x
n
_ =
1
uet A
_
A
11
A
21
A
n1
A
12
A
22
A
n2
. . .
A
1n
A
2n
A
nn
_ _
b
1
b
2
.
b
n
_ =
1
uet A
_
A
11
b
1
+A
21
b
2
++ A
n1
b
n
A
12
b
1
+A
22
b
2
++ A
n2
b
n
.
A
1n
b
1
+A
2n
b
2
++ A
nn
b
n
_
Itisevidentthattherightmostmatrixentriesisacofactorexpansionofacolumn,wheretheentry
o
]
= b

forthej
th
column,andtherestoftheentriesareidenticaltothatofA.
A
(j)
isusedtodenotethematrixobtainedfromAbyreplacingthej
th
columnofAbythecolumn
vectorB.
Forexample,A
(2)
= _
o
11
b
1
o
1n
o
21
b
2
o
2n
. . .
o
n1
b
n
o
nn
_
Ingeneral,
_
x
1
x
2
.
x
n
_ =
1
uet A
_
uet A
(1)
uet A
(2)
.
uet A
(3)
_
Inparticular,x
n
=
dct A
(n)
dct A

LinearAlgebra
SystemsandMatrices

Page16

1.1.1.9.1.3 GaussianElimination
Gaussianeliminationuseselementaryrowoperationsoftheaugmentedmatrix[A|B],carryingitto
itsrowechelonorreducedrowechelonform.
Forexample:
_
1 u 1
1 2 S
S 2 1
_ _
x
1
x
2
x
3
_ = _
1
1
1
_
Augmentedmatrix
_
1 u 1 1
1 2 S 1
S 2 1 1
_
Usingrowechelonforms
_
1 u 1 1
1 2 S 1
S 2 1 1
_ - _
1 2S 1S 1S
u 1 2 12
u u 1 12
_
x
3
=
1
2
;x
2
+ 2x
3
=
1
2
= x
2
= -
1
2
;x
1
+
2
3
x
2
+
1
3
x
3
=
1
3
= x
1
=
1
2

Usingreducedrowechelonforms
_
1 u 1 1
1 2 S 1
S 2 1 1
_ - _
1 u u 12
u 1 u -12
u u 1 12
_
= x
1
=
1
2
, x
2
= -
1
2
, x
3
=
1
2

Gaussianeliminationcanbeusedtosolvenotonlynbynsystems,butanysystemoflinearequations.

LinearAlgebra
SystemsandMatrices

Page17

1.1.1.9.2 Consistency
Inasystemoflinearequations,exactlyoneofthefollowingoccurs.
1.1.1.9.2.1 NoSolutions
Asystemoflinearequationsissaidtobeinconsistentiftherearenosolutions.
Whentherearenosolutions,thedeterminantofthecoefficientmatrixAiszero,andthematrix
inversedoesnotexist(Theconverseisnotnecessarilytrue).UsingmatrixinverseorCramersruleto
solveasystemwouldyieldanindeterminateresult(dividebyzero).
UsingGaussianeliminations,therearenosolutionswhentherearerowofthetype
|u u u | -],where*isanonzeronumber.
1.1.1.9.2.2 UniqueSolution
Forasystemwithasetofuniquesolutions,
Thenumberofequationsmustbeequalormorethanthenumberofvariables.
Thedeterminantofthecoefficientmatrixmustnotbe0
Thecoefficientmatrixmustbeinvertible
Thereducedrowechelonformofthecoefficientmatrixmustresembletheidentitymatrix.
Thereducedrowechelonformofthecoefficientmatrixmustnothaveacolumnentirely
consistedofzeros.
unique solution = A
-1
exists = _
x
1
.
x
n
_ = A
nn
-1
_
b
1
.
b
n
_ = uet(A) = u
1.1.1.9.2.3 InfiniteSolutions
Asystemmayhaveinfinitesolutions,suchastwoplanesintersectingonalineortwoequations
coincide.Generally,iftherearemorevariablesthanequations,thereareinfinitesolutionstothe
system.
Ifthecoefficientmatrixofasystemwithinfinitesolutionsisasquarematrix,itsdeterminantwillbe
zero(theconverseisnotnecessarilytrue).UsingmatrixinverseandCramersrulewillyieldan
indeterminateresult(dividebyzero).
UsingGaussianelimination,inreforrref,thecolumnsofthecoefficientwhichdonotcontainany
leadingentriesareunbound,anditscorrespondingcoefficientbecomesaparameter.
Forexample,_
1 -S 1
2 -6 S
-1 S u
_ _
x
y
z
_ = _
1
4
1
_
Theaugmentedmatrixwillhencebe_
1 -S 1 1
2 -6 S 4
-1 S u 1
_,anditsrrefis_
1 -S u -1
u u 1 2
u u u u
_
Ignoringtherowofzeroentries,wecanseethatz = 2, x = 3y -1,andyisunbound.
Lety = t, x = 3t - 1, z = 2.ThisdescribesalineinR
3
space.

LinearAlgebra
Vectors

Page18

1.1.2 Vectors
1.1.2.1 Definition
Avectorisaquantitywithbothmagnitudeanddirection.Itisalsopossibletodefinethesenseofa
vector,i.e.oneofthetwowaysthevectorcanbepointingtowards.
Avectorisrepresentedbyastraightlinesegmentwithanarrow.
1.1.2.1.1 EqualityofVectors
Twovectorsareequalifandonlyiftheyhavethesamemagnitude,samedirectionandsamesense.
Vectorsarefree,wherethestartingpointofavectorisirrelevant.Thesamelinesegments
pointinginthesamedirectionalwaysrepresentthesamevector,regardlessoftheirstartingpoint.
Displacementvectorsarefreevectorswithoutaboundstartingpoint.Positionvectorsarefree
vectorswiththestartingpointboundatorigin.
1.1.2.1.2 SpecialVectors
1.1.2.1.2.1 UnitVectors
Unitvectorshaveamagnitudeof1.
1.1.2.1.2.2 SpatialDimensions
Thedefineddimensionsareawaytocoordinatendimensionalspace.
Inparticular,thesedimensionalvectorsareunitvectors,andareperpendiculartoeachother.iisthe
firstdimension,jistheseconddimensionperpendiculartoi,andkisthethirddimension
perpendiculartobothiandj.
Avectorisoftenresolvedintocomponentsinthedirectionofspatialdimensions.
1.1.2.1.2.3 ZeroVectors
Zerovectorisa0dimensionalvector,withzeromagnitude,unspecifieddirectionandsense.Itisa
singlepoint.
1.1.2.1.3 Magnitude
ThemagnitudeofavectorcanbecalculatedbyPythagorastheoremwhenitisexpressedas
perpendicularcomponents.
|a| = _o
1
2
+ o
2
2
+o
3
2
+

LinearAlgebra
Vectors

Page19

1.1.2.1.4 AnglewithAxis
Thecosineoftheangleavectormakeswithanaxisisitscomponentinthatdirectiondividedbyits
magnitude(ratioofcosine).
Ifoistheangleavectormakeswiththexaxis(idirection),theno = cos
-1
[
u
1
|u|

Foravectoru,whereistheanglebetweenitandthexaxis,totheyaxisandtothezaxis,
cos o =
u
1
|u|
, cos [ =
u
2
|u|
, cos y =
u
3
|u|

And,since
1
|u|
(u
1
| +u
2
j + u
3
k)wouldbeaunitvector
u
|u|
,itfollowsthat
cos
2
o +cos
2
[ + cos
2
y = 1
Forexample,s = 4ut + 6u - 49k

,findtheacuteanglethisvectormakeswiththehorizontal.

Letybetheangles makeswiththezaxis.
cos y =
-49
4u
2
+ 6u
2
+49
2
= -u.S62
y = 2.168
c
= 124.2
o

Hencetheacuteangleitmakeswiththehorizontalis124.2
o
-9u
o
= S4.2
o

LinearAlgebra
Vectors

Page20

1.1.2.1.5 Sums,DifferencesandScalarMultiples(ParallelVectors)
Sumofvectorsarecalculatedbyjoiningeachvectorheadtotail.Theresultantvectoristhevector
whichjoinsthetailofthefirstvectortotheheadofthelastvector.
Whenvectorsareexpressedintheircomponents,thesumofthevectorsinaparticulardirectionis
thesumofthecomponentsinthatdirection.Thecomponentsoftheresultantvectorarethesumof
thecomponents.
Vectorsubtractionareadditionofnegativevectors(i.e.reversedvector).
Scalarmultipleofavectorchangesthemagnitudebythefactorofthescalar,directionandsenseare
notchanged.
Vectorsadditionandscalarmultiplicationare
Commutative:u+v=v+u
Associative:u+(v+w)=(u+v)+w
Additionofzerovectorhasnoeffect:u+0=0+u=u
Scalarmultiplicationisassociative:n(ku)=(nk)u
Collective:nu+ku=(n+k)u
Distributiveoveraddition:n(u+v)=nu+nv
Multiplicationby1:1u=u
Multiplicationby0:0u=0
Twovectorsareconsideredparalleliftheyarescalarmultiplesofeachother.

LinearAlgebra
Vectors

Page21

1.1.2.1.6 LinearDependence
Vectorsarelinearlydependantifthesumofmultiplesofvectorsisthezerovector.
k
1
a + k
2
h +k
3
c + =
Ifthisrelationshipistrueforasetofcoefficientsthatarenotallzero.
Thisimpliesthatanysetofvectorsareautomaticallylinearlydependantifoneofthemisazero
vector.
Linearindependencycanbedescribedaswhenaquantitycannotbedescribedintermsofmultiples
ofotherquantitiesinaset.Thisappliesnotonlytovectors,butalgebraicexpressionsalso.
1.1.2.2 ScalarDotProduct
1.1.2.2.1 DefinitionandInterpretation
Thescalardotproductisdefinedasfollowed:
a h = |a| |h| cos 0
Where0istheanglebetweenthevectors.
Theimplicationofthisisthatunitvectorswhichpointinthesamedirectionhaveadotproductof1,
andperpendicularvectorshaveadotproductof0.
Inthreedimensionalspace(intermsofi,j,andk),thedotproductoftwovectorsis
(o
1
| +o
2
j + o
3
k) (b
1
| + b
2
j + b
3
k) = o
1
b
1
+ o
2
b
2
+ o
3
b
3

0 = cos
-1
o
1
b
1
+o
2
b
2
+ o
3
b
3
|a| |h|

Anglebetweenvectorsisnevermorethan180
o
().
Propertiesofthedotproduct:
Commutative,a.b=b.a
Distributiveoveraddition,a.(b+c)=a.b+a.c
Distributiveoverscalarmultiplication,a.(kb)=k(a.b)=(ka).b
Thedotproductofanyvectorwithazerovectoris0.
Thedotproductofanyvectorwithitselfisitsmagnitudesquared,a.a=|a|
2

Twononzerovectorsareorthogonalifandonlyiftheirdotproductiszero.
1.1.2.2.2 OrthogonalVectors
Orthogonalvectorsarevectorswhichpointinperpendiculardirections.
Fornonzeroorthogonalvectors,theirdotproductisalways0.

LinearAlgebra
Vectors

Page22

1.1.2.2.3 Resolute
Thevectorresoluteofavectorinthedirectionofanothervector:
u =
a h
h h
h = (a h

) h

Thescalarresoluteofavectorinthedirectionofanothervectorisa h

,simplythemagnitudeofthe
vectorresolute.
Theperpendicularresoluteisw = a - u.
1.1.2.3 VectorCrossProduct
1.1.2.3.1 DefinitionandInterpretation
Thevectorcrossproductisdefinedasa h = |a| |h| sin 0 u
Whereuisaunitvectorperpendiculartobothaandb.
Thecrossproductoftwovectorsinthethreedimensionalspacecanbecomputedbyadeterminant:
a h = _
| j k
o
1
o
2
o
3
b
1
b
2
b
3
_
Themagnitudeofthevectorcrossproductcanbeinterpretedastheareaofparallelogramformed
bythetwovectors.
Propertiesofvectorproduct:
Distributiveoverscalarmultiples,ax(kb)=k(axb)=(ka)xb
NOTcommutative.Bythepropertyofdeterminants,reversingtheorderswapstworows,
makingthedeterminantnegativeofwhatitwas.bxa=(axb)
Distributiveoveraddition,ax(b+c)=axb+axc
Vectorproductwithitselfisthezerovector
Vectorproductwithazerovectoristhezerovector
1.1.2.3.2 ScalarTripleProductandCoPlanarity
Thescalartripleproduct,orboxproduct[a,b,c],isdefinedas
a (h c) = _
o
1
o
2
o
3
b
1
b
2
b
3
c
1
c
2
c
3
_
Bythepropertiesofdeterminants,
Arowswapmakesthedeterminantnegative,hence,[a,b,c]=[b,a,c]=[a,c,b]=[c,b,a]
Swappingtworowsmakesthedeterminantpositivehence,[a,b,c]=[c,a,b]=[b,c,a]
Aninterpretationofthevalueoftheboxproduct(scalartripleproduct)isthevolumeofthe
parallelepipedofthethreevectors.
Ifthescalartripleproductiszero,thevectorsarecoplanar(theyexistonthesameplane).

LinearAlgebra
Vectors

Page23

1.1.2.4 VectorGeometry
1.1.2.4.1 Line
r(t) = r
0
+ut
r(t) = x
0
| + y
0
j + z
0
k + t(o| + bj + ck)
x = x
0
+ ot
y = y
0
+bt
z = z
0
+ct

t =
x - x
0
o
=
y -y
0
b
=
z - z
0
c

1.1.2.4.2 Plane
Foraplanein3D,anormalvectornisperpendiculartotheplaneatallpoints.
1.1.2.4.2.1 EquationforaPlane
n (r -r
0
) = u
n r = n r
0

Wheren=<a,b,c>
ox + by + cz = J = (o, b, c) (x
0
, y
0
, z
0
)
1.1.2.4.2.2 PerpendicularDistanceFromOrigin
(x
0
,y
0
,z
0
)denotesthepointwheretheplaneisclosesttotheorigin,i.e.itsperpendiculardistance
fromorigin.
Atthatpoint,thepositionvectorr
0
isamultipleofthenormalvector,r
0
= (ko, kb, kc)
Alsothatox + by + cz = J
k =
J
o
2
+b
2
+c
2
=
J
|n|
2

|r
0
| = k |n| =
J
|n|

1.1.2.4.2.3 AnglesBetweenPlanes
Theanglebetweenplanesaresimplytheanglebetweenthenormalvectors.
0 = cos
-1
n
1
n
2
|n
1
| |n
2
|

LinearAlgebra
Vectors

Page24

1.1.2.4.3 ParameterisationandCartesianEquivalence
1.1.2.4.3.1 Ellipses
x = o cos t + b, y = b sint + k
oi
x = o sin t +b, y = b cos t + k
=
(x - b)
2
o
2
+
(y - k)
2
b
2
= 1
Ellipses with going to + a in the x uiiection anu + b in the y uiiection, centieu at (h,k)
1.1.2.4.3.2 Hyperbola
Hyperbolaontheleftandright.
x = o sec t +b, y = b tan t + k
=
(x - b)
2
o
2
-
(y - k)
2
b
2
= 1
Hyperbolaonthetopandbottom.
x = o tan t + b, y = b sec t + k
=
(y - k)
2
b
2
-
(x -b)
2
o
2
= 1

LinearAlgebra
Vectors

Page25

1.1.2.4.4 VectorProofs
1.1.2.4.4.1 GeometryPrerequisites

LinearAlgebra
Vectors

Page26

Forexample
Provethecosineruleforanyangle.
Let ABC be a tiiangle
AB

= a
AC

= h
BC

= -a + h
BC

BC

= (-a +h)(-a +h) = a a - 2 a h +h h

|BC

|
2
= |AB

|
2
+|AC

|
2
- 2|AB

||AC

|cos (0)
c
2
= o
2
+ b
2
-2ob cos (0)
QED
Provethemidpointofthehypotenuseofarightangledtriangleisequidistantfromallvertices.
Let ABC be a iight angleu tiiangle
AB

BC

AB

= a
BC

= h
AC

= a + h
Let H be the miupoint of AC

AH

= HC

=
1
2
(a +h)
|AH

| = |HC

| =
1
2
|a|
2
+|h|
2

HB

= HC

+ CB

=
1
2
(a - h)
Since a h
|HB

| =
1
2
|a|
2
+ |h|
2
= |AH

| = |HC

|
Point H is equiuistant fiom A, B anu C
QEB

LinearAlgebra
Vectors

Page27

Thiee points P(1,2), Q(1,2) anu N(4,u) lie on the ciicumfeience of a ciicle, which also has
anothei x inteicept B(u,u), wheie u is negative. Finu u.
P

= J

-p = -Jt +t - 2 = (1 - J)t -2
PH

= m - p = 4t +t - 2 = St - 2
Since NB is a uiametei of the ciicle, anu P lies on the ciicumfeience, zPH = 9u
o

P

PH

= u
-SJ +S +4 = u
J = -
S
9

AlgebraofFunctions
CircularFunctions

Page28

1.2 AlgebraofFunctions
1.2.1 CircularFunctions
1.2.1.1 SymmetricalIdentities
0 +
n
2
0 -
n
2
0 +n 0 -n -0
n
2
-0 -
n
2
-0 n -0 -n -0
sin cos cos sin sin sin cos cos sin sin
cos sin sin cos cos cos sin sin cos cos
tan cot cot tan tan tan cot cot tan tan
sec cosec cosec sec sec Sec cosec cosec sec sec
cosec sec sec cosec cosec cosec sec sec cosec cosec
cot tan tan cot cot cot tan tan cot cot
1.2.1.2 CartesianIdentities
sin
2
0 +cos
2
0 = 1
tan
2
0 +1 = sec
2
0
1 + cot
2
0 = csc
2
0
1.2.1.3 CompoundAngleFormulae
sin(0 +) = sin 0 cos + sin cos 0
cos(0 +) = cos 0 cos - sin 0 sin
tan(0 +) =
tan 0 + tan
1 -tan 0 tan

sin(20) = 2 sin 0 cos 0

cos(20) = cos
2
0 -sin
2
0 = 2 cos
2
0 - 1 = 1 -2 sin
2
0
tan(20) =
2 tan 0
1 -tan
2
0

Forexample,
1 -cos 0
sin0
= tan _
0
2
]
LBS =
1 - 2 cos
2
[
0
2
+ 1
2 sin [
0
2
cos [
0
2

=
2 [1 - cos
2
[
0
2

2 sin [
0
2
cos [
0
2

=
sin [
0
2

cos [
0
2

= tan _
0
2
] = RBS
tan [
n
8
=
1 - cos [
n
4

sin [
n
4

=
2 - 2
2
= 2 - 1
sec
2
[
n
8
= 1 +tan
2
[
n
8
= 4 - 22

AlgebraofFunctions
CircularFunctions

Page29

sec [
n
8
=
_
4 -22
1.2.1.3.1 MultipleAngleFormulae
sinAcos B =
1
2
|sin(A - B) + sin(A +B)]
sinAsinB =
1
2
|cos(A - B) - cos(A + B)]
cos Acos B =
1
2
|cos(A - B) + cos(A + B)]
1.2.1.4 SineandCosineRule
Inatrianglewithsidesa,bandcandtheangleoppositethemA,BandC,
o
sinA
=
b
sin B
=
c
sinC

o
2
= b
2
+ c
2
- 2bc cos A

AlgebraofFunctions
CircularFunctions

Page30

1.2.1.5 ReciprocalFunctions
Secant
sec 0 =
1
cos 0

Verticalasymptoteseveryfrom/2.
Domain:_x: x e R\ ]
n
2
(2n +1)_
Range:{y: y < -1 U y > 1]
Cosecant
csc 0 =
1
sin 0

Verticalasymptoteseveryfromu.
Domain:|x: x e R\{nn]|
Range:{y: y < -1 U y > 1]
Cotangent
cot 0 =
1
tan 0
=
cos 0
sin0

Verticalasymptoteseveryfromu.
Domain:|x: x e R\{nn]|
Range:{y: y e R]

Graphingcombinationsofthesemusttakecarefulconsiderationintermsoftheasymptotic
behaviours.Thisisthecasewith(x) = o csc x + b cot x =
u+bcos x
sInx
.
Whena>b,thenumeratorisalwayspositiveandthesinedeterminesthesignofthefunction,which
behavessimilarlytothecosecant.Whenb>a,thenumeratorvariessimilarlytocosine,andthe
functionbehavessimilarlytocotangent.
Whena=b,thefunctionisconvergentatx = (2k -1)n,whereyconvergesto0.Thefunctionis
equivalenttothecotangentdilatedbyafactorof2fromtheyaxis.
1+cos x
sInx
=
1+2cos
2
x
2
-1
2 sIn
x
2
cos
x
2
= cot
x
2

AlgebraofFunctions
CircularFunctions

Page31

1.2.1.6 RestrictedFunctionsandInverses
Sin 0 is uefineu foi -
n
2
0
n
2

y = Sin
-1
x is uefineu foi - 1 x 1
Range: -
n
2
y
n
2

Cos 0 is uefineu foi u 0 n

y = Cos
-1
x is uefineu foi - 1 x 1
Range: u y n

Tan 0 is uefineu foi -

n
2
0
n
2

y = Tan
-1
x is uefineu foi x e R
Range: -
n
2
< y <
n
2

AlgebraofFunctions
CircularFunctions

Page32

1.2.1.6.1 FurtherIdentities
sec
-1
x = cos
-1
1
x

csc
-1
x = sin
-1
1
x

cot
-1
x = tan
-1
1
x

sin
-1
x + cos
-1
x =
n
2

sin(cos
-1
x) =

1 -x
2

sin(tan
-1
x) =
x
1 + x
2

cos(sin
-1
x) =

1 -x
2

cos(tan
-1
x) =
1
1 + x
2

tan(sin
-1
x) =
x
1 - x
2

tan(cos
-1
x) =
1 -x
2
x

1.2.1.7 CircularArcsandChords

a) Ifwebisecttheangle,thebisectorraywouldperpendicularlybisectthestraightline,cutting
itinhalfto135m.
sin 0 =
1SS
r
= r =
1SS
sin0

Also,thearclengthwouldbehalvedto150m
1Su
2nr
=
0
2n
= r =
1Su
0

Equating,
1SS
1Su
0 = sin 0
9
1u
0 = sin 0
Convertingtodegrees
9
1u
0
o

n
18u
= sin0
o

sin 0
o
=
n
2uu
0
o
, as iequiieu.

AlgebraofFunctions
CircularFunctions

Page33

a) Thenewlengthcanbebrokenintotwosections,arcAPandthelinesegmentPB.
|AP| =
[
n
2
-0
2n
2nr = 1u [
n
2
- 0
|PB
i
| = r tan 0 = 1u tan 0
|AP| +|PB
i
| = 2u
n
2
- 0 + tan 0 = 2, as iequiieu

AlgebraofFunctions
HyperbolicFunctions

Page34

1.2.2 HyperbolicFunctions
1.2.2.1 DefinitionsandInterpretations
Thehyperbolicfunctionsareoddandevenpartsofthenaturalexponential.
(x) =
(x) +(-x)
2
+
(x) - (-x)
2

c
x
= cosh(x) +sinh(x)

sinh x =
c
x
- c
-x
2

Bomain: x e R
Range: y e R

cosh x =
c
x
+c
-x
2

Bomain: x e R
Range: y 1

tanh x =
sinhx
cosh x
=
c
x
+ c
-x
c
x
- c
-x

Bomain: x e R
Range: -1 > y > 1

AlgebraofFunctions
HyperbolicFunctions

Page35

cschx =
1
sinh x

Bomain: x e R\{u]
Range: y e R\{u]
sechx =
1
cosh x

Bomain: x e R
Range: u < y 1
coth x =
cosh x
sinh x
=
1
tanh x

Bomain: x e R\{u]
Range: y < -1 U y > 1

Thehyperbolicfunctionsareverysimilartothe
circularfunctions.Wherethecircularfunctions
arefunctionsoftheareaofthesector,hyperbolic
functionsarefunctionsoftheareaenclosedby
theunithyperbolax
2
y
2
=1,astraightlinefromthe
origintothehyperbolaanditsverticalreflection.

1.2.2.2 Identities
sinh(-x) = -sinh(x)
cosh(-x) = cosh (x)
cosh
2
x -sinh
2
x = 1
1 -tanh
2
x = sech
2
x
Compoundangleidentities:
sinh(x + y) = sinh(x) cosh(y) +sinh(y) cosh(x)
sinh2x = 2 sinh x cosh x
cosh(x + y) = cosh(x) cosh(y) + sinh(x) sinh(y)
cosh2x = cosh
2
x + sinh
2
x = 1 + 2 sinh
2
x = 2 cosh
2
x - 1
tanh(x + y) =
tanh(x) + tanh(y)
1 + tanh(x) tanh(y)

tanh(2x) =
2 tanh(x)
1 + tanh
2
(x)

AlgebraofFunctions

Page36

1.2.2.3 InverseHyperbolicFunctions
sinh
-1
x = ln [x +x
2
+1 , x e R
cosh
-1
x = ln[x +

x
2
- 1 , x 1
tanh
-1
x =
1
2
ln _
1 +x
1 -x
] , -1 < x < 1
sech
-1
x = cosh
-1
1
x

csch
-1
x = sinh
-1
1
x

coth
-1
x = tanh
-1
1
x

sinh(cosh
-1
x) =

x
2
-1
sinh(tanh
-1
x) =
x
1 -x
2

cosh(sinh
-1
x) = x
2
+1
cosh(tanh
-1
x) =
1
1 - x
2

tanh(sinh
-1
x) =
x
x
2
+ 1

tanh(cosh
-1
x) =
x
2
- 1
x

1.2.3 RelationshipsandtheirGraphs
1.2.3.1 Ellipses
Followsthegeneralequation
(x - b)
2
o
2
+
(y - k)
2
b
2
= 1
Whichisanellipsecentredat(h,k)spanningaunitstotheleftandright,andbunitstothetopand
bottom.
Ellipsehavethedomain|b - o, b + o]andtherange|k - b, k + b].
Anellipsecanalsobedescribedbytheequation
ox
2
+ by
2
+ cx + Jy = k

AlgebraofFunctions
RelationshipsandtheirGraphs

Page37

1.2.3.2 Hyperbolas
Ahyperbolacantaketwoforms:

(x - b)
2
o
2
-
(y -k)
2
b
2
= 1
Isaleftrighthyperbola,centredat(h,k).Thetwobranchesare
centredat(ha,k)and(h+a,k).
ThedomainisR\(b -o, b +o),andtherangeisR.
Thistypeofhyperbolacanalsobedescribedbytheequation
ox
2
- by
2
+ cx + Jy = k

(y -k)
2
b
2
-
(x - b)
2
o
2
= 1
Isanupdownhyperbola,centredat(h,k).Thetwobranches
arecentredat(h,kb)and(h,k+b).
ThedomainisR,andtherangeisR\(k -b, k +b).
Thistypeofhyperbolacanalsobedescribedbytheequation
by
2
- ox
2
+ cx + Jy = k

Inbothcases,theequationsofthetangentscanbeobtainedasfollowed:
(-k)
2
b
2
=
(x-h)
2
u
2
_1,asxandygetlarge,the1canbeignored.
(y - k)
2
b
2
=
(x - b)
2
o
2

y = _
b
o
(x -b) + k

AlgebraofFunctions
RelationshipsandtheirGraphs

Page38

Forexample,considertherelationshipy
2
- 9x
2
+ 8y + 18x = 41
4y
2
-9x
2
+ 8y +18x = 41
4(y
2
+ 2y +1) -4 -9(x
2
- 2x + 1) + 9 = 41
4(y + 1)
2
- 9(x - 1)
2
= S6
(y + 1)
2
9
-
(x - 1)
2
4
= 1

Thisisanupdownhyperbola,hencetherangeis(-, -4] U |2, )

Theequationoftheasymptotes
y +1 = _
S
2
(x - 1)
y =
S
2
x -
S
2
, y = -
S
2
x +
1
2

AlgebraofFunctions
Transformation

Page39

1.2.4 Transformation
Transformation Rule
Dilation
Byafactorofafromtheyaxis(paralleltoxaxis)
(x) - _
1
o
x]
Byafactorof1/afromtheyaxis(paralleltoxaxis) (x) - (ox)
Byafactorofaaboutx=h
(x -b) - _
x - b
o
]
Ingeneral,dilationinthehorizontaldirectionfrombcanberepresentedbysubstitutingxwith
x-h
u
.
Byafactorofafromthexaxis(paralleltoyaxis)
g(y) - g _
1
o
y] = (x) - o(x)
Byafactorof1/afromthexaxis(paralleltoyaxis) g(y) - g(oy) = (x) - 2(x)
Byafactorofaabouty=k
g(y -k) - g_
y - k
b
]
= (x) + k - o(x) + k
Ingeneral,dilationintheverticaldirectionfromkcanberepresentedbysubstitutingywith
-k
u

Reflection
Reflectionineitheraxiscanberepresentedbydilatingbyafactorof1fromtheaxis.

Forexample,considertherelationshipy
2
- 9x
2
+ 8y + 18x = 41,whataretheequationsofthe
asymptotesafteradilationbyafactoroffromtheyaxisthenatranslationof1unitsparallelto
thexaxis?
Beforetransformation,
y =
S
2
x -
S
2
, y = -
S
2
x +
1
2

Dilationbyfactoroffromy,x - 2x
y = Sx -
S
2
, y = -Sx +
1
2

Translationof1unitsparalleltox,x - x + 1
y = Sx +
1
2
, y = -Sx -
S
2

ComplexNumbers
ArgandDiagram

Page40

1.3 ComplexNumbers
Acomplexnumberhastwoparts:
Arealpart,consistingofanyrealnumber,
Andanimaginarypart,consistingofanyrealmultiplesoftheimaginarynumberi,wherei = -1.
Somepropertiesoftheimaginarynumber:
i
0
= 1, i
1
= i, i
2
= -1, i
3
= -i, i
4
= 1
1.3.1 ArgandDiagram
Thearganddiagramcanbeusedtographicallyrepresentcomplexnumbers.
Itsxaxisistherealpart,Re(z).Itsyaxisistheimaginarypart,Im(z).
TheCartesianform(rectangularcoordinates)ofacomplexnumberis
z = Rc(z) + Im(z)i
1.3.2 Operations
1.3.2.1 Addition
z
1
+ z
2
= (Rc(z
1
) +Rc(z
2
)) + (Im(z
1
) + Im(z
2
))i
1.3.2.2 Multiplication
z
1
z
2
= (o +bi) (c + Ji) = (oc - bJ) +(oJ + bc)i
1.3.2.3 Conjugates
Theconjugateofacomplexnumberisdenotedbyabar,
If z = o + bi, then z = o - bi
Characteristically,z z = (Rc(z))
2
+ (Im(z))
2

1.3.2.4 Division
Evaluationofacomplexfractionisachievedwhenthefractionismultipliedbytheconjugateofthe
denominatorontopandbottom.
o + bi
c + Ji
=
o + bi
c + Ji

c - Ji
c - Ji
=
(oc + bJ) +(bc - oJ)i
c
2
- (Ji)
2
=
(oc + bJ) + (bc - oJ)i
c
2
+ J
2

Morespecifically,thedenominatorofthefinalexpressionisthesquareofthemagnitudeofthe
complexnumber,orthesquareofitsmodulus.Also,thereciprocalofanimaginarynumber:
1
z
=
z
|z|
2

ComplexNumbers
PolarForm

Page41

1.3.3 PolarForm
Acomplexnumbercanalsobeexpressedinpolarform,i.e.directionandmagnitude.
1.3.3.1 Modulus
Themodulusisthemagnitudeofacomplexnumber,i.e.itsdistancefromtheorigin.
UsingPythagorastheoremwiththerectangularcoordinates,
|z| =
_
(Rc(z))
2
+ (Im(z))
2
= z z
1.3.3.2 Argument
TheArgumentistheanglethecomplexnumbermakeswiththepositiverealaxis.Thisgivesusthree
relationshipsusingtherectangularcoordinates,
sin(Arg(z)) =
Im(z)
|z|
cos(Arg(z)) =
Rc(z)
|z|
tan(Arg(z)) =
Im(z)
Rc(z)

TheArgumentisrestrictedto(-n, n].ItispossibletofindtheArgumentwithanyoftheabovethree
relationshipsinconjunctionwiththeknowledgeofquadrants.
Acomplexnumbercanhencebeexpressedas:
z = Rc(z) + Im(z)i
= |z| _
Rc(z)
|z|
+
Im(z)
|z|
i_
= |z||cos(Arg(z)) + i sin(Arg(z))]
Thecos(Arg(z)) + i sin(Arg(z))componentisabbreviatedtocis(Arg(z)),butitismoreformally
knownasExp|i Arg(z)]
z = Rc(z) + Im(z)i = |z| cis(Arg(z)) = |z| Exp|i Arg(z)] = |z| c
Ag(z)

Notethatforcis,sinceitisthesumofcosandi*sin, cis(-0) = cis(0) , cis(-0) = -cis(0)

Theonlysymmetricalpropertiesithasarecis(0 +n) = -cis(0) , anu cos(0 +2nn) =
cos(0) , wheie n e L.
Moreconventionally,cisisusuallyexpressedas:
cis(0) = c
0

Where0istheargumentofz.

ComplexNumbers
PolarForm

Page42

Somespecialnumbers:
0+0icannotbeexpressedinthepolarform,itsargumentisundefined.
Allpositiverealnumbers,a+0i,haveanArgumentof0.
Allnegativerealnumbers,a+0i,haveanArgumentof.
Allpositiveimaginarynumbers,0+ai,haveanArgumentof/2.
Allnegativeimaginarynumbers,0ai,haveanArgumentof/2.
Acomplexnumbercanhaveitsargumentexpressedintermsofthearctangent:
1
st
quadrant,a+bi
o Arg(z) = tan
-1
b
u

2
nd
quadrant,a+bi
o Arg(z) = -tan
-1
b
u
+ n
3
rd
quadrant,abi
o Arg(z) = tan
-1
b
u
- n
4
th
quadrant,abi
o Arg(z) = -tan
-1
b
u

Acomplexnumbersconjugatecanbederivedasfollowed:
z = Rc(z) - Im(z)i
= |z||cos(Arg(z)) -i sin(Arg(z))]
= |z||cos(-Arg(z)) +i sin(-Arg(z))]
= |z| cis(-Arg(z))

ComplexNumbers
PolarForm

Page43

Forexample,solveforzsuchthat|z - Si| = S anu aig(z - Si) =
3n
4

x
2
+ (y - S)
2
= 9, |1]
y - S
x
= tan
Sn
4
= -1, |2]
x = S - y
= 2(y - S)
2
= 9
z = -
S2
2
+ _S +
S2
2
_i
|z| =
_
9
2
+ 9 +
9
2
+ 92 = S
_
2 + 2
Sincezistheintersectionof[1]and[2],itisthepointofintersectionof
therayandthecircle.Itiseasytoconstructatriangletofindcosineof
n
8

cos
n
8
=
S
2

2 + 2
S
=

2 + 2
2

Arg(z) =
n
8
+
n
2
=
Sn
8

Hence,thepolarformofzis
z = 6 cos
n
8
cis
Sn
8

ComplexNumbers
PolarForm

Page44

1.3.3.3 MultiplicationandDivision
MultiplicationanddivisionusingpolarformsisaloteasierthanusingtheCartesianform.
Fortwocomplexnumbers,z
1
= |z
1
| cis(0)andz
2
= |z
2
| cis()
z
1
z
2
= |z
1
||z
2
| cis(0 + )
z
1
z
2
=
|z
1
|
|z
2
|
cis(0 - )
Thereciprocalcanalsobeworkedoutfairlyeasily:
1
z
1
=
|1|
|z
1
|
cis(u - 0) =
1
|z
1
|
cis(-0) =
z
1

|z
1
|
2

Withpolarcoordinates,theideaofrotationisintroduced.Whenacomplexnumberz
1
ismultiplied
byanothercomplexnumberz
2
suchthat|z
2
|=1,thenz
1
isrotatedanticlockwisebytheanglez
2

makeswiththepositiverealaxis:
z
1
z
2
= |z
1
||z
2
| cis(0 +) = |z
1
| cis(0 +)
Inparticular,multiplyingbythecomplexnumberirotatesthecomplexnumber90
o
anticlockwise.
1.3.3.4 DeMoivresTheorem
z
n
= |z|
n
cis(n0)

Forexample,z
1
= S -i,z
2
= -1 - i,findz
3
= (z
1
)
2
z
2

z
3
= -14 - 2i
Arg(z
3
) = Arg((z
1
)
2
z
2
) = 2Arg(z
1
) + Arg(z
2
)
_tan
-1
1
7
- n] = 2 tan
-1
-
1
S
+ (tan
-1
1 - n)
tan
-1
1
7
+2 tan
-1
1
S
=
n
4

ComplexNumbers
ComplexRoots

Page45

1.3.4 ComplexRoots
1.3.4.1 Polynomials
FundamentalTheoremofAlgebra
Anypolynomialsp(z)ofdegreenhasnrootsinthecomplexplane.
Anypolynomialsp(z)ofdegreencanbefactorisedintoncomplexlinearfactors(someofwhichmay
berepeated).
1.3.4.1.1 Algebra
|(x)]
2
+k
2
= |(x)]
2
- (ki)
2
= ((x) + ki)((x) - ki)
z
4
+1 = z
4
+2z
2
+ 1 - 2z
2
= (z
2
+ 1)
2
- (2z)
2
= (z
2
+ 2z + 1)(z
2
- 2z +1)
= (z
2
+i)(z
2
-i) = (z + -i)(z - -i)(z + i)(z -i )
Itisalsohelpfultorememberthat
z
n
-o
n
= (z -o)(z
n-1
+ oz
n-2
+ o
2
z
n-3
+ o
n-1
)
z
n
+ o
n
= (z +o)(z
n-1
- oz
n-2
+ (-o)
2
z
n-3
+ (-o)
n-1
)
1.3.4.1.2 Conjugatepairtheorem
Forapolynomialp(z)withrealcoefficients,ifz
1
isarootofp,thenz
1
isalsoarootofp.
1.3.4.2 RootsofNumbers
Ifz
n
= c,wherec e C,then
z = |c|
(1n)
cis _
Arg(c) + 2kn
n
_, wheie k e {u,1,2, , n - 1]
OnanArganddiagram,allrootsareevenlyspaced.

ComplexNumbers
RelationshipsintheComplexPlane

Page46

1.3.5 RelationshipsintheComplexPlane
AlocusinthecomplexplaneisasetofpointsontheArganddiagram.
Forexample,{s: |z| = 1, z e C]
1.3.5.1 Line
{z: |z - z
0
| = |z - z
1
|, z e C]
ThisdescribesastraightlineontheArganddiagram.Itistheperpendicularbisectorofthelinez
1
z
2
.
Particularcasesinclude:
{z: Rc(z) = c, z e C] {z: z + z = 2c], wheie c is a constant
Thisdescribesaverticalline,x=c
{z: Im(z) = c, z e C] {z: z - z = 2c], wheie c is a constant
Thisdescribesahorizontalline,y=c
{z: z = iz, z e C]
Thisdescribesthesetofpointsthatmakesanangleof90
o
withtheirreflectioninthehorizontalaxis,
i.e.theliney=x
{z: |1 - iz| = |z + 1|]
Thisdescribesalinealso:|1 -iz| = |(-i)(i) - i(z)| = |-i(z + i)| = |z + i|
Inequalitiesinvolvingalinecanbefoundusingasimplepointsubstitution,usuallytheorigin.
1.3.5.2 Ray
{z: Arg(z - z
0
) = 0, z e C], wheie 0 is a constant
Thisdescribesarayfrom(butnotincluding)z
0
atanangleof0fromthehorizontal.
Inequalitiescanbefoundusingasimplepointsubstitution.Itshouldalsobenotedthat
For{z: Arg(z - z
0
) > 0, z e C] oi {z: Arg(z - z
0
) 0, z e C],thehorizontaltotheleft
{z: Arg(z - z
0
) = n, z e C]istheendoftheregion,andisincluded.
For{z: Arg(z - z
0
) < 0, z e C] oi {z: Arg(z - z
0
) 0, z e C],thehorizontaltotheleft
{z: Arg(z - z
0
) = -n, z e C]istheendoftheregion,andisnotincluded.
z
0
isnotincluded.

ComplexNumbers
RelationshipsintheComplexPlane

Page47

1.3.5.3 Hyperbola
Bythegeometricdefinitionofhyperbola,
{z: |z -z
0
| - |z - z
1
| = c, z e C]
Thisdescribesahyperbolaonthesideofz
1
.Thecentreisat
z
0
+z
1
2
.
Thecentreofthebranchislocated
c
2
unitsawayfromthecentreinthedirectionofz
1
.
z
0
+ z
1
2
+
c
2

z
1
- z
0
|z
1
- z
0
|

1.3.5.4 Circles
{c: |z -z
0
| = c, z e C], wheie c is a constant
Thisdescribesacirclecentredatz
0
witharadiusofc.
Ifweletw = z -z
0
, then w = z -z
0
, = |z - z
0
|
2
= w w = (z -z
0
)(z - z
0
) = c
2

{c: (z - z
0
)(z - z
0
) = c
2
, z e C], wheie c is a constant
Thisalsodescribesacirclecentredatz
0
witharadiusofc.
1.3.5.4.1 Ellipses
Bythegeometricdefinitionofanellipses,
{c: |z - z
0
| + |z -z
1
| = c, z e C], wheie c is a constant
Thisdescribestheellipseswithitstwofociatz
0
andz
1
.
Axisalongthetwofoci:_
c
2

Axisperpendiculartothefoci:
_
[
c
2

2
-_
|z
1
- z
0
|
2
_
2
=
1
2
c
2
- |z
1
-z
0
|
2

ComplexNumbers
RelationshipsintheComplexPlane

Page48

1.3.5.4.2 Arcs
Bythegeometrictheoremthatanglessubtendedbyachord/arcatallpointsonthecircumference
areequal:
aig(z + z
0
) -aig(z -z

) = 0
Thisdescribesanarcsuchthattheanglemadebetweentwosegments,zz
1
andzz
2
isalways0,i.e.
thisexistsasanarc.Notethatthisisonlyonesideofthearc,theothersideofthearcisdescribedby
aig(z + z
0
) -aig(z -z

) = n +0.
ItiseasiertoconvertthistoCartesianformtryingtodrawit.
Forexample,aig(z + i) -aig(z -i) =
n
4

tan
-1
y + 1
x
- tan
-1
y -1
x
=
n
4
, x > u
y + 1
x
-
y - 1
x
1 +
y +1
x

y -1
x
= 1
y +1 -y +1 = x +
y
2
- 1
x

(x - 1)
2
+ y
2
= 2, x > u
Axisintercepts:y = _1,x = 2+1
tan
-1
y +1
x
- n -tan
-1
y - 1
x
+ n =
n
4
, x < u, y < -1
(x -1)
2
+ y
2
= 2, x < u, y < -1, FALSE
tan
-1
y + 1
x
+ n - tan
-1
y - 1
x
- n =
n
4
, x < u, y > 1
(x - 1)
2
+y
2
= 2, x < u, y > 1, FALSE
Forx < u, -1 < y < 1,z + iisinthesecondquadrant,anditsargumentliesin[
n
2
, n.z - iisin
thethirdquadrant,anditsargumentliesin[-n, -
n
2
.Hence,aig(z + i) - aig(z - i)hasthe
maximum2n,andtheminimumn.Therefore,aig(z + i) -aig(z -i) =
n
4
nottrueforx < u, -1 <
y < 1.

Calculus

Page49

2
2.u Calculus
2.0.1

Calculus
Single vaiiable Calculus, vectoi Calculus, Nultivaiiable Calculus

SingleVariableCalculus
Limits

Page50

2.1 SingleVariableCalculus
2.1.1 Limits
Alimitofafunctionataisthefunctionsvalueasthevariableapproachesa.
2.1.1.1 DefinitionandInterpretation
Thelimithastwoparts,thelefthandlimitlim
x-u
- (x),whichapproachesthevaluefromtheleft
handnegativeside,andtherighthandlimitlim
x-u
+ (x),whichapproachesthevaluefromthe
righthandpositiveside.
Alimitexistsifandonlyif:
Thelefthandlimitlim
x-u
- (x)exists
Therighthandlimitlim
x-u
+ (x)exists
lim
x-u
- (x) = lim
x-u
+ (x)
Thefunctionmustbedefinedonsomeopenintervalthatcontains(withthepossibleexceptionof)a.
Underformaldefinition,
lim
x-u
(x) = Iifforeverynumbere > uthereisanumbero > usuchthat
|(x) - I| < whenevei u < |x - o| < o
Thetwosidelimitscanbesimilarlydefinedwiththeboundsonx:-o < x - o < uforlefthand
limits,andu < x - o < oforrighthandlimits.
Somelimitsmayevaluatetoinfinite.Thatis,lim
x-u
(x) = foreverypositivenumberM,thereis
apositiveosuchthat
(x) > H whenevei u < |x - o| < o
Similarly,forlimitsthatevaluatetothenegativeinfinity:lim
x-u
(x) = -foreverynegative
numberNnumber,thereisapositiveosuchthat
(x) < N whenevei u < |x - o| < o
Forlimitsattheinfinity,alimitcanbeeitherdivergent,divergenttoinfinity,orconvergent.
Alimitthatconvergestoanumberatthepositiveinfinity,underformaldefinition,
lim
x-
(x) = Iifforeverynumbere > uthereisapositivenumberHsuchthat
|(x) - I| < whenevei x > H
Asimilardefinitionmaybeformedforconvergencyatthenegativeinfinity.Convergencyateither
infinityindicatesahorizontalasymptote.

SingleVariableCalculus
Limits

Page51

Alimitthatdivergestoinfinitygetsinfinitelylarge,(orsmall),underformaldefinition,
lim
x-
(x) = ifforeverypositivenumberHthereisapositivenumberCsuchthat
(x) > H whenevei x > C
Asimilardefinitionmaybeformedfortheotherthreepossibilities(negativeinfinitytotheright,and
positive/negativeinfinitytotheleft).
Alimitcanalsodivergewithoutgettingtoinfinity.Thistypeoffunctionsusuallyoscillates.An
exampleisthesineratio.
2.1.1.2 LimitLaws
Evaluationofalimitcanbeassimpleassubstitutingthenumber.However,theseareoftennot
enough.
Somelimitlawsinclude:
lim
x-u
|(x) + g(x)] = lim
x-u
(x) + lim
x-u
g(x)
lim
x-u
|c (x)] = c lim
x-u
(x)
lim
x-u
|(x) g(x)] = lim
x-u
(x) lim
x-u
g(x)
lim
x-u
_
(x)
g(x)
_ =
lim
x-u
(x)
lim
x-u
g(x)
= lim
x-u
(x) lim
x-u
|g(x)]
-1

SingleVariableCalculus
Limits

Page52

2.1.1.3 LHospitalsRule
lim
x-u
(x)
g(x)
= lim
x-u

i
(x)
g
i
(x)

Thisisonlyapplicablewhereanindeterminateformisreached.
2.1.1.3.1 IndeterminateForm
0
0
or

2.1.1.3.2 IndeterminateProduct
Whenanindeterminateproductu isreached,thereisasimplemanipulationthatcanbedone:
(o) g(o) = u =
(o)
1g(o)
=
u
u
oi

Similarrearrangementscansometimealsobeusedtoevaluatetheindeterminatedifference -
2.1.1.3.3 IndeterminatePower
Anindeterminatepowerisu
0
,
0
or1

.Ineachofthesecases,thelogarithmmaybetaken.
lim
x-u
|(x)]
g(x)
= lim
x-u
y
g(x) ln|(x)] = lny
lim
x-u
g(x) ln|(x)] = lim
x-u
lny
lim
x-u
|(x)]
g(x)
= Exp [lim
x-u
g(x) ln|(x)]
2.1.1.4 SqueezeTheorem
Thesqueezetheoremcanbeusedforevaluationofoscillatingfunctions.
If,onanopenintervalincluding(withthepossibleexceptionof)a,
(x) g(x) b(x)
Then
lim
x-u
(x) < lim
x-u
g(x) < lim
x-u
b(x)
Henceif
lim
x-u
(x) = lim
x-u
b(x)
lim
x-u
g(x) = lim
x-u
(x) = lim
x-u
b(x)

SingleVariableCalculus
Limits

Page53

2.1.1.5 Continuity
Afunctioniscontinuousataif
lim
x-u
(x) = (o)
Ifapointiscontinuous,then
lim
x-u
+ (x)exists
lim
x-u
- (x)exists
lim
x-u
+ (x) = lim
x-u
- (x) = (o)
Theleftorrighthandlimitcanbeusedtodefinecontinuityononeside,whereaistheendpointof
anopeninterval.
2.1.1.6 Differentiability
Afunctionisdifferentiableataif
(o)exists
iscontinuousata
Thereisnoabruptchangeofdirectionata(i.e.thederivativeiscontinuousata)

SingleVariableCalculus
MethodsofDifferentiation

Page54

2.1.2 MethodsofDifferentiation
Firstprinciple
J
Jx
= lim
h-0
(x + b) - (x)
b

2.1.2.1 DifferentiationRules
Additionrule:
J
Jx
|(x) + g(x)] =
J
Jx
+
Jg
Jx

Chainrule:
Jy
Jx
=
Jy
Ju

Ju
Jx

Productrule:
J
Jx
(u:) =
Ju
Jx
: +
J:
Jx
u
Andhence,theconstantrule:
J
Jx
(c (x)) = c
J
Jx
, wheie c is a ieal constant
Quotientrule:
J
Jx
[
u
:
=
Ju
Jx
: -
J:
Jx
u
:
2

Someparticularcases:
J
Jx
(x
n
) = nx
n-1

2.1.2.2 ImplicitDifferentiation
Bythechainrule,ifyisafunctionofx:
J
Jx
((y)) =
J
Jy

Jy
Jx

Or,
J
Jx
((x, y)) =
o
ox
+
o
oy

Jy
Jx

SingleVariableCalculus
MethodsofDifferentiation

Page55

2.1.2.3 CircularFunctions
J
Jx
(sin x) = cos x
J
Jx
(cos x) = -sinx
J
Jx
(tan x) = sec
2
x
J
Jx
(csc x) = -csc x cot x
J
Jx
(sec x) = sec x tan x
J
Jx
(cot x) = -csc
2
x
2.1.2.4 InverseCircularFunctions
J
Jx
(sin
-1
x) =
1
1 - x
2

J
Jx
(cos
-1
x) = -
1
1 -x
2

J
Jx
(tan
-1
x) =
1
1 + x
2

J
Jx
(sin
-1
x) =
1
2x - x
2

J
Jx
(cos
-1
x) = -
1
2x -x
2

J
Jx
(tan
-1
x) =
1
2x (1 + x)
2

J
Jx
_sin
-1
1
x
] = -
1
xx
2
- 1

J
Jx
_cos
-1
1
x
] =
1
xx
2
-1

J
Jx
_tan
-1
1
x
] = -
1
x
2
+ 1

J
Jx
(csc
-1
x) = -
1
xx
2
- 1

J
Jx
(sec
-1
x) =
1
xx
2
- 1

J
Jx
(cot
-1
x) = -
1
1 +x
2

2.1.2.5 HyperbolicFunctions
J
Jx
(sinh x) = cosh x
J
Jx
(cosh x) = sinh x
J
Jx
(tanh x) = sech
2
x
J
Jx
(cschx) = -csch x coth x
J
Jx
(sech x) = -sechx tanh x
J
Jx
(coth x) = -csch
2
x
2.1.2.5.1 InverseHyperbolicFunctions
J
Jx
(sinh
-1
x) =
1
1 + x
2

J
Jx
(cosh
-1
x) =
1
x
2
- 1

J
Jx
(tanh
-1
x) =
1
1 -x
2

J
Jx
(csch
-1
x) = -
1
|x|1 +x
2

J
Jx
(sech
-1
x) = -
1
xx
2
-1

J
Jx
(coth
-1
x) =
1
1 - x
2

2.1.2.6 ExponentialandLogarithms
J
Jx
(c
x
) = c
x

J
Jx
(o
x
) = ln o o
x

J
Jx
(ln x) =
1
x

J
Jx
(log
u
x) =
1
ln o x

J
Jx
(ln ox) =
1
x

2.1.2.7 LogarithmicDifferentiation
If y = |(x)]
g(x)

ln(y) = g(x) ln((x))

J
Jx
(ln(y)) =
J
Jx
(g(x) ln((x)))
1
y

Jy
Jx
=
Jg
Jx
ln((x)) +
J
Jx

g(x)
(x)

Jy
Jx
= y _
Jg
Jx
ln((x)) +
J
Jx

g(x)
(x)
_
2.1.2.8 SecondDerivatives
J
2
Jx
2
(x) =
J
Jx
_
J
Jx
(x)_
2.1.2.8.1 Concavity
For
d
2

dx
2
atx = o,if
d
2

dx
2
is
Positive,theconcavityisupwards
o Ifitisalsoastationarypoint,itisalocalminimum
Negative,theconcavityisdownwards
o Ifitisalsoastationarypoint,itisalocalmaximum
Zero,
o Ifthethirdderivativeisalsozero,concavitytestisinconclusive
o Otherwiseitisapointofinflection
Ifthethirdderivativeispositive(signchangefromnegativetopositive),itis
theminimumgradient
Ifthethirdderivativeisnegative(signchangefrompositivetonegative),itis
themaximumgradient
Ifitisalsoastationarypoint,itisastationarypointofinflection

SingleVariableCalculus
ApplicationsofDifferentialCalculus

Page57

2.1.3 ApplicationsofDifferentialCalculus
2.1.3.1 Graphing
ADomain
BFindxandyintercepts
CLookforsymmetry:iff(x)=f(x),itisevenlysymmetrical;iff(x)=f(x),itisoddlysymmetrical
DAsymptotes,vertical,horizontal,slant
EIntervalswhichthegraphisincreasing/decreasing
FStationarypoints
GPointsofinflection
2.1.3.2 AdditionofOrdinates
Whengraphingahybridfunction,themethodofadditionofordinatesmaybeused.
(x) = g(x) +b(x)
Thenfory = (x) at x = o, y = g(o) + b(o)

SingleVariableCalculus
ApplicationsofDifferentialCalculus

Page58

2.1.3.2.1 SomeRationalFunctions
(x) = ox +
b
x
=
ox
2
+ b
x

veitical asymptote at x=u
Slant asymptote y=ax

y = ox +
b
x
y = ox -
b
x


y = -ox +
b
x
y = -ox -
b
x

SingleVariableCalculus
ApplicationsofDifferentialCalculus

Page59

(x) = ox +
b
x
2
=
ox
3
+ b
x
2

veitical asymptote at x=u
Slant asymptote y=ax
y = ox +
b
x
2
y = ox -
b
x
2


y = -ox +
b
x
2
y = -ox -
b
x
2

SingleVariableCalculus
ApplicationsofDifferentialCalculus

Page60

(x) = ox
2
+
b
x
=
ox
3
+ b
x

veitical asymptote at x=u
Paiabolic asymptote y=ax
2

y = ox
2
+
b
x
y = ox
2
-
b
x


y = -ox
2
+
b
x
y = -ox
2
-
b
x

SingleVariableCalculus
ApplicationsofDifferentialCalculus

Page61

(x) = ox
2
+
b
x
2
=
ox
4
+ b
x
2

veitical asymptote at x=u
Paiabolic asymptote y=ax
2

y = ox
2
+
b
x
2
y = ox
2
-
b
x
2


y = -ox
2
+
b
x
2
y = -ox
2
-
b
x
2

SingleVariableCalculus
ApplicationsofDifferentialCalculus

Page62

2.1.3.3 ReciprocalFunctions
Areciprocalfunctioncanbegraphedbytakingthereciprocalofthefunctionsvalue.
Whenthefunction
Crossesthexaxisfrompositivetonegative
o Thereciprocalfunctiongoestopositiveinfinityontheleft,andtonegativeinfinity
ontheright(asymmetricverticalasymptote)
Crossesthexaxisfromnegativetopositive
o Thereciprocalfunctiongoestonegativeinfinityontheleft,andtopositiveinfinity
ontheright(asymmetricverticalasymptote)
Touchesthexaxis
o Dependingonwhetherthefunctiontouchestheaxisonthepositivesideorthe
negativeside,thereciprocalfunctiongoestopositive/negativeinfinityonbothsides
(symmetricverticalasymptote)
Hasalocalminimum
o Thereciprocalfunctionhasalocalmaximum
Hasalocalmaximum
o Thereciprocalfunctionhasalocalminimum
Hasastationarypointofinflection(notwheny=0)
o Thereciprocalfunctionhasastationarypointofinflection
Hasapointofinflection(notwheny=0)
o Thereciprocalfunctionhasapointofinflection
y = (x -1)
3
+ 1 y =
1
(x -1)
3
+ 1

SingleVariableCalculus
MethodsofAntidifferentiation

Page63

2.1.4 MethodsofAntidifferentiation
Indefiniteintegrals:
Somerulesoftheintegral:
]
|(x) + g(x)] Jx = ](x)Jx +]g(x)Jx
]c (x) Jx = c ](x) Jx, wheie c is a ieal constant
](x)Jx = F(x) + C, wheie C is a ieal constant

Andfordefiniteintegrals:
Fundamentaltheoremofcalculus
J
Jx
__ (t)Jt
x
u
_ = (x)
Fundamentaltheoremofcalculus(II)
If F(x) is the antiueiivative of (x)
_ (x) Jx
b
u
= F(b) - F(o)
Somerules:
] (x)Jx
b
u
= -] (x)Jx
u
b

] (x)Jx
b
u
= ] (x)Jx
c
u
+ ] (x)Jx
u
c

] (x)Jx
u
u
= u
Themostobviousmethodofantidifferentiationisviarecognition.
_c
x
Jx = c
x
+ C
_
Jx
x
= ln |x| + C
_x
n
Jx =
x
n+1
n + 1
+ C

SingleVariableCalculus
MethodsofAntidifferentiation

Page64

2.1.4.1 Substitution
Methodofsubstitutionisthereverseofthechainruleofdifferentiation:
Jy
Jx
=
Jy
Ju

Ju
Jx

y = __
Jy
Ju

Ju
Jx
] Jx = _
Jy
Ju
Ju
Bymakingtheappropriateusubstitution,anintegralcanbesolved.
Usually,theintegralispresentas
_[(g(x)) g
i
(x) Jx = F(g(x)) +C
However,thisneedsnottobethecase,
_(g(x)) Jx = _
(g)
g'(x)
Jg
Inthiscase,ifg
i
(x)canberearrangedintermsofg,theintegralmaybeevaluated.
Notethatfordefiniteintegrals,whenasubstitutionismade,theterminalsmustalsochange
correspondingly
_ [(g(x)) g
i
(x) Jx
b
u
= _ (g) Jg
g(b)
g(u)

2.1.4.1.1 LinearSubstitution
Wheretheintegralconsistsoflinearfactorsthatcannotbeexpanded(suchaslinearfactorsinthe
denominator,orsquarerootoflinearfactors)multipliedbyotherexpandablefactors,asimple
substitutionofthatlinearfactorcanbemade,andotherfactorscanbearrangedintermsofthis
linearfactor.
2.1.4.2 InverseCircularFunctions
_
Jx
1 -x
2
= sin
1
x + C
_
-Jx
1 -x
2
= cos
1
x + C = -sin
-1
x + C
_
Jx
1 + x
2
= tan
-1
x + C

_
Jx
o
2
-x
2
= sin
-1
x
o
+ C
_
o
o
2
+ x
2
Jx = tan
-1
x
o
+C
_
o
1 -o
2
x
2
Jx = sin
-1
ox + C
_
o
1 + o
2
x
2
Jx = tan
-1
ox + C

SingleVariableCalculus
MethodsofAntidifferentiation

Page65

2.1.4.3 IntegrationbyRecognition
Byfindingthedifferentiatingafunction,whichderivativecontainsallorpartoftheintegrand,can
allowintegrationbyrecognition.
Generally,ifg(x)hasanantiderivativeG(x),and
J
Jx
F(x) = (x) + g(x)
Then
_(x) Jx = F(x) - 0(x) + c
Somealgebraandidentitiesmaybeusedinthisprocess.
Forexample,differentiatex sin
-1
x,henceantidifferentiatey = cos
-1
x
J
Jx
(x sin
-1
x) = sin
-1
x +
x
1 - x
2

cos
-1
x + sin
-1
x =
n
2

J
Jx
(x sin
-1
x) =
n
2
- cos
-1
x +
x
1 - x
2

_
n
2
- cos
-1
x +
x
1 - x
2
Jx = x sin
-1
x +C
n
2
x - _cos
-1
x Jx -

1 - x
2
= x [
n
2
-cos
-1
x + C
_cos
-1
x Jx = x cos
-1
x -

1 -x
2
+ C

SingleVariableCalculus
MethodsofAntidifferentiation

Page66

2.1.4.4 IntegrationbyParts
Reverseproductrule.
J
Jx
(u :) =
Ju
Jx
: +
J:
Jx
u
__
J
Jx
(u :)_Jx = __
Ju
Jx
:] Jx + __
J:
Jx
u] Jx
u : = _: Ju + _u J:
_u J: = u : -_: Ju
Or
_(x) g'(x) Jx = (x)g(x) - _
i
(x)g(x) Jx
Generally,f(x)ispreferredinthefollowingorder:
Logarithm
Inversetrig
Algebraic
Trigonometric
Exponential
g'(x)sometimesmaynotbeapparent,butcanbeassimpleas1.
Forexample,
_log
c
x Jx = _log
c
x
J
Jx
(x) Jx = x log
c
x - _
1
x
x Jx = x log
c
x -x + C
_x
2
c
x
Jx = _x
2

J
Jx
(c
x
) Jx
= x
2
c
x
- 2 _x c
x
Jx
= x
2
c
x
- 2 _x
J
Jx
(c
x
) Jx
= x
2
c
x
- 2 _x c
x
-_c
x
Jx]
= x
2
c
x
- 2x c
x
+ 2 c
x
+C
= (x
2
- 2x + 2) c
x
+C

SingleVariableCalculus
MethodsofAntidifferentiation

Page67

2.1.4.5 TrigonometricIntegration
_sinx Jx = -cos x + C
_cos x Jx = sin x + C
_sec
2
x Jx = tan x + C
_csc
2
x Jx = -cot x + C
_sec x tan x Jx = sec x + C
_csc x cot x Jx = -csc x + C
Forothers,theconnectionmaynotbesoapparent.Theuseofthedoubleangleidentitiesandthe
Pythagoreanidentityandthesubstitutionmethodisextensive.
Ingeneral,
For]sin
m
x cos
n
x Jx
o Ifnisodd,usethePythagoreanidentitytofactoroutallcosinebutone.Thenmake
thesubstitutionu=sinx
_sin
m
x cos
n
x Jx = _sin
m
x cos
2k
x cos x Jx
= _sin
m
x (1 - sin
2
x)
k
cos x Jx
= _u
m
(1 - u
2
)
k
Jx
o Ifmisodd,usethePythagoreanidentitytofactoroutallsinebutone,thenmake
thesubstitutionu=cosx
_sin
m
x cos
n
x Jx = _sin
2k
x cos
n
x sinx Jx
= _cos
n
x (1 -cos
2
x)
k
sin x Jx
= -_u
n
(1 - u
2
)
n
Jx
o Ifbothmandnareeven
sin
2
x =
1
2
(1 - cos 2x)
cos
2
x =
1
2
(1 + cos 2x)
sin x cos x =
1
2
sin 2x

SingleVariableCalculus
MethodsofAntidifferentiation

Page68

For]tan
m
x sec
n
x Jx
o Ifniseven,usethePythagoreanidentitytofactoroutallsecantsbutonesquare,
thenmakethesubstitutionu=tanx
_tan
m
x sec
n
x Jx = _tan
m
x sec
2k
x sec
2
x Jx
= _tan
m
x (1 +tan
2
x)
k
sec
2
x Jx
= _u
m
(1 -u
2
)
k
Jx
o Ifmisodd,usethePythagoreanidentitytofactoroutallbutonetan,andseparate
outonefactorofsecxtanx,thenmakethesubstitutionu=secx
_tan
m
x sec
n
x Jx = _tan
2k
x sec
n
x tan x Jx
= _sec
n-1
x (sec
2
x - 1)
k
tan x sec x Jx
= _u
m-1
(u
2
- 1)
k
Jx
o Otherwise,thedistinctionisnotsoclearcut.Theintegraloftanandsecwouldbe
employed.
Someselectedintegrals
_tan x Jx = _
sinx
cos x
Jx , let u = cos x
= -_
Ju
u

= -ln|cos x| + C
= ln|scc x| + C

_tan
3
x Jx = _
sin
3
x
cos
3
x
Jx
= _
(1 -cos
2
x) sin x
cos
3
x
Jx , let u = cos x
= -_
1 - u
2
u
3
Ju
= _u
-1
-u
-3
Ju
= ln|cos x| +
sec
2
x
2
+ C
Alternatively
_tan
3
x Jx = _tan x (sec
2
x - 1)Jx
= _tan x sec
2
x Jx - _tan x Jx
=
tan
2
x
2
- ln|sec x| + C

SingleVariableCalculus
MethodsofAntidifferentiation

Page69

_sec x Jx = _
sec x (sec x + tan x)
sec x + tan x
Jx , let u = sec x +tan x
= _
Ju
u

= ln|scc x + ton x| + C
Oralternatively,
_sec x Jx = _
cos x
cos
2
x
Jx
= _
cos x
1 - sin
2
x
Jx, let u = sin x
= _
Ju
1 - u
2

= tanh
-1
u + C, since -1 sinx 1
=
1
2
ln _
1 + sinx
1 - sinx
] +C

_sec
3
x Jx
Usingintegrationbyparts,u = sec x , Ju = sec x tan x Jx, J: = sec
2
x , : = tan x
_sec
3
x Jx = sec x tan x - _tan
2
x sec x Jx
= sec x tan x - _(sec
2
x - 1) sec x Jx
= sec x tan x - _sec
3
x Jx + _sec x Jx
2 _sec
3
x Jx = sec x tan x + ln|sec x +tan x| +C
_sec
3
x Jx =
1
2
(sec x tan x +ln|sec x + tan x|) + C

Forintegralsinvolvingmultipleangles:
]sin mx cos nx Jxor]sin mx sin nx Jxor]cos mx cos nx Jx,
sin Acos B =
1
2
|sin(A - B) +sin(A + B)]
sinAsin B =
1
2
|cos(A - B) - cos(A +B)]
cos Acos B =
1
2
|cos(A - B) + cos(A + B)]

SingleVariableCalculus
MethodsofAntidifferentiation

Page70

2.1.4.6 TrigonometricSubstitution
Atypeofinversesubstitution,theindependentvariableissubstitutedwithaonetoonefunction.
Ingeneral,weletx = (0),andsubstituteJx =
i
(0)J0
Fortheradical
o
2
-x
2
,letx = o sin 0 , -
n
2
0
n
2

o
2
+x
2
,letx = o tan 0 , -
n
2
0
n
2

x
2
- o
2
,letx = o sec 0 , u 0
n
2
oi n 0
3n
2

Forexample,
_
9 - x
2
x
2
Jx
Let x = S sin 0 , Jx = S cos 0 J0
_
9 - x
2
x
2
Jx = _
S cos 0
(S sin 0)
2
S cos 0 J0
= _cot
2
0 J0
= _csc
2
0 - 1 J0
= -cot 0 - 0 + C
= -
1
tan [sin
-1
x
S

-sin
-1
x
S
+C
= -
9 - x
2
x
-sin
-1
x
S
+C
2.1.4.7 HyperbolicSubstitution
Hyperbolicsubstitutionisalmostidenticaltotrigonometricsubstitution,andissometimespreferred
overusingthesubstitutionx = o tan 0orx = o sec 0.
Fortheradical
o
2
+x
2
,letx = o sinh u , u e R
x
2
- o
2
,letx = o cosh 0 , u u oi u u

SingleVariableCalculus
MethodsofAntidifferentiation

Page71

2.1.4.8 PartialFractions
Partialfractionscanbeusedtosimplifyarationalfunctionsothatitcanbeintegrated.
Arationalfunction(x) =
P(x)
(x)
= S(x) +
R(x)
(x)
,whereallofthesefunctionsarepolynomials,andthe
degreeofRislessthanthedegreeofQ.
PartI
Thedenominator(x)istheproductofdistinctlinearfactors.
R(x)
(x)
=
A
1
o
1
x + b
1
+
A
2
o
2
x +b
2
+
PartII
Thedenominator(x)isaproductoflinearfactors,someofwhicharerepeated
R(x)
(x)
=
A
1 1
o
1
x + b
1
+
A
1 2
(o
1
x + b
1
)
2
+ +
A
1
(o
1
x +b
1
)

+
PartIII
Thedenominator(x)containsdistinctirreduciblequadraticfactors
R(x)
(x)
=
A
1
x + B
1
o
1
x
2
+ b
1
x + c
1
+
PartIV
Thedenominator(x)containsirreduciblequadraticfactors,someofwhicharerepeated
R(x)
(x)
=
A
1 1
x + B
1 1
o
1
x
2
+ b
1
x + c
1
+
A
1 2
x + B
1 2
(o
1
x
2
+ b
1
x + c
1
)
2
++
A
1
x + B
1
(o
1
x
2
+ b
1
x +c
1
)

+
2.1.4.8.1 Quartics
Forquarticsorhigherdegreepolynomialswithoutrealroots,itispossibletofactorisetheseusing
completethesquaretoirreduciblequadratics.
x
4
+ 1 = x
4
+2x
2
+ 1 - 2x
2
= (x
2
+ 1)
2
- (2x)
2
= (x
2
+2x + 1)(x
2
- 2x +1)
x
6
+ 1 = (x
2
+ 1)(x
4
- x
2
+1) = (x
2
+ 1)(x
4
+2x
2
+ 1 - Sx
2
)
= (x
2
+ 1)(x
2
- Sx +1)(x
2
+Sx + 1)

SingleVariableCalculus
MethodsofAntidifferentiation

Page72

2.1.4.9 ImproperIntegrals
Fordefiniteintegralsatinfinity,orwherethefunctionisdiscontinuousinthatinterval,theintegral
cannotbeevaluatedviathenormalmeansofsubstitution,andlimitsmustbeemployed.
_ (x)

u
Jx = lim
t-
_ (x)Jx
t
u
= lim
t-
F(t) -F(o)
Thecasefornegativeinfinityisverysimilar.
Fordiscontinuitywithintheinterval[a,b]atc
_ (x)Jx
b
u
= lim
t-c
-
_ (x)Jx
t
u
+ lim
t-c
+
_ (x)Jx
b
t

= lim
t-c
-
F(t) - lim
t-c
+
F(t) +F(b) - F(o)
Thatis,ifthelimitexistsatc,thentheintegralbehavesnormally.
However,ifbothlimitsevaluatetoinfinity(ornegativeinfinity),therewillbea - term,which
willbeundefined.Ifthelimitsevaluatetooppositeinfinities,thevalueisdivergent.
Particularcasesofintegralatdiscontinuitiesarewhenone(orboth)oftheendpointsis
discontinuous.
_ (x)Jx
b
u
= lim
t-b
-
_ (x)Jx
t
u
= lim
t-b
-
F(t) - F(o)
_ (x)Jx
b
u
= lim
t-u
+
_ (x)Jx
b
t
= F(b) - lim
s-u
+
F(s)
_ (x)Jx
b
u
= lim
s-u
+
_ lim
t-b
-
_ (x)Jx
t
s
_ = lim
t-b
-
F(t) - lim
s-u
+
F(s)

SingleVariableCalculus
ApplicationsofIntegralCalculus

Page73

2.1.5 ApplicationsofIntegralCalculus
2.1.5.1 Area
2.1.5.1.1 Approximation
Areaapproximationworksusesvariousshapeswithdefinedareaformulaetoapproximatethearea
underagraph.
2.1.5.1.1.1 Methods
Leftandrightendpointrectangles
Left:
(x
-1
) x
n
=1
=
b - o
n
(x
-1
)
n
=1

Right:
(x

) x
n
=1
=
b - o
n
(x

)
n
=1

MidpointRectangles
_
x

+ x
-1
2
] x
n
=1
=
b - o
n
(x
-
)
n
=1

Trapeziums

(x

) +(x
-1
)
2
x
n
=1
=
b -o
2n
(x

) +(x
-1
)
n
=1
=
b - o
n
_
(x
0
) + (x
n
)
2
+ (x

)
n-1
=1
_
2.1.5.1.1.2 Bounds
Foranincreasingfunction
o Theleftrectanglesmethodgivesanunderestimation
o Therightrectanglesmethodgivesanoverestimation
Foradecreasingfunction
o Theleftrectanglesmethodgivesanoverestimation
o Therightrectanglesmethodgivesanunderestimation
Foraconcaveupfunction
o Themidpointrectanglesmethodgivesanunderestimation
o Thetrapeziummethodgivesanoverestimation
Foraconcavedownfunction
o Themidpointrectanglesmethodgivesanoverestimation
o Thetrapeziummethodgivesanunderestimation

SingleVariableCalculus
ApplicationsofIntegralCalculus

Page74

2.1.5.1.1.3 Error
Forafunctionf(x)onaclosedinterval[a,b]:thereisanumberKsuchthat|
ii
(x)| K,thenthe
errorboundforthetrapezoidalandmidpointrulesare
|E
1
|
K(b - o)
3
12n
2

|E
M
|
K(b - o)
3
24n
2

Hence,themidpointruleisabouttwiceasaccurateasthetrapezoidalmethod.
2.1.5.1.1.4 TheIntegralasASum
Takingthemidpointmethod,asthenumberofrectanglesisincreased,theapproximationgets
moreandmoreaccurate.
lim
n-
(x
-
)x
n
=0

Asngoestoinfinity,x - Jx,x
-
- x
lim
n-
(x
-
)x
n
=0
= _ (x)Jx
b
u

2.1.5.1.2 SignedArea
Yvaluesunderthexaxisarenegative,hencetheareacalculatedbyanintegralwouldalsobe
negative.
Iffisnegativebetweenintheinterval(a,b)[usuallyaandbwouldbetwoxintercepts],then
A = -_ (x)Jx
b
u
= _ (x)Jx
u
b
= __ (x)Jx
b
u
_ = _ |(x)|Jx
b
u

Whenfindingareaofafunctionthatcrossesthexaxisseveraltimes,thesignedareamustbetaken
intoaccount.
2.1.5.1.3 BetweenCurves
Iff(x)>g(x)foraninterval(a,b)[usuallyaandbarepointsofintersection],then
_ |(x) -g(x)]Jx
b
u
= _ |g(x) - (x)]Jx
b
u

Whenfindingtheareabetweentwocurvesthatcrosseachotherseveraltimes,thesigned
differencemustbetakenintoaccount.
Ifg(x)>f(x)foranotherinterval(b,c),then
A = -_ |(x) - g(x)]Jx
c
b
= _ |(x) -g(x)]Jx
b
c
= _ |g(x) - (x)]Jx
c
b
= _ |(x) -g(x)|Jx
c
b

SingleVariableCalculus
ApplicationsofIntegralCalculus

Page75

2.1.5.1.4 AlongtheYAxis
Whenintegratinginversefunctions(whichareratherdifficult),itisofteneasiertofindthearea
alongtheyaxis,andthensubtractthatfromarectangle.

Forexample
_ sin
-1
x Jx
1
0

Whenx=0,y=0.Whenx=1,y=/2.
y = sin
-1
x = x = sin y
_ sin
-1
x Jx
1
0
= 1
n
2
-_ sin y Jy
n
2
0
=
n
2
+ |cos y]
0
n2
=
n
2
- 1

SingleVariableCalculus
ApplicationsofIntegralCalculus

Page76

2.1.5.2 SolidsofRevolution
Whenanareaisspunaroundanaxis,asolidofrevolutionisformed.
2.1.5.2.1 SlabMethod
Theslabmethodtakesthesolidofrevolutionasinfinitelythincirculardisks(cylinders).Theslab
methodisapplicableonlywhentheareabeingspunisboundbytheaxiswhichitisbeingspun
around.
I = nr
2
Jb

Ingeneral,
Aboutthexaxis:
I = n _ |(x)]
2
Jx
b
u

Abouttheyaxis:
I = n _ x
2
Jy
d
c
= n _ |
-1
(x)]
2
Jx
d
c
= n _ x
2

Jy
Jx
Jx
b
u

2.1.5.2.1.1 WasherMethod
Thewashermethod,akathedonutmethod,iswhenanareanotboundbytheaxisofrotationis
spun.Thecrosssectionofsuchavolumeresemblesawasher.
Thistypeofareaistheareabetweencurves,i.e.|(x) - g(x)]
Thevolumeiscalculatedbythesummationofinfinitelythinwashers.
I = (nR
2
- nr
2
) Jb = n(R
2
- r
2
) Jb
Ingeneral,asolidofrevolutionaboutthexaxis:
I = n _ |(x)]
2
-|g(x)]
2
Jx
b
u

Abouttheyaxis:
I = n _ (x
2
)
2
- (x
1
)
2
Jx
d
c

SingleVariableCalculus
ApplicationsofIntegralCalculus

Page77

2.1.5.2.2 ShellMethod
Theshellmethodcalculatesthevolumebycylindricalshellsofinfinitesimalwidth.
Thevolumeofacylindricalshell:
I = n(R
2
-r
2
) b = n(R - r)(R + r)b = 2n
(R + r)
2
(R - r)b
Where
R+
2
istheaveragedistancefromtheaxisofrotation,andR - risthethicknessoftheshell.
Astheshellgetssmall,
R+
2
- r = R,R - r - Jr
I = (2nr
-
) Jr b
Theheightofthecylindricalshellisgenerallythedifferenceoftwocurves,
Ingeneral,
Abouttheyaxis,
I = 2n _ x |(x) -g(x)] Jx
b
u

Aboutthexaxis,
I = 2n _ y |x
2
-x
1
]Jy
d
c

Itiseasiertorememberthisform:
I = |circumcrcncc] |bcigbt] |tbickncss]
2.1.5.3 LineIntegral
I = _
_
1 +_
Jy
Jx
]
2
b
u
Jx = _
_
1 + _
Jx
Jy
]
2
Jy
d
c

SingleVariableCalculus
ApplicationsofIntegralCalculus

Page78

2.1.5.4 Work
w = F J = m a J
Whenaforceisappliedonanobjectfromatob,andtheforceontheobjectatpointxisf(x),then
w = _ (x)Jx
b
u

Examples
Aforceof40Nisrequiredtoholdaspringthathasbeenstretchedfromitsnaturallengthof10cmto
alengthof15cm.Howmuchworkisdoneinstretchingthespringfrom15cmto18cm?
ByHookeslaw,F = kx, = 4uN = k u.uS = k = 8uu kg s
-2

_ 8uux Jx
0.08
0.0.5
= 1.S6}

A20kgcableof10mlongishangeddownfromthetopofabuilding.Howmuchworkisrequiredto
liftthecabletothetopofthebuilding?
Letthetopofthebuildingbe0.Thedensityofthecableis2kgm
1
.
Eachsmallsectionsofcable,dx,musttraveluptothetopofthebuilding(xmetresabove)
Therefore,theworkoneachsmallsectionofcable:2*dx*g*x=2gx*dx
_ 2gx Jx
10
0
= 1uug}

Aninvertedconicaltankwithheightof10mandbaseradiusof4isfilledwithwatertoaheightof
8m.Findtheworkrequiredtoemptythetankbypumpingallofthewatertothetopofthetank.
Letthetopofthetankbe0.Atsomexmetresbelowthetop,thereisalayerofwaterwithradiusof
randthicknessofdx.

10-x
=
4
10
= r =
2
5
(1u - x)
Themassofthatlayerofwaterishencem = p I = p nr
2
Jx =
4pn
25
(1u - x)
2
Jx
Theworkonthatlayerofwaterishencem g x =
4png
25
x (1u - x)
2
Jx
_
4png
2S
x (1u - x)
2
Jx
10
2
=
4uuung
2S
_ x(1u - x)
2
Jx
10
2
= S.4 1u
6
}

SingleVariableCalculus
ApplicationsofIntegralCalculus

Page79

2.1.5.5 MomentsandCentreofMass
Noment = m
n
x
n
,wherex
n
isdistancefromtheorigin.
Thecentreofmassiswherethesumofmomentsfromitequaltozero:
m

(x - x

) = u
m

x = m

x =
m

IfMisthetotalmassofthesystem,thenthecentreofmasswouldbe:
x =
1
H
m

Inatwodimensionalplane,thecentreofmassofaboutthexandtheyaxis(i.e.distancefromthe
axis)arethen:
x =
1
H
m

=
H

H
y =
1
H
m

=
H
x
H

Forashapewithuniformdensityandthickness,representedbyanarea,themomentoftheshape
canbeconsideredtobethesumofmomentsofeachinfinitesimalrectangleinthexdirection:
Foreachoftheseinfinitesimalrectangle,theyhaveathicknessofdx,aheightof(x),theircentre
ofmassisthecentreoftherectangle,_x,
1
2
(x)],andtheirmassisp A = p (x) Jx,wherepis
thedensity.
Hence,themomentabouttheyaxis:H

= m

= p x(x) Jx,thesumofmomentishence
p ] x(x)Jx
b
u

Themomentaboutthexaxis:H
x
= m

=
p
2
|(x)]
2
Jx,thesumofmomentishence
p ]
|(x)]
2
Jx
b
u

ThemassMofthesystemisp A = p ] (x)
b
u
Jx
Hence,thecentreofmassinthexandydirection(thecentroid)are,
x =
] x(x)Jx
b
u
] (x)
b
u
Jx
, y =
]
1
2
|(x)]
2
Jx
b
u
] (x)
b
u
Jx

Forashapedefinedby(x) - g(x)
x =
] x|(x) -g(x)]Jx
b
u
]
|(x) - g(x)]
b
u
Jx
, y =
]
1
2
(|(x)]
2
-|g(x)]
2
) Jx
b
u
]
|(x) - g(x)]
b
u
Jx

SingleVariableCalculus
ApplicationsofIntegralCalculus

Page80

TheoremofPappus
IfashapeRisrotatedaboutl,thenthevolumeoftheresultingsolidistheproductoftheareaofR
andthedistancethecentroidofRhastravelled.
I.e.ifthedistancefromthecentroidperpendicularlytotheaxislisr,then
I = 2nr A

SingleVariableCalculus
DifferentialEquations

Page81

2.1.6 DifferentialEquations
2.1.6.1 SeparableEquations
Jy
Jx
= (x) = y = _(x) Jx
Jy
Jx
= (y) = x = _
Jy
(y)

Ingeneral
Jy
Jx
=
(x)
g(y)
= _g(y)Jy = _(x)Jx

Forsecondcase,itshouldbenotedthattheantiderivativewouldmostprobablybealogarithmic
functionofanabsolutefunction,whichcanbepositiveornegative.
Problemsgivinganinitialstatearecalledinitialvalueproblems,andtheinitialvaluedetermines
thepositionatwhichtherelationshipwouldmapto,aswellaswhichbranchthefunctionwilltake.
Forexample,
Jy
Jx
= 2y + 1, y(u) = -1
= x =
1
2
ln|2y +1| + c
= c = -
1
2
ln|-1| = u
c
2x
= |2y +1|
2y + 1 = _c
2x

Sincey(u) = -1,thelefthandsideisevaluatestoanegativenumber,implyingtherighthandside
mustbenegative.
2y + 1 = -c
2x

y = -
1
2
(c
2x
+1)

SingleVariableCalculus
DifferentialEquations

Page82

2.1.6.2 ModellingandApplications
2.1.6.2.1 Variation
Directproportion:o b = o = kb
Inversevariation:o
1
b
= o =
k
b

Notethatinthesecases,bcanbethesquare,thesquareroot,cube,logarithm,orothers
asspecifiedbythequestion.
Inparticular,foravariationwheretherateisproportionaltothevalue,usuallymodellingpopulation:
Jy
Jx
= ky
x =
1
k
ln|y| +c
Given(x
0
,y
0
),c = x
0
-
1
k
ln|y
0
|
y = _y
0
c
k(x-x
0
)

(Notethe+/sign.Inreality,however,mathematicalmodellingrarelyencountersnegativevalues
outsideofratesofchange)

SingleVariableCalculus
DifferentialEquations

Page83

2.1.6.2.2 NewtonsLawofCooling
Abodycools/heatsatarateproportionaltothedifferencebetweenitstemperatureandits
surroundings.
Thistranslatestothedifferentialequation
JI
Jt
= k(S - I), wheie S is the tempeiatuie of the suiiounuings
t = -
1
k
ln|S - I| + C
Ifatt=0,T=T
0,
C =
1
k
ln|S -I
0
|
c
-kt
= _
S -I
S - I
0
_
Sincethetemperaturefunctionismonotonic(itdoesnotovershoot),thenumeratorexpressionis
alwaysthesamesignwiththedenominatorexpression,andthemodulusisnotrequired.
I = S -(S - I
0
)c
-kt

Sincetherearethreeconstantsinthisexpression,thequestionwouldneedtogiveatleastthree
conditionstoworkouttheseconstants.
Inthisform,solvingforconstantswillbeverydifficult.Thefollowing[nonexplicit]formwouldbe
moreappropriate:
t =
1
k
ln_
S - I
0
S -I
]
Forexample,athermometeristakenfromahouseat21degreestotheoutside.Oneminutelaterit
reads27degrees,anotherminutelateritreads30degrees.Findtemperatureoutsidehouse.
t =
1
k
ln_
S - I
0
S -I
]
I
0
= 21
1 =
1
k
ln_
S - 21
S - 27
] |1]
2 =
1
k
ln_
S - 21
S - Su
] |2]
2 |1]
RHS
= |2]
RHS
=
(S -21)
2
(S -27)
2
=
S - 21
S - Su

(S - Su)(S - 21) = (S - 27)

2

-S1S + 62u = -S4S + 729

SS = 99
S = SS
o

SingleVariableCalculus
DifferentialEquations

Page84

2.1.6.2.3 DifferenceofRates
Foravolumeofsolution,withaninflow,andwhilstitiskeptevenlymixed,anoutflow,adifferential
equationforthissituationcanbemodelledby:
J
Jt
=
JI
n
Jt
C
n
-
JI
out
Jt


I
0
+ _
JI
n
Jt
-
JI
out
Jt
] t

WhereQistheamountofsolute,
dv
in
dt
istherateofinflow,C
n
istheconcentrationofinflow,and
dv
cut
dt
istherateofoutflow.
Thedifferentialequationcanbethoughtofas:
J
Jt
= inflow - outflow = |inflow] |concentiation of inflow] -|outflow]
Amount
volume

Forsystemswheretherateofinflowisequaltotherateofoutflow:
J
Jt
=
I
0
_
JI
n
Jt
] C
n
- _
JI
out
Jt
]
I
0

Hence,
t =
I
0
_
JI
out
Jt
]
ln_
I
0
_
JI
n
Jt
] C
n
-_
JI
out
Jt
]
0
I
0
_
JI
n
Jt
] C
n
-_
JI
out
Jt
]
_
Solvingthedifferentialequationwheretherateofinflowdoesnotequaltotherateofoutflow
involvesthemethodofintegratingfactor,whichisnotintheSpecialistMathematicscourse.An
exampleofthiswillbecoveredintherelevantsection.

SingleVariableCalculus
DifferentialEquations

Page85

2.1.6.2.4 FiniteIntegral
Differentialequationscantranslateintoafiniteintegral,whichcanbesolvednumericallyusing
principlesofapproximation(ormachineapproximations).Thiscanbeusefulforfunctionswithoutan
antiderivative,orarathercomplexantiderivative.
LettherebeafunctionfsuchthatitsantiderivativeisF
Jy
Jx
= (x)
y = F(x) + C
Giventheinitialconditionwhenx=x
0
,y=y
0
,C = y
0
- F(x
0
)
y = F(x) -F(x
0
) + y
0

BytheFundamentalTheoremofCalculus(II)
y - y
0
= _ (x)Jx
x
x
0

y = _ (x)Jx
x
x
0

Hence,giventheinitialvalue,thedifferentialequationcanbesolvedforanyxwithinacontinuous
closedsetinitsdomain.
For
Jy
Jx
= (y)
x = _ (y)Jy

SingleVariableCalculus
DifferentialEquations

Page86

2.1.6.2.5 EulersMethod
Theformulaforlinearapproximationis
(x +b) = b
i
(x) + (x)
Eulersmethodusesthegradientfunctionf(x)toapproximatef(x)withsmallh,numericallysolving
adifferentialequation.
AprogramforEulersMethodontheTI89seriescalculator:
:eulert()
:Prgm
:DelVarx,y,dx,dy,t,yp
:ClrIO
:Inputdy/dx,yp
:Inputxinitial,x
:Inputyinitial,y
:Inputstepsize,dx
:1t
:Definelist1={}
:Definelist2={}
:Inputxfinal,s
:(sx)/dxs
:Whilets
:Definelist1[t]=x
:Definelist2[t]=y
:yp*dxdy
:x+dxx
:y+dyy
:t+1t
:EndWhile
:Definelist1[t]=x
:Definelist2[t]=y
:Dispy
:Dispapprox(y)
:DelVart,x,y
:DelVaryp,dx,dy
:EndPrgm

Forexample,
d
dx
= 2x + 1, y(u) = -1, finu y(1)usingastepsizeof0.1
x y
|

dy
dx

dy
0.0 1 1 0.1
0.1 0.9 1.0954 0.1095
0.2 0.7905 1.1832 0.1183
0.3 0.6721 1.2649 0.1265
0.4 0.5456 1.3416 0.1342
0.5 0.4115 1.4142 0.1414
0.6 0.2701 1.4832 0.1483
0.7 0.1217 1.5492 0.1559
0.8 0.0332 1.6125 0.1613
0.9 0.1944 1.6733 0.1673
1.0 0.3618

SingleVariableCalculus
DifferentialEquations

Page87

2.1.6.2.6 SlopeField
Aslopefieldofadifferentialequationassignsthevalueofthegradienttoeachpointonaplane
P(x,y).
Thegradientisusuallygivenbyashortstraightlineinthedirectionoftheslopeatregularintervals
inthexandydirections.
Withaslopefield,anydifferentialequationcanbesolvedfornumericallygivenaninitialconditionat
anypointonP(x,y)
Jy
Jx
=
x
4
+ 1
InitialCondition:x=0,y=0
2.1.6.2.7 OrthogonalTrajectories
Orthogonaltrajectoriesarecurvesthatarealwaysperpendiculartoeachotheratthepointof
intersection.Thesesatisfythedifferentialequation
Jy
1
Jx

Jy
2
Jx
= -1
Ingeneral,apairofrelationshipsthatareorthogonal:
y = ox
n
, o e R, n e R\{u] x
2
+ ny
2
= b, b e R, n e R\{u]
Inparticular,whenn=1,
xy = c, c e R x
2
-y
2
= k, k e R

SingleVariableCalculus
DifferentialEquations

Page88

2.1.6.3 FirstOrderLinearDifferentialEquations(Integrating
Factors)
Theordinarydifferentialequation
y
i
+ P(x)y = (x)
Isanonseparablefirstorderlineardifferentialequation,andcanbesolvedbymultiplyingbothsides
byanintegratingfactor.
Usingtheintegratingfactorrecognisesthat:
((x)y)
i
= (x)y
i
+
i
(x)y
Hence,multiplyingbothsidesoftheDEbytheintegratingfactorI(x)
I(x)y
i
+ I(x)P(x)y = I(x)(x)
ItcanbeseenthatI
i
(x) = I(x)P(x) =
I
|
(x)
I(x)
= P(x) = I(x) = c
]P(x)dx

(I(x)y)
i
= I(x)(x)
y =
]I(x)(x)Jx + C
I(x)

Forexample:
A20Ltankofsaltsolutioninitiallyhas2kgofdissolvedsalt.Saltispouredintothesolutionat
0.1kg/min,andthesolutionisflowingoutataconstantrateof1L/minwhilstthesolutioniskept
evenlymixed.
J
Jt
= u.1 -

2u - t

J
Jt
+ _
1
2u - t
] = u.1
I(x) = c
]
1
20-t
dt
= c
-In|20-t|
= (|t -2u|)
-1

Theimplieddomainist<20(atthatpointthetankisempty),
I(x) = (2u - t)
-1

_

2u - t
]
i
= u.1

2u - t
= u.1t +C
GiventhatQ=2whent=0,C=0.1
1u
2u - t
= t +1
= -
1
1u
(t - 2u)(t + 1)

SingleVariableCalculus
DifferentialEquations

Page89

2.1.6.4 SecondorderDifferentialEquations
Anordinarysecondorderlinearequationisintheformof:
P(x)
J
2
y
Jx
2
+ (x)
Jy
Jx
+ R(x)y = 0(x)
2.1.6.4.1 Homogenous
AhomogenoussecondorderDEisintheformof
P(x)
J
2
y
Jx
2
+ (x)
Jy
Jx
+R(x)y = u
Then,ify
1
andy
2
aresolutionstothisdifferentialequation,
y(x) = c
1
y
1
(x) + c
2
y
2
(x)
Wherey(x)isthegeneralsolutiontothedifferentialequation,andc
1
andc
2
arearbitraryconstants.
Thisimpliesthatiftwosolutionsareknown,thenallsolutionsareknown.Thisalsoimpliesthaty
1

andy
2
arelinearlyindependent.
Notalldifferentialequationsaresolvable,butitisalwayspossibletosolveitwhenP,QandRare
constantfunctions.
oy
ii
+by
i
+cy = u
Tosolvethislineardifferentialequation,lety=e
rx
.
or
2
c
x
+ brc
x
+cc
x
= u
or
2
+br + c = u
Theaboveequationiscalledtheauxiliaryequation(orcharacteristicequation).
Solvingforrcanhavethreedifferentoutcomes:
Twosolutions
o y = c
1
c

1
x
+ c
2
c

2
x

Onesolution
o y = c
1
c
x
+ c
2
xc
x

Norealsolution
o r
1
= o +i[, r
2
= o - i[
o y = c
ux
(c
1
cos [x + c
2
sin [x)
o Wherec
1
andc
2
canbecomplexnumbers.Thisgivessolutionintherealand
complexplane.

SingleVariableCalculus
DifferentialEquations

Page90

2.1.6.4.2 NonHomogenous
Forsecondordernonhomogenouslineardifferentialequationswithconstantcoefficients:
oy
ii
+ by
i
+ cy = 0(x)
Thenthegeneralsolutiontakestheform
y(x) = y
p
(x) + y
c
(x)
Wherey
p
isaparticularsolution,andy
c
isthegeneralsolutiontothecomplementaryequation:
oy
ii
+by
i
+cy = u
Whilsty
c
canbefoundwithreasonableease,findingy
p
ismoreinvolved,andtwoofthemethodsare
explainedbelow.
2.1.6.4.2.1 MethodofUndeterminedCoefficients
oy
ii
+ by
i
+ cy = 0(x)
2.1.6.4.2.1.1 PolynomialFunction
WhereG(x)isapolynomial.
TheparticularsolutionwillbeofthesamedegreeofG(x),andwilltaketheform:
y
p
(x) = o
n
x
n
+ o
n-1
x
n-1
+ + o
0

Substitutingthisanditsderivativesintothedifferentialequationwillgiveasystemoflinear
equationsbyequatingthecoefficients.
2.1.6.4.2.1.2 ExponentialFunction
If0(x) = C c
kx
then,
y
p
(x) = Ac
kx

Substitutingthisanditsderivativesintothedifferentialequationwillgiveasystemoflinear
equationsbyequatingthecoefficientsoftheexponentialterms.
2.1.6.4.2.1.3 TrigonometricFunctions
If0(x) = C cos kx oi C sinkxthen,
y
p
(x) = Acos kx + Bsin kx
Substitutingthisanditsderivativesintothedifferentialequationwillgiveasystemoflinear
equationsbyequatingthecoefficientsofthetrigonometricterms.

SingleVariableCalculus
DifferentialEquations

Page91

2.1.6.4.2.1.4 ProductofFunctions
If0(x)isaproductoftheprevioustypesoffunctions,thenatrialsolutionwouldbeaproductofthe
particularsolutions.
If0(x) = P
1
(x) c
kx
,theny
p
(x) = P
2
(x) c
kx

If0(x) = P
1
(x) sin kx oi P
1
(x) cos kx,theny
p
(x) = P
2
(x) cos kx + P
3
(x) sinkx
If0(x) = Cc
k
1
x
sin k
2
x oi Cc
k
1
x
cos k
2
x,theny
p
(x) = Ac
k
1
x
cos k
2
x + Bc
k
1
x
sink
2
x
2.1.6.4.2.1.5 SumofFunctions
If0(x) = g
1
(x) +g
2
(x),thentheparticularsolutionswillbethesumofparticularsolutionsto
oy
ii
+by
i
+cy = g
1
(x)andoy
ii
+by
i
+cy = g
2
(x).

2.1.6.4.2.2 MethodofVariationofParameters
Ifthecomplementaryequationhasalreadybeensolvedandisexpressedwitharbitraryconstants,
themethodofvariationofparametersthenletthearbitraryconstantsbearbitraryfunctionsand
triestofindaparticularsolution.
y
p
(x) = u
1
(x)y
1
(x) + u
2
(x)y
2
(x)
Hence,differentiatinggives:
y
p
i
= (u
1
i
y
1
+ u
2
i
y
2
) +(u
1
y
1
i
+ u
2
y
2
i
)
Sinceu
1
andu
2
arearbitraryfunctions,conditionsmaybeimposedonthem,suchthatu
1
i
y
1
+
u
2
i
y
2
= u.
y
p
ii
= u
1
i
y
1
i
+ u
2
y
2
i
+ u
1
y
1
ii
+u
2
y
2
ii

Hence,
o(u
1
i
y
1
i
+ u
2
y
2
i
+ u
1
y
1
ii
+u
2
y
2
ii
) + b(u
1
y
1
i
+ u
2
y
2
i
) + c(u
1
y
1
+ u
2
y
2
) = 0
Sincey
1
andy
2
areparticularsolutionstothecomplementaryequation,thissimplifiesto
o(u
1
i
y
1
i
+ u
2
i
y
2
i
) = 0
Alsosinceu
1
i
y
1
+ u
2
i
y
2
= u = u
1
i
= -
u
2
|

1
,solvingthesesimultaneouslycangiveexpressionsfor
u
1
i
anu u
2
i
,whichcanbeantidifferentiatedandhencetheparticularsolutionisfound.

SingleVariableCalculus
DifferentialEquations

Page92

Forexample,solvey
ii
+ y = tan x , u < x < n2
Thecomplementaryequationisy
ii
+ y = u,whichgivesanauxiliaryequation
r
2
+ 1 = u = r = _i
y
c
= c
0
(c
1
cos(x) + c
2
sin(x)) = c
1
cos x + c
2
sinx
y
p
= u
1
cos x + u
2
sin x
Hence,u
1
i
y
1
+u
2
i
y
2
= u = u
1
i
cos x + u
2
i
sin x = u
Also,u
1
i
(-sin x) +u
2
i
(cos x) = tan x
u
2
i
sin
2
x
cos x
+u
2
i
cos x =
sinx
cos x

u
2
i
(sin
2
x +cos
2
x) = sin x
u
2
= -cos x
u
1
i
= -
sin
2
x
cos x

u
1
= _-
sin
2
x
cos x
Jx = sin x - ln (sec x + tan x)
y
p
= (sin x - ln(sec x + tan x)) cos x - cos x sin x = -cos x ln(sec x + tan x)

2.1.6.4.3 InitialValueProblemsandBoundaryValueProblems
Initialvalueproblemsforsecondorderdifferentialequationswillprovideinitialyvalueaswellasthe
initialgradient.Solvethesejustasinitialvalueproblemsinfirstorderdifferentialequations.
Aboundaryvalueproblemgivestwoyvaluesfortwoxvalues,andmaynotalwayshaveasolution.
Substitutethexandyvaluesintothegeneralsolutionandsolvesimultaneouslyforthearbitrary
constants.

SingleVariableCalculus
PhysicalApplications

Page93

2.1.7 PhysicalApplications
2.1.7.1 Kinematics
2.1.7.1.1 SUVATandVtGraphs
Formotionwithconstantacceleration,thefollowingformulaecanbeused,whereuistheinitial
velocity,visthefinalvelocity,aistheacceleration,tisthetime,andsisthedistancetravelled.
: = u +ot
o =
: -u
t

s =
u +:
2
t
s = ut +
1
2
ot
2

:
2
- u
2
= 2oJ
Foi a vt giaph, the giauient is the acceleiation, anu the aiea unuei the giaph is the
uisplacement.
Foi paiticulai pioblems wheie an object has a maximum iate of acceleiation a, a maximum iate
of ueceleiation n times a, a maximum velocity vat which it ieaches anu tiavels at uuiing the
jouiney, anu a set uistance to tiavel s, the time tcan be solveu by the following:
:
2
2o
+
:
2
2no
+:t
p
= s
t = t
p
+
:
o
+
:
no
=
S
2
_
n: + :
no
] +
s
:

2.1.7.1.2 Acceleration
o =
J
2
x
Jt
2
=
J:
Jt
=
J:
Jx

Jx
Jt
= :
J:
Jx
=
J
Jx
_
1
2
:
2
]
Forexample,findxintermsoftifo = -4x + 8andwhent = u,x =
1
2
,: = -SS
:
J:
Jx
= -4x + 8
_: J: = _-4x +8 Jx
:
2
2
= -2x
2
+8x +C
x =
1
2
,: = -SS
27
2
= -
2
4
+ 4 + C

SingleVariableCalculus
PhysicalApplications

Page94

C = 1u
:
2
= -4(x
2
- 4x - S)
Jx
Jt
= -2S - (x
2
- 4x + 4) + 4 since : is negative
Jt
Jx
= -
1
2S
2
- (x - 2)
2

t = -
1
2
cos
-1
_
x - 2
S
] +
t = u,x =
1
2

=
1
2
cos
-1
_-
1
2
] =
n
S

cos _-2[t -
n
S
_ =
x - 2
S

x = S cos _2 [t -
n
S
_ + 2

SingleVariableCalculus
PhysicalApplications

Page95

2.1.7.2 StaticsandDynamics
2.1.7.2.1 Force
Forceisavectorquantity,withadirectionandmagnitude.Itcanberesolvedintocomponents(in2D
or3D).
2.1.7.2.1.1 Equilibrium
Inequilibrium,theresultantoftheforcesisazero.Thesumofcomponentsofforcesinanydirection
isalsozero.
Forthreeforcesactingonaparticleatequilibrium:

Ifthemagnitudesofthethreeforcesareknown,thenthecosinerulecanbeapplied.
LetthevectoroppositeAbea,oppositeBbeb,andoppositeCbec.
|a|
2
= |h|
2
+|c|
2
- 2|h||c| cos A
2.1.7.2.1.1.1 LamisTheorem
Whenanangleisknown,thesinerulecanbeappliedtofindthemagnitude/angleoftheother
forces.
|a|
sinA
=
|h|
sin B
=
|c|
sinC

SingleVariableCalculus
PhysicalApplications

Page96

2.1.7.2.1.1.2 HangingMass
Sincethehangingmassisinequilibrium,wecanmake
thefollowinggeneralisations:
sin0 I
1
= sin I
2

cos 0 I
1
+ cos I
2
= mg
Alternatively,wherethecomplementoftheangles0andareknown:
cos 0' I
1
= cos ' I
2

sin 0' I
1
+ sin ' I
2
= mg
Solvingthesesimultaneouslywhentheangleisgivenwouldgivethemagnitudeofthetensionforces
alongthestrings.Alternatively,LamisTheoremcanbeapplied.
Generally,thelengthsofthestringsaregiven,andtheanglecanbeworkedouthenceforth.
Wheretheangleisrequiredandtheforcesareknown,thecosinerule(picturedasbefore)canbe
applied.
2.1.7.2.1.2 NewtonsLawsofMotion
Newtonsfirstlawofmotion
Aparticleatrestorinconstantmotionwillremainatrestorconstantmotionunlessactedonbyan
unbalancedforce.
Foraparticle/systeminequilibrium,theforcesactingonitmustbalance.
Newtonssecondlawofmotion
Theforceisproportionatetotherateofchangeoftheobjectsmomentum.
F = km
Ju
Jt
= km
J
2
x
Jt
2
= kma
ThevalueofoneNewtonischosensuchthatkis1whenaisinms
2
andmisinkg.
Newtonsthirdlawofmotion
Everyforcehasanequalandoppositeforce
Weight
Theweightisspecifictoparticulargravitationalfields.Onekilograminaparticularfieldweighs1kg
wt.Inotherwords,1kgwt=1gN.

SingleVariableCalculus
PhysicalApplications

Page97

2.1.7.2.1.3 Friction
Thefrictionforcealwaysopposesthedirectionofmotion.
Themaximumfrictionforcebetweentwoparticularsurfacesisproportionaltothenormalforce
(opposingtheweightforce).
F = pN
Wherepisthecoefficientoffriction.Thecoefficientsoffrictionfortwostaticsurfacesandtwo
surfacesslidingrelativelytoeachotheraredifferent.
2.1.7.2.1.3.1 Static
F
mux
= pN
Ifanexternalforceactsonastaticobjectonasurface,frictionopposesthisforceparalleltothe
planeofthesurface.Thefrictionforceopposestheexternalforceasmuchaspossibleuptoits
maximumlimit.Untiltheexternalforceisgreaterthanthemagnitudeofmaximumforce,thereisno
motion,andtheobject/systemissaidtobeinequilibrium.
Foranobject/systeminequilibrium,theminimumcoefficientoffrictionpossibleiswhenthe
object/systemisonthepointofsliding.I.e.thefrictionalforceisatmaximum.(Ifthefrictionalforce
isnotatmaximum,thenthecoefficientoffrictionwouldneedtobegreater.)
2.1.7.2.1.3.2 Sliding
Slidingfrictionopposesthedirectionofmotion,andhasthemagnitude
F
]c
= pN

SingleVariableCalculus
PhysicalApplications

Page98

2.1.7.2.2 SingleObject
2.1.7.2.2.1 InclinedPlane

Forexample
AnobjectisprojectedwithspeedUuparoughplanewithcoefficientoffrictionandinclinationof
degreestothehorizontal.
Thedistanceittravelsuptheplane(downtheplaneisnegative):
F
nct
= mo
nct
= -mg sin 0 - pmg cos 0
o
nct
= -g(sin 0 + p cos 0)
J:
Jx
= -
g(sin0 + p cos 0)
:

x = _ -
:
g(sin 0 + p cos 0)
J:
0
0
=
1
g(sin 0 + p cos 0)
_
:
2
2
_
0
0
=
u
2
2g(sin 0 + p cos 0)

Thespeedwhichitreturnstoground:
o
nct
= -g(sin 0 - p cos 0)
x = _ -
:
2g(sin0 - p cos 0)
v
0
J: = -
I
2
2g(sin 0 - p cos 0)

I
2
2g(sin0 -p cos 0)
=
u
2
2g(sin 0 + p cos 0)

I = u_
sin0 -p cos 0
sin0 +p cos 0

SingleVariableCalculus
PhysicalApplications

Page99

Anotherexample
Anobjectofmass24kgisonthepointofslidingdownarough
inclinedplanewhenpulledbyaforceof10kgwtatanangleof
30
o
totheinclinedplane.Whenthesizeoftheforceis
increasedto12kgwt,theobjectisonthepointofslidingup.
Downtheplaneisnegative.Atpointofslidingdown,the
frictionalforceopposesgravityandpointsuptheplane.At
pointofslidingup,thefrictionalforceopposesthepullingforce
andpointsdowntheplane.Inbothinstances,thefrictional
forceismaximum,i.e.F
]c
= pR
Pointofslidingdown:
Perpendiculartotheplane:1u sin Su
o
+ R
1
= 24 cos 0 = R
1
= 24 cos 0 - S
Paralleltotheplane:1u cos Su
o
+ pR
1
= 24 sin 0 = SS + p(24 cos 0 - S) = 24 sin0
Pointofslidingup:
Perpendiculartotheplane:12 sin Su
o
+ R
2
= 24 cos 0 = R
2
= 24 cos 0 - 6
Paralleltotheplane:12 cos Su
o
= 24 sin0 +pR
2
= 6S = 24 sin 0 + p(24 cos 0 -6)
11S + 24p cos 0 - Sp = 48 sin 0 +24p cos 0 - 6p
p = 48 sin0 - 11S
SS + (48 sin0 -11S)(24 cos 0 - S) = 24 sin0
nSol:c(SS + (48 sin0 -11S)(24 cos 0 - S) = 24 sin0 , 0)|u 0
n
2

0 = 2S
o
27
i
oi 76
o
41
i

p = u.uS24S or 27.6SS2

SingleVariableCalculus
PhysicalApplications

Page100

2.1.7.2.3 MultipleObjects
2.1.7.2.3.1 Stackedobjects
Boxes
Forcesactingontheupperobject:Hgdownwards,R
1

upwards.
Forcesactingonthelowerobject:mgdownwards,R
2

upwards,R
1
downwards(asR
1
isexertedontheupper
massbythelowermass,hencethelowermassmust
experiencetheequalandoppositeforce).
Iftheobjectisinequilibrium,thenR
2
= mg +R
1
.Hence,ifthereisanobjectbelowthelowermass,
itwillexperienceitsowngravitationalattractionandreactionforcefromground,aswellasthe
reactionforcefromabove.
Lift
Foraliftacceleratingupwards:
I - mg = mo
Foraliftacceleratingdownwards:
mg - I = mo
Forapersoninsidethelift,R - mg = moormg - R = mo,whereNisthe
normalreactionforce.
Theweightforcemeasuredbyaweightisthenormalreactionforce.I.e.Whentheliftisaccelerating
upwards,theweightincreases,whentheliftisacceleratingdownwards,theweightdecreases.
Forexample,aliftislowering.Duringdeceleration,thepersoninsidewouldexperienceminimumR,
andtheresultantforceonthepersonwouldbedownwards.Duringconstantspeed,Risequaland
oppositetothegravitationalattraction.Duringdeceleration,thepersonwouldexperiencemaximum
R,andtheresultantforcewouldbeupwards.

SingleVariableCalculus
PhysicalApplications

Page101

MoveableWedge
Foramoveablewedgeonasurfaceandablock
sittingontop,theblockexertsaforce
perpendiculartotheslantface,causingthe
wedgetomoveaway.Theblockhasanet
accelerationtowardstheslantfaceaswellas
paralleltoit.
Inthediagramontheright,blueforcesactson
theblock,andredforcesactsonthewedge,and
thegreenforcesarecomponentsofR
1

,which
areparticularlyimportant.
Theblockisacceleratingdownwardsperpendiculartotheslantface(downwardsdirectionis
negative).
F
bIock-nct
= mo
J
= R
1
- mg cos 0
Theblockexertsaforceonthewedge,R
1
,whichisequalandoppositetoR
1
.
R
1
i
= -R
1
= -(F
bIock-nct
+ mg cos 0)
Hence,theaccelerationofthewedgetotheleftwouldbe(leftisnegative)
F
push
= R
1
i
sin0
o
push
=
R
1
i
H
sin0
Also,astheblockacceleratesperpendicularlytotheslantface,itdoesso
thatitkeepsupwiththewedgewhichismovingaway.i.e.the
accelerationoftheblockisthecomponentofthenetaccelerationofthe
wedgeperpendiculartotheslantface.
o
J
= o
push
sin 0
Thenormalreactionforceexertedbythegroundonthewedge,R
2
,is
R
2
= Hg + R
1
cos 0

SingleVariableCalculus
PhysicalApplications

Page102

Forexample,a2kgsmoothwedgeisplacedonasmoothtable,andasmooth1kgblockisplacedon
theslantface.
o
J
= R
1
- gcos 0
R
1
i
= -(o
J
+ g cos 0)
o
push
= -
(o
J
+ g cos 0)
2
sin 0
o
push
= -
(o
push
sin0 + g cos 0)
2
sin0
o
push
+
sin
2
0
2
o
push
= -
gcos 0 sin 0
2

(2 +sin
2
0)o
push
= -
g
2
sin 20
_
S
2
+sin
2
0 -
1
2
] o
push
= -
g
2
sin 20
_
S
2
-
1
2
cos 20] o
push
= -
g
2
sin 20
o
push
= -
g sin 20
S - cos 20

Nowthefrictionlesstableisreplacedbyaroughsurface.Theminimumcoefficientoffrictionwould
beifthesystemisnowonthepointofsliding.
R
2
= 2g + R
1
cos 0
Sincethewedgeisnotmoving,theblockhasnonetaccelerationperpendiculartotheslantface.
R
1
= g cos 0
pR
2
= R
1
i
sin 0
p(g(2 + cos
2
0)) = gcos 0 sin 0
p =
1
2
sin20
1
2
cos 20 +
S
2
=
sin20
cos 20 +S

SingleVariableCalculus
PhysicalApplications

Page103

2.1.7.2.3.2 ConnectedParticles
Inconnectedparticles,therope(inextensible)exertsanequaltensionforceonbothobjects
connectedtoit.
Horizontalplane

Pulley
Thepulleysystemmovestowardstheheavierside.
Ontheheavierside:
m
t
o = m
t
g - I
1

Onthelighterside:
m
t
o = I
1
- m
t
g
Ifanobjecthastwostringsattached:
mo = I
1
- I
2
- mgormo = mg +I
2
- I
1

SingleVariableCalculus
PhysicalApplications

Page104

2.1.7.2.4 VectorForce
Ifaforceisgivenasavector,theforceactsinthedirectionofthevector,andthemagnitudeofthe
forceisthemagnitudeofthevector.
Ifseveralforcesareinvolved,theresultantvectorcanbefound.
2.1.7.2.5 VariableForce
Ifforceisvariable,thenaccelerationisnotconstant.
If F = (x), o =
1
m
((x))
Forexample,anobjectmass3kgisprojectedverticallyupwardswithinitialspeedUm/s,andreturns
toitsstartingpointwithspeedVm/s.Assumethatairresistanceis
g
2
20
,wherevisthespeedofthe
object.
Upwardsmotionispositive.
Maximumheight:
F
nct
= -mg -
g:
2
2u
= -
g(6u + :
2
)
2u

o
nct
= -
g(6u +:
2
)
6u

:
J:
Jx
= -
g(6u + :
2
)
6u

Jx
J:
= -
6u:
g(6u +:
2
)

x = _ -
6u:
g(6u + :
2
)
J:

u
=
Su
g
_
2:
6u +:
2
0
0
=
Su
g
|ln|6u + :
2
|]
0
0
=
Su
g
ln_
6u + u
2
6u
_

SingleVariableCalculus
PhysicalApplications

Page105

Thetimetakenfortheobjecttoreturntostartingpointfrommaximumheight(frictionisupwards
[positive]thistime)
F
nct
=
g:
2
2u
- mg =
g(:
2
- 6u)
2u

o
nct
=
g(:
2
- 6u)
6u

Jt
J:
=
6u
g(:
2
- 6u)

t = _
6u
g(:
2
- 6u)
J:
=
1S
g
_
26u
(: +6u)(: - 6u)
J:
=
1S
g
_
1
: +6u
-
1
: - 6u
J:
=
1S
g
ln_
: + 6u
: - 6u
_ +C
Givenwhent=0(maximumheight),v=0
C = -
1S
g
ln 1 = u
t =
1S
g
ln _
: + 6u
: - 6u
_
Whenv=V(whenitreachestheground)
t =
1S
g
ln _
-I + 6u
-I - 6u
_ =
1S
g
ln_
6u -I
6u +I
_

SingleVariableCalculus
PhysicalApplications

Page106

Also,
o
nct
=
g(:
2
- 6u)
6u

Jx
J:
=
6u:
g(:
2
- 6u)

x = _
6u:
g(:
2
-6u)
J:
-v
0
=
Su
g
_
2:
:
2
- 6u
J:
-v
0
=
Su
g
|ln|:
2
- 6u|]
0
-v
=
Su
g
ln_
I
2
- 6u
6u
_
x = -
Su
g
ln _
6u
I
2
- 6u
]
Notethatthemagnitudeofthedistancetravelledis
30
g
ln [
60
v
2
-60
,asthedistancetravelledisinthe
downwardsdirection,i.e.negative.
Sincethedistancetravelledontheupwardsjourneyisthesameasthedistancetravelledonthe
downwardsjourney,
Su
g
ln _
6u + u
2
6u
_ =
Su
g
ln_
6u
I
2
- 6u
]

6u + u
2
6u
=
6u
I
2
-6u

SingleVariableCalculus
SequencesandSeries

Page107

2.1.8 SequencesandSeries
2.1.8.1 Sequence
Asequenceisalistofnumberswritteninadefiniteorder,usuallyobeyingaparticularrule.
{o
n
] = {o
1
, o
2
, o
3
, ] = {o
n
]
n=1

Foralternatingsequences,(-1)
n
isusuallyincorporatedinitsrule.
2.1.8.1.1 LimitsofSequences
Asequencemaybedefinedasafunctionofnaturalnumbers,andthisfunctionisasubsetofthe
functionoverR.
Thelimitlawsappliesforlimitsofsequences,whichmaybeevaluatedsimply.
Severalkeynotesare:
Forasequencethatdoesnotconvergeatinfinity,itiscalleddivergent(usuallyanoscillating
function).Forasequencethatgetsinfinitelylargeorsmall,itiscalleddivergenttoinfinity.
Aparticularusefulidentity,
lim
n-
|o
n
| = u, then lim
n-
o
n
= u
Whereanindeterminateformisencounteredwhenevaluatingalimit,LHopitalsrulecannotbe
applieddirectly,butachangeofvariablesmay:
If (n) = o
n
wheie n is an integei, anu lim
x-
(x) = I foi x e R, then lim
n-
(n) = I also.
LHopitalsrulecanbeappliedforthelimitoverreals,butnotoverintegers.
Also,fortheserieso
n
= r
n
,
lim
n-
r
n
= (x) = _
u, -1 < r < 1
1, r = 1
uiveigent, elsewheie

Asequencecanbesaidtobeincreasingordecreasing.Ifasequenceisalwaysincreasingor
decreasing,itiscalledmonotonic.
Forasequencethathaveanupperboundorlowerbound,itissaidtobeboundedaboveor
boundedbelow,andinthecaseofboth,bounded.
Everyboundedmonotonicsequenceisconvergent.

SingleVariableCalculus
SequencesandSeries

Page108

2.1.8.2 Series
Aseriesisthesumofinfinitetermsofasequence.
S = o
n

n=1

However,itisnotalwaysmeaningfultodiscussseriesastheymaydiverge.Hencepartialsumsare
usedtodeterminewhetheraseriesisconvergentornot.
S
n
= o

n
=1

Ifaseriesisconvergent,thenlim
n-
S
n
= Sexistsandisafinitenumber.
Thegeometricseries:
or
n-1

n=1
= o + or + or
2
+ or
3
+
Isconvergentif|r| < 1, S =
u
1-
,andisotherwisedivergent.
Theharmonicseries
1
n

n=1
isdivergent.
Ingeneral,ifaseriesisconvergent,thenlim
n-
o
n
= u.Iflim
n-
o
n
> u,thenitsseriesis
divergent.
co
n

n=1
= c o
n

n=1

(o
n
+ b
n
)

n=1
= o
n

n=1
+ b
n

n=1

SingleVariableCalculus
SequencesandSeries

Page109

2.1.8.2.1 TestsofConvergence
2.1.8.2.1.1 IntegralTest
Iffisacontinuous,positiveanddecreasingfunctionon|1, ),anda
n
= (n),then
If] (x)

1
dxisdivergent,then a
n

n=1
isalsodivergent.
If] (x)

1
dxisconvergent,then a
n

n=1
isalsoconvergent.
Bothofthesecanbeshowngraphicallybyconstructingleft/rightrectangles(overestimationtoshow
itisdivergent,underestimationtoshowitisconvergent).
Notethatthelowerboundisnotnecessarily1,iftheseriesisdefinedfromn=k,thentheintegral
wouldbecomputedfromk.
Whenthefirstntermsareusedtoestimatetheseries(i.e.usingapartialsum),theerrormade
(calledtheremainder,s = s
n
+ R
n
)isboundedsuchthat
_ (x)Jx

n+1
R
n
_ (x)

n
Jx
Also,s
n
+] (x)Jx

n+1
s s
n
+] (x)

n
Jx.Thisgivesabetterestimationthanpartialsumsdo.
Inthiscase,theerrorishalfwaybetweentheupperandlowerbounds.
2.1.8.2.1.1.1 pSeries
Thepseries
1
n
p

n=1
isconvergentifp > 1andisdivergentotherwise.
2.1.8.2.1.2 ComparisonTest
Thecomparisontestcomparesagivenserieswithaseriesthatisknowntobeconvergentor
divergent.
Fortwoseriesa
n
andh
n

Ifa
n
h
n
foralln,andh
n
isdivergent,thena
n
isalsodivergent.
Ifa
n
h
n
foralln,andh
n
isconvergent,thena
n
isalsoconvergent.
Ifbothsequencesarepositivetermsandltm
n-
a
n
h
n
= c,theneitherbothseriesconvergesor
bothdiverges.
ThisrestonthefactthatthereexiststwonumbersmandMsuchthatm < c < H,hence
mb
n
< o
n
< Hb
n
.Ifb
n
wasconvergent,theupperboundisfinitehenceo
n
isalsoconvergent.
Ifb
n
wasdivergent,thelowerboundisinfiniteandhenceo
n
isalsodivergent.
Ifo
n
wasfoundtobedivergentbycomparisonwithb
n
,theno
n
canbeestimatedbypartial
seriesandtheerrorcouldbefoundbycomparingremainders.Notethatthisonlyworksifo
n
b
n
,
andtheremainderofo
n
islessthantheremainderofb
n
.

SingleVariableCalculus
SequencesandSeries

Page110

2.1.8.2.1.3 AlternatingSeries
Foranalternatingseriesa
n
= (-1)
n
h
n
or(-1)
n+1
h
n
,whereb
n
isamonotonicdecreasing
sequencethatconvergestozero,a
n
converges.
Orinotherwords,ifb
n+1
b
n
foralln,andlim
n-
b
n
= u,theno
n
converges.
Also,wheretheaboveconditionsaremet,theerror(remainder)isboundedsuchthat|R
n
| b
n+1
.
2.1.8.2.1.4 AbsoluteConvergenceandRatioTest
Foraseriesa
n
,itsabsoluteseriesis|a
n
|.If|a
n
|isconvergent,thena
n
isabsolutely
convergent.
Allabsolutelyconvergentseriesareconvergent.Aconvergentserieswhichisnotabsolutely
convergentiscalledconditionallyconvergent.
Theratiotestusesthelimitltm
n-

a
n+1
a
n
= L
IfL<1,thentheseriesa
n
isabsolutelyconvergent.
IfL>1,thentheseriesa
n
isdivergent
IfL=1,thentheratiotestisinconclusive
However,itshouldbenotedthatthislimitevaluatesto1forallpseries,andhenceall
rational/algebraicfunctionsofn.
Similarly,thereisalsoaroottestforexponentialseries,usingltm
n-
|a
n
|
n
= L
IfL<1,thentheseriesa
n
isabsolutelyconvergent.
IfL>1,thentheseriesa
n
isdivergent
IfL=1,thentheratiotestisinconclusive
2.1.8.2.1.5 Mixed
Evaluatethelimitofthesequencefirst,itisnotzero,itisdivergent.
pseriesandgeometricseriesareeasilyidentifiable.
Forseriessimilartothepseriesorgeometricseries,usethecomparisontest.
Foralternatingseries,usethealternatingseriestest.
Iftheseriesinvolvesfactorialsorotherproducts(orexponentials),trytheratiotestorthe
roottest.
Iftheintegralcanbeeasilycomputed,thentheintegraltestiseffective.

SingleVariableCalculus
SequencesandSeries

Page111

2.1.8.2.2 PowerSeries
Apowerseriesisdefinedas:
c
n
(x - o)
n

n=0
= c
0
+ c
1
(x - o) + c
2
(x -o)
2
+ c
3
(x -o)
3

Wherec
n
isacoefficient.Thepowerseriesissimilartoapolynomial,exceptthatithasinfinite
numberofterms.Wherea=0andc
n
isaconstant,thepowerseriesbecomesageometricserieswith
x=r.
Thepowerseriescanbeconvergent/divergentdependingonthevalue(s)ofx.Ingeneral,thethree
possibilitiesare:
Theseriesconvergeswhenx=a
Theseriesconvergesforallx
Theseriesconvergesforarangeofvaluesuchthat|x - o| < R
Forthelastcase,Riscalledtheradiusofconvergence,andisequaltozero/infinityfortheother
twocases.Theintervalofconvergenceistheintervalonxatwhichthepowerseriesconverges.
Normally,theratiotestisusedtofind|x - o| < R,andothermethodsareusedtofindiftheseries
isconvergentwhen|x -o| = R.
Somerationalfunctioncanbeexpressedasapowerseriesusingtheformulaforthegeometric
sequence.
Forexample,
x
3
2 +x
2
= x
3

1
2
_
1
1 - [-
1
2
x
2

_ =
x
3
2
_-
1
2
x
2
]
n

n=0
=
(-1)
n
x
2n+3
2
n+1

n=0

Thisseriesconvergeswhen-
1
2
x
2
< 1 = |x| < 2

SingleVariableCalculus
SequencesandSeries

Page112

IfthepowerserieshasaradiusofconvergenceR>0,thenthefunctionfdefinedbythepowerseries
isdifferentiable(andcontinuous)ontheintervalofconvergence.
J
Jx
_ c
n
(x - o)
n

n=0
_ =
J
Jx
|c
n
(x - o)
n
]

n=0

__ c
n
(x -o)
n

n=0
_ Jx = _|c
n
(x - o)
n
] Jx

n=0

Forexample,
tan
-1
x = _
Jx
1 + x
2
= __(-1)
n
x
2n

n=0
_ Jx =
(-1)
n
x
2n+1
2n +1

n=0
+ C
Substitutingwhenx=0,tan
1
(x)=0,C=0
Theradiusofconvergenceofthisseriesisthesameastheradiusofconvergenceofthepowerseries
for
1
1+x
2
,whichis1.

SingleVariableCalculus
SequencesandSeries

Page113

2.1.8.2.3 MaclaurinandTaylorPolynomialsandSeries
ATaylorseriesataisthepowerseriesexpansionofafunctionfata.Assumingthatfhasderivatives
ofallorders,
(x) =

(n)
(o)
n!
(x -o)
n

n=0
, wheie
(n)
is the n
th
ueiivative
Inparticular,theMaclaurinserieswherea=0.
ATaylorpolynomialT
n
isthen
th
partialsumofthepowerseries,andR
n
istheremainder.Ingeneral,
iff(x)isthesumofaTaylorseries,then
lim
n-
R
n
(x) = u
Also,if|
(n+1)
(x)| Hfortheinterval|x - o| J,then
|R
n
(x)|
H
(n + 1)!
|x - o|
n+1

ThisiscalledTaylorsInequality,andisoftenusedtoprovetheabovetoshowthattheTaylorseries
isequaltothefunction.Indoingso,thefollowingfactisalsohelpful:
lim
n-
x
n
n!
= u
Hencelim
n-
R
n
(x) = uistrueifthereexistsanupperboundMsuchthat|
(n+1)
(x)| H.
Forexample,findtheMaclaurinseriesforsinx,andprovethatitrepresentssinxforallx.
(u) = sin u = u,
i
(u) = cos u = 1,
ii
(u) = -sinu = u,
iii
(u) = -cos u = -1

(4)
(u) = sinu = u
Thepatternrepeatsitselfinacycle,anditsderivativesareallsineandcosinefunctions,hence,itsn
thderivativeisboundedby1
|R
n
(x)|
|x -o|
n+1
(n + 1)!

lim
n-
|x - o|
n+1
(n +1)!
= u
HenceR
n
isconvergestozero,andsin x =
]
(n)
(0)
n!
x
n
n=0
,itsMaclaurinseries.
sin x =

(n)
(u)
n!
x
n

n=0
=
u
u!
x
0
+
1
1!
x
1
+
u
2!
x
2
-
1
S!
x
3
+
u
4!
x
4
=
(-1)
n
x
2n+1
(2n + 1)!

n=0

SingleVariableCalculus
SequencesandSeries

Page114

SomeimportantMaclaurinseries:
1
1 - x
= x
n

n=0

c
x
=
x
n
n!

n=0

sinx =
(-1)
n
x
2n+1
(2n + 1)!

n=0

cos x =
(-1)
n
x
2n
(2n)!

n=0

tan
-1
x =
(-1)
n
x
2n+1
2n + 1

n=0

MultiplicationanddivisionofTaylorseriescanbedoneusinglongmultiplicationandlongdivision.

VectorCalculus
SpaceCurveandContinuity

Page115

2.2 VectorCalculus
2.2.1 SpaceCurveandContinuity
Avectorspacecurveisacurvedefinedin3Dspacebyavectorequation.
r(t) = x(t)| + y(t)j + z(t)k
Avectoriscontinuousifandonlyif:
r(o) = lim
t-u
r(t)
Thisimpliesthatforthevectorspacecurvetobecontinuous,allthreefunctionsx,yandzmustbe
continuous.
2.2.1.1 VectorFunctionandPaths
Usingvariousidentitiesorsubstitutionstoequatethexandyterms,aCartesianequationcanbe
foundfromthevectorfunction.Ifthevectorfunctionisdefinedintermsofanothervariable,thenx
andyareboundedifthatvariableisbounded.
Forexample,r (t) = 2 sin [
nt
2
t - cos(nt) foru t
3
2

-y = cos nt = 1 - 2 sin
2
_
nt
2
] = 1 -
x
2
2

y =
x
2
2
- 1
u t
S
2
= u x 2, -1 y 1

VectorCalculus
Derivative

Page116

2.2.2 Derivative
Jr
Jt
= lim
h-0
r(t + b) - r(b)
b
=
Jx
Jt
| +
Jy
Jt
j +
Jz
Jt
k
Asmoothfunctionsderivativemustnotbeazerovectoratanypoint.
2.2.3 VectorTangent
Thevectortangentisdefinedastheunitvectorinthedirectionofthespacecurve.
T

=
r
i
(t)
|r
i
(t)|

Propertiesofthevectortangent:
|T

| = 1
T

JT

Jt
= u
_T

JT

Jt
_ = _
JT

Jt
_
T

= u
2.2.4 Curvature
= _
JT

Js
_ =
|r
i
(t) r
ii
(t)|
|r
i
(t)|
3

p =
1

isameasureofcurvature(thehigheritis,themorecurvedthespacecurveis).
pistheradiusofcurvature.
2.2.5 NormalandBiNormal
N

=
JT

Jt
_
JT

Jt
_

= T

MultivariableCalculus
Continuity

Page117

2.3 MultivariableCalculus
2.3.1 Continuity
Afunctionfoftwovariablesiscontinuousat(a.b)if:
lim
(x,)-(u,b)
(x, y) = (o, b)
2.3.2 PartialDerivatives
Whenfindingapartialderivativewithrespecttoonevariable,theothervariableistreatedasa
constant.

x
(x, y) =
o
ox
= lim
h-0
(x + b, y) -(x, y)
b
=
x
(x, y)

(x, y) =
o
oy
= lim
h-0
(x, y + b) -(x, y)
b
=

(x, y)
2.3.2.1 TabularDataInterpretation
Primarilyanapproximation:

x
(x, y) =

x
=
(x + o, y) - (x, y)
o

(x, y) =

y
=
(x, y + o) - (x, y)
o

MultivariableCalculus
PartialDerivatives

Page118

2.3.2.2 ImplicitDerivationofPartialDerivatives
Wherez = (x, y)isstatedimplicitlyasg(x, y, z) = c,thepartialderivativescanbefoundimplicitly.
Tofind
z
x
,holdingyconstant,zcanbeexpressedasz = (x):
o
ox
g(x, y, z) =
o
ox
g(x, y, z) +
o
oz
g(x, y, z)
oz
ox
= u
oz
ox
= -
_
og
ox
]
_
og
oz
]

Thisisthetechniqueofimplicitdifferentiation(discussedlater).
Forexample:
x
3
z -xyz = S
o
ox
(x
3
z - xyz) =
o
ox
(S)
Rememberingthatzisafunctionofx,theproductrulemustbeusedforbothterms:
2x
3
z + x
3
oz
ox
- _yz +
xy
2z
oz
ox
] = u
_x
3
+
xy
2z
]
oz
ox
= yz -2x
3
z
oz
ox
=
2z(yz - 2x
3
z)
2x
3
z +xy

2.3.2.3 HigherPartialDerivatives
Thefirstderivativemaybepartiallydifferentiatedfurthertofindhigherpartialderivatives.The
implicationisthatthefirstpartialderivativewithrespecttoxcanbedifferentiatedagainwith
respecttoeitherxory,henceforafunctionof2variables,thereare4partialderivatives,

xx
,
x
,
x
,

xx
=
o
ox
_
o
ox
] =
o
2

ox
2

x
=
o
oy
_
o
ox
] =
o
2

oyox

x
=
o
ox
_
o
oy
] =
o
2

oxoy

=
o
oy
_
o
oy
] =
o
2

oy
2

2.3.2.3.1 ClairautsTheorem
IffisafunctionfortwovariablesandiscontinuousonadiskDcontaining(a,b),thenf
xy
andf
yx
are
bothcontinuousonD,then

x
(o, b) =
x
(o, b)

MultivariableCalculus
Tangentplanes

Page119

2.3.2.4 PartialDifferentialEquations
Laplacesequation
o
2
u
ox
2
+
o
2
u
oy
2
= u
Onesolutionisu(x, y) = c
x
siny.
Waveequation
o
2
u
ot
2
= o
2
o
2
u
ox
2

Onesuchsolutionisu(x, t) = sin(x -ot)

2.3.3 Tangentplanes
Atangentplanetoz=f(x,y)atP(x
0
,y
0
,z
0
):
z -z
0
=
x
(x
0
, y
0
)(x -x
0
) +

(x
0
, y
0
)(y - y
0
)
2.3.3.1 LinearApproximations
For(x,y)closeto(a,b):
(x, y) = (o, b) +
x
(o, b)(x - o) +

(o, b)(y - b)
2.3.3.2 Differentials
For(x,y)closeto(a,b):
z = Jz =
x
(o, b)Jx +

(o, b)Jy
2.3.4 Chainrule
Forafunctionofseveralvariableswhereeachvariableisafunctionofothervariable(s):
Letz=f(x,y)andx=g(s,t),y=h(s,t)
oz
os
=
oz
ox

ox
os
+
oz
oy

oy
os

oz
ot
=
oz
ox

ox
ot
+
oz
oy

oy
ot

Forfunctionswithmorevariables,thechainrulecanbegeneralised:
Letf(x,y,z,)beafunction,wherex=g(s,t),y=h(s,t),z=j(s,t),
o
os
=
o
ox

ox
os
+
o
oy

oy
os
+
o
oz

oz
os

MultivariableCalculus
DirectionalDerivatives

Page120

2.3.4.1 ImplicitDifferentiationUsingPartialDerivatives
LetF(x,y)=0definey=f(x)implicitly
oF
ox

Jx
Jx
+
oF
oy

Jy
Jx
= u
Jy
Jx
= -
F
x
F

2.3.5 DirectionalDerivatives
Forpartialderivativesinthedirectionofaparticularunitvectoru = (o, b)

u
(x, y) = lim
h-0
(x +bo, y + bb) - (x, y)
b
=
x
(x, y)o +

(x, y)b
2.3.5.1 GradientVector
v(x, y) = (
x
(x, y),

(x, y))
Hencethedirectionalderivativecanbeexpressedas:

u
(x, y) = v(x, y) u
2.3.5.1.1 Direction

u
(x, y) = |v(x, y)| 1 cos 0
Hence,thedirectionalderivativeisatmaximumwhentheanglebetweenthetwovectorsiszero.
Hence,thedirectionalderivativepointsinthedirection(onthexyplane)ofmaximumrateof
change.
Forlevelcurves(x, y) = c,thegradientvectorpointsperpendicularlytothelevelcurvesinthe
uphilldirection.
2.3.5.1.2 Magnitude
Themaximumdirectionalderivativeisthemagnitudeofthegradientvector.
2.3.5.2 TangentPlanetoLevelSurface
ForalevelsurfaceF(x, y, z) = k,theequationofthetangentplaneis
F
x
(x
0
, y
0
, z
0
)(x - x
0
) + F

(x
0
, y
0
, z
0
)(y -y
0
) + F
z
(x
0
, y
0
, z
0
)(z - z
0
) = u
Or,forthecasez = (x, y),itcanbereexpressedasF(x, y, z) = (x, y) -z = u,where
F
x
=
x
, F

, F
z
= -1
2.3.5.2.1 NormalLine
Thenormallinethroughoriginperpendiculartothetangentplanehasthesymmetricequation:
t =
x - x
0
F
x
=
y -y
0
F

=
z - z
0
F
z

MultivariableCalculus
CriticalPointsofaSurface

Page121

2.3.6 CriticalPointsofaSurface
Acriticalpointofasurfacez = (x, y)occurswhenbothpartialderivatives
x
and

arezero.
2.3.6.1 SecondDerivativeDeterminant
Thenatureofcriticalpointscanbefoundbyfindingthefollowingdeterminant:
= _

xx

x

_
IfDispositiveandf
xx
ispositive,thecriticalpointisalocalminimum.
IfDispositiveandf
xx
isnegative,thecriticalpointisalocalmaximum.
IfDisnegative,thecriticalpointisasaddlepoint(notamaximumnorminimum).
IfDiszero,thetestisinconclusive.
NotethatforpositiveDvalues,wherefisdefinedintherealplane,f
xx
cannotbezero,asthatwill
imply(f
xy
)
2
isnegative,hencef
xy
isacomplexnumber.

2.3.6.2 AbsoluteExtremum
Forafunction(x, y)definedonaclosedsetD(intwodimensions),theabsoluteextremaiseither
atacriticalpointwithinD,orontheedgeofD.Itisnecessarytofindtherelationshipbetweenxand
yontheboundaryofDtofindtheabsolutemaximumandtheabsoluteminimum.
I.e.ifDisarectangle(0,0)(5,0)(5,3)(0,3),thenitisnecessarytofindcriticalpointsoff,the
maximumandminimumoffwhenx = u, x = S, y = u, y = Sandbycomparison,findtheabsolute
maximumandminimum.