Chapter 4: network layer

chapter goals:

understand principles behind network

layer services:

network layer service models

forwarding versus routing
how a router works
routing (path selection)
broadcast, multicast

instantiation, implementation in the

Internet
Network Layer 4-1

Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction
4.2 virtual circuit and
datagram networks
4.3 whats inside a
router
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol

4.5 routing algorithms

link state
distance vector
hierarchical routing

4.6 broadcast and

multicast routing

datagram format
IPv4 addressing
ICMP
IPv6

Network Layer 4-2

Network layer
Task
Routing
Addressing
Congestion control

Network Layer 4-3

Network layer

transport segment from

sending to receiving
host
on sending side
encapsulates segments
into datagrams
on receiving side,
delivers segments to
transport layer
network layer protocols
in every host, router
router examines header
fields in all IP datagrams
passing through it

application
transport
network
data link
physical
network
data link
physical

network
data link
physical

network
data link
physical
network
data link
physical

network
data link
physical
network
data link
physical
network
data link
physical

network
data link
physical

network
data link
physical

network
data link
physical

network
data link
physical

application
transport
network
data link
physical

Network Layer 4-4

Two key network-layer

functions

forwarding: move
packets from
routers input to
appropriate router
output

analogy:

routing: process of
planning trip from
source to dest

routing: determine
route taken by
packets from source
to dest.

forwarding: process
of getting through
single interchange

routing algorithms
Network Layer 4-5

Interplay between routing and forward

routing algorithm

routing algorithm determines

end-end-path through network

local forwarding table

header value output link

forwarding table determines

local forwarding at this router

0100
0101
0111
1001

3
2
2
1

value in arriving
packets header
0111

1
3 2

Network Layer 4-6

Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction
4.2 virtual circuit and
datagram networks
4.3 whats inside a
router
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol

datagram format
IPv4 addressing
ICMP
IPv6

4.5 routing algorithms

link state
distance vector
hierarchical routing

4.6 routing in the

Internet
RIP
OSPF
BGP

4.7 broadcast and

multicast routing

Network Layer 4-7

Connection, connection-less
service

datagram network provides networklayer connectionless service

virtual-circuit network provides networklayer connection service
analogous to TCP/UDP connectonoriented / connectionless transportlayer services, but:
service: host-to-host
no choice: network provides one or
the other
implementation: in network core
Network Layer 4-8

Virtual circuits
source-to-dest path behaves much like
telephone circuit
performance-wise
network actions along source-to-dest path

call setup, teardown for each call before data can flow
each packet carries VC identifier (not destination host
address)
every router on source-dest path maintains state for
each passing connection
link, router resources (bandwidth, buffers) may be
allocated to VC (dedicated resources = predictable service)

Network Layer 4-9

VC implementation
a VC consists of:
1. path from source to destination
2. VC numbers, one number for each link
along path
3. entries in forwarding tables in routers
along path

packet belonging to VC carries VC

number (rather than dest address)
VC number can be changed on each
link.

new VC number comes from forwarding

table
Network Layer 4-10

VC forwarding table
22

12

VC number

forwarding table in
northwest router:
Incoming interface
1
2
3
1

Incoming VC #
12
63
7
97

32

interface
number
Outgoing interface

Outgoing VC #

3
1
2
3

22
18
17
87

VC routers maintain connection state info

Network Layer 4-11

Virtual circuits: signaling

protocols

used to setup, maintain teardown VC

used in ATM, frame-relay, X.25
not used in todays Internet

application
transport 5. data flow begins
network 4. call connected
data link 1. initiate call
physical

6. receive data application

transport

3. accept call
network
2. incoming call

data link
physical

Network Layer 4-12

Datagram networks

no call setup at network layer

routers: no state about end-to-end connections
no network-level concept of connection

packets forwarded using destination host

address

application
transport
network 1. send datagrams
data link
physical

application
transport
2. receive datagrams network
data link
physical

Network Layer 4-13

Datagram forwarding
table
4 billion IP
routing algorithm

addresses, so rather
than list individual
destination address
list range of
addresses
(aggregate table
entries)

local forwarding table

dest address output
address-range 1 3 link
address-range 2
address-range 3
address-range 4

2
2
1

IP destination address in
arriving packets header

1
3 2

Network Layer 4-14

Datagram forwarding
table
Destination Address Range

Link Interface

11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000

through
11001000 00010111 00010111 11111111

11001000 00010111 00011000 00000000

through
11001000 00010111 00011000 11111111

11001000 00010111 00011001 00000000

through
11001000 00010111 00011111 11111111

otherwise

Q: but what happens if ranges dont divide up so nicely?

Network Layer 4-15

Longest prefix matching

longest prefix matching
when looking for forwarding table entry
for given destination address, use longest
address prefix that matches destination
address.
Destination Address Range

Link interface

11001000 00010111 00010*** *********

11001000 00010111 00011000 *********

11001000 00010111 00011*** *********

otherwise

examples:
DA: 11001000 00010111 00010110 10100001
DA: 11001000 00010111 00011000 10101010

which interface?
which interface?
Network Layer 4-16

Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction
4.2 virtual circuit and
datagram networks
4.3 whats inside a
router
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol

4.5 routing algorithms

link state
distance vector
hierarchical routing

4.6 broadcast and

multicast routing

datagram format
IPv4 addressing
ICMP
IPv6

Network Layer 4-17

Router architecture overview

two key router functions:

run routing algorithms/protocol (RIP, OSPF, BGP)

forwarding datagrams from incoming to outgoing link

forwarding tables computed,

pushed to input ports

routing
processor

routing, management
control plane (software)
forwarding data
plane (hardware)

high-seed
switching
fabric

router input ports

router output ports

Network Layer 4-18

Input port functions

link
layer
protocol
(receive)

line
termination

lookup,
forwarding

switch
fabric

queueing

physical layer:
bit-level reception
data link layer:
e.g., Ethernet

decentralized switching:

given datagram dest., lookup output

port using forwarding table in input
port memory (match plus action)
goal: complete input port processing
at line speed
queuing: if datagrams arrive faster
than forwarding rate into switch fabric
Network Layer 4-19

Switching fabrics

transfer packet from input buffer to

appropriate output buffer
switching rate: rate at which packets
can be transfer from inputs to outputs
often measured as multiple of input/output line rate
N inputs: switching rate N times line rate desirable

three types of switching fabrics

memory

memory

bus

crossbar

Network Layer 4-20

Switching via memory

first generation routers:
traditional

computers with switching under direct control of CPU

packet copied to systems memory
speed limited by memory bandwidth (2 bus crossings per datagram)

input
port
(e.g.,
Ethernet)

memory

output
port
(e.g.,
Ethernet)
system bus

Network Layer 4-21

Switching via a bus

datagram from input port

memory
to output port memory via
a shared bus
bus contention: switching
speed limited by bus
bandwidth

bus

Network Layer 4-22

Switching via interconnection

network

overcome bus bandwidth

limitations
crossbar, other
interconnection nets initially
developed to connect
processors in multiprocessor
advanced design:
fragmenting datagram into
fixed length cells, switch cells
through the fabric.

crossbar

Network Layer 4-23

Output ports
switch
fabric

datagram
buffer
queueing

link
layer
protocol
(send)

line
termination

buffering required when datagrams arrive from fabric faster than the
transmission rate
Datagram (packets) can be
scheduling discipline chooses among queued datagrams for transmission

lost due to congestion, lack of

buffers

Priority scheduling who gets best

performance, network neutrality
Network Layer 4-24

Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction
4.2 virtual circuit and
datagram networks
4.3 whats inside a
router
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol

datagram format
IPv4 addressing
ICMP
IPv6

4.5 routing algorithms

link state
distance vector
hierarchical routing

4.6 routing in the

Internet
RIP
OSPF
BGP

4.7 broadcast and

multicast routing

Network Layer 4-25

The Internet network layer

host, router network layer functions:
transport layer: TCP, UDP

IP protocol

routing protocols

network
layer

addressing conventions
datagram format
packet handling conventions

path selection
RIP, OSPF, BGP

forwarding
table

link layer

ICMP
protocol
error reporting
router signaling

physical layer

Network Layer 4-26

IP datagram format
IP protocol version
number
header length
(bytes)
type of data
max number
remaining hops
(decremented at
each router)
upper layer protocol
to deliver payload to

how much overhead?

20 bytes of TCP
20 bytes of IP
= 40 bytes + app
layer overhead

32 bits
ver head. type of
len service
16-bit identifier
upper
time to
layer
live

total datagram
length (bytes)
length

fragment
flgs
offset
header
checksum

for
fragmentation/
reassembly

32 bit source IP address

32 bit destination IP address
options (if any)

data
(variable length,
typically a TCP
or UDP segment)

e.g. timestamp,
record route
taken, specify
list of routers
to visit.

Network Layer 4-27

fragmentation:
in: one large datagram
out: 3 smaller datagrams

reassembly

network links have MTU

(max.transfer size) largest possible linklevel frame
different link types,
different MTUs
large IP datagram
divided (fragmented)
within net
one datagram
becomes several
datagrams
reassembled only
at final destination
IP header bits used to
identify, order related
fragments

IP fragmentation,
reassembly

Network Layer 4-28

IP fragmentation,
reassembly
example:

4000 byte
datagram
MTU = 1500
bytes

1480 bytes in
data field
offset =
1480/8

length ID fragflag
=4000 =x
=0

offset
=0

one large datagram becomes

several smaller datagrams
length ID fragflag
=1500 =x
=1

offset
=0

length ID fragflag
=1500 =x
=1

offset
=185

length ID fragflag
=1040 =x
=0

offset
=370

Network Layer 4-29

Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction
4.2 virtual circuit and
datagram networks
4.3 whats inside a
router
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol

datagram format
IPv4 addressing
ICMP
IPv6

4.5 routing algorithms

link state
distance vector
hierarchical routing

4.6 routing in the

Internet
RIP
OSPF
BGP

4.7 broadcast and

multicast routing

Network Layer 4-30

IP addressing: introduction
223.1.1.1

IP address: 32-bit

identifier for host,

router interface
223.1.1.2
interface: connection
between host/router
and physical link
routers typically have
multiple interfaces
host typically has one
or two interfaces (e.g.,
wired Ethernet, wireless
802.11)

IP addresses
associated with each
interface

223.1.2.1

223.1.1.4

223.1.2.9

223.1.3.27

223.1.1.3

223.1.2.2

223.1.3.1

223.1.3.2

223.1.1.1 = 11011111 00000001 00000001 00000001

223

Network Layer 4-31

IP addressing: introduction
Q: how are interfaces
actually connected?
A: well learn about 223.1.1.2
that in chapter 5, 6.

223.1.1.1
223.1.2.1

223.1.1.4

223.1.1.3

223.1.2.9

223.1.3.27
223.1.2.2

A: wired Ethernet interfaces

connected by Ethernet switches
223.1.3.1

For now: dont need to worry

about how one interface is
connected to another (with no
intervening router)

223.1.3.2

A: wireless WiFi interfaces

connected by WiFi base station
Network Layer 4-32

Subnets
IP

address:

subnet part - high

order bits
host part - low
order bits
whats

a subnet ?

device interfaces
with same subnet
part of IP address
can physically
reach each other
without intervening
router

223.1.1.1
223.1.1.2
223.1.1.4

223.1.1.3

223.1.2.1
223.1.2.9

223.1.3.27

223.1.2.2

subnet
223.1.3.1

223.1.3.2

network consisting of 3 subnets

Network Layer 4-33

Subnets
223.1.1.0/24

recipe
to determine the
subnets, detach
each interface
from its host or
router, creating
islands of isolated
networks
each isolated
network is called
a subnet

223.1.2.0/24

223.1.1.1
223.1.1.2
223.1.1.4

223.1.1.3

223.1.2.1
223.1.2.9

223.1.3.27

223.1.2.2

subnet
223.1.3.1

223.1.3.2

223.1.3.0/24

subnet mask: /24

Network Layer 4-34

Subnets

223.1.1.2

how many?

223.1.1.1

223.1.1.4
223.1.1.3

223.1.9.2

223.1.7.0

223.1.9.1

223.1.7.1
223.1.8.1

223.1.8.0

223.1.2.6
223.1.2.1

223.1.3.27
223.1.2.2

223.1.3.1

223.1.3.2

Network Layer 4-35

IP addresses: how to get

one?

Q: How does a host get IP address?

DHCP: Dynamic Host Configuration

Protocol: dynamically get address from as
server

Network Layer 4-36

DHCP: Dynamic Host Configuration

Protocol
goal: allow host to dynamically obtain its IP address from network

server when it joins network

can renew its lease on address in use
allows reuse of addresses (only hold address while
connected/on)
support for mobile users who want to join network (more shortly)

DHCP overview:

host broadcasts DHCP discover msg [optional]

DHCP server responds with DHCP offer msg [optional]
host requests IP address: DHCP request msg
DHCP server sends address: DHCP ack msg

Network Layer 4-37

DHCP client-server
scenario
DHCP
server

223.1.1.0/24

223.1.2.1

223.1.1.1

223.1.1.2
223.1.1.4

223.1.1.3

223.1.2.9

223.1.3.27

223.1.2.2

arriving DHCP
client needs
address in this
network

223.1.2.0/24
223.1.3.2

223.1.3.1

223.1.3.0/24
Network Layer 4-38

DHCP client-server
scenario
DHCP server: 223.1.2.5

DHCP discover

src : 0.0.0.0, 68

Broadcast:
is there a
dest.: 255.255.255.255,67
yiaddr:
0.0.0.0out
DHCP
server
transaction
ID: 654
there?

arriving
client

DHCP offer
src: 223.1.2.5, 67

Broadcast:
Im a DHCP
dest: 255.255.255.255,
68
yiaddrr:
223.1.2.4
server! Heres an IP
transaction
654 use
address
youID:can
lifetime: 3600 secs

DHCP request
src: 0.0.0.0, 68
dest:: 255.255.255.255, 67
Broadcast:
OK. Ill
yiaddrr: 223.1.2.4
take
that IPID:address!
transaction
655
lifetime: 3600 secs
DHCP ACK
src: 223.1.2.5, 67
dest: 255.255.255.255,
68
Broadcast:
OK. Youve
yiaddrr: 223.1.2.4
gottransaction
that IPID:
address!
655
lifetime: 3600 secs
Network Layer 4-39

DHCP: more than IP

addresses
DHCP can return more than just allocated
IP address on subnet:
address of first-hop router for client
name and IP address of DNS sever
network mask (indicating network versus
host portion of address)

Network Layer 4-40

DHCP: example
DHCP
UDP
IP
Eth
Phy

DHCP
DHCP
DHCP
DHCP

DHCP

DHCP
DHCP
DHCP
DHCP

DHCP
UDP
IP
Eth
Phy

168.1.1.1

router with DHCP

server built into
router

connecting laptop needs

its IP address, addr of
first-hop router, addr of
DNS server: use DHCP

DHCP request
encapsulated in UDP,
encapsulated in IP,
encapsulated in 802.1
Ethernet frame
broadcast (dest:
FFFFFFFFFFFF) on LAN,
received at router
running DHCP
server
Ethernet
demuxed
to
IP demuxed, UDP
demuxed to DHCP

Network Layer 4-41

DHCP: example
DHCP
UDP
IP
Eth
Phy

DHCP
DHCP
DHCP
DHCP

DHCP
DHCP
DHCP
DHCP
DHCP

DHCP
UDP
IP
Eth
Phy

router with DHCP

server built into
router

DCP server formulates

DHCP ACK containing
clients IP address, IP
address of first-hop
router for client, name &
IP address of DNS server

encapsulation of
DHCP server, frame
forwarded to client,
demuxing up to
DHCP at client
client now knows its
IP address, name
and IP address of
DSN server, IP
address of its firsthop router

Network Layer 4-42

NAT: network address

translation
rest of
Internet

local network
(e.g., home network)
10.0.0/24

10.0.0.1

10.0.0.4
10.0.0.2
138.76.29.7
10.0.0.3

all datagrams leaving

local
network have same
single source NAT IP
address:
138.76.29.7,different

datagrams with source or

destination in this network
have 10.0.0/24 address for
source, destination (as usual)
Network Layer 4-43

NAT: network address

translation
motivation: local network uses just one IP
address as far as outside world is concerned:
range of addresses not needed from ISP:
just one IP address for all devices
can change addresses of devices in local
network without notifying outside world
can change ISP without changing
addresses of devices in local network
devices inside local net not explicitly
addressable, visible by outside world (a
security plus)
Network Layer 4-44

NAT: network address

translation

implementation: NAT router must:

outgoing datagrams: replace (source IP address, port #)

of every outgoing datagram to (NAT IP address, new port
#)
. . . remote clients/servers will respond using (NAT IP
address, new port #) as destination addr
remember (in NAT translation table) every (source IP
address, port #) to (NAT IP address, new port #)
translation pair
incoming datagrams: replace (NAT IP address, new port
#) in dest fields of every incoming datagram with
corresponding (source IP address, port #) stored in NAT
table
Network Layer 4-45

NAT: network address

translation
NAT translation table

2: NAT router
changes datagram
source addr from
10.0.0.1, 3345 to
138.76.29.7, 5001,
updates table

WAN side addr

LAN side addr

138.76.29.7, 5001 10.0.0.1, 3345

1: host 10.0.0.1
sends datagram to
128.119.40.186, 80

S: 10.0.0.1, 3345
D: 128.119.40.186, 80

1
2

S: 138.76.29.7, 5001
D: 128.119.40.186, 80

138.76.29.7
S: 128.119.40.186, 80
D: 138.76.29.7, 5001

3: reply arrives
dest. address:
138.76.29.7, 5001

10.0.0.4
S: 128.119.40.186, 80
D: 10.0.0.1, 3345

10.0.0.1

10.0.0.2

4
10.0.0.3

4: NAT router
changes datagram
dest addr from
138.76.29.7, 5001 to 10.0.0.1, 3345

Network Layer 4-46

NAT: network address

translation

16-bit port-number field:

60,000 simultaneous connections with
a single LAN-side address!
NAT is controversial:
routers should only process up to layer
3
violates end-to-end argument
NAT possibility must be taken into account
by app designers, e.g., P2P applications

address shortage should instead be

solved by IPv6
Network Layer 4-47

Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction
4.2 virtual circuit and
datagram networks
4.3 whats inside a
router
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol

datagram format
IPv4 addressing
ICMP
IPv6

4.5 routing algorithms

link state
distance vector
hierarchical routing

4.6 routing in the

Internet
RIP
OSPF
BGP

4.7 broadcast and

multicast routing

Network Layer 4-48

ICMP: internet control message

protocol
Ip provides unreliable and
connectionless dattagram delivery.
Have best effort delivery services
that take a datagram from its source
to destination.

Drawbacks- No error control mechanism

No assistance mechanism
ICMP overcome these drawbacks and
reports presence of errors and sends the
control messages.
Network Layer 4-49

ICMP: internet control message

protocol
Type of MessagesError reporting messages

Destination unreachable
Source quench
Time exceeded
Parameter problem
redirection

Query

messages

Echo request and reply

Time stamp request and reply
Address mask and reply
Network Layer 4-50

ICMP: internet control message

protocol
Error report messages
Destination unreachable- when a router
cannot forward or deliver an IP packet , it
sends a dest. Unreachable ICMP msg back to
the source.
Source quench- A host or router to tell the
original source that congestion has occurred
and to request it to reduce its current fate of
packet transmission.
Redirection message- router or host wants
to send a packet to another network then it
should know the ip address of the next router.
Network Layer 4-51

ICMP: internet control message

protocol
Query
Echo

req and reply- it determines whether

two systems can successfully communicate
with each other.
Time stamp req and reply- used by host or
router to find out the round trip time for IP
datagram
Also used for the synchronization of clock
signals
Address

mask req and reply- to find out the

address mask .
Network Layer 4-52

ICMP: internet control message

protocol

used by hosts & routers

to communicate
network-level
information
error reporting:
unreachable host, network,
port, protocol
echo request/reply (used
by ping)

network-layer above
IP:
ICMP msgs carried in IP
datagrams

ICMP message: type,

code plus first 8 bytes of
IP datagram causing
error

Type
0
3
3
3
3
3
3
4

Code
0
0
1
2
3
6
7
0

8
9
10
11
12

0
0
0
0
0

description
echo reply (ping)
dest. network unreachable
dest host unreachable
dest protocol unreachable
dest port unreachable
dest network unknown
dest host unknown
source quench (congestion
control - not used)
echo request (ping)
route advertisement
router discovery
TTL expired
bad IP header

Network Layer 4-53

Traceroute and ICMP

source sends series of

UDP segments to dest
first set has TTL =1
second set has TTL=2,
etc.
unlikely port number

when nth set of

datagrams arrives to
nth router:
router discards datagrams
and sends source ICMP
messages (type 11, code
0)
ICMP messages includes
name of router & IP
address

3 probes

3 probes

when ICMP
messages arrives,
source records RTTs

stopping criteria:
UDP segment
eventually arrives at
destination host
destination returns
ICMP port
unreachable
message (type 3,
code 3)
source stops

3 probes
Network Layer 4-54

IPv6: motivation

IPv6 address is 128 bit long

initial motivation: 32-bit address space
soon to be completely allocated.
additional motivation:
header format helps speed
processing/forwarding
header changes to facilitate QoS

IPv6 datagram format:

fixed-length 40 byte header
no fragmentation allowed
Network Layer 4-55

IPv6 datagram format

priority: identify priority among datagrams in flo

flow Label: identify datagrams in same flow.

next header: identify upper layer protocol for da

ver

pri
payload len

flow label
hop limit
next hdr

source address
(128 bits)
destination address
(128 bits)
data
32 bits

Network Layer 4-56

Other changes from IPv4

Payload length: total length of the IP

datad\gram excluding the base header
checksum: removed entirely to reduce
processing time at each hop
Hope limit: like TTL
ICMPv6: new version of ICMP
additional message types, e.g. Packet Too
Big
multicast group management functions

Network Layer 4-57

Transition from IPv4 to

IPv6

not all routers can be upgraded simultaneously

no flag days
how will network operate with mixed IPv4
and IPv6 routers?
tunneling: IPv6 datagram carried as payload in
IPv4 datagram among IPv4 routers
IPv4 header fields
IPv6 header fields
IPv4 source, dest addr
IPv6 source dest addr
UDP/TCP payload

IPv4 payload

IPv6 datagram
IPv4 datagram
Network Layer 4-58

Tunneling
B

IPv6

IPv6

IPv6

IPv6

IPv4

logical view:

physical view:

IPv4 tunnel
connecting IPv6 routers

IPv6

IPv6

IPv4

IPv6

IPv6

Network Layer 4-59

Tunneling
IPv4 tunnel
connecting IPv6 routers

IPv6

IPv6

IPv6

IPv6

IPv4

logical view:

physical view:

flow: X
src: A
dest: F
data

A-to-B:
IPv6

IPv6

IPv6

IPv4

IPv6

IPv6

src:B
dest: E

src:B
dest: E

Flow: X
Src: A
Dest: F

Flow: X
Src: A
Dest: F

data

data

B-to-C:
IPv6 inside
IPv4

B-to-C:
IPv6 inside
IPv4

flow: X
src: A
dest: F
data

E-to-F:
IPv6
Network Layer 4-60

ARP

Network Layer 4-61

ARP

Htype- defines the type of network on

which ARP is being run
Ptype- define the protocol using ARP.Eg.
IPv4
HlenPlen- define the length ip Address
length in bytes.
Oper- define the type of packet either
req or reply.

Network Layer 4-62

Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction
4.2 virtual circuit and
datagram networks
4.3 whats inside a
router
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol

datagram format
IPv4 addressing
ICMP
IPv6

4.5 routing algorithms

link state
distance vector
hierarchical routing

4.6 routing in the

Internet
RIP
OSPF
BGP

4.7 broadcast and

multicast routing

Network Layer 4-63

Interplay between routing,

forwarding
routing algorithm determines
end-end-path through network

routing algorithm

forwarding table determines

local forwarding at this router

local forwarding table

dest address
output
address-range 1 3 link
address-range 2
address-range 3
address-range 4

2
2
1

IP destination address in
arriving packets header

1
3 2

Network Layer 4-64

Graph abstraction
5
2

2
1

graph: G = (N,E)

w
3

N = set of routers = { u, v, w, x, y, z }
E = set of links ={ (u,v), (u,x), (v,x), (v,w), (x,w), (x,y), (w,y), (w,z), (y,z) }
aside: graph abstraction is useful in other network contexts, e.g.,
P2P, where N is set of peers and E is set of TCP connections

Network Layer 4-65

Graph abstraction: costs

5
2

v
2

w
3

c(x,x) = cost of link (x,x)

e.g., c(w,z) = 5
5

cost could always be 1, or

inversely related to bandwidth,
or inversely related to
congestion

cost of path (x1, x2, x3,, xp) = c(x1,x2) + c(x2,x3) + + c(xp-1,xp)

key question: what is the least-cost path between u

routing algorithm: algorithm that finds that least co
Network Layer 4-66

Routing algorithm
classification
Q: global or decentralized
information?
global:
all routers have complete
topology, link cost info
link state algorithms
decentralized:
router knows physicallyconnected neighbors, link
costs to neighbors
iterative process of
computation, exchange of
info with neighbors
distance vector
algorithms

Q: static or
dynamic?
static:
routes change slowly
over time
dynamic:
routes change more
quickly
periodic update
in response to link
cost changes

Network Layer 4-67

Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction
4.2 virtual circuit and
datagram networks
4.3 whats inside a
router
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol

datagram format
IPv4 addressing
ICMP
IPv6

4.5 routing algorithms

link state
distance vector
hierarchical routing

4.6 routing in the

Internet
RIP
OSPF
BGP

4.7 broadcast and

multicast routing

Network Layer 4-68

A Link-State Routing
Algorithm
Dijkstras algorithm

net topology, link costs

known to all nodes
accomplished via link
state broadcast
all nodes have same info

computes least cost

paths from one node
(source) to all other
nodes
gives forwarding table
for that node

iterative: after k
iterations, know least
cost path to k dest.s

notation:
c(x,y): link cost from

node x to y; = if
not direct neighbors
D(v): current value
of cost of path from
source to dest. v
p(v): predecessor
node along path
from source to v
N': set of nodes
whose least cost
path definitively
known

Network Layer 4-69

Dijsktras Algorithm
1 Initialization:
2 N' = {u}
3 for all nodes v
4
if v adjacent to u
5
then D(v) = c(u,v)
6
else D(v) =
7
8 Loop
9 find w not in N' such that D(w) is a minimum
10 add w to N'
11 update D(v) for all v adjacent to w and not in N' :
12
D(v) = min( D(v), D(w) + c(w,v) )
13 /* new cost to v is either old cost to v or known
14 shortest path cost to w plus cost from w to v */
15 until all nodes in N'
Network Layer 4-70

Dijkstras algorithm: example

Step
0
1
2
3
4
5

N'

u
uw
uwx
uwxv
uwxvy
uwxvyz

D(v) D(w) D(x) D(y) D(z)

p(v)

p(w)

p(x)

7,u
6,w
6,w

3,u

5,u

5,u 11,w
11,w 14,x
10,v 14,x
12,y

p(y)

p(z)

notes:

construct shortest path

tree by tracing
predecessor nodes
ties can exist (can be
broken arbitrarily)

9
7

4
8
3

y
3

v
Network Layer 4-71

Dijkstras algorithm: another

example
Step
0
1
2
3
4
5

N'
u
ux
uxy
uxyv
uxyvw
uxyvwz

D(v),p(v) D(w),p(w)
2,u
5,u
2,u
4,x
2,u
3,y
3,y

D(x),p(x)
1,u

D(y),p(y)

2,x

D(z),p(z)

4,y
4,y
4,y

5
2

v
2

w
3

2
Network Layer 4-72

Dijkstras algorithm: example

(2)
resulting shortest-path tree from u:
v

z
x

resulting forwarding table in u:

destination

link

v
x

(u,v)
(u,x)

(u,x)

(u,x)

(u,x)
Network Layer 4-73

Dijkstras algorithm,
discussion

algorithm complexity: n nodes

each iteration: need to check all nodes,
w, not in N
n(n+1)/2 comparisons: O(n2)

Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction
4.2 virtual circuit and
datagram networks
4.3 whats inside a
router
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol

4.5 routing algorithms

link state
distance vector
hierarchical routing

4.6 broadcast and

multicast routing

datagram format
IPv4 addressing
ICMP
IPv6

Network Layer 4-75

Distance vector algorithm

Bellman-Ford equation (dynamic
programming)
let
dx(y) := cost of least-cost path from x to
y
v
then

dx(y) = min {c(x,v)

+ dvneighbor
(y) } v to destinati
cost from
cost to neighbor v
min taken over all neighbors v of x
Network Layer 4-76

Bellman-Ford example
5
2

v
2

w
3

clearly, dv(z) = 5, dx(z) = 3, dw(z) = 3

5

B-F equation says:

du(z) = min { c(u,v) + dv(z),
c(u,x) + dx(z),
c(u,w) + dw(z) }
= min {2 + 5,
1 + 3,
5 + 3} = 4

node achieving minimum is next

hop in shortest path, used in forwarding table
Network Layer 4-77

Distance vector algorithm

Dx(y) = estimate of least cost from x to

y
x maintains distance vector Dx = [Dx(y): y
N]

node x:
knows cost to each neighbor v: c(x,v)
maintains its neighbors distance
vectors. For each neighbor v, x
maintains
Dv = [Dv(y): y N ]
Network Layer 4-78

Distance vector algorithm

key idea:

from time-to-time, each node sends its own

distance vector estimate to neighbors
when x receives new DV estimate from
neighbor, it updates its own DV using B-F
equation:

Dx(y) minv{c(x,v) + Dv(y)} for each node y N

under minor, natural conditions, the

estimate Dx(y) converge to the actual
least cost dx(y)
Network Layer 4-79

Distance vector algorithm

iterative,
asynchronous: each

local iteration caused

by:
local link cost change
DV update message
from neighbor

distributed:

each node notifies

neighbors only when
its DV changes
neighbors then notify
their neighbors if
necessary

each node:
wait for (change in local link
cost or msg from neighbor)

recompute estimates
if DV to any dest has
changed, notify neighbors

Network Layer 4-80

Dx(y) = min{c(x,y) + Dy(y), c(x,z) + Dz(y)}

= min{2+0 , 7+1} = 2

Dx(z) = min{c(x,y) +
Dy(z), c(x,z) + Dz(z)}
= min{2+1 , 7+0} = 3

from

node y
table
x
y
z

from

node z
table
x
y
z

cost to

cost to

x y z

x y z

0 2 7

x 0 2 3
y 2 0 1
z 7 1 0

from

from

node x
table
x
y
z

cost to

x y z

2 0 1

y
7

cost to

x y z


7 1 0

time
Network Layer 4-81

Dx(y) = min{c(x,y) + Dy(y), c(x,z) + Dz(y)}

= min{2+0 , 7+1} = 2

Dx(z) = min{c(x,y) +
Dy(z), c(x,z) + Dz(z)}
= min{2+1 , 7+0} = 3

0 2 7

x 0 2 3
y 2 0 1
z 7 1 0

x 0 2 3
y 2 0 1
z 3 1 0

from

x y z

from

x y z

cost to

cost to

cost to

x y z

x y z

2 0 1

x 0 2 7
y 2 0 1
z 7 1 0

x 0 2 3
y 2 0 1
z 3 1 0

cost to

cost to

x y z

x y z

x 0 2 7
y 2 0 1
z 3 1 0

7 1 0

from

x y z

y
7

cost to

x y z
from

from

node z
table
x
y
z

cost to

x y z

from

from

node y
table
x
y
z

cost to

cost to

from

from

node x
table
x
y
z

x 0 2 3
y 2 0 1
z 3 1 0
time
Network Layer 4-82

Distance vector: link cost

changes
link cost changes:

node detects local link cost

change
bad news travels slow count to infinity problem!
44 iterations before
algorithm stabilizes:

60

50

poisoned reverse:

If Z routes through Y to get to X :

Z tells Y its (Zs) distance to X is infinite (so Y
wont route to X via Z)

will this completely solve count to infinity

problem?
Network Layer 4-83

Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction
4.2 virtual circuit and
datagram networks
4.3 whats inside a
router
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol

4.5 routing algorithms

link state
distance vector
hierarchical routing

4.6 broadcast and

multicast routing

datagram format
IPv4 addressing
ICMP
IPv6

Network Layer 4-84

Hierarchical
routing

Network size increase- routing tables

of the routers also increases
So more CPU time, more bandwidth
required to send status report.
Network large so routing tables
becomes excessively large , not
possible for router to have an entry
for all other routers.
Than Hierarchical routing used....
Large network devide in hierarchy

Level 1: Regions

Level 2: Clusters- group of regions

Level 3: Zones- group of clusters

Network Layer 4-85

Hierarchical
routing

our routing study thus far idealization

all routers identical
network flat
not true in practice

administrative
scale: with 600
autonomy
million destinations:

cant store all dests in

routing tables!
routing table exchange
would swamp links!

internet = network of
networks
each network admin may
want to control routing in
its own network

Network Layer 4-86

Hierarchical
routing

aggregate routers
into regions,
autonomous
systems (AS)
routers in same AS
run same routing
protocol

intra-AS routing
protocol
routers in different AS
can run different
intra-AS routing
protocol

Network Layer 4-87

Interconnected ASes
3c

3a
3b
AS3

2a
1c
1a

1d

2c
AS2

1b AS1

Intra-AS
Routing
algorithm

Inter-AS
Routing
algorithm

Forwarding
table

2b

forwarding table
configured by both
intra- and inter-AS
routing algorithm
intra-AS sets
entries for internal
dests
inter-AS & intra-AS
sets entries for
external dests
Network Layer 4-88

Inter-AS tasks

suppose router in
AS1 receives
datagram destined
outside of AS1:
router should
forward packet to
gateway router,
but which one?

AS1 must:
1. learn which dests
are reachable
through AS2, which
through AS3
2. propagate this
reachability info to
all routers in AS1
job of inter-AS routing!

3c
3b
other
networks

3a
AS3

1c
1a
AS1

1d

2a
1b

2c
2b

other
networks

AS2
Network Layer 4-89

Example: setting forwarding table in

router 1d

suppose AS1 learns (via inter-AS protocol) that

subnet x reachable via AS3 (gateway 1c), but not
via AS2
inter-AS protocol propagates reachability info to
all internal routers
router 1d determines from intra-AS routing info that
its interface I is on the least cost path to 1c
installs forwarding table entry (x,I)

3c
3b
other
networks

3a
AS3

1c
1a
AS1

1d

2a
1b

2c
2b

other
networks

AS2
Network Layer 4-90

Example: choosing among multiple

ASes

now suppose AS1 learns from inter-AS protocol

that subnet x is reachable from AS3 and from
AS2.
to configure forwarding table, router 1d must
determine which gateway it should forward
packets towards for dest x
this is also job of inter-AS routing protocol!

3c
3b
other
networks

3a
AS3

1c
1a
AS1

1d

2a

1b

2c
2b

other
networks

AS2

?
Network Layer 4-91

Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction
4.2 virtual circuit and
datagram networks
4.3 whats inside a
router
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol

4.5 routing algorithms

link state
distance vector
hierarchical routing

4.6 broadcast and

multicast routing

datagram format
IPv4 addressing
ICMP
IPv6

Network Layer 4-92

Broadcast routing

deliver packets from source to all other nodes

source duplication is inefficient:
duplicate

duplicate
creation/transmission

R1

R1
duplicate

R2

R2

R3

R4

source
duplication

R3

R4

in-network
duplication

source duplication: how does source

determine recipient addresses?
Network Layer 4-93