Linux Basic and Administration Commands

RedHat Enterprise Linux Basics Commands

1. 1. 2.6x kernel (2.6.18)
a. 'uname -a' returns OS/Kernel information
Note: 'uname -a' returns the following useful info:
1. OS Linux
2. Fully Qualified Domain Name (FQDN)
3. Kernel version - 2.6.18...
a. 2.6 = major version
b. .18 = minor version
c. anything else after the minor version indicates that the kernel was
patched by the distributor
4. Date and time that the kernel was compiled
2. Supports multiple versions:
a. Basic - Red Hat Enterprise Linux Server
a1. supports 2 physical (Socket) CPUs
a2. Up to 4 virtual guests
b. Advanced Platform
b1. supports unlimited physical CPUs
b2. supports unlimited virtual guests
Note: Virtualization limits pertain to the virtualization technology included with Red
Hat Enterprise Linux. NOT third-party software (VMWare)
3. Supports the following platforms:
a. Intel 32/64-bits
b. AMD 32/64-bits
c. IBM - POWER and z-series, S/390
Note: Memory limitation is based on hardware
Common uses of the various versions of RHEL
1. RHEL Basic Version
a. File & Print
b. Web server
c. Infrastructure server (DHCP, DNS, Proxy, etc.)
2. RHEL Advanced Version
a. Application server (Apache Tomcat, JBOSS, Weblogic, WebSphere, etc.)
b. Database server (MySQL, PostgreSQL, Oracle, Ingres, etc.)
c. Clustering

Basic LINUX Commands

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1. tty - reveals the current terminal

2. whoami - reveals the currently logged-in user
3. which - reveals where in the search path a program is located
4. echo - prints to the screen
a. echo $PATH - dumps the current path to STDOUT
b. echo $PWD - dumps the contents of the $PWD variable
c. echo $OLDPWD - dumps the most recently visited directory
5. set - prints and optionally sets shell variables
6. clear - clears the screen or terminal
7. reset - resets the screen buffer
8. history - reveals your command history
a. !690 - executes the 690th command in our history
b. command history is maintained on a per-user basis via:
~/.bash_history
~ = users $HOME directory in the BASH shell
9. pwd - prints the working directory
10. cd - changes directory to desired directory
a. 'cd ' with no options changes to the $HOME directory
b. 'cd ~' changes to the $HOME directory
c. 'cd /' changes to the root of the file system
d. 'cd Desktop/' changes us to the relative directory 'Desktop'
e. 'cd ..' changes us one-level up in the directory tree
f. 'cd ../..' changes us two-levels up in the directory tree
11. Arrow keys (up and down) navigates through your command history
12. BASH supports tab completion:
a. type unique characters in the command and press 'Tab' key
13. You can copy and paste in GNOME terminal windows using:
a. left button to block
b. right button to paste OR Ctrl-Shift-v to paste
14. ls - lists files and directories
a. ls / - lists the contents of the '/' mount point
b. ls -l - lists the contents of a directory in long format:
Includes: permissions, links, ownership, size, date, name
c. ls -ld /etc - lists properties of the directory '/etc', NOT the contents of '/etc'
d. ls -ltr - sorts chronologically from older to newer (bottom)
e. ls --help - returns possible usage information
f. ls -a - reveals hidden files. e.g. '.bash_history'
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Note: files/directories prefixed with '.' are hidden. e.g. '.bash_history'

15. cat - catenates files
a. cat 123.txt - dumps the contents of '123.txt' to STDOUT
b. cat 123.txt 456.txt dumps both files to STDOUT
c. cat 123.txt 456.txt > 123456.txt - creates new catenated file
16. mkdir - creates a new directory
a. mkdir testRH5 - creates a 'testRH5' directory
17. cp - copies files
a. cp 123.txt testRH5/
By default, 'cp' does NOT preserve the original modification time
b. cp -v 456.txt testRH5/
18. mv - moves files
a. mv 123456.txt testRH5/ - moves the file, preserving timestamp
19. rm - removes files/directories
a. rm 123.txt
b. rm -rf 456.txt - removes recursively and enforces
20. touch - creates blank file/updates timestamp
a. touch test.txt - will create a zero-byte file, if it doesn't exist
b. touch 123456.txt - will update the timestamp
c. touch -t 200801091530 123456.txt - changes timestamp
21. stat - reveals statistics of files
a. stat 123456.txt - reveals full attributes of the file
22. find - finds files using search patterns
a. find / -name 'fstab'
Note: 'find' can search for fields returned by the 'stat' command
23. alias - returns/sets aliases for commands
a. alias - dumps current aliases
b. alias copy='cp -v'

Linux Redirection & Pipes

Features:
1. Ability to control input and output
Input redirection '<':
1. cat < 123.txt
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Note: Use input redirection when program does NOT default to file as input
Output redirection '>':
1. cat 123.txt > onetwothree.txt
Note: Default nature is to:
1. Clobber the target file
2. Populate with information from input stream
Append redirection '>>':
1. cat 123.txt >> numbers.txt - creates 'numbers.txt' if it doesn't exist, or
appends if it does
2. cat 456.txt >> numbers.txt
Pipes '|':
Features: Connects the output stream of one command to the input stream of a
subsequent command
1. cat 123.txt | sort
2. cat 456.txt 123.txt | sort
3. cat 456.txt 123.txt | sort | grep 3
Command Chaining
Features:
1. Permits the execution of multiple commands in sequence
2. Also permits execution based on the success or failure of a previous command
1. cat 123.txt ; ls -l - this runs first command, then second command without
regards for exit status of the first command
2. cat 123.txt && ls -l - this runs second command, if first command is
successful
3. cat 1234.txt && ls -l
4. cat 123.txt || ls -l - this runs second command, if first command fails
24. more|less - paginators, which display text one-page @ a time
1. more /etc/fstab
2. less 1thousand.txt
25. seq - echoes a sequence of numbers
a. seq 1000 > 1thousand.txt - creates a file with numbers 1-1000
26. su - switches users
a. su - with no options attempts to log in as 'root'
27. head - displays opening lines of text files
a. head /var/log/messages
28. tail - displays the closing lines of text files
a. tail /var/log/messages
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29. wc - counts words and optionally lines of text files

a. wc -l /var/log/messages
b. wc -l 123.txt
30. file - determines file type
a. file /var/log/messages
Tar, Gzip, Bzip2, Zip
Features:
1. Compression utilities (gzip, bzip2, zip)
2. File rollers (the ability to represent many files as one)
Gzip:
Includes:
1. gzip - compresses/decompresses files
2. gunzip - decompresses gzip files
Example:
1. compress '1million.txt' file using gzip
a. gzip -c 1million.txt > 1million.txt.gz
Note: gzip auto-dumps to STDOUT, by default
b. gzip -l 1million.txt.gz - returns status information
c. gunzip 1million.txt.gz - dumps to file, and removes compressed version
d. gzip -d 1million.txt.gz
e. zcat 1million.txt.gz - dumps the contents to STDOUT
f. less 1million.txt.gzip - dumps the contents of gzip files to STDOUT
Bzip2:
1. bzip2 -c 1million.txt > 1million.txt.bz2
Note: Bzip2 tends to outperform gzip on larger files
2. bunzip2 1million.txt.bz2
3. bzip2 -d 1million.txt.bz2
4. bzcat 1million.txt.bz2 - dumps contents to STDOUT
5. less 1million.txt.bz2 - also dumps the contents to STDOUT

Zip & unzip:

1. zip filename.zip path/ - general usage
2. zip 1million.txt.zip 1million.txt
Note: zip differs slight from gzip and bzip2 in that the destination file (resultant zip
file) is specified before the source
3. unzip 1million.txt.zip
Tar & Gzip/Bzip2:
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1. tar -cvf filename.tar path/ - creates a non-compressed archive

2. tar -cvf 1million.txt.tar 1million.txt
Note: tar, requires a small overhead for itself in each file
3. tar -czvf 1million.txt.tar.gz 1million.txt - creates, tar/gzip document
4. tar -cjvf 1million.txt.tar.bz2 1million.txt - creates, tar/bzip2 document
5. tar -tzvf
6. tar -cjvf 1million.txt.tar.bz2 1million.txt testRH5/- creates, tar/bzip2 document for
the text file and 'testRH5' directory tree
GREP
Features:
1. The ability to parse lines based on text and/or RegExes
2. Post-processor
3. Searches case-sensitively, by default
4. Searches for the text anywhere on the line
1. grep
2. grep
3. grep
lines
4. grep
5. grep

'linux' grep1.txt
-i 'linux' grep1.txt - case-insensitive search
'^linux' grep1.txt - uses '^' anchor to anchor searches at the beginning of
-i '^linux' grep1.txt
-i 'linux$' grep1.txt - uses '$' anchor to anchor searches at the end of lines

Note: Anchors are RegEx characters (meta-characters). They're used to match at

the beginning and end of lines
6. grep '[0-9]' grep1.txt - returns lines containing at least 1 number
7. grep '[a-z]' grep1.txt
8. rpm -qa | grep grep - searches the package database for programs named 'grep'
9. rpm -qa | grep -i xorg | wc -l - returns the number of packages with 'xorg' in their
names
10. grep sshd messages
11. grep -v sshd messages - performs and inverted search (all but 'sshd' entries will
be returned)
12. grep -v sshd messages | grep -v gconfd
13. grep -C 2 sshd messages - returns 2 lines, above and below matching line
Note: Most, if not all, Linux programs log linearly, which means one line after
another, from the earliest to the current
Note: Use single or double quotes to specify RegExes
Also, execute 'grep' using 'egrep' when RegExes are being used
Awk
Features:
1. Field/Column processor
2. Supports egrep-compatible (POSIX) RegExes
3. Can return full lines like grep
4. Awk runs 3 steps:
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a. BEGIN - optional
b. Body, where the main action(s) take place
c. END - optional
5. Multiple body actions can be executed by separating them using semicolons. e.g.
'{ print $1; print $2 }'
6. Awk, auto-loops through input stream, regardless of the source of the stream. e.g.
STDIN, Pipe, File
Usage:
1. awk '/optional_match/ { action }' file_name | Pipe
2. awk '{ print $1 }' grep1.txt
Note: Use single quotes with awk, to avoid shell interpolation of awk's variables
3. awk '{ print $1,$2 }' grep1.txt
Note: Default input and output field separators is whitespace
4. awk '/linux/ { print } ' grep1.txt - this will print ALL lines containing 'linux'
5. awk '{ if ($2 ~ /Linux/) print}' grep1.txt
6. awk '{ if ($2 ~ /8/) print }' /var/log/messages - this will print the entire line for log
items for the 8th
7. awk '{ print $3 }' /var/log/messages | awk -F: '{ print $1}'
Sed - Stream Editor
Features:
1. Facilitates automated text editing
2. Supports RegExes (POSIX)
3. Like Awk, supports scripting using '-F' option
4. Supports input via: STDIN, pipe, file
Usage:
1. sed [options] 'instruction[s]' file[s]
2. sed -n '1p' grep1.txt - prints the first line of the file
3. sed -n '1,5p' grep1.txt - prints the first 5 lines of the file
4. sed -n '$p' grep1.txt - prints the last line of the file
5. sed -n '1,3!p' grep1.txt - prints ALL but lines 1-3
6. sed -n '/linux/p' grep1.txt - prints lines with 'linux'
7. sed -e '/^$/d' grep1.txt - deletes blank lines from the document
8. sed -e '/^$/d' grep1.txt > sed1.txt - deletes blank lines from the document
'grep1.txt' and creates 'sed1.txt'
9. sed -ne 's/search/replace/p' sed1.txt
10. sed -ne 's/linux/unix/p' sed1.txt
11. sed -i.bak -e 's/3/4' sed1.txt - this backs up the original file and creates a new
'sed1.txt' with the modifications indicated in the command
Note: Generally, to create new files, use output redirection, instead of allowing sed
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Note: Sed applies each instruction to each line

Perl
Features:
1. Parses text
2. Executes programs
3. CGI - Web forms, etc.
4. Supports RegExes (Perl and POSIX)
5. etc.
Example:
1. Print 'Hello World' to STDOUT
a. perl -c helloworld.pl - checks the syntax of the script
b. perl helloworld.pl - executes the script
c. chmod +x helloworld.pl && ./helloworld.pl
2. Parse RegExes from the command line
System Utilities
Features:
1. Process listing
2. Free/available memory
3. Disk utilization
1. ps - process status/listing
a. ps -ef or ps -aux
2. top - combines, ps, uptime, free and updates regularly
3. uptime - returns useful system utilization information:
a. current time
b. uptime - days, hours and minutes
c. connected users
d. load averaged - 1,5,15 minute values
4. free - returns memory utilization
a. RAM
b. SWAP
free -m - for human readable format
5. df - returns disk partition/mount point information
a. df - returns info. using kilobytes
b. df -h - returns info. using megabytes/human readable (gigs/teray/etc.)
6. vmstat - reports on: processes, memory, paging, block I/O, traps, CPU activity
a. vmstat
b. vmstat -p /dev/hda1 - returns partitions stats for /dev/hda1 (/boot)
7. gnome-system-monitor - GUI, combining most system utilities
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8. ls -ltr /proc
a. cat /proc/cpuinfo
9. kill PID - kills the process with a given PID
10. runlevel - returns runlevel information using 2 fields:
a. represents previous runlevel
b. represents current runlevel
User/Group Management
Features:
1. The ability to control users and groups
Primary tools:
1. useradd - used to add users and modify group membership
2. system-config-users
Example:
1. Create a user named 'student1' using 'useradd'
Note: Default user settings derive from: /etc/login.defs
a. useradd student1
b. set password for user 'student1': passwd student1
Default User Accounts DB: /etc/passwd
student1:x:501:501::/home/student1:/bin/bash
username:shadow_reference:uid:gid:Description(GECOS):$HOME:$SHELL
Note: /etc/passwd is a world-readable file
Note: /etc/shadow now stores passwords in encrypted form
Note: /etc/shadow is NOT world-readable
Fields in /etc/shadow:
student1:$1$XSFMv2ru$lfTACjN.XxaxbHA0EkB4U0:13891:0:99999:7:::
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

username:
encrypted_password:
Days_since_Unix_epoch_password_was_changed (01/01/1970)
Days before password may be changed
Days after which the password MUST be changed
Days before password is to expire that user is warned
Days after password expires, that account is disabled
Days since Unix epoch, that account is disabled
Reserved field (currently unused)

2. Modify user 'student1' to have password expire after 45 days

a. usermod

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Groups:
1. groupadd - adds new group
2. groups - lists groups on the system: /etc/group
/etc/group - maintains group membership information
Example: Create a 'sales' group and add 'linuxusr' and 'student1' as members
1. groupadd sales
2. usermod -G sales linuxusr
3. usermod -G sales student1
Note: 2 types of groups exist:
1. Primary - used by default for a user's permissions
2. Supplemental - used to determine effective permissions
Note: use 'id' to determine the group information of user
Note: Create a new shell session to realize new group membership information
userdel/groupdel are used to delete users and groups, respectively
File Types - Permissions Symlinks
Features:
1. The ability to restrict/control access to files
Note: 10 bits represent permissions for files (including directories)
Note: use 'ls -l' to examine permissions or GUI application like 'Nautilus'
-rwxrwxr-x 1 linuxusr linuxusr 681 Jan 13 11:31 regextest.pl
1st bit = file type. '-' = file, 'd' = directory
2nd - 4th bits = owner's permissions
r = read = 4
w = write = 2
x = execute = 1
- = none = 0
5th - 7th bits = group owner's permissions
r = read = 4
w = write = 2
x = execute = 1
- = none = 0
8th - 10th bits = everyone (world)
r = read = 4
w = write = 2
x = execute = 1
- = none = 0
Example:
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1. Manipulate file permissions using 'chmod'

a. chmod -x regextest.pl
-rw-rw-r-- 1 linuxusr linuxusr 681 Jan 13 11:31 regextest.pl
rw = 6 or 4+2 for owner
rw = 6 or 4+2 for group owner
r = 4 for everyone else (world)
Octal notation: 664 for file 'regexetest.pl'
chmod 664 regextest.pl - removes execution for ALL users
chmod 775 regextest.pl - enables execution for ALL users
2. Ensure that 'regextest.pl' is rw by owner and no one else
a. chmod 600 regextest.pl
Note: File will now be rw by owner (linuxusr) and 'root'
3. Ensure that 'regextest.pl' is r by owner and no one else
a. chmod 400 regextest.pl && ls -l regextest.pl
Note: chmod supports string values, which represent octal values
chmod +/- x file
chmod +/- w file
chmod +/- r file
chmod +/- u+x file - updates owner's execute permissions on the file
chmod +/- o+x file - updates other's execute permissions on the file
chmod +/- g+x file - updates group's execute permissions on the file
chmod a+rwx = chmod 777
chown - permits changing of ownership of files
a. chown root regextest.pl - changes ownership to 'root'
b. chown linuxusr:sales regextest.pl - changes owner and group to
'linuxusr:sales'
Example:
Update 'regextest.pl' so that owner and group owner may modify the file
a. chmod 660 regextest.pl
SETUID:
Features:
1. ability to execute file as owner
chmod 4760 regextest.pl - this will ensure that the perl script always executes as
the user 'linuxusr'
-rwsrw---- 1 linuxusr sales 787 Jan 13 16:08 regextest.pl
's' in the execute position means that the program will execute as that user
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SETGID:
Features:
1. Ability to enforce permissions to a directory structure
mkdir /sales
chmod 2775 /sales
Create a file in the '/sales' directory as 'linuxusr'
seq 1000000 > linuxusr.1million.txt
chgrp:
Permits updating of group permissions
Sticky Bit:
Features:
1. Ability to ensure that users cannot delete others' files in a directory
drwxrwxrwt 23 root root 4096 Jan 13 15:05 /tmp/
/tmp - users cannot delete other user's files in '/tmp'
chmod 3777 /sales - ensures that /sales will not lose files from incorrect users
Example:
1. Set '/sales' using sticky bit and test
a. chmod 3777 /sales && ls -ld /sales OR chmod 777 /sales && chmod +t
/sales
Symlinks
Features:
1. Provides shortcuts to files (including directories)
2. Provides hard links to inode (file system) locations
Soft Links:
1. ln -s source_file target
a. ln -s ./regextest.pl lastscript.pl
Note: Soft links may span multiple file systems/hard drives
Note: Symlink count is NOT increased when using soft links
2. ln -s /home/linuxusr/testRH5/regextest.pl . - this will symlink (soft) to the /boot
file system
Note: With soft links, if you change the name or location of the source file, you will
break ALL of the symlinks (soft)
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Hard Links:
Features:
1. The ability to reference the same inode/hard drive location from multiple places
within the same file system
a. ln source target
ln regextest.pl ./testhardregextest.pl - creates a hard link
Quotas
Features:
1. Limits disk usage (blocks or inodes)
2. Tied to file systems (set on a per file system basis)
3. Can be configured for users and groups
Steps to enable quota support:
1. Enable quota support per file system in: /etc/fstab
a. defaults,usrquota,grpquota
2. Remount the file system(s)
a. mount -o remount /
b. use 'mount' to confirm that 'usrquota,grpquota' support are enabled
3. Create quota database files and generate disk usage table
a. quotacheck -mcug / - this creates /aquota.user & /aquota.group
b. quotacheck mavug
4. Assign quota policies
a. edquota username - set blocks/inodes soft_limits hard_limit
edquota student1 - sets quotas for user 'student1'
export EDITOR=nano - to have edquota default to 'nano' editor
5. Check quotas
a. quota username
quota student1
Note: place 'quotacheck -avug' in /etc/cron.*(hourly,daily)
6. Report on usage
a. repquota -a - this reports on usage
Note: The blocks are measured in 1K increments. i.e. 20000 blocks is roughly 20MB
Basic Provisioning of Partitions and File Systems
Features:
1. Ability to provision extra storage on-the-fly
Steps:
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1. Identify available storage

a. 'fdisk -l' - returns connected storage
2. Create partitions on desired hard drive:
a. 'fdisk /dev/sdb' - interacts with /dev/sdb drive
b. 'n' - to add a new partition
c. 'p' - primary
d. '1' - start cylinder
e. '+4096M' - to indicate 4 Gigabytes
f. 'w' - to write the changes to the disk
Note: use 'partprobe partition (/dev/sdb1)' to force a write to a hard drive's
partition table on a running system
Note: 'fdisk' creates raw partitions
3. Overlay (format) the raw partition with a file system
a. mke2fs -j /dev/sdb1 - this will write inodes to partition
4. Mount the file system in the Linux file system hierarchy:
a. mkdir /home1 && mount /dev/sdb1 /home1
b. mount OR df -h - either will reveal that /dev/sdb1 is mounted
Note: lost+found directory is created for each distinct file system
5. Configure '/home1' to auto-mount when the system boots
a. nano /etc/fstab and copy and modify the '/home' entry
Swap Partitions & Files
Features:
1. Extra, virtual RAM for the OS
Steps:
1. Identify current swap space
a. swapon -s - enumerates partitions and/or files, which constitute swap
storage
b. free -m
2. Select target drive and provision swap partition
a. fdisk /dev/sdb
b. n
c. 2
d. 500
e. +512 (cylinder 562) - 63 cylinders are required for 512MB
f. t - change type
g. 82 - Linux Swap/Solaris
h. w - commit changes to disk
3. Create the swap file system on the raw partition: /dev/sdb2
a. mkswap /dev/sdb2
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4. Enable swapping - publish the swap space to the kernel

a. swapon /dev/sdb2 - this enables swapping on /dev/sdb2
5. update /etc/fstab
a. /dev/sdb2 swap swap defaults 0 0
swapoff /dev/sdb2 - disables swapping on /dev/sdb2
Example:
1. Improve system performance by distributing swapping to /dev/sdb2
a. swapon /dev/sdb2
b. swapoff /dev/sda6
c. disable /dev/sda6 via /etc/fstab
Create Swap based on File
Features:
1. The ability to provision swap space based on a file, similar to pagefile.sys in
Windows NT, etc., if you have no available disk space to partition.
2. Doesn't waste partitions
Example:
1. Create 512MB swap file
a. dd if=/dev/zero of=/home1/swapfile1 bs=1024 count=524288
b. mkswap /home1/swapfile1 - overlays swap file system
c. swapon /home1/swapfile1 - makes swap space available to the kernel
2. Ensure that when the system reboots, the swap file is made available to the
kernel
a. nano /etc/fstab - /home1/swapfile1 swap swap defaults 0 0
3. Create 2GB swap file
a. dd if=/dev/zero of=/home1/swapfile2 count=2G
Logical Volume Management (LVM)
Features:
1. Ability to create volume sets and stripe sets
2. LVM masks the underlying physical technology
(ATA,ATAPI,IDE,SCSI,SATA,PATA,etc.)
3. LVM represents storage using a hierarchy:
a. Volume groups
a1. Physical volumes (/dev/sda2, /dev/sdb2, etc.)
b. Logical Volumes
b1. File systems
3. LVM physical volumes can be of various sizes
4. Ability to resize volumes on the fly
Note: Volume groups join: physical volumes (PVs) and Logical Volumes (LVs)
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Steps to setup LVM:

1. Create LVM partitions via fdisk or parted
a. fdisk /dev/sda, /dev/sdb, /dev/sdc
b. n
c. p
d. +10G
e. t - change to type '8e' (LVM)
f. w
g. partprobe /dev/sda
2. Create Physical Volumes using 'pvcreate'
a. pvcreate /dev/sda3 /dev/sdb3 /dev/sdc3
3. Create Volume Groups using 'vgcreate'
a. vgcreate volgroup001 /dev/sda3 /dev/sdb3 /dev/sdc3
Note: Volume groups can be segmented into multiple logical volumes
4. Create one or more Logical Volumes
a. lvcreate -L 10GB -n logvolvar1 volgroup001
b. lvcreate -L 10GB -n logvolusr1 volgroup001
5. Create File system on logical volume(s)
a. mke2fs -j /dev/volgroup001/logvolvar1
b. mke2fs -j /dev/volgroup001/logvolusr1
6. Mount logical volume
a. mkdir /var1
b. mount /dev/volgroup001/logvolvar1 /var1
c. mkdir /usr1
d. mount /dev/volgroup001/logvolusr1 /usr1
Note: Be certain to update: /etc/fstab so that volumes are mounted when the
system reboots
3-tiers of LVM display commands include:
a. pvdisplay - physical volumes - represent raw LVM partitions
b. vgdisplay - volume groups - aggregate physical volumes
c. lvdisplay - logical volumes - file systems - mount here
Rename of Logical Volume:
1. lvrename volume_group_name old new - used to rename volumes
Task: Rename 'logvolvar1' to 'logvolopt1'
a. lvrename volgroup001 logvolvar1 logvolopt1
Note: LVM is updated immediately, even while volume is mounted
However, you must remount the logical volume to see the changes
b. umount /var1 && mount /dev/mapper/volgroup001-logvolopt1 /opt1
c. Update /etc/fstab

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Remove Logical Volume:

Example: Remove 'logvolusr1' from the logical volume pool
a. umount /usr1
b. lvremove /dev/mapper/volgroup001-logvolusr1
c. use 'lvdisplay' to confirm removal
Resize Logical Volume:
Example: Grow (resize) 'logvolopt1' to 20GB
a. lvresize -L 20GB /dev/volgroup001/logvolopt1
b. lvdisplay - to confirm new size of logical volume
c. df -h - will still reveal the current size
d. Resize the file system to update the INODE table on the logical volume to
account for the new storage in 'logvolopt1'
'resize2fs -f -p /dev/volgroup001/logvolopt1'
Note: You may resize file systems online if the following are met:
1. 2.6x kernel series
2. MUST be formatted with ext3
Example: Shrink (resize) 'logvolopt1' to 15GB
a. lvresize -L 15GB /dev/volgroup001/logvolopt1
b. lvdisplay
c. df -h
d. resize2fs -f -p /dev/volgroup001/logvolopt1
Note: online shrinking is not supported
e. df -h
Note: Check disk utilization prior to shrinking to reduce the risk of losing data

LVM GUI Utility:

system-config-lvm
RAID
Features:
1. The ability to increase availability and reliability of data
Example:
1. Create a RAID-1 Device (/dev/md0..n)
a. fdisk /dev/sdb - to create usable raw partitions
b. partprobe /dev/sdb - to force a kernel update of the partition layout of the
disk: /dev/sdb
b. mdadm --create /dev/md0 --level=1 --raid-devices=2 /dev/sdb5 /dev/sdb6
c. cat /proc/mdstat - lists active RAID (md) information
d. mke2fs -j /dev/md0 - overlays a file system on the RAID device
e. mount /dev/md0 /raid1
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f. update: /etc/fstab
Note: use 'mdadm --query /dev/md0' to get information about a RAID device
Note: You may create RAID volumes/devices on a single or on multiple disks
Ideally, your RAID volumes should span multiple physical disks to improve:
a. reliability
b. performance
c. availability
2. Remove the RAID-1 device
a. umount /dev/md0
b. mdadm --manage --stop /dev/md0
3. Create a RAID-5 Volume
a. fdisk /dev/sdb - to create a partition number 7
b. partprobe /dev/sdb - to update the kernel's view of the partition table
c. mdadm --create /dev/md0 --level=5 --raid-devices=3 /dev/sdb5
/dev/sdb6 /dev/sdb7
d. watch cat /proc/mdstat - refreshes every 2 seconds
e. Overlay a file system: mke2fs -j /dev/md0
f. mount /dev/md0 /raid5
g. Test I/O to RAID-5 device
h. Update: /etc/fstab
RPM
Features:
1. Provides package management
a. Query
b. Install
c. Uninstall
d. Upgrade
e. Verify
2. Auto-verifies packages using GPG, MD5, SHA1SUMs
3. Automatically reports on unresolved dependencies
'rpm'
Query:
1. rpm -qa - dumps all installed packages
2. rpm -qa | wc -l - this dumps all packages and provides a count
3. rpm -qa | grep -i nano
4. rpm -qi nano - dumps info. about the 'nano' package as it's recorded in the local
RPM database
5. rpm -qf /usr/bin/nano - dumps package membership info. for the 'nano' file
6. rpm -qpi http://192.168.1.101/RH5/i386/Server/dhcp-3.0.5-7.el5.i386.rpm dumps info. about the uninstalled 'dhcp' package, which resides on the repository
7. rpm -ql package_name - returns all included files

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Verify:
1. rpm -Va - verifies ALL packages on the system, returning info. only if there are
discrepancies from the original installation
2. rpm -Vf /usr/bin/nano
Example: Change '/usr/bin/nano' then verify
SM5....T /usr/bin/nano
S(file size), M(mode or permissions), 5(MD5), T(mod time)
3. rpm -Vp nano
Install (Does NOT overwrite previous package):
Note: Use this method to install a new version of the kernel
1. rpm -ivh *.rpm
2. rpm -ivh http://192.168.1.101/RH5/i386/Server/dhcp-3.0.5-7.el5.i386.rpm
Upgrade (Installs or overwrites existing package):
1. rpm -Uvh *.rpm
2. rpm -Uvh http://192.168.1.101/RH5/i386/Server/dhcp-3.0.5-7.el5.i386.rpm
Freshen (Updates an existing package):
Note: Will NOT install the package, if it doesn't exist locally
1. rpm -Fvh *.rpm - freshens the current version of a package
Removal:
1. rpm -ev *.rpm - removes a package
Note: removal process considers dependencies and will complain if the removal will
break 1 or more packages. To get around this, use '--nodeps' option with 'rpm -ev
--nodeps *.rpm'
2. rpm -ev gftp
Package Management GUI:
1. Add/Remove Software
2. system-config-packages
YUM Configuration
Features:
1. The ability to centralize packages (updates)
Installation & Setup:
1. Install 'createrepo*rpm'
2. Setup directory structure
a. /srv/www/linuxsrv.com/RH5/yum

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3. Run 'createrepo /srv/www/linuxsrv.com/RH5/yum'

4. Publish the yum repository using HTTP
5. Configure yum client to use HTTP to fetch the RPMs
a. /etc/yum.conf
a1. ###Included as our first repository on the SUSE box###
[0001]
name=linuxsrvsuse1
baseurl=http://192.168.1.101/RH5/yum
Note: Ensure that about 3GBs are available for the yum repository
tar -cjvf yum_metadata.bz2 repodata
Yum Usage:
1. Search for packages
a. 'yum search gftp'
2. Install packages - Requires RedHat GPG Key for RPMs
rpm --import http://192.168.1.101/RH5/i386/RPM-GPG-KEY-redhat-release
a. 'yum -y install gftp'
b. 'yum -y install gftp dhcp' installs 2 packages
3. Remove Package
a. 'yum -y remove gftp'

Cron - Scheduler
Features:
1. Scheduler
2. Rules (Cron entries) are based on times:
a. minute (0-59)
b. hour (0-23)
c. day of the month (1-31)
d. month (1-12)
e. day of the week (Sun,Mon,Tue, etc. OR 0-7)
f. command to execute (shell, perl, php, etc.)
3. Wakes up every minute in search of programs to execute
4. Reads cron entries from multiple files
5. Maintains per-user and system-wide (/etc/crontab) schedules
/etc:
cron.d/
cron.deny - denies cron execution by user
cron.monthly/ - runs jobs monthly
cron.weekly/ - runs jobs weekly
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cron.daily/ - runs jobs daily

cron.hourly/ - runs jobs hourly
crontab - contains system-wide schedules
Note: '*' wildcard in a time column means to run for all values
Per-user Crontabs:
Stored in: /var/spool/cron
Example:
1. Create a cron entry for the user 'student1'
a. su student1
b. crontab -e
c. create an entry, minus the name of the user
Note: 'crontab -l' - enumerates per-user cron entries
System-wide Crontab:
Stored in: /etc/crontab
Example:
1. Create a cron entry in: /etc/crontab
Note: 'crontab -l -u username' - enumerates per-user cron entries

SysLogD
Features:
1. Handles logging
2. Unix Domain Sockets (/dev/log)
3. Internet Sockets (UDP:514)
4. Ability to log to local and remote targets
Implanted as 'sysklogd' package
Primary configuration file: /etc/syslog.conf
Standard syslog.conf file contains:
1. Rules
a.facilities -> applications/daemons/network device/etc.
b. levels -> Importance of message
Range: 0-7
7 = emergency (less information)
6 = alert
5 = critical
4 = error
3 = warning
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2 = notice
1 = info
0 = debug (more information)
2. Targets
a. file - /var/log/messages
b. tty - /dev/console
c. remote hosts - @IP_ADDR_of_REMOTE_HOST
'*' = catchall/wildcard to mean any facility or level
'.none' = exclusion rule
'man syslog.conf' to learn about the support facilities.levels
Example:
1. Enable UDP logging for remote Cisco gateway (192.168.1.1)
a. netstat -nul | grep 514 - reveals UDP:514 listener
b. nano /etc/sysconfig/syslog
b1. 'SYSLOGD_OPTIONS="-r"'
c. restart syslog and confirm UDP:514 listener
c1. confirm using 'netstat -nul | grep 514'
d. Configure the router using facility 'local0' and level 'info'
e. configure /etc/syslog.conf to accept 'local0.info'
f. restart or reload 'syslog'
Log Rotation
Features:
1. Rotation of logs based on criteria
a. size
b. age (daily, weekly, monthly)
2. Compression
3. Maintain logs for a defined period
/etc/logrotate.conf - primary (global) config file for all logs
-can be overridden by context-sensitive files. i.e. apache
run 'man logrotate'
/etc/logrotate.d - directory for logs to be rotated
-httpd - used to rotate Apache logs
/var/log/httpd/*log {
missingok
notifempty
sharedscripts
postrotate
/bin/kill -HUP `cat /var/run/httpd.pid 2>/dev/null` 2> /dev/null || true
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}
Example: Setup rotation rule for Cisco log
1. Create entry in: /etc/logrotate.d based on /etc/logrotate.d/syslog
2. Modified the entry to rotate based on new criteria
3. Rotated using: 'logrotate /etc/logrotate.conf'
Note: Force using: 'logrotatate -f /etc/logrotate.conf'
Common Network Utilities
Features:
1. Useful for basic troubleshooting
PING:
Features:
1. ability to communicate with hosts using ICMP
a. PING sends ICMP echo-requests
b. PING expects to receive ICMP echo-replies
Example: PING some hosts and evaluate the output
1. ping localhost (127.0.0.1)
2. ping -c 3 localhost - sends 3 ICMP echo-requests
Note: 'ping localhost' performs name resolution using /etc/hosts
/etc/hosts stores static name-to-IP mappings
Note: 127.0.0.0/8 is fully-reserved to the loopback adapter of ALL IPv4 hosts
3. ping -c 3 192.168.1.99
4. ping -c 3 -i 3 192.168.1.99 - delays PINGs to 3 seconds apart
Note: PING defaults to a standard 1-second interval
Note: Firewall(s) may block ICMP traffic, causing PING to fail
TELNET:
Features:
1. Great for basic TCP port diagnosis
Example:
1. Connect to TCP ports on various hosts
a. telnet 192.168.1.101 22
b. telnet www.linuxsrv.com 80
NETSTAT:
Features:
1. Provides network connection information from /proc/net/*
Example:
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1. Return useful information for various protocols

a. netstat
b. netstat -a - returns all protocols/sockets
c. netstat -ntlp - returns all TCP LISTENERS without name resolution
d. netstat -nulp - returns all UDP LISTENERS without name resolution
Note: netstat uses /etc/services to translate ports to names
Note: 0.0.0.0:514 - this means that Syslog will accept traffic to any of the defined IP
addresses/interfaces on the system
e. netstat -ntp - returns established connections (sockets)
f. netstat -rn - returns the routing table
ARP:
Features:
1. Resolves layer-2 (OSI model) MAC addresses to layer-3 IP addresses
Example:
1. Examine MAC addresses using: ifconfig and arp
a. ifconfig - returns our local MAC addresses
Link encap:Ethernet HWaddr 00:02:B3:98:41:08
b. arp -a - returns MAC to IP mappings
Note: When 2 TCP/IP hosts communicate, ARP is performed to translate the IP
address (v6/v4) to a MAC address.
Note: If a one or more routers separate the communicating hosts, then the MAC
address of the default router's (gateway's) interface is stored by each client
IPv4 Configuration & Network Settings
Network Support:
1. Boot system into a multi-user mode
2. /etc/modprobe.conf - contains alias and reference to module(s) to be loaded in
order to provide networking
3. Linux decides if the interface is DHCP or static by viewing the contents of:
a. /etc/sysconfig/network - networking=yes|no, IPv6_Support, Default
Gateway, etc.
b. /etc/sysconfig/network-scripts/ifcfg-eth0 - contains ifup, ifdown, and ifcfg* scripts
c. /etc/init.d/network - main service
service network status - checks networking
system-config-network-* - network interface configuration
Note: Either update your net configuration manually from the shell, or using the
'system-config-network*' tools to avoid losing settings
/etc/resolv.conf - DNS configuration file
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/etc/hosts - static list of hosts

IPv4 Aliases:
1. ifconfig eth0:1 192.168.1.11
2. ifconfig eth0:2 10.168.1.11
Note: To ensure that aliases persist do the following:
1. cp /etc/sysconfig/network-scripts/ifcfg-eth0 ./ifcfg-eth0:1
2. Modify ifcfg-eth0:1 to reflect aliased IP
Note: Aliases do NOT work with DHCP interfaces
ifconfig eth0:2 del 10.168.1.11 - removes the virtual interface
IPv6 Config:
Features:
1. Auto-configured by default gateway (router)
2. fe80:: - link-local address (loopback/local subnet address)
3. 2002:: - 6to4 address, that can be configured based on IPv4 embedded address,
using HEX notation
ping6 -I eth0 fe80::
traceroute6 - used to trace routes on IPv6 networks
Kernel Upgrade
Features:
1. Provision of updated/patched kernel
Example:
1. Update the kernel
a. use 'uname -a' to reveal current version
b. use 'rpm -qa | grep -i kernel' - to reveal installed version
c. cat /etc/grub.conf -> /boot/grub/grub.conf - "" ""
2. Proper installation method is as follows:
a. 'rpm -ivh kernel*rpm' - install a separate version
Note: Install the following kernel packages if necessary:
a. kernel-devel* - if module compilation is necessary
b. kernel-headers* - if recompilation is necessary
Install:
a. rpm -ivh kernel-2.6.18-53.el5.i686.rpm
Note: This will update GRUB (/boot/grub/grub.conf)
Note: Will also place the new kernel in the /boot file system
Examine traces in:
a. /boot
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b. /boot/grub/grub.conf
3. Remove traces of former kernel using 'rpm -e [--nodeps]'
a. kernel-2.6.18-8.el5 - removes older version
b. kernel-headers-2.6.18-8.el5 - force remove ignoring dependencies 'rpm -e
--nodeps kernel-headers-2.6.18-8.el5'
c. kernel-devel-2.6.18-8.el5
4. Install new 'kernel-headers' and 'kernel-devel' packages using YUM:
a. yum -y install kernel-headers
b. yum -y install kernel-devel
5. Confirm that the 3 'kernel-*' packages are installed:
a. rpm -qa | grep kernel
Note: Removal of older kernel-* packages cleans up:
a. /boot
b. /boot/grub/grub.conf (menu.lst)

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