thumb such as: If I have three passengers, I can load only

R= V2
240 knots 100 gallons of fuel; four passengers, 70 gallons.
11.26 x tangent of bank angle
2402
R= Weight and balance computations should be part of every
11.26 x tangent of 30
preight brieng. Never assume three passengers are always
57,600
R= of equal weight. Instead, do a full computation of all items
11.26 x 0.57735
to be loaded on the aircraft, including baggage, as well as
R = 8,861 feet
(four times the radius at 120 knots)
the pilot and passenger. It is recommended that all bags be
weighed to make a precise computation of how the aircraft
The radius of a turn required by an aircraft traveling at 240 knots
using the same bank angle in Figure 4-51 is 8,861 feet. Speed is a CG is positioned.
major factor in a turn.
The importance of the CG was stressed in the discussion
Figure 4-52. Radius at 240 knots. of stability, controllability, and performance. Unequal load
Another way to determine the radius of turn is speed in distribution causes accidents. A competent pilot understands
using feet per second (fps), (3.1415) and the ROT. Using and respects the effects of CG on an aircraft.
the example on page 4-34 in the upper right column, it
was determined that an aircraft with a ROT of 5.25 degrees Weight and balance are critical components in the utilization
per second required 68.6 seconds to make a complete of an aircraft to its fullest potential. The pilot must know
circle. An aircrafts speed (in knots) can be converted to fps how much fuel can be loaded onto the aircraft without
by multiplying it by a constant of 1.69. Therefore, an aircraft violating CG limits, as well as weight limits to conduct
traveling at 120 knots (TAS) travels at 202.8 fps. Knowing the long or short ights with or without a full complement of
speed in fps (202.8) multiplied by the time an aircraft takes allowable passengers. For example, an aircraft has four seats
to complete a circle (68.6 seconds) can determine the size of and can carry 60 gallons of fuel. How many passengers can
the circle; 202.8 times 68.6 equals 13,912 feet. Dividing by the aircraft safely carry? Can all those seats be occupied at
yields a diameter of 4,428 feet, which when divided by 2 all times with the varying fuel loads? Four people who each
equals a radius of 2,214 feet [Figure 4-53], a foot within that weigh 150 pounds leads to a different weight and balance
determined through use of the formula in Figure 4-51. computation than four people who each weigh 200 pounds.
The second scenario loads an additional 200 pounds onto the
aircraft and is equal to about 30 gallons of fuel.
360
r = speed (fps) x
ROT
The additional weight may or may not place the CG outside
Pi ()
2 of the CG envelope, but the maximum gross weight could
be exceeded. The excess weight can overstress the aircraft
202.8 x 68.6
and degrade the performance.
r=
2
13,912 Aircraft are certicated for weight and balance for two
r= principal reasons:
2
1. The effect of the weight on the aircrafts primary
4,428
r= = 2,214 feet structure and its performance characteristics
2
2. The effect of the location of this weight on ight
Figure 4-53. Another formula that can be used for radius.
characteristics, particularly in stall and spin recovery
and stability
In Figure 4-54, the pilot enters a canyon and decides to turn
180 to exit. The pilot uses a 30 bank angle in his turn. Aircraft, such as balloons and weight-shift control, do not
require weight and balance computations because the load
Weight and Balance is suspended below the lifting mechanism. The CG range
The aircrafts weight and balance data is important in these types of aircraft is such that it is difcult to exceed
information for a pilot that must be frequently reevaluated. loading limits. For example, the rear seat position and fuel
Although the aircraft was weighed during the certication of a weight-shift control aircraft are as close as possible to
process, this data is not valid indenitely. Equipment changes the hang point with the aircraft in a suspended attitude. Thus,
or modications affect the weight and balance data. Too often load variations have little effect on the CG. This also holds
pilots reduce the aircraft weight and balance into a rule of true for the balloon basket or gondola. While it is difcult

4-35
 120 knots
20
I0
20
I0
I0
20
I0
20

STBY PWR TEST

4,430 feet
2,215 feet
et
5,000 fe

V2 1202 14,400
R= R= = = 2,215 feet
11.26 x tangent of the bank angle 30 11.26 x 0.5773 6.50096

140 knots
20
I0
20
I0
I0
20
I0
20

STBY PWR TEST

6,028 feet
3,014 feet
feet
5,000

V2 1402 19,600
R= R= = = 3,014 feet
11.26 x tangent of the bank angle 30 11.26 x 0.5773 6.50096

Figure 4-54. Two aircraft have flown into a canyon by error. The canyon is 5,000 feet across and has sheer cliffs on both sides. The pilot in
the top image is flying at 120 knots. After realizing the error, the pilot banks hard and uses a 30 bank angle to reverse course. This aircraft
requires about 4,000 feet to turn 180, and makes it out of the canyon safely. The pilot in the bottom image is flying at 140 knots and also
uses a 30 angle of bank in an attempt to reverse course. The aircraft, although flying just 20 knots faster than the aircraft in the top image,
requires over 6,000 feet to reverse course to safety. Unfortunately, the canyon is only 5,000 feet across and the aircraft will hit the canyon
wall. The point is that airspeed is the most influential factor in determining how much distance is required to turn. Many pilots have made
the error of increasing the steepness of their bank angle when a simple reduction of speed would have been more appropriate.

4-36
to exceed CG limits in these aircraft, pilots should never Effect of Weight on Aircraft Structure
overload an aircraft because overloading causes structural The effect of additional weight on the wing structure of an
damage and failures. Weight and balance computations are aircraft is not readily apparent. Airworthiness requirements
not required, but pilots should calculate weight and remain prescribe that the structure of an aircraft certicated in the
within the manufacturers established limit. normal category (in which acrobatics are prohibited) must
be strong enough to withstand a load factor of 3.8 Gs to take
Effect of Weight on Flight Performance care of dynamic loads caused by maneuvering and gusts. This
The takeoff/climb and landing performance of an aircraft are means that the primary structure of the aircraft can withstand
determined on the basis of its maximum allowable takeoff and a load of 3.8 times the approved gross weight of the aircraft
landing weights. A heavier gross weight results in a longer without structural failure occurring. If this is accepted as
takeoff run and shallower climb, and a faster touchdown indicative of the load factors that may be imposed during
speed and longer landing roll. Even a minor overload may operations for which the aircraft is intended, a 100-pound
make it impossible for the aircraft to clear an obstacle that overload imposes a potential structural overload of 380
normally would not be a problem during takeoff under more pounds. The same consideration is even more impressive in
favorable conditions. the case of utility and acrobatic category aircraft, which have
load factor requirements of 4.4 and 6.0, respectively.
The detrimental effects of overloading on performance are not
limited to the immediate hazards involved with takeoffs and Structural failures which result from overloading may
landings. Overloading has an adverse effect on all climb and be dramatic and catastrophic, but more often they affect
cruise performance which leads to overheating during climbs, structural components progressively in a manner that
added wear on engine parts, increased fuel consumption, is difficult to detect and expensive to repair. Habitual
slower cruising speeds, and reduced range. overloading tends to cause cumulative stress and damage
that may not be detected during preight inspections and
The manufacturers of modern aircraft furnish weight and result in structural failure later during completely normal
balance data with each aircraft produced. Generally, this operations. The additional stress placed on structural parts
information may be found in the FAA-approved AFM/POH by overloading is believed to accelerate the occurrence of
and easy-to-read charts for determining weight and balance metallic fatigue failures.
data are now provided. Increased performance and load-
carrying capability of these aircraft require strict adherence A knowledge of load factors imposed by ight maneuvers
to the operating limitations prescribed by the manufacturer. and gusts emphasizes the consequences of an increase in
Deviations from the recommendations can result in structural the gross weight of an aircraft. The structure of an aircraft
damage or complete failure of the aircrafts structure. Even about to undergo a load factor of 3 Gs, as in recovery from
if an aircraft is loaded well within the maximum weight a steep dive, must be prepared to withstand an added load
limitations, it is imperative that weight distribution be of 300 pounds for each 100-pound increase in weight. It
within the limits of CG location. The preceding brief study should be noted that this would be imposed by the addition
of aerodynamics and load factors points out the reasons for of about 16 gallons of unneeded fuel in a particular aircraft.
this precaution. The following discussion is background FAA-certicated civil aircraft have been analyzed structurally
information into some of the reasons why weight and balance and tested for ight at the maximum gross weight authorized
conditions are important to the safe ight of an aircraft. and within the speeds posted for the type of ights to be
performed. Flights at weights in excess of this amount are
In some aircraft, it is not possible to ll all seats, baggage quite possible and often are well within the performance
compartments, and fuel tanks, and still remain within capabilities of an aircraft. This fact should not mislead the
approved weight or balance limits. For example, in several pilot, as the pilot may not realize that loads for which the
popular four-place aircraft, the fuel tanks may not be lled to aircraft was not designed are being imposed on all or some
capacity when four occupants and their baggage are carried. part of the structure.
In a certain two-place aircraft, no baggage may be carried
in the compartment aft of the seats when spins are to be In loading an aircraft with either passengers or cargo, the
practiced. It is important for a pilot to be aware of the weight structure must be considered. Seats, baggage compartments,
and balance limitations of the aircraft being own and the and cabin floors are designed for a certain load or
reasons for these limitations. concentration of load and no more. For example, a light

4-37
plane baggage compartment may be placarded for 20 pounds cruise speed. Theoretically, a neutral load on the tail surfaces
because of the limited strength of its supporting structure in cruising ight would produce the most efcient overall
even though the aircraft may not be overloaded or out of CG performance and fastest cruising speed, but it would also
limits with more weight at that location. result in instability. Modern aircraft are designed to require
a down load on the tail for stability and controllability.
Effect of Weight on Stability and Controllability
Overloading also effects stability. An aircraft that is stable A zero indication on the trim tab control is not necessarily
and controllable when loaded normally may have very the same as neutral trim because of the force exerted
different ight characteristics when overloaded. Although by downwash from the wings and the fuselage on the tail
the distribution of weight has the most direct effect on this, surfaces.
an increase in the aircrafts gross weight may be expected
to have an adverse effect on stability, regardless of location The effects of the distribution of the aircrafts useful load
of the CG. The stability of many certicated aircraft is have a signicant inuence on its ight characteristics, even
completely unsatisfactory if the gross weight is exceeded. when the load is within the CG limits and the maximum
permissible gross weight. Important among these effects
Effect of Load Distribution are changes in controllability, stability, and the actual load
The effect of the position of the CG on the load imposed imposed on the wing.
on an aircrafts wing in ight is signicant to climb and
cruising performance. An aircraft with forward loading is Generally, an aircraft becomes less controllable, especially
heavier and consequently, slower than the same aircraft at slow ight speeds, as the CG is moved further aft. An
with the CG further aft. aircraft which cleanly recovers from a prolonged spin with
the CG at one position may fail completely to respond to
Figure 4-55 illustrates why this is true. With forward loading, normal recovery attempts when the CG is moved aft by one
nose-up trim is required in most aircraft to maintain level or two inches.
cruising ight. Nose-up trim involves setting the tail surfaces
to produce a greater down load on the aft portion of the It is common practice for aircraft designers to establish an aft
fuselage, which adds to the wing loading and the total lift CG limit that is within one inch of the maximum which allows
required from the wing if altitude is to be maintained. This normal recovery from a one-turn spin. When certicating an
requires a higher AOA of the wing, which results in more aircraft in the utility category to permit intentional spins, the
drag and, in turn, produces a higher stalling speed. aft CG limit is usually established at a point several inches
forward of that permissible for certication in the normal
Load imposed by tail category.
Gross weight
Another factor affecting controllability, which has become
CG
more important in current designs of large aircraft, is the effect
of long moment arms to the positions of heavy equipment
Forward CG Center of lift Stronger and cargo. The same aircraft may be loaded to maximum
Down load on tail gross weight within its CG limits by concentrating fuel,
passengers, and cargo near the design CG, or by dispersing
Load imposed by tail fuel and cargo loads in wingtip tanks and cargo bins forward
Gross weight and aft of the cabin.

With the same total weight and CG, maneuvering the

CG
aircraft or maintaining level ight in turbulent air requires
Lighter the application of greater control forces when the load is
AFT CG Down load on tail
dispersed. The longer moment arms to the positions of the
heavy fuel and cargo loads must be overcome by the action
Figure 4-55. Effect of load distribution on balance. of the control surfaces. An aircraft with full outboard wing
tanks or tip tanks tends to be sluggish in roll when control
With aft loading and nose-down trim, the tail surfaces exert situations are marginal, while one with full nose and aft cargo
less down load, relieving the wing of that much wing loading bins tends to be less responsive to the elevator controls.
and lift required to maintain altitude. The required AOA
of the wing is less, so the drag is less, allowing for a faster

4-38
The rearward CG limit of an aircraft is determined largely The aircraft cruises faster with an aft CG location
by considerations of stability. The original airworthiness because of reduced drag. The drag is reduced because
requirements for a type certicate specify that an aircraft in a smaller AOA and less downward deection of the
ight at a certain speed dampens out vertical displacement of stabilizer are required to support the aircraft and
the nose within a certain number of oscillations. An aircraft overcome the nose-down pitching tendency.
loaded too far rearward may not do this. Instead, when the The aircraft becomes less stable as the CG is moved
nose is momentarily pulled up, it may alternately climb and rearward. This is because when the CG is moved
dive becoming steeper with each oscillation. This instability rearward it causes an increase in the AOA. Therefore,
is not only uncomfortable to occupants, but it could even the wing contribution to the aircrafts stability is
become dangerous by making the aircraft unmanageable now decreased, while the tail contribution is still
under certain conditions. stabilizing. When the point is reached that the wing
and tail contributions balance, then neutral stability
The recovery from a stall in any aircraft becomes progressively exists. Any CG movement further aft results in an
more difcult as its CG moves aft. This is particularly unstable aircraft.
important in spin recovery, as there is a point in rearward
loading of any aircraft at which a at spin develops. A A forward CG location increases the need for greater
at spin is one in which centrifugal force, acting through a back elevator pressure. The elevator may no longer
CG located well to the rear, pulls the tail of the aircraft out be able to oppose any increase in nose-down pitching.
away from the axis of the spin, making it impossible to get Adequate elevator control is needed to control the
the nose down and recover. aircraft throughout the airspeed range down to the
stall.
An aircraft loaded to the rear limit of its permissible CG
range handles differently in turns and stall maneuvers and A detailed discussion and additional information relating to
has different landing characteristics than when it is loaded weight and balance can be found in Chapter 9, Weight and
near the forward limit. Balance.

The forward CG limit is determined by a number of High Speed Flight

considerations. As a safety measure, it is required that the Subsonic Versus Supersonic Flow
trimming device, whether tab or adjustable stabilizer, be In subsonic aerodynamics, the theory of lift is based upon the
capable of holding the aircraft in a normal glide with the forces generated on a body and a moving gas (air) in which
power off. A conventional aircraft must be capable of a full it is immersed. At speeds of approximately 260 knots, air
stall, power-off landing in order to ensure minimum landing can be considered incompressible in that, at a xed altitude,
speed in emergencies. A tailwheel-type aircraft loaded its density remains nearly constant while its pressure varies.
excessively nose-heavy is difcult to taxi, particularly in Under this assumption, air acts the same as water and is
high winds. It can be nosed over easily by use of the brakes, classied as a uid. Subsonic aerodynamic theory also
and it is difcult to land without bouncing since it tends to assumes the effects of viscosity (the property of a uid that
pitch down on the wheels as it is slowed down and ared tends to prevent motion of one part of the uid with respect
for landing. Steering difculties on the ground may occur in to another) are negligible, and classies air as an ideal uid,
nosewheel-type aircraft, particularly during the landing roll conforming to the principles of ideal-uid aerodynamics such
and takeoff. To summarize the effects of load distribution: as continuity, Bernoullis principle, and circulation.
The CG position inuences the lift and AOA of the
wing, the amount and direction of force on the tail, In reality, air is compressible and viscous. While the effects of
and the degree of deection of the stabilizer needed these properties are negligible at low speeds, compressibility
to supply the proper tail force for equilibrium. The effects in particular become increasingly important as speed
latter is very important because of its relationship to increases. Compressibility (and to a lesser extent viscosity) is
elevator control force. of paramount importance at speeds approaching the speed of
sound. In these speed ranges, compressibility causes a change
The aircraft stalls at a higher speed with a forward CG in the density of the air around an aircraft.
location. This is because the stalling AOA is reached
at a higher speed due to increased wing loading. During ight, a wing produces lift by accelerating the airow
Higher elevator control forces normally exist with a over the upper surface. This accelerated air can, and does,
forward CG location due to the increased stabilizer reach sonic speeds even though the aircraft itself may be
deection required to balance the aircraft. ying subsonic. At some extreme AOAs, in some aircraft,

4-39
the speed of the air over the top surface of the wing may be the boundary between subsonic and transonic ight and is
double the aircrafts speed. It is therefore entirely possible largely dependent on the wing and airfoil design. Critical
to have both supersonic and subsonic airow on an aircraft Mach number is an important point in transonic ight. When
at the same time. When ow velocities reach sonic speeds at shock waves form on the aircraft, airow separation followed
some location on an aircraft (such as the area of maximum by buffet and aircraft control difculties can occur. Shock
camber on the wing), further acceleration results in the onset waves, buffet, and airow separation take place above critical
of compressibility effects such as shock wave formation, Mach number. A jet aircraft typically is most efcient when
drag increase, buffeting, stability, and control difculties. cruising at or near its critical Mach number. At speeds 510
Subsonic ow principles are invalid at all speeds above this percent above the critical Mach number, compressibility
point. [Figure 4-56] effects begin. Drag begins to rise sharply. Associated with
the drag rise are buffet, trim and stability changes, and a
decrease in control surface effectiveness. This is the point
M = 0.50 of drag divergence. [Figure 4-57]

Maximum local velocity is less than sonic

Critical Mach number

CD (Drag coefficient)
M = 0.72

Maximum local velocity equal to sonic

Force divergence Mach number
onic
ers Normal shock wave
up flow
S

Subsonic Critical Mach number

Possible CL= 0.3
M = 0.77 separation

Figure 4-56. Wing airflow. 0.5 1.0

M (Mach number)
Speed Ranges
Figure 4-57. Critical Mach.
The speed of sound varies with temperature. Under standard
temperature conditions of 15 C, the speed of sound at sea
level is 661 knots. At 40,000 feet, where the temperature is VMO/MMO is dened as the maximum operating limit speed.
55 C, the speed of sound decreases to 574 knots. In high- VMO is expressed in knots calibrated airspeed (KCAS), while
speed ight and/or high-altitude ight, the measurement of MMO is expressed in Mach number. The VMO limit is usually
speed is expressed in terms of a Mach numberthe ratio associated with operations at lower altitudes and deals with
of the true airspeed of the aircraft to the speed of sound in structural loads and utter. The MMO limit is associated with
the same atmospheric conditions. An aircraft traveling at operations at higher altitudes and is usually more concerned
the speed of sound is traveling at Mach 1.0. Aircraft speed with compressibility effects and utter. At lower altitudes,
regimes are dened approximately as follows: structural loads and utter are of concern; at higher altitudes,
compressibility effects and utter are of concern.
SubsonicMach numbers below 0.75
TransonicMach numbers from 0.75 to 1.20 Adherence to these speeds prevents structural problems due
to dynamic pressure or utter, degradation in aircraft control
SupersonicMach numbers from 1.20 to 5.00
response due to compressibility effects (e.g., Mach Tuck,
HypersonicMach numbers above 5.00 aileron reversal, or buzz), and separated airow due to shock
waves resulting in loss of lift or vibration and buffet. Any of
While ights in the transonic and supersonic ranges are these phenomena could prevent the pilot from being able to
common occurrences for military aircraft, civilian jet aircraft adequately control the aircraft.
normally operate in a cruise speed range of Mach 0.7 to
Mach 0.90. For example, an early civilian jet aircraft had a VMO limit of
306 KCAS up to approximately FL 310 (on a standard day).
The speed of an aircraft in which airow over any part of At this altitude (FL 310), an MMO of 0.82 was approximately
the aircraft or structure under consideration rst reaches equal to 306 KCAS. Above this altitude, an MMO of 0.82
(but does not exceed) Mach 1.0 is termed critical Mach always equaled a KCAS less than 306 KCAS and, thus,
number or Mach Crit. Thus, critical Mach number is

4-40
became the operating limit as you could not reach the VMO the earlier discussion that the speed of sound is decreasing
limit without rst reaching the MMO limit. For example, at with the drop in temperature as the aircraft climbs. The Mach
FL 380, an MMO of 0.82 is equal to 261 KCAS. number is simply the ratio of the true airspeed to the speed
of sound at ight conditions. The signicance of this is that
Mach Number Versus Airspeed at a constant Mach number climb, the KCAS (and KTAS or
It is important to understand how airspeed varies with Mach KIAS as well) is falling off.
number. As an example, consider how the stall speed of a
jet transport aircraft varies with an increase in altitude. The If the aircraft climbed high enough at this constant MMO
increase in altitude results in a corresponding drop in air with decreasing KIAS, KCAS, and KTAS, it would begin to
density and outside temperature. Suppose this jet transport approach its stall speed. At some point the stall speed of the
is in the clean conguration (gear and aps up) and weighs aircraft in Mach number could equal the MMO of the aircraft,
550,000 pounds. The aircraft might stall at approximately and the pilot could neither slow up (without stalling) nor
152 KCAS at sea level. This is equal to (on a standard day) speed up (without exceeding the max operating speed of the
a true velocity of 152 KTAS and a Mach number of 0.23. aircraft). This has been dubbed the cofn corner.
At FL 380, the aircraft will still stall at approximately 152
KCAS but the true velocity is about 287 KTAS with a Mach Boundary Layer
number of 0.50. The viscous nature of airow reduces the local velocities on
a surface and is responsible for skin friction. As discussed
Although the stalling speed has remained the same for our earlier in the chapter, the layer of air over the wings surface
purposes, both the Mach number and TAS have increased. that is slowed down or stopped by viscosity, is the boundary
With increasing altitude, the air density has decreased; this layer. There are two different types of boundary layer ow:
requires a faster true airspeed in order to have the same laminar and turbulent.
pressure sensed by the pitot tube for the same KCAS or KIAS
(for our purposes, KCAS and KIAS are relatively close to Laminar Boundary Layer Flow
each other). The dynamic pressure the wing experiences at The laminar boundary layer is a very smooth ow, while
FL 380 at 287 KTAS is the same as at sea level at 152 KTAS. the turbulent boundary layer contains swirls or eddies.
However, it is ying at higher Mach number. The laminar ow creates less skin friction drag than the
turbulent ow, but is less stable. Boundary layer ow over
Another factor to consider is the speed of sound. A decrease a wing surface begins as a smooth laminar ow. As the ow
in temperature in a gas results in a decrease in the speed of continues back from the leading edge, the laminar boundary
sound. Thus, as the aircraft climbs in altitude with outside layer increases in thickness.
temperature dropping, the speed of sound is dropping. At
sea level, the speed of sound is approximately 661 KCAS, Turbulent Boundary Layer Flow
while at FL 380 it is 574 KCAS. Thus, for our jet transport At some distance back from the leading edge, the smooth
aircraft, the stall speed (in KTAS) has gone from 152 at sea laminar ow breaks down and transitions to a turbulent ow.
level to 287 at FL 380. Simultaneously, the speed of sound From a drag standpoint, it is advisable to have the transition
(in KCAS) has decreased from 661 to 574 and the Mach from laminar to turbulent ow as far aft on the wing as
number has increased from 0.23 (152 KTAS divided by 661 possible, or have a large amount of the wing surface within
KTAS) to 0.50 (287 KTAS divided by 574 KTAS). All the the laminar portion of the boundary layer. The low energy
while the KCAS for stall has remained constant at 152. This laminar ow, however, tends to break down more suddenly
describes what happens when the aircraft is at a constant than the turbulent layer.
KCAS with increasing altitude, but what happens when the
pilot keeps Mach constant during the climb? In normal jet
Boundary Layer Separation
ight operations, the climb is at 250 KIAS (or higher (e.g.
Another phenomenon associated with viscous flow is
heavy)) to 10,000 feet and then at a specied en route climb
separation. Separation occurs when the airow breaks away
airspeed (such as about 330 if a DC10) until reaching an
from an airfoil. The natural progression is from laminar
altitude in the mid-twenties where the pilot then climbs at
boundary layer to turbulent boundary layer and then to
a constant Mach number to cruise altitude.
airow separation. Airow separation produces high drag
and ultimately destroys lift. The boundary layer separation
Assuming for illustration purposes that the pilot climbs at a
point moves forward on the wing as the AOA is increased.
MMO of 0.82 from sea level up to FL 380. KCAS goes from
[Figure 4-58]
543 to 261. The KIAS at each altitude would follow the
same behavior and just differ by a few knots. Recall from

4-41
 Turbulent boundary layer
Transition region

Laminar boundary layer

Laminar sublayer

Figure 4-58. Boundary layer.

Vortex generators are used to delay or prevent shock wave Whenever a shock wave forms perpendicular to the airow, it
induced boundary layer separation encountered in transonic is termed a normal shock wave, and the ow immediately
ight. They are small low aspect ratio airfoils placed at a 12 behind the wave is subsonic. A supersonic airstream passing
to 15 AOA to the airstream. Usually spaced a few inches through a normal shock wave experiences these changes:
apart along the wing ahead of the ailerons or other control The airstream is slowed to subsonic.
surfaces, vortex generators create a vortex which mixes the
boundary airow with the high energy airow just above the The airow immediately behind the shock wave does
surface. This produces higher surface velocities and increases not change direction.
the energy of the boundary layer. Thus, a stronger shock wave The static pressure and density of the airstream behind
is necessary to produce airow separation. the wave is greatly increased.
The energy of the airstream (indicated by total
Shock Waves
pressuredynamic plus static) is greatly reduced.
When an airplane ies at subsonic speeds, the air ahead is
warned of the airplanes coming by a pressure change Shock wave formation causes an increase in drag. One of
transmitted ahead of the airplane at the speed of sound. the principal effects of a shock wave is the formation of a
Because of this warning, the air begins to move aside before dense high pressure region immediately behind the wave.
the airplane arrives and is prepared to let it pass easily. When The instability of the high pressure region, and the fact that
the airplanes speed reaches the speed of sound, the pressure part of the velocity energy of the airstream is converted to
change can no longer warn the air ahead because the airplane heat as it ows through the wave is a contributing factor
is keeping up with its own pressure waves. Rather, the air in the drag increase, but the drag resulting from airow
particles pile up in front of the airplane causing a sharp separation is much greater. If the shock wave is strong,
decrease in the ow velocity directly in front of the airplane the boundary layer may not have sufcient kinetic energy
with a corresponding increase in air pressure and density. to withstand airow separation. The drag incurred in the
transonic region due to shock wave formation and airow
As the airplanes speed increases beyond the speed of sound, separation is known as wave drag. When speed exceeds
the pressure and density of the compressed air ahead of it the critical Mach number by about 10 percent, wave drag
increase, the area of compression extending some distance increases sharply. A considerable increase in thrust (power)
ahead of the airplane. At some point in the airstream, the air is required to increase ight speed beyond this point into the
particles are completely undisturbed, having had no advanced supersonic range where, depending on the airfoil shape and
warning of the airplanes approach, and in the next instant the the angle of attack, the boundary layer may reattach.
same air particles are forced to undergo sudden and drastic
changes in temperature, pressure, density, and velocity. Normal shock waves form on the wings upper surface and
The boundary between the undisturbed air and the region form an additional area of supersonic ow and a normal shock
of compressed air is called a shock or compression wave. wave on the lower surface. As ight speed approaches the
This same type of wave is formed whenever a supersonic speed of sound, the areas of supersonic ow enlarge and the
airstream is slowed to subsonic without a change in direction, shock waves move nearer the trailing edge. [Figure 4-59]
such as when the airstream is accelerated to sonic speed
over the cambered portion of a wing, and then decelerated Associated with drag rise are buffet (known as Mach
to subsonic speed as the area of maximum camber is passed. buffet), trim and stability changes, and a decrease in control
A shock wave forms as a boundary between the supersonic
and subsonic ranges.

4-42
 flow
onic Normal shock wave
p ers
u

S
M = 0.82

Normal shock wave

flow
onic
ers
S up
M = 0.95

Bow wave

w Air
e flo sp
M = 1.05 wis ee
an d
Sp

True airspeed Mach 0.85

se
Subsonic airflow ns
ed
by
wi
ng
M
ac
h
Figure 4-59. Shock waves. 0.
70
force effectiveness. The loss of lift due to airow separation
results in a loss of downwash, and a change in the position of
the center pressure on the wing. Airow separation produces
a turbulent wake behind the wing, which causes the tail
surfaces to buffet (vibrate). The nose-up and nose-down pitch
control provided by the horizontal tail is dependent on the
downwash behind the wing. Thus, an increase in downwash
decreases the horizontal tails pitch control effectiveness
since it effectively increases the angle of attack that the tail
surface is seeing. Movement of the wing CP affects the wing Figure 4-60. Sweepback effect.
pitching moment. If the CP moves aft, a diving moment
referred to as Mach tuck or tuck under is produced, the effect of persuading the wing into believing that it is ying
and if it moves forward, a nose-up moment is produced. slower than it really is; thus the formation of shock waves is
This is the primary reason for the development of the T-tail delayed. Advantages of wing sweep include an increase in
configuration on many turbine-powered aircraft, which critical Mach number, force divergence Mach number, and
places the horizontal stabilizer as far as practical from the the Mach number at which drag rises peaks. In other words,
turbulence of the wings. sweep delays the onset of compressibility effects.

Sweepback The Mach number, which produces a sharp change in drag

Most of the difculties of transonic ight are associated with coefcient, is termed the force divergence Mach number
shock wave induced ow separation. Therefore, any means of and, for most airfoils, usually exceeds the critical Mach
delaying or alleviating the shock induced separation improves number by 5 to 10 percent. At this speed, the airow separation
aerodynamic performance. One method is wing sweepback. induced by shock wave formation can create signicant
Sweepback theory is based upon the concept that it is only the variations in the drag, lift, or pitching moment coefcients.
component of the airow perpendicular to the leading edge In addition to the delay of the onset of compressibility effects,
of the wing that affects pressure distribution and formation sweepback reduces the magnitude in the changes of drag, lift
of shock waves. [Figure 4-60] or moment coefcients. In other words, the use of sweepback
softens the force divergence.
On a straight wing aircraft, the airow strikes the wing
leading edge at 90, and its full impact produces pressure and
lift. A wing with sweepback is struck by the same airow at
an angle smaller than 90. This airow on the swept wing has

4-43
A disadvantage of swept wings is that they tend to stall at the descending ightpath with no change in pitch attitude, further
wingtips rather than at the wing roots. [Figure 4-61] This is increasing the AOA. In this situation, without reliable AOA
because the boundary layer tends to ow spanwise toward the information, a nose-down pitch attitude with an increasing
tips and to separate near the leading edges. Because the tips of airspeed is no guarantee that recovery has been effected,
a swept wing are on the aft part of the wing (behind the CL), and up-elevator movement at this stage may merely keep
a wingtip stall causes the CL to move forward on the wing, the aircraft stalled.
forcing the nose to rise further. The tendency for tip stall is
greatest when wing sweep and taper are combined.

Prestall

Intitial stall area

Stalled

Figure 4-62. T-tail stall.

It is a characteristic of T-tail aircraft to pitch up viciously

when stalled in extreme nose-high attitudes, making
recovery difcult or violent. The stick pusher inhibits this
type of stall. At approximately one knot above stall speed,
pre-programmed stick forces automatically move the stick
forward, preventing the stall from developing. A G-limiter
may also be incorporated into the system to prevent the pitch
down generated by the stick pusher from imposing excessive
loads on the aircraft. A stick shaker, on the other hand
Figure 4-61. Wingtip stall. provides stall warning when the airspeed is ve to seven
percent above stall speed.
The stall situation can be aggravated by a T-tail conguration,
which affords little or no pre-stall warning in the form of Mach Buffet Boundaries
tail control surface buffet. [Figure 4-62] The T-tail, being Mach buffet is a function of the speed of the airow over the
above the wing wake remains effective even after the wing wingnot necessarily the speed of the aircraft. Any time that
has begun to stall, allowing the pilot to inadvertently drive too great a lift demand is made on the wing, whether from too
the wing into a deeper stall at a much greater AOA. If the fast an airspeed or from too high an AOA near the MMO, the
horizontal tail surfaces then become buried in the wings high-speed buffet occurs. There are also occasions when
wake, the elevator may lose all effectiveness, making it the buffet can be experienced at much lower speeds known
impossible to reduce pitch attitude and break the stall. In as the low-speed Mach buffet.
the pre-stall and immediate post-stall regimes, the lift/drag
qualities of a swept wing aircraft (specically the enormous An aircraft own at a speed too slow for its weight and
increase in drag at low speeds) can cause an increasingly altitude necessitating a high AOA is the most likely situation

4-44
to cause a low-speed Mach buffet. This very high AOA has speed brakes, they can still be used for roll control. If they
the effect of increasing airow velocity over the upper surface are the differential type, they extend further on one side
of the wing until the same effects of the shock waves and and retract on the other side. If they are the non-differential
buffet occur as in the high-speed buffet situation. The AOA of type, they extend further on one side but do not retract on the
the wing has the greatest effect on inducing the Mach buffet at other side. When fully extended as speed brakes, the non-
either the high-speed or low-speed boundaries for the aircraft. differential spoilers remain extended and do not supplement
The conditions that increase the AOA, the speed of the airow the ailerons.
over the wing, and chances of Mach buffet are:
High altitudesthe higher an aircraft ies, the thinner To obtain a smooth stall and a higher AOA without airow
the air and the greater the AOA required to produce separation, the wings leading edge should have a well-
the lift needed to maintain level ight. rounded almost blunt shape that the airow can adhere to
at the higher AOA. With this shape, the airow separation
Heavy weightsthe heavier the aircraft, the greater starts at the trailing edge and progresses forward gradually
the lift required of the wing, and all other things being as AOA is increased.
equal, the greater the AOA.
G loadingan increase in the G loading on the aircraft The pointed leading edge necessary for high-speed ight
has the same effect as increasing the weight of the results in an abrupt stall and restricts the use of trailing edge
aircraft. Whether the increase in G forces is caused aps because the airow cannot follow the sharp curve
by turns, rough control usage, or turbulence, the effect around the wing leading edge. The airow tends to tear loose
of increasing the wings AOA is the same. rather suddenly from the upper surface at a moderate AOA.
To utilize trailing edge aps, and thus increase the CL-MAX,
High Speed Flight Controls the wing must go to a higher AOA without airow separation.
On high-speed aircraft, ight controls are divided into primary Therefore, leading edge slots, slats, and aps are used to
ight controls and secondary or auxiliary ight controls. The improve the low-speed characteristics during takeoff, climb,
primary ight controls maneuver the aircraft about the pitch, and landing. Although these devices are not as powerful as
roll, and yaw axes. They include the ailerons, elevator, and trailing edge aps, they are effective when used full span in
rudder. Secondary or auxiliary ight controls include tabs, combination with high-lift trailing edge aps. With the aid
leading edge aps, trailing edge aps, spoilers, and slats. of these sophisticated high-lift devices, airow separation is
delayed and the CL-MAX is increased considerably. In fact, a
Spoilers are used on the upper surface of the wing to spoil 50 knot reduction in stall speed is not uncommon.
or reduce lift. High speed aircraft, due to their clean low
drag design use spoilers as speed brakes to slow them The operational requirements of a large jet transport aircraft
down. Spoilers are extended immediately after touchdown necessitate large pitch trim changes. Some requirements
to dump lift and thus transfer the weight of the aircraft from are:
the wings onto the wheels for better braking performance. A large CG range
[Figure 4-63]
A large speed range
Jet transport aircraft have small ailerons. The space for The ability to perform large trim changes due to
ailerons is limited because as much of the wing trailing wing leading edge and trailing edge high-lift devices
edge as possible is needed for aps. Also, a conventional without limiting the amount of elevator remaining
size aileron would cause wing twist at high speed. For that Maintaining trim drag to a minimum
reason, spoilers are used in unison with ailerons to provide
additional roll control. These requirements are met by the use of a variable incidence
horizontal stabilizer. Large trim changes on a xed-tail
Some jet transports have two sets of ailerons, a pair of aircraft require large elevator deections. At these large
outboard low-speed ailerons and a pair of high-speed inboard deections, little further elevator movement remains in the
ailerons. When the aps are fully retracted after takeoff, the same direction. A variable incidence horizontal stabilizer
outboard ailerons are automatically locked out in the faired is designed to take out the trim changes. The stabilizer is
position. larger than the elevator, and consequently does not need to
be moved through as large an angle. This leaves the elevator
When used for roll control, the spoiler on the side of the streamlining the tail plane with a full range of movement up
up-going aileron extends and reduces the lift on that side, and down. The variable incidence horizontal stabilizer can
causing the wing to drop. If the spoilers are extended as

4-45
 Rudder Inboard wing
Elevator
Tab
Outboard wing
Stabilizer
Foreflap
Midflap
Inboard flap
Aftflap
Flight spoilers
Ground spoiler
Outboard flap Aileron
Tab Landing Flaps
Aileron
Leading edge slats
Inboard wing
Leading edge flaps

737 Control Surfaces

Outboard wing

Control tab Stabilizer

Inboard aileron Elevator
Leading edge flaps Control tab Aileron
Upper rudder
Anti-balance tabs Takeoff Flaps
Lower rudder
Foreflap Midflap Aftflap
Vortex generators
Pitot tubes
Inboard wing
Ground spoilers
Inboard flaps
Flight spoilers Outboard wing
Outboard flap
Leading edge slat
Balance tab
Leading edge flap
Outboard aileron
Slats
Fence Aileron

727 Control Surfaces Flaps Retracted

Figure 4-63. Control surfaces.

be set to handle the bulk of the pitch control demand, with controlling the control tabs. Moving the control tab upsets
the elevator handling the rest. On aircraft equipped with a the aerodynamic balance which causes the control surface
variable incidence horizontal stabilizer, the elevator is smaller to move.
and less effective in isolation than it is on a xed-tail aircraft.
In comparison to other ight controls, the variable incidence Chapter Summary
horizontal stabilizer is enormously powerful in its effect. In order to sustain an aircraft in ight, a pilot must understand
how thrust, drag, lift, and weight act on the aircraft. By
Because of the size and high speeds of jet transport aircraft, understanding the aerodynamics of flight, how design,
the forces required to move the control surfaces can be weight, load factors, and gravity affect an aircraft during
beyond the strength of the pilot. Consequently, the control ight maneuvers from stalls to high speed ight, the pilot
surfaces are actuated by hydraulic or electrical power units. learns how to control the balance between these forces. For
Moving the controls in the ight deck signals the control information on stall speeds, load factors, and other important
angle required, and the power unit positions the actual aircraft data, always consult the AFM/POH for specic
control surface. In the event of complete power unit failure, information pertaining to the aircraft being own.
movement of the control surface can be effected by manually

4-46
Chapter 5

Flight Controls
Introduction
This chapter focuses on the ight control systems a pilot uses
to control the forces of ight, and the aircrafts direction and
attitude. It should be noted that ight control systems and
characteristics can vary greatly depending on the type of
aircraft own. The most basic ight control system designs
are mechanical and date back to early aircraft. They operate
with a collection of mechanical parts such as rods, cables,
pulleys, and sometimes chains to transmit the forces of the
ight deck controls to the control surfaces. Mechanical ight
control systems are still used today in small general and
sport category aircraft where the aerodynamic forces are not
excessive. [Figure 5-1]

5-1
 of this project is to develop an adaptive neural network-based
Control stick ight control system. Applied directly to ight control system
Elevator feedback errors, IFCS provides adjustments to improve
aircraft performance in normal ight as well as with system
Pulleys failures. With IFCS, a pilot is able to maintain control and
safely land an aircraft that has suffered a failure to a control
surface or damage to the airframe. It also improves mission
capability, increases the reliability and safety of ight, and
eases the pilot workload.

Todays aircraft employ a variety of ight control systems.

Cable Push rod
For example, some aircraft in the sport pilot category rely on
weight-shift control to y while balloons use a standard burn
Figure 5-1. Mechanical flight control system. technique. Helicopters utilize a cyclic to tilt the rotor in the
As aviation matured and aircraft designers learned more about desired direction along with a collective to manipulate rotor
aerodynamics, the industry produced larger and faster aircraft. pitch and anti-torque pedals to control yaw. [Figure 5-3]
Therefore, the aerodynamic forces acting upon the control
surfaces increased exponentially. To make the control force
required by pilots manageable, aircraft engineers designed Yaw
more complex systems. At rst, hydromechanical designs, ve Cycli
Collecti
Cycli
c c
consisting of a mechanical circuit and a hydraulic circuit, Cyclic stick
were used to reduce the complexity, weight, and limitations
of mechanical ight controls systems. [Figure 5-2] Yaw

Cy
clic clic
Cy
Neutral
e
Control stick (AFTNose up) ectiv
Coll
LEGEND
Hydraulic pressure
Hydraulic return
Pivot point
Anti-torque pedals Collective lever
Elevator (UP) Control valves Control cables

Figure 5-3. Helicopter flight control system.

Neutral
For additional information on ight control systems, refer
to the appropriate handbook for information related to the
Power disconnect linkage Neutral Power cylinder ight control systems and characteristics of specic types
of aircraft.
Figure 5-2. Hydromechanical flight control system.
Flight Control Systems
As aircraft became more sophisticated, the control surfaces Flight Controls
were actuated by electric motors, digital computers, or ber Aircraft flight control systems consist of primary and
optic cables. Called y-by-wire, this ight control system secondary systems. The ailerons, elevator (or stabilator), and
replaces the physical connection between pilot controls and rudder constitute the primary control system and are required to
the ight control surfaces with an electrical interface. In control an aircraft safely during ight. Wing aps, leading edge
addition, in some large and fast aircraft, controls are boosted devices, spoilers, and trim systems constitute the secondary
by hydraulically or electrically actuated systems. In both control system and improve the performance characteristics of
the y-by-wire and boosted controls, the feel of the control the airplane or relieve the pilot of excessive control forces.
reaction is fed back to the pilot by simulated means.
Primary Flight Controls
Current research at the National Aeronautics and Space Aircraft control systems are carefully designed to provide
Administration (NASA) Dryden Flight Research Center adequate responsiveness to control inputs while allowing a
involves Intelligent Flight Control Systems (IFCS). The goal

5-2
natural feel. At low airspeeds, the controls usually feel soft Ailerons
and sluggish, and the aircraft responds slowly to control Ailerons control roll about the longitudinal axis. The ailerons
applications. At higher airspeeds, the controls become are attached to the outboard trailing edge of each wing and
increasingly rm and aircraft response is more rapid. move in the opposite direction from each other. Ailerons are
connected by cables, bellcranks, pulleys and/or push-pull tubes
Movement of any of the three primary ight control surfaces to a control wheel or control stick.
(ailerons, elevator or stabilator, or rudder), changes the airow
and pressure distribution over and around the airfoil. These Moving the control wheel or control stick to the right causes
changes affect the lift and drag produced by the airfoil/control the right aileron to deect upward and the left aileron to deect
surface combination, and allow a pilot to control the aircraft downward. The upward deection of the right aileron decreases
about its three axes of rotation. the camber resulting in decreased lift on the right wing. The
corresponding downward deection of the left aileron increases
Design features limit the amount of deection of ight control the camber resulting in increased lift on the left wing. Thus,
surfaces. For example, control-stop mechanisms may be the increased lift on the left wing and the decreased lift on the
incorporated into the ight control linkages, or movement right wing causes the airplane to roll to the right.
of the control column and/or rudder pedals may be limited.
The purpose of these design limits is to prevent the pilot from Adverse Yaw
inadvertently overcontrolling and overstressing the aircraft Since the downward deected aileron produces more lift as
during normal maneuvers. evidenced by the wing raising, it also produces more drag. This
added drag causes the wing to slow down slightly. This results
A properly designed airplane is stable and easily controlled in the aircraft yawing toward the wing which had experienced
during normal maneuvering. Control surface inputs cause an increase in lift (and drag). From the pilots perspective, the
movement about the three axes of rotation. The types of yaw is opposite the direction of the bank. The adverse yaw
stability an airplane exhibits also relate to the three axes of is a result of differential drag and the slight difference in the
rotation. [Figure 5-4] velocity of the left and right wings. [Figure 5-5]

El RudderYaw
ev
at
La or Vertical axis

Lift

(lo tera Pit (directional

sta gi ax ch
n l stability)
bil tud is Roll
ity ina on Drag
) l Ailer al
itudin
Long(lateral
axis ity)
stabil

Lift

A Dra
g
dv
e r s e yaw

Primary
Control Airplane Axes of Type of Figure 5-5. Adverse yaw is caused by higher drag on the outside
Surface Movement Rotation Stability
wing, which is producing more lift.
Aileron Roll Longitudinal Lateral
Elevator/ Adverse yaw becomes more pronounced at low airspeeds.
Pitch Lateral Longitudinal
Stabilator At these slower airspeeds aerodynamic pressure on control
Rudder Yaw Vertical Directional surfaces are low and larger control inputs are required to
effectively maneuver the airplane. As a result, the increase in
Figure 5-4. Airplane controls, movement, axes of rotation, and aileron deection causes an increase in adverse yaw. The yaw
type of stability. is especially evident in aircraft with long wing spans.

5-3
Application of rudder is used to counteract adverse yaw. The
amount of rudder control required is greatest at low airspeeds,
Aileron deflected up
high angles of attack, and with large aileron deections. Like
all control surfaces at lower airspeeds, the vertical stabilizer/
rudder becomes less effective, and magnies the control
problems associated with adverse yaw.
Differential aileron

All turns are coordinated by use of ailerons, rudder, and

elevator. Applying aileron pressure is necessary to place
the aircraft in the desired angle of bank, while simultaneous
application of rudder pressure is necessary to counteract the Aileron deflected down
resultant adverse yaw. Additionally, because more lift is
required during a turn than when in straight-and-level ight, Figure 5-6. Differential ailerons.
the angle of attack (AOA) must be increased by applying
elevator back pressure. The steeper the turn, the more elevator Neutral
back pressure is needed.

As the desired angle of bank is established, aileron and rudder

pressures should be relaxed. This stops the angle of bank from
increasing, because the aileron and rudder control surfaces are
in a neutral and streamlined position. Elevator back pressure
should be held constant to maintain altitude. The roll-out
Raised
from a turn is similar to the roll-in, except the ight controls
are applied in the opposite direction. Aileron and rudder are
applied in the direction of the roll-out or toward the high wing.
As the angle of bank decreases, the elevator back pressure
should be relaxed as necessary to maintain altitude.
Drag
In an attempt to reduce the effects of adverse yaw,
manufacturers have engineered four systems: differential Lowered
ailerons, frise-type ailerons, coupled ailerons and rudder,
and aperons.

Differential Ailerons
With differential ailerons, one aileron is raised a greater
distance than the other aileron is lowered for a given
movement of the control wheel or control stick. This produces Figure 5-7. Frise-type ailerons.
an increase in drag on the descending wing. The greater drag
results from deecting the up aileron on the descending wing angles of attack. Frise-type ailerons may also be designed
to a greater angle than the down aileron on the rising wing. to function differentially. Like the differential aileron, the
While adverse yaw is reduced, it is not eliminated completely. frise-type aileron does not eliminate adverse yaw entirely.
[Figure 5-6] Coordinated rudder application is still needed wherever
ailerons are applied.
Frise-Type Ailerons
With a frise-type aileron, when pressure is applied to the Coupled Ailerons and Rudder
control wheel or control stick, the aileron that is being raised Coupled ailerons and rudder are linked controls. This is
pivots on an offset hinge. This projects the leading edge of accomplished with rudder-aileron interconnect springs, which
the aileron into the airow and creates drag. It helps equalize help correct for aileron drag by automatically deecting
the drag created by the lowered aileron on the opposite wing the rudder at the same time the ailerons are deected. For
and reduces adverse yaw. [Figure 5-7] example, when the control wheel or control stick is moved
to produce a left roll, the interconnect cable and spring pulls
The frise-type aileron also forms a slot so air ows smoothly forward on the left rudder pedal just enough to prevent the
over the lowered aileron, making it more effective at high nose of the aircraft from yawing to the right. The force applied

5-4
 Rudder deflects with ailerons

Figure 5-9. Flaperons on a Skystar Kitfox MK 7.

The up-elevator position decreases the camber of the elevator

and creates a downward aerodynamic force, which is greater
than the normal tail-down force that exists in straight-and-
level ight. The overall effect causes the tail of the aircraft
to move down and the nose to pitch up. The pitching moment
occurs about the center of gravity (CG). The strength of the
pitching moment is determined by the distance between
the CG and the horizontal tail surface, as well as by the
aerodynamic effectiveness of the horizontal tail surface.
Moving the control column forward has the opposite effect.
In this case, elevator camber increases, creating more lift
(less tail-down force) on the horizontal stabilizer/elevator.
Rudder/Aileron interconnecting springs This moves the tail upward and pitches the nose down. Again,
the pitching moment occurs about the CG.

Figure 5-8. Coupled ailerons and rudder. As mentioned earlier in the coverage on stability, power,
to the rudder by the springs can be overridden if it becomes thrustline, and the position of the horizontal tail surfaces
necessary to slip the aircraft. [Figure 5-8] on the empennage are factors in elevator effectiveness
controlling pitch. For example, the horizontal tail surfaces
Flaperons may be attached near the lower part of the vertical stabilizer,
at the midpoint, or at the high point, as in the T-tail design.
Flaperons combine both aspects of aps and ailerons. In
addition to controlling the bank angle of an aircraft like
conventional ailerons, aperons can be lowered together
to function much the same as a dedicated set of aps. The
pilot retains separate controls for ailerons and aps. A mixer
is used to combine the separate pilot inputs into this single Control column Tail down
Aft
set of control surfaces called aperons. Many designs that
Up elevator
Nose up

incorporate aperons mount the control surfaces away from CG

the wing to provide undisturbed airow at high angles of
attack and/or low airspeeds. [Figure 5-9]

Elevator
Downward
The elevator controls pitch about the lateral axis. Like the aerodynamic force
ailerons on small aircraft, the elevator is connected to the
control column in the ight deck by a series of mechanical
linkages. Aft movement of the control column deects
the trailing edge of the elevator surface up. This is usually Figure 5-10. The elevator is the primary control for changing the
referred to as up elevator. [Figure 5-10] pitch attitude of an airplane.

5-5
T-Tail
In a T-tail conguration, the elevator is above most of the
effects of downwash from the propeller as well as airow
around the fuselage and/or wings during normal flight
conditions. Operation of the elevators in this undisturbed air
allows control movements that are consistent throughout most
ight regimes. T-tail designs have become popular on many CG
light and large aircraft, especially those with aft fuselage-
mounted engines because the T-tail conguration removes
the tail from the exhaust blast of the engines. Seaplanes and
amphibians often have T-tails in order to keep the horizontal
surfaces as far from the water as possible. An additional
benet is reduced vibration and noise inside the aircraft.

At slow speeds, the elevator on a T-tail aircraft must be moved Figure 5-11. Airplane with a T-tail design at a high AOA and an
through a larger number of degrees of travel to raise the nose aft CG.
a given amount than on a conventional-tail aircraft. This is
control stops to elevator down springs. An elevator down
because the conventional-tail aircraft has the downwash from
spring assists in lowering the nose of the aircraft to prevent a
the propeller pushing down on the tail to assist in raising the
stall caused by the aft CG position. The stall occurs because
nose.
the properly trimmed airplane is ying with the elevator in a
trailing edge down position, forcing the tail up and the nose
Since controls on aircraft are rigged so that increasing control
down. In this unstable condition, if the aircraft encounters
forces are required for increased control travel, the forces
turbulence and slows down further, the trim tab no longer
required to raise the nose of a T-tail aircraft are greater than
positions the elevator in the nose-down position. The elevator
those for a conventional-tail aircraft. Longitudinal stability of
then streamlines, and the nose of the aircraft pitches upward,
a trimmed aircraft is the same for both types of conguration,
possibly resulting in a stall.
but the pilot must be aware that the required control forces are
greater at slow speeds during takeoffs, landings, or stalls than
The elevator down spring produces a mechanical load on the
for similar size aircraft equipped with conventional tails.
elevator, causing it to move toward the nose-down position
if not otherwise balanced. The elevator trim tab balances the
T-tail airplanes also require additional design considerations
elevator down spring to position the elevator in a trimmed
to counter the problem of utter. Since the weight of the
position. When the trim tab becomes ineffective, the down
horizontal surfaces is at the top of the vertical stabilizer,
spring drives the elevator to a nose-down position. The nose
the moment arm created causes high loads on the vertical
of the aircraft lowers, speed builds up, and a stall is prevented.
stabilizer which can result in flutter. Engineers must
[Figure 5-12]
compensate for this by increasing the design stiffness of the
vertical stabilizer, usually resulting in a weight penalty over
The elevator must also have sufcient authority to hold the
conventional tail designs.
nose of the aircraft up during the roundout for a landing. In
this case, a forward CG may cause a problem. During the
When ying at a very high AOA with a low airspeed and
landing are, power is usually reduced, which decreases the
an aft CG, the T-tail aircraft may be susceptible to a deep
airow over the empennage. This, coupled with the reduced
stall. In a deep stall, the airow over the horizontal tail
landing speed, makes the elevator less effective.
is blanketed by the disturbed airow from the wings and
fuselage. In these circumstances, elevator or stabilator control
As this discussion demonstrates, pilots must understand and
could be diminished, making it difcult to recover from the
follow proper loading procedures, particularly with regard
stall. It should be noted that an aft CG is often a contributing
to the CG position. More information on aircraft loading, as
factor in these incidents, since similar recovery problems
well as weight and balance, is included in Chapter 9, Weight
are also found with conventional tail aircraft with an aft CG.
and Balance.
[Figure 5-11]

Since ight at a high AOA with a low airspeed and an aft Stabilator
CG position can be dangerous, many aircraft have systems As mentioned in Chapter 2, Aircraft Structure, a stabilator
to compensate for this situation. The systems range from is essentially a one-piece horizontal stabilizer that pivots

5-6
 Antiservo tab

Down spring

Stabilator
Pivot points
Elevator Balance weight Pivot point
Bell crank
Figure 5-13. The stabilator is a one-piece horizontal tail surface
that pivots up and down about a central hinge point.
Figure 5-12. When the aerodynamic efficiency of the horizontal
tail surface is inadequate due to an aft CG condition, an elevator design, and the other with a surface of the same approximate
down spring may be used to supply a mechanical load to lower size and airfoil of the aft-mounted wing known as a tandem
the nose. wing conguration. Theoretically, the canard is considered
more efcient because using the horizontal surface to help
from a central hinge point. When the control column is lift the weight of the aircraft should result in less drag for a
pulled back, it raises the stabilators trailing edge, pulling given amount of lift.
the airplanes nose up. Pushing the control column forward
lowers the trailing edge of the stabilator and pitches the nose Rudder
of the airplane down.
The rudder controls movement of the aircraft about its vertical
axis. This motion is called yaw. Like the other primary control
Because stabilators pivot around a central hinge point, they
surfaces, the rudder is a movable surface hinged to a xed
are extremely sensitive to control inputs and aerodynamic
surface, in this case to the vertical stabilizer, or n. Moving
loads. Antiservo tabs are incorporated on the trailing edge to
the left or right rudder pedal controls the rudder.
decrease sensitivity. They deect in the same direction as the
stabilator. This results in an increase in the force required to
When the rudder is deected into the airow, a horizontal
move the stabilator, thus making it less prone to pilot-induced
force is exerted in the opposite direction. [Figure 5-15] By
overcontrolling. In addition, a balance weight is usually
pushing the left pedal, the rudder moves left. This alters the
incorporated in front of the main spar. The balance weight
airow around the vertical stabilizer/rudder, and creates a
may project into the empennage or may be incorporated on
the forward portion of the stabilator tips. [Figure 5-13]

Canard
The canard design utilizes the concept of two lifting surfaces,
the canard functioning as a horizontal stabilizer located in
front of the main wings. In effect, the canard is an airfoil
similar to the horizontal surface on a conventional aft-tail
design. The difference is that the canard actually creates lift
and holds the nose up, as opposed to the aft-tail design which
exerts downward force on the tail to prevent the nose from
rotating downward. [Figure 5-14]

The canard design dates back to the pioneer days of aviation,

most notably used on the Wright Flyer. Recently, the canard
conguration has regained popularity and is appearing on Figure 5-14. The Piaggio P180 includes a variable-sweep canard

newer aircraft. Canard designs include two typesone with a design, which provides longitudinal stability about the lateral
horizontal surface of about the same size as a normal aft-tail axis.

5-7
sideward lift that moves the tail to the right and yaws the nose When both rudder and elevator controls are moved by the
of the airplane to the left. Rudder effectiveness increases with pilot, a control mixing mechanism moves each surface the
speed; therefore, large deections at low speeds and small appropriate amount. The control system for the V-tail is
deections at high speeds may be required to provide the more complex than that required for a conventional tail. In
desired reaction. In propeller-driven aircraft, any slipstream addition, the V-tail design is more susceptible to Dutch roll
owing over the rudder increases its effectiveness. tendencies than a conventional tail, and total reduction in
drag is minimal.
Yaw
Secondary Flight Controls
Secondary ight control systems may consist of wing aps,
leading edge devices, spoilers, and trim systems.

Left rudder forward

Flaps
CG
Flaps are the most common high-lift devices used on aircraft.
These surfaces, which are attached to the trailing edge of
the wing, increase both lift and induced drag for any given
AOA. Flaps allow a compromise between high cruising speed
and low landing speed, because they may be extended when
needed, and retracted into the wings structure when not
needed. There are four common types of aps: plain, split,
slotted, and Fowler aps. [Figure 5-17]

Left rudder
Ae
rod The plain ap is the simplest of the four types. It increases
ynamic force
the airfoil camber, resulting in a signicant increase in the
coefcient of lift (CL) at a given AOA. At the same time,
Figure 5-15. The effect of left rudder pressure.
it greatly increases drag and moves the center of pressure
(CP) aft on the airfoil, resulting in a nose-down pitching
V-Tail moment.
The V-tail design utilizes two slanted tail surfaces to perform
the same functions as the surfaces of a conventional elevator The split ap is deected from the lower surface of the airfoil
and rudder conguration. The xed surfaces act as both and produces a slightly greater increase in lift than the plain
horizontal and vertical stabilizers. [Figure 5-16] ap. More drag is created because of the turbulent air pattern
produced behind the airfoil. When fully extended, both plain
and split aps produce high drag with little additional lift.

The most popular ap on aircraft today is the slotted ap.

Variations of this design are used for small aircraft, as well
as for large ones. Slotted aps increase the lift coefcient
signicantly more than plain or split aps. On small aircraft,
the hinge is located below the lower surface of the ap, and
when the ap is lowered, a duct forms between the ap well
in the wing and the leading edge of the ap. When the slotted
ap is lowered, high energy air from the lower surface is
ducted to the aps upper surface. The high energy air from
the slot accelerates the upper surface boundary layer and
delays airow separation, providing a higher CL. Thus, the
Figure 5-16. Beechcraft Bonanza V35. slotted ap produces much greater increases in maximum
coefcient of lift (CL-MAX) than the plain or split ap. While
The movable surfaces, which are usually called ruddervators, there are many types of slotted aps, large aircraft often
are connected through a special linkage that allows the control have double- and even triple-slotted aps. These allow the
wheel to move both surfaces simultaneously. On the other maximum increase in drag without the airow over the aps
hand, displacement of the rudder pedals moves the surfaces separating and destroying the lift they produce.
differentially, thereby providing directional control.

5-8
 Basic section Leading Edge Devices
High-lift devices also can be applied to the leading edge of
the airfoil. The most common types are xed slots, movable
slats, leading edge aps, and cuffs. [Figure 5-18]

Fixed slot

Plain flap

Movable slot
Split flap

Slotted flap Leading edge flap

Fowler flap

Leading edge cuff

Slotted Fowler flap

Figure 5-18. Leading edge high lift devices.

Fixed slots direct airow to the upper wing surface and delay
airow separation at higher angles of attack. The slot does
Figure 5-17. Five common types of flaps. not increase the wing camber, but allows a higher maximum
CL because the stall is delayed until the wing reaches a
Fowler aps are a type of slotted ap. This ap design not greater AOA.
only changes the camber of the wing, it also increases the
wing area. Instead of rotating down on a hinge, it slides Movable slats consist of leading edge segments, which move
backwards on tracks. In the rst portion of its extension, it on tracks. At low angles of attack, each slat is held ush
increases the drag very little, but increases the lift a great deal against the wings leading edge by the high pressure that forms
as it increases both the area and camber. As the extension at the wings leading edge. As the AOA increases, the high-
continues, the ap deects downward. During the last portion pressure area moves aft below the lower surface of the wing,
of its travel, the ap increases the drag with little additional allowing the slats to move forward. Some slats, however, are
increase in lift.

5-9
pilot operated and can be deployed at any AOA. Opening a
slat allows the air below the wing to ow over the wings
upper surface, delaying airow separation.

Leading edge aps, like trailing edge aps, are used to

increase both CL-MAX and the camber of the wings. This type
of leading edge device is frequently used in conjunction with
trailing edge aps and can reduce the nose-down pitching
movement produced by the latter. As is true with trailing edge
aps, a small increment of leading edge aps increases lift to
a much greater extent than drag. As greater amounts of aps
are extended, drag increases at a greater rate than lift.

Leading edge cuffs, like leading edge aps and trailing edge
Figure 5-19. Spoilers reduce lift and increase drag during descent
aps are used to increase both CL-MAX and the camber of
and landing.
the wings. Unlike leading edge aps and trailing edge aps,
leading edge cuffs are xed aerodynamic devices. In most tabs, balance tabs, antiservo tabs, ground adjustable tabs, and
cases leading edge cuffs extend the leading edge down and an adjustable stabilizer.
forward. This causes the airow to attach better to the upper
surface of the wing at higher angles of attack, thus lowering Trim Tabs
an aircrafts stall speed. The xed nature of leading edge
The most common installation on small aircraft is a single
cuffs extracts a penalty in maximum cruise airspeed, but
trim tab attached to the trailing edge of the elevator. Most trim
recent advances in design and technology have reduced this
tabs are manually operated by a small, vertically mounted
penalty.
control wheel. However, a trim crank may be found in some
aircraft. The ight deck control includes a trim tab position
Spoilers
indicator. Placing the trim control in the full nose-down
Found on many gliders and some aircraft, high drag devices position moves the trim tab to its full up position. With
called spoilers are deployed from the wings to spoil the smooth the trim tab up and into the airstream, the airow over the
airow, reducing lift and increasing drag. On gliders, spoilers horizontal tail surface tends to force the trailing edge of the
are most often used to control rate of descent for accurate elevator down. This causes the tail of the airplane to move
landings. On other aircraft, spoilers are often used for roll up, and the nose to move down. [Figure 5-20]
control, an advantage of which is the elimination of adverse
yaw. To turn right, for example, the spoiler on the right wing If the trim tab is set to the full nose-up position, the tab moves
is raised, destroying some of the lift and creating more drag on to its full down position. In this case, the air owing under
the right. The right wing drops, and the aircraft banks and yaws the horizontal tail surface hits the tab and forces the trailing
to the right. Deploying spoilers on both wings at the same time edge of the elevator up, reducing the elevators AOA. This
allows the aircraft to descend without gaining speed. Spoilers causes the tail of the airplane to move down, and the nose
are also deployed to help reduce ground roll after landing. By to move up.
destroying lift, they transfer weight to the wheels, improving
braking effectiveness. [Figure 5-19] In spite of the opposing directional movement of the trim
tab and the elevator, control of trim is natural to a pilot. If
Trim Systems the pilot needs to exert constant back pressure on a control
Although an aircraft can be operated throughout a wide range column, the need for nose-up trim is indicated. The normal
of attitudes, airspeeds, and power settings, it can be designed trim procedure is to continue trimming until the aircraft is
to y hands-off within only a very limited combination of balanced and the nose-heavy condition is no longer apparent.
these variables. Trim systems are used to relieve the pilot of Pilots normally establish the desired power, pitch attitude,
the need to maintain constant pressure on the ight controls, and conguration rst, and then trim the aircraft to relieve
and usually consist of ight deck controls and small hinged control pressures that may exist for that ight condition.
devices attached to the trailing edge of one or more of the Any time power, pitch attitude, or conguration is changed,
primary ight control surfaces. Designed to help minimize expect that retrimming will be necessary to relieve the control
a pilots workload, trim systems aerodynamically assist pressures for the new ight condition.
movement and position of the ight control surface to which
they are attached. Common types of trim systems include trim

5-10
 Nose-down trim stabilator moves up, the linkage forces the trailing edge of the
tab up. When the stabilator moves down, the tab also moves
down. Conversely, trim tabs on elevators move opposite of
Elevator
the control surface. [Figure 5-21]
Trim tab

Tab upelevator down

Nose-up trim

Elevator Stabilator
Trim tab
Pivot point

Antiservo tab

Tab downelevator up

Figure 5-20. The movement of the elevator is opposite to the

direction of movement of the elevator trim tab. Figure 5-21. An antiservo tab attempts to streamline the control
surface and is used to make the stabilator less sensitive by opposing
Balance Tabs the force exerted by the pilot.
The control forces may be excessively high in some aircraft,
and, in order to decrease them, the manufacturer may use Ground Adjustable Tabs
balance tabs. They look like trim tabs and are hinged in Many small aircraft have a nonmovable metal trim tab on the
approximately the same places as trim tabs. The essential rudder. This tab is bent in one direction or the other while on
difference between the two is that the balancing tab is coupled the ground to apply a trim force to the rudder. The correct
to the control surface rod so that when the primary control displacement is determined by trial and error. Usually, small
surface is moved in any direction, the tab automatically adjustments are necessary until the aircraft no longer skids
moves in the opposite direction. The airow striking the tab left or right during normal cruising ight. [Figure 5-22]
counterbalances some of the air pressure against the primary
control surface, and enables the pilot to move more easily
and hold the control surface in position.

If the linkage between the balance tab and the xed surface is
adjustable from the ight deck, the tab acts as a combination
trim and balance tab that can be adjusted to any desired
deection.

Antiservo Tabs
Antiservo tabs work in the same manner as balance tabs
except, instead of moving in the opposite direction, they move
in the same direction as the trailing edge of the stabilator.
In addition to decreasing the sensitivity of the stabilator, an
antiservo tab also functions as a trim device to relieve control
pressure and maintain the stabilator in the desired position. Figure 5-22. A ground adjustable tab is used on the rudder of many
The xed end of the linkage is on the opposite side of the small airplanes to correct for a tendency to fly with the fuselage
surface from the horn on the tab; when the trailing edge of the slightly misaligned with the relative wind.

5-11
Adjustable Stabilizer
Rather than using a movable tab on the trailing edge of the
elevator, some aircraft have an adjustable stabilizer. With this
arrangement, linkages pivot the horizontal stabilizer about its
rear spar. This is accomplished by use of a jackscrew mounted
on the leading edge of the stabilator. [Figure 5-23]

Adjustable stabilizer

Nose down

Nose up Jackscrew

Pivot
Figure 5-24. Basic autopilot system integrated into the flight
control system.
Trim motor or trim cable The autopilot system also incorporates a disconnect safety
feature to disengage the system automatically or manually.
Figure 5-23. Some airplanes, including most jet transports, use an These autopilots work with inertial navigation systems,
adjustable stabilizer to provide the required pitch trim forces. global positioning systems (GPS), and ight computers to
control the aircraft. In y-by-wire systems, the autopilot is
On small aircraft, the jackscrew is cable operated with a trim an integrated component.
wheel or crank. On larger aircraft, it is motor driven. The
trimming effect and ight deck indications for an adjustable Additionally, autopilots can be manually overridden. Because
stabilizer are similar to those of a trim tab. autopilot systems differ widely in their operation, refer to the
autopilot operating instructions in the Airplane Flight Manual
Autopilot (AFM) or the Pilots Operating Handbook (POH).
Autopilot is an automatic ight control system that keeps an
Chapter Summary
aircraft in level ight or on a set course. It can be directed by
the pilot, or it may be coupled to a radio navigation signal. Because ight control systems and aerodynamic characteristics
Autopilot reduces the physical and mental demands on a pilot vary greatly between aircraft, it is essential that a pilot
and increases safety. The common features available on an become familiar with the primary and secondary flight
autopilot are altitude and heading hold. control systems of the aircraft being own. The primary
source of this information is the AFM or the POH. Various
The simplest systems use gyroscopic attitude indicators and manufacturer and owner group websites can also be a
magnetic compasses to control servos connected to the ight valuable source of additional information.
control system. [Figure 5-24] The number and location of
these servos depends on the complexity of the system. For
example, a single-axis autopilot controls the aircraft about the
longitudinal axis and a servo actuates the ailerons. A three-
axis autopilot controls the aircraft about the longitudinal,
lateral, and vertical axes. Three different servos actuate
ailerons, elevator, and rudder. More advanced systems often
include a vertical speed and/or indicated airspeed hold mode.
Advanced autopilot systems are coupled to navigational aids
through a ight director.

5-12
Chapter 6

Aircraft Systems
Introduction
This chapter covers the primary systems found on most
aircraft. These include the engine, propeller, induction,
ignition, as well as the fuel, lubrication, cooling, electrical,
landing gear, and environmental control systems.

Powerplant
An aircraft engine, or powerplant, produces thrust to propel
an aircraft. Reciprocating engines and turboprop engines
work in combination with a propeller to produce thrust.
Turbojet and turbofan engines produce thrust by increasing
the velocity of air owing through the engine. All of these
powerplants also drive the various systems that support the
operation of an aircraft.

6-1
Reciprocating Engines
Most small aircraft are designed with reciprocating
engines. The name is derived from the back-and-forth, or
reciprocating, movement of the pistons which produces the
mechanical energy necessary to accomplish work.

Driven by a revitalization of the general aviation (GA)

industry and advances in both material and engine design,
reciprocating engine technology has improved dramatically
over the past two decades. The integration of computerized
engine management systems has improved fuel efciency,
decreased emissions, and reduced pilot workload.

Reciprocating engines operate on the basic principle of

Figure 6-1. Radial engine.
converting chemical energy (fuel) into mechanical energy.
This conversion occurs within the cylinders of the engine In-line engines have a comparatively small frontal area, but
through the process of combustion. The two primary their power-to-weight ratios are relatively low. In addition,
reciprocating engine designs are the spark ignition and the the rearmost cylinders of an air-cooled, in-line engine
compression ignition. The spark ignition reciprocating engine receive very little cooling air, so these engines are normally
has served as the powerplant of choice for many years. In limited to four or six cylinders. V-type engines provide
an effort to reduce operating costs, simplify design, and more horsepower than in-line engines and still retain a small
improve reliability, several engine manufacturers are turning frontal area.
to compression ignition as a viable alternative. Often referred
to as jet fuel piston engines, compression ignition engines Continued improvements in engine design led to the
have the added advantage of utilizing readily available and development of the horizontally-opposed engine which
lower cost diesel or jet fuel. remains the most popular reciprocating engines used on
smaller aircraft. These engines always have an even number
The main mechanical components of the spark ignition and of cylinders, since a cylinder on one side of the crankcase
the compression ignition engine are essentially the same. opposes a cylinder on the other side. [Figure 6-2] The
Both use cylindrical combustion chambers and pistons that majority of these engines are air cooled and usually are
travel the length of the cylinders to convert linear motion mounted in a horizontal position when installed on xed-wing
into the rotary motion of the crankshaft. The main difference airplanes. Opposed-type engines have high power-to-weight
between spark ignition and compression ignition is the ratios because they have a comparatively small, lightweight
process of igniting the fuel. Spark ignition engines use a crankcase. In addition, the compact cylinder arrangement
spark plug to ignite a pre-mixed fuel/air mixture. (Fuel/air reduces the engines frontal area and allows a streamlined
mixture is the ratio of the weight of fuel to the weight installation that minimizes aerodynamic drag.
of air in the mixture to be burned.) A compression ignition
engine rst compresses the air in the cylinder, raising its
temperature to a degree necessary for automatic ignition
when fuel is injected into the cylinder.

These two engine designs can be further classied as:

1. Cylinder arrangement with respect to the crankshaft
radial, in-line, v-type, or opposed.
2. Operating cycletwo or four.
3. Method of coolingliquid or air.

Opposed cylinders
Radial engines were widely used during World War II and
many are still in service today. With these engines, a row or
rows of cylinders are arranged in a circular pattern around Figure 6-2. Horizontally opposed engine.
the crankcase. The main advantage of a radial engine is the
favorable power-to-weight ratio. [Figure 6-1]

6-2
Depending on the engine manufacturer, all of these
arrangements can be designed to utilize spark or compression Cylinder
ignition, and operate on either a two- or four-stroke cycle.

In a two-stroke engine, the conversion of chemical energy

into mechanical energy occurs over a two-stroke operating
cycle. The intake, compression, power, and exhaust processes
occur in only two strokes of the piston rather than the more
common four strokes. Because a two-stroke engine has a
power stroke each revolution of the crankshaft, it typically has
higher power-to-weight ratio than a comparable four-stroke
Exhaust valve
engine. Due to the inherent inefciency and disproportionate
Intake valve
emissions of the earliest designs, use of the two-stroke engine
has been limited in aviation.

Recent advances in material and engine design have

reduced many of the negative characteristics associated
with two-stroke engines. Modern two-stroke engines often Spark plug
use conventional oil sumps, oil pumps and full pressure fed Piston
lubrication systems. The use of direct fuel injection and Crankcase
pressurized air, characteristic of advanced compression
ignition engines, make two-stroke compression ignition
engines a viable alternative to the more common four-stroke
spark ignition designs. [Figure 6-3]

Forced air Exhaust valve Fuel injector

Connecting rod Crankshaft

Figure 6-4. Main components of a spark ignition reciprocating

engine.
In a four-stroke engine the conversion of chemical energy
into mechanical energy occurs over a four stroke operating
Piston cycle. The intake, compression, power, and exhaust processes
occur in four separate strokes of the piston.
1. The intake stroke begins as the piston starts its
downward travel. When this happens, the intake
valve opens and the fuel/air mixture is drawn into the
1. Intake/compression
and exhaust 2. Power stroke cylinder.
2. The compression stroke begins when the intake valve
Figure 6-3. Two-stroke compression ignition.
closes and the piston starts moving back to the top of
the cylinder. This phase of the cycle is used to obtain
Spark ignition four-stroke engines remain the most common a much greater power output from the fuel/air mixture
design used in general aviation today. [Figure 6-4] The once it is ignited.
main parts of a spark ignition reciprocating engine include
the cylinders, crankcase, and accessory housing. The intake/ 3. The power stroke begins when the fuel/air mixture is
exhaust valves, spark plugs, and pistons are located in the ignited. This causes a tremendous pressure increase
cylinders. The crankshaft and connecting rods are located in the cylinder, and forces the piston downward away
in the crankcase. The magnetos are normally located on the from the cylinder head, creating the power that turns
engine accessory housing. the crankshaft.

6-3
 4. The exhaust stroke is used to purge the cylinder of of a diesel-fueled reciprocating engine lies in the physical
burned gases. It begins when the exhaust valve opens similarity of diesel and kerosene. Aircraft equipped with a
and the piston starts to move toward the cylinder head diesel piston engine runs on standard aviation fuel kerosene
once again. which provides more independence, higher reliability, lower
consumption, and operational cost saving.
Even when the engine is operated at a fairly low speed,
the four-stroke cycle takes place several hundred times In 1999, Thielert formed Thielert Aircraft Engines (TAE)
each minute. [Figure 6-5] In a four-cylinder engine, each to design, develop, certify, and manufacture a brand-new
cylinder operates on a different stroke. Continuous rotation Jet-A-burning diesel cycle engine (also known as jet-fueled
of a crankshaft is maintained by the precise timing of the piston engine) for the GA industry. By March 2001, the rst
power strokes in each cylinder. Continuous operation of the prototype engine became the rst certied diesel engine
engine depends on the simultaneous function of auxiliary since World War II. TAE continues to design and develop
systems, including the induction, ignition, fuel, oil, cooling, diesel cycle engines and other engine manufacturers such as
and exhaust systems. Socit de Motorisations Aronautiques (SMA) now offer
jet-fueled piston engines as well. TAE engines can be found
on the Diamond DA40 single and the DA42 Twin Star, the
Intake valve Exhaust valve rst diesel engine to be part of the type certicate of a new
original equipment manufacturer (OEM) aircraft.

These engines have also gained a toehold in the retrot

market with a supplemental type certicate (STC) to re-
engine the Cessna 172 models and the Piper PA-28 family.
Piston Spark plug The jet-fueled piston engines technology has continued to
progress and a full authority digital engine control (FADEC,
discussed more fully later in the chapter) is standard on such
equipped aircraft which minimizes complication of engine
control. By 2007, various jet-fueled piston aircraft had logged
well over 600,000 hours of service.

Crankshaft Connecting rod Propeller

1. Intake 2. Compression
The propeller is a rotating airfoil, subject to induced drag,
stalls, and other aerodynamic principles that apply to any
airfoil. It provides the necessary thrust to pull, or in some
cases push, the aircraft through the air. The engine power is
used to rotate the propeller, which in turn generates thrust
very similar to the manner in which a wing produces lift.
The amount of thrust produced depends on the shape of the
airfoil, the angle of attack of the propeller blade, and the
revolutions per minute (rpm) of the engine. The propeller
itself is twisted so the blade angle changes from hub to tip.
The greatest angle of incidence, or the highest pitch, is at the
hub while the smallest angle of incidence or smallest pitch
is at the tip. [Figure 6-6]

3. Power 4. Exhaust The reason for the twist is to produce uniform lift from the
hub to the tip. As the blade rotates, there is a difference in
Figure 6-5. The arrows in this illustration indicate the direction of
the actual speed of the various portions of the blade. The tip
motion of the crankshaft and piston during the four-stroke cycle.
of the blade travels faster than the part near the hub, because
the tip travels a greater distance than the hub in the same
The latest advance in aircraft reciprocating engines was length of time. [Figure 6-7] Changing the angle of incidence
pioneered in the mid-1960s by Frank Thielert, who looked (pitch) from the hub to the tip to correspond with the speed
to the automotive industry for answers on how to integrate produces uniform lift throughout the length of the blade. A
diesel technology into an aircraft engine. The advantage

6-4
 There are two types of xed-pitch propellers: climb and
cruise. Whether the airplane has a climb or cruise propeller
installed depends upon its intended use. The climb propeller
has a lower pitch, therefore less drag. Less drag results in
higher rpm and more horsepower capability, which increases
performance during takeoffs and climbs, but decreases
performance during cruising ight.

The cruise propeller has a higher pitch, therefore more

drag. More drag results in lower rpm and less horsepower
Figure 6-6. Changes in propeller blade angle from hub to tip. capability, which decreases performance during takeoffs and
climbs, but increases efciency during cruising ight.
propeller blade designed with the same angle of incidence
throughout its entire length would be inefcient because as
The propeller is usually mounted on a shaft, which may be
airspeed increases in ight, the portion near the hub would
an extension of the engine crankshaft. In this case, the rpm
have a negative angle of attack while the blade tip would
of the propeller would be the same as the crankshaft rpm. On
be stalled.
some engines, the propeller is mounted on a shaft geared to
the engine crankshaft. In this type, the rpm of the propeller
istancevery high
avel d is different than that of the engine.
a ter tr spe
ed
e
Gr 38
9k
n
n cemo In a xed-pitch propeller, the tachometer is the indicator of
ot

dist a de rate
s

el spe
tra
v
ed engine power. [Figure 6-8] A tachometer is calibrated in
te
ra hundreds of rpm and gives a direct indication of the engine
de

25
Mo

and propeller rpm. The instrument is color coded, with a green

9k

stanceslo
l di
not

w
ve arc denoting the maximum continuous operating rpm. Some
s
a

sp
t tr

tachometers have additional markings to reect engine and/or

eed
Shor

propeller limitations. The manufacturers recommendations

should be used as a reference to clarify any misunderstanding
12

20 in. of tachometer markings.

9k

2,50 rpm no
0 ts

40 in.
2,500 rpm

I5 20
60 in.

2,500 rpm I0 RPM

HUND REDS
25
I

Figure 6-7. Relationship of travel distance and speed of various 5

I0
30
portions of propeller blade.
3 HOURS
AVOID
CONTINUOUS
OPERATION
35
Small aircraft are equipped with either one of two types BETWEEN 2250
AND 2350 RPM

of propellers. One is the xed pitch, and the other is the

adjustable pitch.
Figure 6-8. Engine rpm is indicated on the tachometer.
Fixed-Pitch Propeller
A propeller with xed blade angles is a xed-pitch propeller. The rpm is regulated by the throttle, which controls the
The pitch of this propeller is set by the manufacturer and fuel/air ow to the engine. At a given altitude, the higher
cannot be changed. Since a xed-pitch propeller achieves the tachometer reading, the higher the power output of the
the best efciency only at a given combination of airspeed engine.
and rpm, the pitch setting is ideal for neither cruise nor
climb. Thus, the aircraft suffers a bit in each performance When operating altitude increases, the tachometer may not
category. The xed-pitch propeller is used when low weight, show correct power output of the engine. For example, 2,300
simplicity, and low cost are needed.

6-5
rpm at 5,000 feet produces less horsepower than 2,300 rpm angle is within the constant-speed range and not against
at sea level because power output depends on air density. Air either pitch stop, a constant engine rpm will be maintained.
density decreases as altitude increases and a decrease in air If the propeller blades contact a pitch stop, the engine rpm
density (higher density altitude) decreases the power output will increase or decrease as appropriate, with changes in
of the engine. As altitude changes, the position of the throttle airspeed and propeller load. For example, once a specic
must be changed to maintain the same rpm. As altitude is rpm has been selected, if aircraft speed decreases enough to
increased, the throttle must be opened further to indicate the rotate the propeller blades until they contact the low pitch
same rpm as at a lower altitude. stop, any further decrease in airspeed will cause engine rpm
to decrease the same way as if a xed-pitch propeller were
Adjustable-Pitch Propeller installed. The same holds true when an aircraft equipped with
The adjustable-pitch propeller was the forerunner of the a constant-speed propeller accelerates to a faster airspeed. As
constant-speed propeller. It is a propeller with blades whose the aircraft accelerates, the propeller blade angle increases to
pitch can be adjusted on the ground with the engine not maintain the selected rpm until the high pitch stop is reached.
running, but which cannot be adjusted in ight. It is also Once this occurs, the blade angle cannot increase any further
referred to as a ground adjustable propeller. By the 1930s, and engine rpm increases.
pioneer aviation inventors were laying the ground work for
automatic pitch-change mechanisms, which is why the term On aircraft equipped with a constant-speed propeller, power
sometimes refers to modern constant-speed propellers that output is controlled by the throttle and indicated by a manifold
are adjustable in ight. pressure gauge. The gauge measures the absolute pressure of
the fuel/air mixture inside the intake manifold and is more
The rst adjustable-pitch propeller systems provided only correctly a measure of manifold absolute pressure (MAP). At
two pitch settings: low and high. Today, most adjustable-pitch a constant rpm and altitude, the amount of power produced
propeller systems are capable of a range of pitch settings. is directly related to the fuel/air ow being delivered to the
combustion chamber. As the throttle setting is increased,
A constant-speed propeller is a controllable-pitch propeller more fuel and air ows to the engine and MAP increases.
whose pitch is automatically varied in ight by a governor When the engine is not running, the manifold pressure gauge
maintaining constant rpm despite varying air loads. It is the indicates ambient air pressure (i.e., 29.92 inches mercury
most common type of adjustable-pitch propeller. The main (29.92 "Hg)). When the engine is started, the manifold
advantage of a constant-speed propeller is that it converts pressure indication will decrease to a value less than ambient
a high percentage of brake horsepower (BHP) into thrust pressure (i.e., idle at 12 "Hg). Engine failure or power loss is
horsepower (THP) over a wide range of rpm and airspeed indicated on the manifold gauge as an increase in manifold
combinations. A constant-speed propeller is more efcient pressure to a value corresponding to the ambient air pressure
than other propellers because it allows selection of the most at the altitude where the failure occurred. [Figure 6-9]
efcient engine rpm for the given conditions.

An aircraft with a constant-speed propeller has two controls:

the throttle and the propeller control. The throttle controls
power output and the propeller control regulates engine rpm. 30
This in turn regulates propeller rpm which is registered on 25 35
MANIFOLD
the tachometer. PRESS
P
20 40
Once a specic rpm is selected, a governor automatically
IN Hg
adjusts the propeller blade angle as necessary to maintain 15 ALg.
45
the selected rpm. For example, after setting the desired rpm
during cruising ight, an increase in airspeed or decrease in 10 50
propeller load will cause the propeller blade angle to increase
as necessary to maintain the selected rpm. A reduction in
airspeed or increase in propeller load will cause the propeller
blade angle to decrease. Figure 6-9. Engine power output is indicated on the manifold
pressure gauge.
The propellers constant-speed range, dened by the high
and low pitch stops, is the range of possible blade angles for
a constant-speed propeller. As long as the propeller blade

6-6
The manifold pressure gauge is color coded to indicate the Two types of induction systems are commonly used in small
engines operating range. The face of the manifold pressure aircraft engines:
gauge contains a green arc to show the normal operating 1. The carburetor system, which mixes the fuel and air
range, and a red radial line to indicate the upper limit of in the carburetor before this mixture enters the intake
manifold pressure. manifold

For any given rpm, there is a manifold pressure that should not 2. The fuel injection system, which mixes the fuel and air
be exceeded. If manifold pressure is excessive for a given rpm, immediately before entry into each cylinder or injects
the pressure within the cylinders could be exceeded, placing fuel directly into each cylinder
undue stress on the cylinders. If repeated too frequently, this
stress can weaken the cylinder components and eventually Carburetor Systems
cause engine failure. As a general rule, manifold pressure Carburetors are classied as either oat type or pressure type.
(inches) should be less than the rpm. The oat type of carburetor, complete with idling, accelerating,
mixture control, idle cutoff, and power enrichment systems is
A pilot can avoid conditions that overstress the cylinders by probably the most common of all carburetor types. Pressure
being constantly aware of the rpm, especially when increasing carburetors are usually not found on small aircraft. The basic
the manifold pressure. Conform to the manufacturers difference between a oat-type and a pressure-type carburetor
recommendations for power settings of a particular engine to is the delivery of fuel. The pressure-type carburetor delivers
maintain the proper relationship between manifold pressure fuel under pressure by a fuel pump.
and rpm.
In the operation of the oat-type carburetor system, the
When both manifold pressure and rpm need to be changed, outside air rst ows through an air lter, usually located
avoid engine overstress by making power adjustments in at an air intake in the front part of the engine cowling. This
the proper order: ltered air ows into the carburetor and through a venturi, a
narrow throat in the carburetor. When the air ows through
When power settings are being decreased, reduce
the venturi, a low-pressure area is created, which forces the
manifold pressure before reducing rpm. If rpm is
fuel to ow through a main fuel jet located at the throat. The
reduced before manifold pressure, manifold pressure
fuel then ows into the airstream where it is mixed with the
will automatically increase, possibly exceeding the
owing air. [Figure 6-10]
manufacturers tolerances.
When power settings are being increased, reverse the The fuel/air mixture is then drawn through the intake manifold
orderincrease rpm rst, then manifold pressure. and into the combustion chambers where it is ignited. The
To prevent damage to radial engines, minimize oat-type carburetor acquires its name from a oat, which
operating time at maximum rpm and manifold rests on fuel within the oat chamber. A needle attached to
pressure, and avoid operation at maximum rpm and the oat opens and closes an opening at the bottom of the
low manifold pressure. carburetor bowl. This meters the correct amount of fuel into
the carburetor, depending upon the position of the oat,
The engine and/or airframe manufacturers recommendations which is controlled by the level of fuel in the oat chamber.
should be followed to prevent severe wear, fatigue, and When the level of the fuel forces the oat to rise, the needle
damage to high-performance reciprocating engines. valve closes the fuel opening and shuts off the fuel ow to
the carburetor. The needle valve opens again when the engine
Induction Systems requires additional fuel. The ow of the fuel/air mixture to
The induction system brings in air from the outside, mixes the combustion chambers is regulated by the throttle valve,
it with fuel, and delivers the fuel/air mixture to the cylinder which is controlled by the throttle in the ight deck.
where combustion occurs. Outside air enters the induction
system through an intake port on the front of the engine The oat-type carburetor has several distinct disadvantages.
cowling. This port normally contains an air lter that inhibits In the rst place, imagine the effect that abrupt maneuvers
the entry of dust and other foreign objects. Since the lter have on the oat action. In the second place, the fact that its
may occasionally become clogged, an alternate source of fuel must be discharged at low pressure leads to incomplete
air must be available. Usually, the alternate air comes from vaporization and difculty in discharging fuel into some
inside the engine cowling, where it bypasses a clogged air types of supercharged systems. The chief disadvantage of
lter. Some alternate air sources function automatically, the oat carburetor, however, is its icing tendency. Since
while others operate manually. the oat carburetor must discharge fuel at a point of low

6-7
 FUEL/AIR MIXTURE FLOAT CHAMBER FUEL INLET
The blend of fuel and Fuel level is maintained Fuel is received into
air is routed to the by a float-type device. the carburetor through
combustion chambers the fuel inlet.
to be burned.

THROTTLE VALVE
The flow of the fuel/air
mixture is controlled by
the throttle valve. The
throttle valve is adjusted
from the flight deck by
the throttle.
FUEL
VENTURI
The shape of the venturi
creates an area of low
pressure.
MIXTURE NEEDLE
The mixture needle
DISCHARGE NOZZLE
controls fuel to the
Fuel is forced through discharge nozzle.
the discharge nozzle Mixture needle position
into the venturi by can be adjusted using
greater atmospheric the mixture control.
pressure in the float
AIR BLEED
chamber.
AIR INLET The air bleed allows air to be mixed
Air enters the carburetor with fuel being drawn out of the dis-
charge nozzle to decrease fuel density
through the air inlet.
and promote fuel vaporization.

Figure 6-10. Float-type carburetor.

pressure, the discharge nozzle must be located at the venturi from excessive carbon buildup on the plugs. Carbon buildup
throat, and the throttle valve must be on the engine side of the occurs because the rich mixture lowers the temperature
discharge nozzle. This means the drop in temperature due to inside the cylinder, inhibiting complete combustion of the
fuel vaporization takes place within the venturi. As a result, fuel. This condition may occur during the pretakeoff runup
ice readily forms in the venturi and on the throttle valve. at high-elevation airports and during climbs or cruise ight
at high altitudes. To maintain the correct fuel/air mixture, the
A pressure-type carburetor discharges fuel into the airstream mixture must be leaned using the mixture control. Leaning
at a pressure well above atmospheric. This results in better the mixture decreases fuel ow, which compensates for the
vaporization and permits the discharge of fuel into the decreased air density at high altitude.
airstream on the engine side of the throttle valve. With the
discharge nozzle located at this point, the drop in temperature During a descent from high altitude, the mixture must
due to fuel vaporization takes place after the air has passed the be enriched, or it may become too lean. An overly lean
throttle valve and at a point where engine heat tends to offset mixture causes detonation, which may result in rough
it. Thus, the danger of fuel vaporization icing is practically engine operation, overheating, and a loss of power. The
eliminated. The effects of rapid maneuvers and rough air on best way to maintain the proper mixture is to monitor the
the pressure-type carburetors are negligible since their fuel engine temperature and enrich the mixture as needed. Proper
chambers remain lled under all operating conditions mixture control and better fuel economy for fuel-injected
engines can be achieved by use of an exhaust gas temperature
Mixture Control (EGT) gauge. Since the process of adjusting the mixture can
Carburetors are normally calibrated at sea-level pressure, vary from one aircraft to another, it is important to refer to
where the correct fuel-to-air mixture ratio is established the airplane ight manual (AFM) or the pilots operating
with the mixture control set in the FULL RICH position. handbook (POH) to determine the specic procedures for
However, as altitude increases, the density of air entering the a given aircraft.
carburetor decreases, while the density of the fuel remains
the same. This creates a progressively richer mixture, which Carburetor Icing
can result in engine roughness and an appreciable loss of As mentioned earlier, one disadvantage of the oat-type
power. The roughness normally is due to spark plug fouling carburetor is its icing tendency. Carburetor ice occurs due

6-8
to the effect of fuel vaporization and the decrease in air 100%
pressure in the venturi, which causes a sharp temperature
drop in the carburetor. If water vapor in the air condenses 90%
High carburetor
icing potential

Relative humidity
when the carburetor temperature is at or below freezing, ice
may form on internal surfaces of the carburetor, including 80%
the throttle valve. [Figure 6-11]
70%
Carburetor icing possible
To engine Fuel/air mixture
60%

50%
20F/-7C 32F/0C 70F/21C 100F/38C
Outside air temperature

Ice
Figure 6-12. Although carburetor ice is most likely to form when
the temperature and humidity are in ranges indicated by this chart,
carburetor ice is possible under conditions not depicted.
Ice

Ice
by a decrease in manifold pressure, but no reduction in rpm.
Propeller pitch is automatically adjusted to compensate for
Venturi loss of power. Thus, a constant rpm is maintained. Although
carburetor ice can occur during any phase of ight, it is
particularly dangerous when using reduced power during
a descent. Under certain conditions, carburetor ice could
build unnoticed until power is added. To combat the effects
of carburetor ice, engines with oat-type carburetors employ
a carburetor heat system.

Incoming air Carburetor Heat

Carburetor heat is an anti-icing system that preheats the air
Figure 6-11. The formation of carburetor ice may reduce or block before it reaches the carburetor, and is intended to keep the
fuel/air flow to the engine. fuel/air mixture above the freezing temperature to prevent
the formation of carburetor ice. Carburetor heat can be used
The reduced air pressure, as well as the vaporization of fuel, to melt ice that has already formed in the carburetor if the
contributes to the temperature decrease in the carburetor. Ice accumulation is not too great, but using carburetor heat as a
generally forms in the vicinity of the throttle valve and in the preventative measure is the better option. Additionally, the
venturi throat. This restricts the ow of the fuel/air mixture use of carburetor heat as an alternate air source can be used
and reduces power. If enough ice builds up, the engine may if the intake lter clogs such as in sudden or unexpected
cease to operate. Carburetor ice is most likely to occur when airframe icing conditions. The carburetor heat should be
temperatures are below 70 degrees Fahrenheit (F) or 21 checked during the engine runup. When using carburetor
degrees Celsius (C) and the relative humidity is above 80 heat, follow the manufacturers recommendations.
percent. Due to the sudden cooling that takes place in the
carburetor, icing can occur even with temperatures as high When conditions are conducive to carburetor icing during
as 100 F (38 C) and humidity as low as 50 percent. This ight, periodic checks should be made to detect its presence. If
temperature drop can be as much as 60 to 70 F (15 to 21 C). detected, full carburetor heat should be applied immediately,
Therefore, at an outside air temperature of 100 F (37 C), a and it should be left in the ON position until the pilot is
temperature drop of 70 F (21 C) results in an air temperature certain all the ice has been removed. If ice is present, applying
in the carburetor of 30 F (-1 C). [Figure 6-12] partial heat or leaving heat on for an insufcient time might
aggravate the situation. In extreme cases of carburetor icing,
The rst indication of carburetor icing in an aircraft with even after the ice has been removed, full carburetor heat
a xed-pitch propeller is a decrease in engine rpm, which should be used to prevent further ice formation. If installed,
may be followed by engine roughness. In an aircraft with a a carburetor temperature gauge is useful in determining when
constant-speed propeller, carburetor icing is usually indicated to use carburetor heat.

6-9
Whenever the throttle is closed during ight, the engine cools Usually, the face of the gauge is calibrated in degrees Celsius,
rapidly and vaporization of the fuel is less complete than if with a yellow arc indicating the carburetor air temperatures
the engine is warm. Also, in this condition, the engine is more where icing may occur. This yellow arc typically ranges
susceptible to carburetor icing. If carburetor icing conditions between -15 C and +5 C (5 F and 41 F). If the air
are suspected and closed-throttle operation anticipated, adjust temperature and moisture content of the air are such that
the carburetor heat to the full ON position before closing the carburetor icing is improbable, the engine can be operated
throttle and leave it on during the closed-throttle operation. with the indicator in the yellow range with no adverse effects.
The heat will aid in vaporizing the fuel and help prevent the If the atmospheric conditions are conducive to carburetor
formation of carburetor ice. Periodically, open the throttle icing, the indicator must be kept outside the yellow arc by
smoothly for a few seconds to keep the engine warm; application of carburetor heat.
otherwise, the carburetor heater may not provide enough
heat to prevent icing. Certain carburetor air temperature gauges have a red radial,
which indicates the maximum permissible carburetor inlet
The use of carburetor heat causes a decrease in engine air temperature recommended by the engine manufacturer. If
power, sometimes up to 15 percent, because the heated air present, a green arc indicates the normal operating range.
is less dense than the outside air that had been entering the
engine. This enriches the mixture. When ice is present in an Outside Air Temperature Gauge
aircraft with a xed-pitch propeller and carburetor heat is Most aircraft are also equipped with an outside air
being used, there is a decrease in rpm, followed by a gradual temperature (OAT) gauge calibrated in both degrees Celsius
increase in rpm as the ice melts. The engine also should run and Fahrenheit. It provides the outside or ambient air
more smoothly after the ice has been removed. If ice is not temperature for calculating true airspeed, and also is useful
present, the rpm will decrease and then remain constant. in detecting potential icing conditions.
When carburetor heat is used on an aircraft with a constant-
speed propeller and ice is present, a decrease in the manifold Fuel Injection Systems
pressure will be noticed, followed by a gradual increase. In a fuel injection system, the fuel is injected directly into
If carburetor icing is not present, the gradual increase in the cylinders, or just ahead of the intake valve. The air
manifold pressure will not be apparent until the carburetor intake for the fuel injection system is similar to that used
heat is turned off. in a carburetor system, with an alternate air source located
within the engine cowling. This source is used if the external
It is imperative for a pilot to recognize carburetor ice when air source is obstructed. The alternate air source is usually
it forms during ight because a loss of power, altitude, operated automatically, with a backup manual system that
and/or airspeed will occur. These symptoms may sometimes can be used if the automatic feature malfunctions.
be accompanied by vibration or engine roughness. Once a
power loss is noticed, immediate action should be taken to A fuel injection system usually incorporates six basic
eliminate ice already formed in the carburetor, and to prevent components: an engine-driven fuel pump, a fuel/air control
further ice formation. This is accomplished by applying full unit, fuel manifold (fuel distributor), discharge nozzles,
carburetor heat, which will cause a further reduction in power, an auxiliary fuel pump, and fuel pressure/ow indicators.
and possibly engine roughness as melted ice goes through the [Figure 6-13]
engine. These symptoms may last from 30 seconds to several
minutes, depending on the severity of the icing. During this The auxiliary fuel pump provides fuel under pressure to the
period, the pilot must resist the temptation to decrease the fuel/air control unit for engine starting and/or emergency
carburetor heat usage. Carburetor heat must remain in the use. After starting, the engine-driven fuel pump provides
full-hot position until normal power returns. fuel under pressure from the fuel tank to the fuel/air control
unit.
Since the use of carburetor heat tends to reduce the output
of the engine and to increase the operating temperature, This control unit, which essentially replaces the carburetor,
carburetor heat should not be used when full power is required meters fuel based on the mixture control setting, and sends it
(as during takeoff) or during normal engine operation, except to the fuel manifold valve at a rate controlled by the throttle.
to check for the presence or to remove carburetor ice. After reaching the fuel manifold valve, the fuel is distributed
to the individual fuel discharge nozzles. The discharge
Carburetor Air Temperature Gauge nozzles, which are located in each cylinder head, inject the
Some aircraft are equipped with a carburetor air temperature fuel/air mixture directly into each cylinder intake port.
gauge, which is useful in detecting potential icing conditions.

6-10
 k
l tan
Fue
Auxiliary fuel pump

Engine-driven fuel pump

Fuel/air control unit

Fuel lines Fuel manifold valve

Figure 6-13. Fuel injection system.

A fuel injection system is considered to be less susceptible to the power supply. A supercharger relies on an engine-driven
icing than the carburetor system, but impact icing on the air air pump or compressor, while a turbocharger gets its power
intake is a possibility in either system. Impact icing occurs from the exhaust stream that runs through a turbine, which in
when ice forms on the exterior of the aircraft, and blocks turn spins the compressor. Aircraft with these systems have
openings such as the air intake for the injection system. a manifold pressure gauge, which displays MAP within the
engines intake manifold.
Advantages of fuel injection:
Reduction in evaporative icing On a standard day at sea level with the engine shut down,
the manifold pressure gauge will indicate the ambient
Better fuel ow absolute air pressure of 29.92 "Hg. Because atmospheric
Faster throttle response pressure decreases approximately 1 "Hg per 1,000 feet of
altitude increase, the manifold pressure gauge will indicate
Precise control of mixture
approximately 24.92 "Hg at an airport that is 5,000 feet above
Better fuel distribution sea level with standard day conditions.
Easier cold weather starts
As a normally aspirated aircraft climbs, it eventually reaches
Disadvantages: an altitude where the MAP is insufcient for a normal climb.
That altitude limit is the aircrafts service ceiling, and it is
Difculty in starting a hot engine directly affected by the engines ability to produce power.
Vapor locks during ground operations on hot days If the induction air entering the engine is pressurized, or
Problems associated with restarting an engine that boosted, by either a supercharger or a turbosupercharger,
quits because of fuel starvation the aircrafts service ceiling can be increased. With these
systems, an aircraft can y at higher altitudes with the
Superchargers and Turbosuperchargers advantage of higher true airspeeds and the increased ability
to circumnavigate adverse weather.
To increase an engines horsepower, manufacturers have
developed forced induction systems called supercharger
and turbosupercharger systems. They both compress the
intake air to increase its density. The key difference lies in

6-11
Superchargers accelerates the fuel/air mixture outward. Once accelerated, the
A supercharger is an engine-driven air pump or compressor fuel/air mixture passes through a diffuser, where air velocity
that provides compressed air to the engine to provide is traded for pressure energy. After compression, the resulting
additional pressure to the induction air so the engine can high pressure fuel/air mixture is directed to the cylinders.
produce additional power. It increases manifold pressure
and forces the fuel/air mixture into the cylinders. The higher Some of the large radial engines developed during World
the manifold pressure, the more dense the fuel/air mixture, War II have a single-stage, two-speed supercharger. With
and the more power an engine can produce. With a normally this type of supercharger, a single impeller may be operated
aspirated engine, it is not possible to have manifold pressure at two speeds. The low impeller speed is often referred to
higher than the existing atmospheric pressure. A supercharger as the low blower setting, while the high impeller speed is
is capable of boosting manifold pressure above 30 "Hg. called the high blower setting. On engines equipped with a
two-speed supercharger, a lever or switch in the ight deck
For example, at 8,000 feet a typical engine may be able to activates an oil-operated clutch that switches from one speed
produce 75 percent of the power it could produce at mean sea to the other.
level (MSL) because the air is less dense at the higher altitude.
The supercharger compresses the air to a higher density Under normal operations, takeoff is made with the
allowing a supercharged engine to produce the same manifold supercharger in the low blower position. In this mode, the
pressure at higher altitudes as it could produce at sea level. engine performs as a ground-boosted engine, and the power
Thus, an engine at 8,000 feet MSL could still produce 25 "Hg output decreases as the aircraft gains altitude. However, once
of manifold pressure whereas without a supercharger it could the aircraft reaches a specied altitude, a power reduction is
produce only 22 "Hg. Superchargers are especially valuable made, and the supercharger control is switched to the high
at high altitudes (such as 18,000 feet) where the air density blower position. The throttle is then reset to the desired
is 50 percent that of sea level. The use of a supercharger in manifold pressure. An engine equipped with this type of
many cases will supply air to the engine at the same density supercharger is called an altitude engine. [Figure 6-14]
it did at sea level. With a normally aspirated engine, it is not
possible to have manifold pressure higher than the existing
Two-speed supercharged engine
atmospheric pressure. A supercharger is capable of boosting
manifold pressure above 30 "Hg. Lo w
blow High
er blow
er
The components in a supercharged induction system are similar
Brake horsepower

to those in a normally aspirated system, with the addition of

Nor
a supercharger between the fuel metering device and intake m ally
aspi
manifold. A supercharger is driven by the engine through a rated
e ngine
gear train at one speed, two speeds, or variable speeds. In
addition, superchargers can have one or more stages. Each
stage also provides an increase in pressure and superchargers
may be classied as single stage, two stage, or multistage,
depending on the number of times compression occurs.

An early version of a single-stage, single-speed supercharger

may be referred to as a sea-level supercharger. An engine Sea level Density altitude
equipped with this type of supercharger is called a sea-level
engine. With this type of supercharger, a single gear-driven Figure 6-14. Power output of normally aspirated engine compared
impeller is used to increase the power produced by an engine at to a single-stage, two-speed supercharged engine.
all altitudes. The drawback with this type of supercharger is a
decrease in engine power output with an increase in altitude. Turbosuperchargers
The most efcient method of increasing horsepower in an
Single-stage, single-speed superchargers are found on many engine is by use of a turbosupercharger or turbocharger.
high-powered radial engines and use an air intake that faces Installed on an engine, this booster uses the engines exhaust
forward so the induction system can take full advantage of the gases to drive an air compressor to increase the pressure of
ram air. Intake air passes through ducts to a carburetor, where the air going into the engine through the carburetor or fuel
fuel is metered in proportion to the airow. The fuel/air charge injection system to boost power at higher altitude.
is then ducted to the supercharger, or blower impeller, which

6-12
The major disadvantage of the gear-driven superchargeruse shaft. By directing different amounts of exhaust gases to ow
of a large amount of the engines power output for the amount over the turbine, more energy can be extracted, causing the
of power increase producedis avoided with a turbocharger, impeller to deliver more compressed air to the engine. The
because turbochargers are powered by an engines exhaust waste gate, essentially an adjustable buttery valve installed
gases. This means a turbocharger recovers energy from hot in the exhaust system, is used to vary the mass of exhaust gas
exhaust gases that would otherwise be lost. owing into the turbine. When closed, most of the exhaust
gases from the engine are forced to ow through the turbine.
A second advantage of turbochargers over superchargers is When open, the exhaust gases are allowed to bypass the
the ability to maintain control over an engines rated sea- turbine by owing directly out through the engines exhaust
level horsepower from sea level up to the engines critical pipe. [Figure 6-15]
altitude. Critical altitude is the maximum altitude at which
a turbocharged engine can produce its rated horsepower. Since the temperature of a gas rises when it is compressed,
Above the critical altitude, power output begins to decrease turbocharging causes the temperature of the induction air to
like it does for a normally aspirated engine. increase. To reduce this temperature and lower the risk of
detonation, many turbocharged engines use an intercooler.
Turbochargers increase the pressure of the engines induction This small heat exchanger uses outside air to cool the hot
air, which allows the engine to develop sea level or greater compressed air before it enters the fuel metering device.
horsepower at higher altitudes. A turbocharger is comprised
of two main elements: a compressor and turbine. The System Operation
compressor section houses an impeller that turns at a high rate On most modern turbocharged engines, the position of
of speed. As induction air is drawn across the impeller blades, the waste gate is governed by a pressure-sensing control
the impeller accelerates the air, allowing a large volume of mechanism coupled to an actuator. Engine oil directed into
air to be drawn into the compressor housing. The impellers or away from this actuator moves the waste gate position.
action subsequently produces high-pressure, high-density On these systems, the actuator is automatically positioned to
air, which is delivered to the engine. To turn the impeller, produce the desired MAP simply by changing the position
the engines exhaust gases are used to drive a turbine wheel of the throttle control.
that is mounted on the opposite end of the impellers drive

TURBOCHARGER THROTTLE BODY INTAKE MANIFOLD

The turbocharger in- This regulates airflow Pressurized air from the
corporates a turbine, to the engine. turbocharger is supplied
which is driven by ex- to the cylinders.
haust gases, and a com-
pressor that pressurizes
the incoming air.

WASTE GATE EXHAUST MANIFOLD

This controls the amount AIR INTAKE Exhaust gas is ducted
of exhaust through the through the exhaust man-
turbine. Waste gate Intake air is ducted to the ifold and is used to turn
position is actuated by turbocharger where it is the turbine which drives
EXHAUST GAS DISCHARGE engine oil pressure. compressed. the compressor.

Figure 6-15. Turbocharger components.

6-13
Other turbocharging system designs use a separate manual Ignition System
control to position the waste gate. With manual control,
In a spark ignition engine the ignition system provides a
the manifold pressure gauge must be closely monitored to
spark that ignites the fuel/air mixture in the cylinders and is
determine when the desired MAP has been achieved. Manual
made up of magnetos, spark plugs, high-tension leads, and
systems are often found on aircraft that have been modied
the ignition switch. [Figure 6-16]
with aftermarket turbocharging systems. These systems
require special operating considerations. For example, if the
A magneto uses a permanent magnet to generate an electrical
waste gate is left closed after descending from a high altitude,
current completely independent of the aircrafts electrical
it is possible to produce a manifold pressure that exceeds the
system. The magneto generates sufciently high voltage
engines limitations. This condition, called an overboost,
to jump a spark across the spark plug gap in each cylinder.
may produce severe detonation because of the leaning effect
The system begins to re when the starter is engaged and the
resulting from increased air density during descent.
crankshaft begins to turn. It continues to operate whenever
the crankshaft is rotating.
Although an automatic waste gate system is less likely
to experience an overboost condition, it can still occur. If
Most standard certicated aircraft incorporate a dual ignition
takeoff power is applied while the engine oil temperature is
system with two individual magnetos, separate sets of wires,
below its normal operating range, the cold oil may not ow
and spark plugs to increase reliability of the ignition system.
out of the waste gate actuator quickly enough to prevent an
Each magneto operates independently to re one of the two
overboost. To help prevent overboosting, advance the throttle
spark plugs in each cylinder. The ring of two spark plugs
cautiously to prevent exceeding the maximum manifold
improves combustion of the fuel/air mixture and results in
pressure limits.
a slightly higher power output. If one of the magnetos fails,
the other is unaffected. The engine will continue to operate
A pilot ying an aircraft with a turbocharger should be aware
normally, although a slight decrease in engine power can be
of system limitations. For example, a turbocharger turbine
expected. The same is true if one of the two spark plugs in
and impeller can operate at rotational speeds in excess of
a cylinder fails.
80,000 rpm while at extremely high temperatures. To achieve
high rotational speed, the bearings within the system must be
The operation of the magneto is controlled in the ight deck
constantly supplied with engine oil to reduce the frictional
by the ignition switch. The switch has ve positions:
forces and high temperature. To obtain adequate lubrication,
the oil temperature should be in the normal operating range 1. OFF
before high throttle settings are applied. In addition, allow 2. R (right)
the turbocharger to cool and the turbine to slow down before
3. L (left)
shutting the engine down. Otherwise, the oil remaining in
the bearing housing will boil, causing hard carbon deposits 4. BOTH
to form on the bearings and shaft. These deposits rapidly 5. START
deteriorate the turbochargers efciency and service life. For
further limitations, refer to the AFM/POH. With RIGHT or LEFT selected, only the associated magneto
is activated. The system operates on both magnetos with
High Altitude Performance BOTH selected.
As an aircraft equipped with a turbocharging system climbs,
the waste gate is gradually closed to maintain the maximum A malfunctioning ignition system can be identied during
allowable manifold pressure. At some point, the waste gate the pretakeoff check by observing the decrease in rpm that
will be fully closed and further increases in altitude will occurs when the ignition switch is rst moved from BOTH
cause the manifold pressure to decrease. This is the critical to RIGHT, and then from BOTH to LEFT. A small decrease
altitude, which is established by the aircraft or engine in engine rpm is normal during this check. The permissible
manufacturer. When evaluating the performance of the decrease is listed in the AFM or POH. If the engine stops
turbocharging system, be aware that if the manifold pressure running when switched to one magneto or if the rpm drop
begins decreasing before the specied critical altitude, the exceeds the allowable limit, do not y the aircraft until
engine and turbocharging system should be inspected by the problem is corrected. The cause could be fouled plugs,
a qualied aviation maintenance technician to verify the broken or shorted wires between the magneto and the plugs,
systems proper operation. or improperly timed ring of the plugs. It should be noted

6-14
 Upper magneto wires
Upper spark plugs Lower spark plugs
Lower magneto wires

2 1

4 3

Left magneto Right magneto

Figure 6-16. Ignition system components.

that no drop in rpm is not normal, and in that instance, the Reciprocating engines use either a wet-sump or a dry-sump
aircraft should not be own. oil system. In a wet-sump system, the oil is located in a sump,
which is an integral part of the engine. In a dry-sump system,
Following engine shutdown, turn the ignition switch to the the oil is contained in a separate tank, and circulated through
OFF position. Even with the battery and master switches the engine by pumps. [Figure 6-17]
OFF, the engine can re and turn over if the ignition switch
is left ON and the propeller is moved because the magneto The main component of a wet-sump system is the oil pump,
requires no outside source of electrical power. Be aware of the which draws oil from the sump and routes it to the engine.
potential for serious injury in this situation. After the oil passes through the engine, it returns to the
sump. In some engines, additional lubrication is supplied
Even with the ignition switch in the OFF position, if the ground by the rotating crankshaft, which splashes oil onto portions
wire between the magneto and the ignition switch becomes of the engine.
disconnected or broken, the engine could accidentally start
if the propeller is moved with residual fuel in the cylinder. An oil pump also supplies oil pressure in a dry-sump system,
If this occurs, the only way to stop the engine is to move the but the source of the oil is located external to the engine in a
mixture lever to the idle cutoff position, then have the system separate oil tank. After oil is routed through the engine, it is
checked by a qualied aviation maintenance technician. pumped from the various locations in the engine back to the
oil tank by scavenge pumps. Dry-sump systems allow for a
Oil Systems greater volume of oil to be supplied to the engine, which makes
The engine oil system performs several important functions: them more suitable for very large reciprocating engines.

Lubrication of the engines moving parts The oil pressure gauge provides a direct indication of the oil
Cooling of the engine by reducing friction system operation. It ensures the pressure in pounds per square
Removing heat from the cylinders inch (psi) of the oil supplied to the engine. Green indicates
the normal operating range, while red indicates the minimum
Providing a seal between the cylinder walls and and maximum pressures. There should be an indication of
pistons oil pressure during engine start. Refer to the AFM/POH for
Carrying away contaminants manufacturer limitations.

6-15
 Oil filter cap and dipstick

Engine
Sump oil and return and
oil from relief valve Accessory
Bearings

Pressure oil from

oil pump Oil sump

Low pressure oil screen

Oil pressure relief valve

Oil pump

High pressure oil screen 245 II5

T 200 I00 P
P R
Oil cooler and filter E F 60 S E
M I50 I
P I00 20 S
S
75 0
OIL

Figure 6-17. Wet-sump oil system.

The oil temperature gauge measures the temperature of oil.

A green area shows the normal operating range and the red
line indicates the maximum allowable temperature. Unlike
oil pressure, changes in oil temperature occur more slowly.
This is particularly noticeable after starting a cold engine,
when it may take several minutes or longer for the gauge to
show any increase in oil temperature.

Check oil temperature periodically during ight especially

when operating in high or low ambient air temperature. High
oil temperature indications may signal a plugged oil line, a low
oil quantity, a blocked oil cooler, or a defective temperature
gauge. Low oil temperature indications may signal improper
oil viscosity during cold weather operations. Figure 6-18. Always check the engine oil level during the preflight
inspection.
The oil ller cap and dipstick (for measuring the oil quantity)
are usually accessible through a panel in the engine cowling. If to loss of power, excessive oil consumption, detonation, and
the quantity does not meet the manufacturers recommended serious engine damage.
operating levels, oil should be added. The AFM/POH or
placards near the access panel provide information about While the oil system is vital to the internal cooling of the
the correct oil type and weight, as well as the minimum and engine, an additional method of cooling is necessary for the
maximum oil quantity. [Figure 6-18] engines external surface. Most small aircraft are air cooled,
although some are liquid cooled.
Engine Cooling Systems
Air cooling is accomplished by air owing into the engine
The burning fuel within the cylinders produces intense compartment through openings in front of the engine
heat, most of which is expelled through the exhaust system. cowling. Bafes route this air over ns attached to the engine
Much of the remaining heat, however, must be removed, or cylinders, and other parts of the engine, where the air absorbs
at least dissipated, to prevent the engine from overheating. the engine heat. Expulsion of the hot air takes place through
Otherwise, the extremely high engine temperatures can lead

6-16
one or more openings in the lower, aft portion of the engine determining engine temperature if this is the only means
cowling. [Figure 6-19] available.

Most aircraft are equipped with a cylinder-head temperature

gauge which indicates a direct and immediate cylinder
Cylinders
temperature change. This instrument is calibrated in degrees
Baffle Celsius or Fahrenheit, and is usually color coded with a
Air inlet
green arc to indicate the normal operating range. A red line
on the instrument indicates maximum allowable cylinder
head temperature.

To avoid excessive cylinder head temperatures, increase

airspeed, enrich the mixture, and/or reduce power. Any of
these procedures help to reduce the engine temperature. On
aircraft equipped with cowl aps, use the cowl ap positions
to control the temperature. Cowl aps are hinged covers that
t over the opening through which the hot air is expelled. If
Baffle the engine temperature is low, the cowl aps can be closed,
thereby restricting the ow of expelled hot air and increasing
engine temperature. If the engine temperature is high, the cowl
Fixed cowl opening aps can be opened to permit a greater ow of air through the
system, thereby decreasing the engine temperature.

Figure 6-19. Outside air aids in cooling the engine. Exhaust Systems
Engine exhaust systems vent the burned combustion gases
The outside air enters the engine compartment through an overboard, provide heat for the cabin, and defrost the
inlet behind the propeller hub. Bafes direct it to the hottest windscreen. An exhaust system has exhaust piping attached
parts of the engine, primarily the cylinders, which have ns to the cylinders, as well as a mufer and a mufer shroud.
that increase the area exposed to the airow. The exhaust gases are pushed out of the cylinder through
the exhaust valve and then through the exhaust pipe system
The air cooling system is less effective during ground to the atmosphere.
operations, takeoffs, go-arounds, and other periods of high-
power, low-airspeed operation. Conversely, high-speed For cabin heat, outside air is drawn into the air inlet and is
descents provide excess air and can shock cool the engine, ducted through a shroud around the mufer. The mufer is
subjecting it to abrupt temperature uctuations. heated by the exiting exhaust gases and, in turn, heats the
air around the mufer. This heated air is then ducted to the
Operating the engine at higher than its designed temperature cabin for heat and defrost applications. The heat and defrost
can cause loss of power, excessive oil consumption, and are controlled in the ight deck, and can be adjusted to the
detonation. It will also lead to serious permanent damage, desired level.
such as scoring the cylinder walls, damaging the pistons
and rings, and burning and warping the valves. Monitoring Exhaust gases contain large amounts of carbon monoxide,
the ight deck engine temperature instruments will aid in which is odorless and colorless. Carbon monoxide is deadly,
avoiding high operating temperature. and its presence is virtually impossible to detect. The exhaust
system must be in good condition and free of cracks.
Under normal operating conditions in aircraft not equipped
with cowl aps, the engine temperature can be controlled Some exhaust systems have an EGT probe. This probe
by changing the airspeed or the power output of the engine. transmits the EGT to an instrument in the ight deck. The
High engine temperatures can be decreased by increasing the EGT gauge measures the temperature of the gases at the
airspeed and/or reducing the power. exhaust manifold. This temperature varies with the ratio
of fuel to air entering the cylinders and can be used as a
The oil temperature gauge gives an indirect and delayed
indication of rising engine temperature, but can be used for

6-17
basis for regulating the fuel/air mixture. The EGT gauge
is highly accurate in indicating the correct mixture setting.
When using the EGT to aid in leaning the fuel/air mixture, External
power plug External
fuel consumption can be reduced. For specic procedures, power
relay
refer to the manufacturers recommendations for leaning
the mixture. +
+
Starting System
Most small aircraft use a direct-cranking electric starter
system. This system consists of a source of electricity, wiring, M
switches, and solenoids to operate the starter and a starter A rte
r
I Sta
motor. Most aircraft have starters that automatically engage
and disengage when operated, but some older aircraft have tery
N
Bat
starters that are mechanically engaged by a lever actuated by
B
the pilot. The starter engages the aircraft ywheel, rotating
U
the engine at a speed that allows the engine to start and S
maintain operation.

Electrical power for starting is usually supplied by an onboard

Battery
battery, but can also be supplied by external power through contactor Starter
(solenoid) contactor
an external power receptacle. When the battery switch is
turned on, electricity is supplied to the main power bus bar
through the battery solenoid. Both the starter and the starter R B
B L
switch draw current from the main bus bar, but the starter A A OFF
will not operate until the starting solenoid is energized by L T S
the starter switch being turned to the start position. When T
the starter switch is released from the start position, the Ignition switch
solenoid removes power from the starter motor. The starter
motor is protected from being driven by the engine through a Figure 6-20. Typical starting circuit.
clutch in the starter drive that allows the engine to run faster
than the starter motor. [Figure 6-20]

When starting an engine, the rules of safety and courtesy

should be strictly observed. One of the most important is to
make sure there is no one near the propeller. In addition, the
wheels should be chocked and the brakes set, to avoid hazards
caused by unintentional movement. To avoid damage to the
propeller and property, the aircraft should be in an area where
the propeller will not stir up gravel or dust.

Combustion
During normal combustion, the fuel/air mixture burns in a
very controlled and predictable manner. In a spark ignition
engine the process occurs in a fraction of a second. The
mixture actually begins to burn at the point where it is ignited Normal combustion Explosion
by the spark plugs, then burns away from the plugs until it
is all consumed. This type of combustion causes a smooth Figure 6-21. Normal combustion and explosive combustion.
build-up of temperature and pressure and ensures that the
expanding gases deliver the maximum force to the piston at
exactly the right time in the power stroke. [Figure 6-21]

6-18
Detonation is an uncontrolled, explosive ignition of the two. Using the recommended grade of fuel and operating
fuel/air mixture within the cylinders combustion chamber. the engine within its proper temperature, pressure, and rpm
It causes excessive temperatures and pressures which, if not ranges reduce the chance of detonation or preignition.
corrected, can quickly lead to failure of the piston, cylinder,
or valves. In less severe cases, detonation causes engine Full Authority Digital Engine Control
overheating, roughness, or loss of power. (FADEC)
FADEC is a system consisting of a digital computer and
Detonation is characterized by high cylinder head temperatures ancillary components that control an aircrafts engine
and is most likely to occur when operating at high power and propeller. First used in turbine-powered aircraft, and
settings. Common operational causes of detonation are: referred to as full authority digital electronic control, these
Use of a lower fuel grade than that specied by the sophisticated control systems are increasingly being used in
aircraft manufacturer. piston powered aircraft.
Operation of the engine with extremely high manifold
In a spark ignition reciprocating engine the FADEC uses
pressures in conjunction with low rpm.
speed, temperature, and pressure sensors to monitor the
Operation of the engine at high power settings with status of each cylinder. A digital computer calculates the
an excessively lean mixture. ideal pulse for each injector and adjusts ignition timing as
Maintaining extended ground operations or steep necessary to achieve optimal performance. In a compression
climbs in which cylinder cooling is reduced. ignition engine the FADEC operates similarly and performs
all of the same functions, excluding those specically related
to the spark ignition process.
Detonation may be avoided by following these basic
guidelines during the various phases of ground and ight
FADEC systems eliminate the need for magnetos, carburetor
operations:
heat, mixture controls, and engine priming. A single throttle
Make sure the proper grade of fuel is used. lever is characteristic of an aircraft equipped with a FADEC
Keep the cowl aps (if available) in the full-open system. The pilot simply positions the throttle lever to a
position while on the ground to provide the maximum desired detent such as start, idle, cruise power, or max power,
airow through the cowling. and the FADEC system adjusts the engine and propeller
automatically for the mode selected. There is no need for the
Use an enriched fuel mixture, as well as a shallower pilot to monitor or control the air/fuel mixture.
climb angle to increase cylinder cooling during takeoff
and initial climb. During aircraft starting, the FADEC primes the cylinders,
Avoid extended, high power, steep climbs. adjusts the mixture, and positions the throttle based on engine
Develop the habit of monitoring the engine instruments temperature and ambient pressure. During cruise ight, the
to verify proper operation according to procedures FADEC constantly monitors the engine and adjusts fuel ow,
established by the manufacturer. and ignition timing individually in each cylinder. This precise
control of the combustion process often results in decreased
Preignition occurs when the fuel/air mixture ignites prior fuel consumption and increased horsepower.
to the engines normal ignition event. Premature burning
is usually caused by a residual hot spot in the combustion FADEC systems are considered an essential part of the
chamber, often created by a small carbon deposit on a spark engine and propeller control, and may be powered by the
plug, a cracked spark plug insulator, or other damage in the aircrafts main electrical system. In many aircraft FADEC
cylinder that causes a part to heat sufciently to ignite the uses power from a separate generator connected to the engine.
fuel/air charge. Preignition causes the engine to lose power, In either case, there must be a backup electrical source
and produces high operating temperature. As with detonation, available because failure of a FADEC system could result
preignition may also cause severe engine damage, because in a complete loss of engine thrust. To prevent loss of thrust,
the expanding gases exert excessive pressure on the piston two separate and identical digital channels are incorporated
while still on its compression stroke. for redundancy, each channel capable of providing all engine
and propeller functions without limitations.
Detonation and preignition often occur simultaneously and
one may cause the other. Since either condition causes high
engine temperature accompanied by a decrease in engine
performance, it is often difcult to distinguish between the

6-19
Turbine Engines the combustion chamber. The combustion chamber contains
the fuel inlet and igniter for combustion. The expanding
An aircraft turbine engine consists of an air inlet, compressor,
air drives a turbine, which is connected by a shaft to the
combustion chambers, a turbine section, and exhaust. Thrust
compressor, sustaining engine operation. The accelerated
is produced by increasing the velocity of the air owing
exhaust gases from the engine provide thrust. This is a basic
through the engine. Turbine engines are highly desirable
application of compressing air, igniting the fuel-air mixture,
aircraft powerplants. They are characterized by smooth
producing power to self-sustain the engine operation, and
operation and a high power-to-weight ratio, and they
exhaust for propulsion. [Figure 6-23]
use readily available jet fuel. Prior to recent advances in
material, engine design, and manufacturing processes, the
Turbojet engines are limited in range and endurance. They
use of turbine engines in small/light production aircraft was
are also slow to respond to throttle applications at slow
cost prohibitive. Today, several aviation manufacturers are
compressor speeds.
producing or plan to produce small/light turbine-powered
aircraft. These smaller turbine-powered aircraft typically
seat between three and seven passengers and are referred to Turboprop
as very light jets (VLJs) or microjets. [Figure 6-22] A turboprop engine is a turbine engine that drives a propeller
through a reduction gear. The exhaust gases drive a power
turbine connected by a shaft that drives the reduction gear
assembly. Reduction gearing is necessary in turboprop engines
because optimum propeller performance is achieved at much
slower speeds than the engines operating rpm. Turboprop
engines are a compromise between turbojet engines and
reciprocating powerplants. Turboprop engines are most
efcient at speeds between 250 and 400 mph and altitudes
between 18,000 and 30,000 feet. They also perform well at
the slow airspeeds required for takeoff and landing, and are
fuel efcient. The minimum specic fuel consumption of the
turboprop engine is normally available in the altitude range
of 25,000 feet to the tropopause. [Figure 6-24]

Figure 6-22. Eclipse 500 VLJ.

Turbofan
Turbofans were developed to combine some of the best
Types of Turbine Engines features of the turbojet and the turboprop. Turbofan engines
Turbine engines are classied according to the type of are designed to create additional thrust by diverting a
compressors they use. There are three types of compressors secondary airow around the combustion chamber. The
centrifugal ow, axial ow, and centrifugal-axial ow. turbofan bypass air generates increased thrust, cools the
Compression of inlet air is achieved in a centrifugal ow engine, and aids in exhaust noise suppression. This provides
engine by accelerating air outward perpendicular to the turbojet-type cruise speed and lower fuel consumption.
longitudinal axis of the machine. The axial-ow engine
compresses air by a series of rotating and stationary The inlet air that passes through a turbofan engine is usually
airfoils moving the air parallel to the longitudinal axis. The divided into two separate streams of air. One stream passes
centrifugal-axial ow design uses both kinds of compressors through the engine core, while a second stream bypasses the
to achieve the desired compression. engine core. It is this bypass stream of air that is responsible
for the term bypass engine. A turbofans bypass ratio refers
The path the air takes through the engine and how power is to the ratio of the mass airow that passes through the fan
produced determines the type of engine. There are four types divided by the mass airow that passes through the engine
of aircraft turbine enginesturbojet, turboprop, turbofan, core. [Figure 6-25]
and turboshaft.
Turboshaft
Turbojet The fourth common type of jet engine is the turboshaft.
The turbojet engine consists of four sections: compressor, [Figure 6-26] It delivers power to a shaft that drives
combustion chamber, turbine section, and exhaust. The something other than a propeller. The biggest difference
compressor section passes inlet air at a high rate of speed to between a turbojet and turboshaft engine is that on a

6-20
 Fuel injector Turbine
Inlet
Hot gases

Compressor Combustion chamber Nozzle

Figure 6-23. Turbojet engine.

Gear box Compressor Combustion chamber

Inlet Exhaust

Prop Fuel injector Turbine

Figure 6-24. Turboprop engine.

Inlet Duct fan Fuel injector Turbine

Hot gases

Primary air stream

Secondary air stream

Compressor Combustion chamber Nozzle

Figure 6-25. Turbofan engine.

Inlet Compressor Combustion chamber Exhaust Power shaft

Compressor turbine

Free (power) turbine

Figure 6-26. Turboshaft engine.

6-21
turboshaft engine, most of the energy produced by the driving a propeller. Torquemeters are calibrated in percentage
expanding gases is used to drive a turbine rather than produce units, foot-pounds, or psi.
thrust. Many helicopters use a turboshaft gas turbine engine.
In addition, turboshaft engines are widely used as auxiliary N1 Indicator
power units on large aircraft. N1 represents the rotational speed of the low pressure
compressor and is presented on the indicator as a percentage
Turbine Engine Instruments of design rpm. After start the speed of the low pressure
Engine instruments that indicate oil pressure, oil temperature, compressor is governed by the N1 turbine wheel. The N1
engine speed, exhaust gas temperature, and fuel ow are turbine wheel is connected to the low pressure compressor
common to both turbine and reciprocating engines. However, through a concentric shaft.
there are some instruments that are unique to turbine engines.
These instruments provide indications of engine pressure N2 Indicator
ratio, turbine discharge pressure, and torque. In addition, N2 represents the rotational speed of the high pressure
most gas turbine engines have multiple temperature-sensing compressor and is presented on the indicator as a percentage
instruments, called thermocouples, which provide pilots with of design rpm. The high pressure compressor is governed
temperature readings in and around the turbine section. by the N2 turbine wheel. The N2 turbine wheel is connected
to the high pressure compressor through a concentric shaft.
Engine Pressure Ratio (EPR) [Figure 6-27]
An engine pressure ratio (EPR) gauge is used to indicate the
power output of a turbojet/turbofan engine. EPR is the ratio
Low pressure High pressure
of turbine discharge to compressor inlet pressure. Pressure compressor (N1) compressor (N2)
measurements are recorded by probes installed in the engine
inlet and at the exhaust. Once collected, the data is sent to
a differential pressure transducer, which is indicated on a
ight deck EPR gauge.

EPR system design automatically compensates for the effects

of airspeed and altitude. Changes in ambient temperature
require a correction be applied to EPR indications to provide
accurate engine power settings.
High pressure compressor drive shaft
Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT)
A limiting factor in a gas turbine engine is the temperature Low pressure compressor drive shaft
of the turbine section. The temperature of a turbine section
must be monitored closely to prevent overheating the turbine Figure 6-27. Dual-spool axial-flow compressor.
blades and other exhaust section components. One common
way of monitoring the temperature of a turbine section is Turbine Engine Operational Considerations
with an EGT gauge. EGT is an engine operating limit used The great variety of turbine engines makes it impractical to
to monitor overall engine operating conditions. cover specic operational procedures, but there are certain
operational considerations common to all turbine engines.
Variations of EGT systems bear different names based on They are engine temperature limits, foreign object damage,
the location of the temperature sensors. Common turbine hot start, compressor stall, and ameout.
temperature sensing gauges include the turbine inlet
temperature (TIT) gauge, turbine outlet temperature (TOT) Engine Temperature Limitations
gauge, interstage turbine temperature (ITT) gauge, and
The highest temperature in any turbine engine occurs at the
turbine gas temperature (TGT) gauge.
turbine inlet. Turbine inlet temperature is therefore usually
the limiting factor in turbine engine operation.
Torquemeter
Turboprop/turboshaft engine power output is measured by the Thrust Variations
torquemeter. Torque is a twisting force applied to a shaft. The
Turbine engine thrust varies directly with air density. As air
torquemeter measures power applied to the shaft. Turboprop
density decreases, so does thrust. Additionally, because air
and turboshaft engines are designed to produce torque for

6-22
density decreases with an increase in temperature, increased in the compressor to slow down and stagnate, sometimes
temperatures will also result in decreased thrust. While both reversing direction. [Figure 6-28]
turbine and reciprocating powered engines are affected to
some degree by high relative humidity, turbine engines will
experience a negligible loss of thrust, while reciprocating
engines a signicant loss of brake horsepower.
Normal inlet airflow

Foreign Object Damage (FOD)

Due to the design and function of a turbine engines air inlet,
the possibility of ingestion of debris always exists. This
causes signicant damage, particularly to the compressor
Distorted inlet airflow
and turbine sections. When ingestion of debris occurs, it is
called foreign object damage (FOD). Typical FOD consists
of small nicks and dents caused by ingestion of small objects
from the ramp, taxiway, or runway, but FOD damage caused
by bird strikes or ice ingestion also occur. Sometimes FOD
results in total destruction of an engine.
Figure 6-28. Comparison of normal and distorted airflow into the
Prevention of FOD is a high priority. Some engine inlets compressor section.
have a tendency to form a vortex between the ground and
the inlet during ground operations. A vortex dissipater may Compressor stalls can be transient and intermittent or steady
be installed on these engines. Other devices, such as screens and severe. Indications of a transient/intermittent stall are
and/or deectors, may also be utilized. Preight procedures usually an intermittent bang as backre and ow reversal
include a visual inspection for any sign of FOD. take place. If the stall develops and becomes steady, strong
vibration and a loud roar may develop from the continuous
Turbine Engine Hot/Hung Start ow reversal. Often, the ight deck gauges do not show a
mild or transient stall, but they do indicate a developed stall.
When the EGT exceeds the safe limit of an aircraft, it
Typical instrument indications include uctuations in rpm and
experiences a hot start. It is caused by too much fuel
an increase in exhaust gas temperature. Most transient stalls
entering the combustion chamber, or insufcient turbine
are not harmful to the engine and often correct themselves
rpm. Any time an engine has a hot start, refer to the AFM/
after one or two pulsations. The possibility of severe engine
POH or an appropriate maintenance manual for inspection
damage from a steady state stall is immediate. Recovery must
requirements.
be accomplished by quickly reducing power, decreasing the
aircrafts angle of attack, and increasing airspeed.
If the engine fails to accelerate to the proper speed after
ignition or does not accelerate to idle rpm, a hung or false start
Although all gas turbine engines are subject to compressor
has occurred. A hung start may be caused by an insufcient
stalls, most models have systems that inhibit them. One
starting power source or fuel control malfunction.
system uses a variable inlet guide vane (VIGV) and variable
stator vanes, which direct the incoming air into the rotor
Compressor Stalls
blades at an appropriate angle. To prevent air pressure stalls,
Compressor blades are small airfoils and are subject to the operate the aircraft within the parameters established by the
same aerodynamic principles that apply to any airfoil. A manufacturer. If a compressor stall does develop, follow the
compressor blade has an angle of attack which is a result of procedures recommended in the AFM/POH.
inlet air velocity and the compressors rotational velocity.
These two forces combine to form a vector, which denes the
Flameout
airfoils actual angle of attack to the approaching inlet air.
A ameout occurs in the operation of a gas turbine engine in
which the re in the engine unintentionally goes out. If the
A compressor stall is an imbalance between the two vector
rich limit of the fuel/air ratio is exceeded in the combustion
quantities, inlet velocity and compressor rotational speed.
chamber, the ame will blow out. This condition is often
Compressor stalls occur when the compressor blades angle
referred to as a rich ameout. It generally results from very
of attack exceeds the critical angle of attack. At this point,
fast engine acceleration, in which an overly rich mixture
smooth airow is interrupted and turbulence is created with
causes the fuel temperature to drop below the combustion
pressure uctuations. Compressor stalls cause air owing

6-23
temperature. It may also be caused by insufcient airow Figure 6-29 shows how four types of engines compare in net
to support combustion. thrust as airspeed is increased. This gure is for explanatory
purposes only and is not for specic models of engines. The
A more common ameout occurrence is due to low fuel following are the four types of engines:
pressure and low engine speeds, which typically are Reciprocating powerplant
associated with high-altitude ight. This situation may also
occur with the engine throttled back during a descent, which Turbine, propeller combination (turboprop)
can set up the lean-condition ameout. A weak mixture can Turbine engine incorporating a fan (turbofan)
easily cause the ame to die out, even with a normal airow
Turbojet (pure jet)
through the engine.

Any interruption of the fuel supply can result in a

Reciprocating
ameout. This may be due to prolonged unusual attitudes,
a malfunctioning fuel control system, turbulence, icing or Turboprop

running out of fuel. Turbofan

rag
ft d
Turbojet

c ra
Symptoms of a ameout normally are the same as those

Air
following an engine failure. If the ameout is due to a

Net thrust
transitory condition, such as an imbalance between fuel
ow and engine speed, an airstart may be attempted once
the condition is corrected. In any case, pilots must follow
the applicable emergency procedures outlined in the AFM/
POH. Generally these procedures contain recommendations
concerning altitude and airspeed where the airstart is most
likely to be successful. A B C D E F

Performance Comparison Airspeed

It is possible to compare the performance of a reciprocating
powerplant and different types of turbine engines. For Figure 6-29. Engine net thrust versus aircraft speed and drag. Points
the comparison to be accurate, thrust horsepower (usable A through F are explained in the text below.
horsepower) for the reciprocating powerplant must be used
rather than brake horsepower, and net thrust must be used
By plotting the performance curve for each engine, a
for the turbine-powered engines. In addition, aircraft design
comparison can be made of maximum aircraft speed variation
conguration and size must be approximately the same.
with the type of engine used. Since the graph is only a means
When comparing performance, the following denitions
of comparison, numerical values for net thrust, aircraft speed,
are useful:
and drag are not included.
Brake horsepower (BHP)the horsepower actually delivered
Comparison of the four powerplants on the basis of net thrust
to the output shaft. Brake horsepower is the actual usable
makes certain performance capabilities evident. In the speed
horsepower.
range shown to the left of line A, the reciprocating powerplant
outperforms the other three types. The turboprop outperforms
Net thrustthe thrust produced by a turbojet or turbofan
the turbofan in the range to the left of line C. The turbofan
engine.
engine outperforms the turbojet in the range to the left of
line F. The turbofan engine outperforms the reciprocating
Thrust horsepower (THP)the horsepower equivalent of the
powerplant to the right of line B and the turboprop to the
thrust produced by a turbojet or turbofan engine.
right of line C. The turbojet outperforms the reciprocating
powerplant to the right of line D, the turboprop to the right
Equivalent shaft horsepower (ESHP)with respect to
of line E, and the turbofan to the right of line F.
turboprop engines, the sum of the shaft horsepower (SHP)
delivered to the propeller and THP produced by the exhaust
gases.

6-24
The points where the aircraft drag curve intersects the net
thrust curves are the maximum aircraft speeds. The vertical
lines from each of the points to the baseline of the graph nk
ht ta
Rig
indicate that the turbojet aircraft can attain a higher maximum
speed than aircraft equipped with the other types of engines.
Aircraft equipped with the turbofan engine will attain a higher tank
Left
BOTH

RIGHT
maximum speed than aircraft equipped with a turboprop or

LEFT
reciprocating powerplant. OFF Strainer
Vent
Airframe Systems
Selector valve
Fuel, electrical, hydraulic, and oxygen systems make up the
airframe systems.

Fuel Systems
The fuel system is designed to provide an uninterrupted Carburetor
Primer
ow of clean fuel from the fuel tanks to the engine. The
fuel must be available to the engine under all conditions of Gravity-feed system
engine power, altitude, attitude, and during all approved ight
Carburetor Engine-driven pump
maneuvers. Two common classications apply to fuel systems
in small aircraft: gravity-feed and fuel-pump systems.

Gravity-Feed System
The gravity-feed system utilizes the force of gravity to
transfer the fuel from the tanks to the engine. For example, on
Strainer
high-wing airplanes, the fuel tanks are installed in the wings.
This places the fuel tanks above the carburetor, and the fuel Electric pump
is gravity fed through the system and into the carburetor. If Primer
the design of the aircraft is such that gravity cannot be used
to transfer fuel, fuel pumps are installed. For example, on Selector valve
low-wing airplanes, the fuel tanks in the wings are located
below the carburetor. [Figure 6-30] BOTH
nk
ht ta
RIGHT Rig
tank
LEFT

Fuel-Pump System Left OFF

Aircraft with fuel-pump systems have two fuel pumps. The
main pump system is engine driven with an electrically driven
Fuel-pump system
auxiliary pump provided for use in engine starting and in
the event the engine pump fails. The auxiliary pump, also
Figure 6-30. Gravity-feed and fuel-pump systems.
known as a boost pump, provides added reliability to the fuel
system. The electrically driven auxiliary pump is controlled Fuel Tanks
by a switch in the ight deck. The fuel tanks, normally located inside the wings of an
airplane, have a ller opening on top of the wing through
Fuel Primer which they can be lled. A ller cap covers this opening.
Both gravity-feed and fuel-pump systems may incorporate a The tanks are vented to the outside to maintain atmospheric
fuel primer into the system. The fuel primer is used to draw pressure inside the tank. They may be vented through the
fuel from the tanks to vaporize fuel directly into the cylinders ller cap or through a tube extending through the surface
prior to starting the engine. During cold weather, when engines of the wing. Fuel tanks also include an overow drain that
are difcult to start, the fuel primer helps because there is not may stand alone or be collocated with the fuel tank vent.
enough heat available to vaporize the fuel in the carburetor. It This allows fuel to expand with increases in temperature
is important to lock the primer in place when it is not in use. If without damage to the tank itself. If the tanks have been
the knob is free to move, it may vibrate out during ight and lled on a hot day, it is not unusual to see fuel coming from
can cause an excessively rich mixture. To avoid overpriming, the overow drain.
read the priming instructions for the aircraft.

6-25
Fuel Gauges so hot it vaporizes in the fuel line, not allowing fuel to reach
The fuel quantity gauges indicate the amount of fuel the cylinders.
measured by a sensing unit in each fuel tank and is displayed
in gallons or pounds. Aircraft certication rules require Fuel Strainers, Sumps, and Drains
accuracy in fuel gauges only when they read empty. Any After leaving the fuel tank and before it enters the carburetor,
reading other than empty should be veried. Do not depend the fuel passes through a strainer which removes any moisture
solely on the accuracy of the fuel quantity gauges. Always and other sediments in the system. Since these contaminants
visually check the fuel level in each tank during the preight are heavier than aviation fuel, they settle in a sump at the
inspection, and then compare it with the corresponding fuel bottom of the strainer assembly. A sump is a low point in a fuel
quantity indication. system and/or fuel tank. The fuel system may contain sump,
fuel strainer, and fuel tank drains, which may be collocated.
If a fuel pump is installed in the fuel system, a fuel pressure
gauge is also included. This gauge indicates the pressure in The fuel strainer should be drained before each ight. Fuel
the fuel lines. The normal operating pressure can be found samples should be drained and checked visually for water
in the AFM/POH or on the gauge by color coding. and contaminants.

Fuel Selectors Water in the sump is hazardous because in cold weather the
The fuel selector valve allows selection of fuel from various water can freeze and block fuel lines. In warm weather, it
tanks. A common type of selector valve contains four positions: can ow into the carburetor and stop the engine. If water is
LEFT, RIGHT, BOTH, and OFF. Selecting the LEFT or RIGHT present in the sump, more water in the fuel tanks is probable
position allows fuel to feed only from that tank, while selecting and they should be drained until there is no evidence of water.
the BOTH position feeds fuel from both tanks. The LEFT or Never take off until all water and contaminants have been
RIGHT position may be used to balance the amount of fuel removed from the engine fuel system.
remaining in each wing tank. [Figure 6-31]
Because of the variation in fuel systems, become thoroughly
familiar with the systems that apply to the aircraft being own.
BOTH
OFF 38 GA LANDIN Consult the AFM/POH for specic operating procedures.
KE HT L ATT
TA FLIG I TU G
L DE
AL S

Fuel Grades
Aviation gasoline (AVGAS) is identied by an octane or
LEFT RIGHT performance number (grade), which designates the antiknock
19 gal 19 gal
LEVEL LEVEL value or knock resistance of the fuel mixture in the engine
FLIGHT FLIGHT
ONLY ONLY cylinder. The higher the grade of gasoline, the more pressure
the fuel can withstand without detonating. Lower grades of
fuel are used in lower-compression engines because these
fuels ignite at a lower temperature. Higher grades are used
OFF in higher-compression engines, because they ignite at higher
temperatures, but not prematurely. If the proper grade of fuel
is not available, use the next higher grade as a substitute.
Figure 6-31. Fuel selector valve. Never use a grade lower than recommended. This can cause
the cylinder head temperature and engine oil temperature to
Fuel placards will show any limitations on fuel tank usage, exceed their normal operating ranges, which may result in
such as level ight only and/or both for landings and detonation.
takeoffs.
Several grades of AVGAS are available. Care must be
Regardless of the type of fuel selector in use, fuel consumption exercised to ensure that the correct aviation grade is being
should be monitored closely to ensure that a tank does not run used for the specic type of engine. The proper fuel grade is
completely out of fuel. Running a fuel tank dry will not only stated in the AFM/POH, on placards in the ight deck, and
cause the engine to stop, but running for prolonged periods next to the ller caps. Auto gas should NEVER be used in
on one tank causes an unbalanced fuel load between tanks. aircraft engines unless the aircraft has been modied with a
Running a tank completely dry may allow air to enter the Supplemental Type Certicate (STC) issued by the Federal
fuel system and cause vapor lock, which makes it difcult to Aviation Administration (FAA).
restart the engine. On fuel-injected engines, the fuel becomes

6-26
The current method identies AVGAS for aircraft with This residual water can be removed only by draining the fuel
reciprocating engines by the octane and performance number, tank sump drains.
along with the abbreviation AVGAS. These aircraft use
AVGAS 80, 100, and 100LL. Although AVGAS 100LL Water is the principal fuel contaminant. Suspended water
performs the same as grade 100, the LL indicates it has droplets in the fuel can be identied by a cloudy appearance
a low lead content. Fuel for aircraft with turbine engines is of the fuel, or by the clear separation of water from the colored
classied as JET A, JET A-1, and JET B. Jet fuel is basically fuel, which occurs after the water has settled to the bottom
kerosene and has a distinctive kerosene smell. Since use of of the tank. As a safety measure, the fuel sumps should be
the correct fuel is critical, dyes are added to help identify the drained before every ight during the preight inspection.
type and grade of fuel. [Figure 6-32]
Fuel tanks should be lled after each ight or after the last
ight of the day to prevent moisture condensation within the
80 100 100LL JET
tank. To prevent fuel contamination, avoid refueling from
AVGAS AVGAS AVGAS A cans and drums.

COLORLESS In remote areas or in emergency situations, there may be no

RED GREEN BLUE
OR STRAW
alternative to refueling from sources with inadequate anti-
AVGAS AVGAS AVGAS contamination systems. While a chamois skin and funnel
JET A
80 100 100LL may be the only possible means of ltering fuel, using
them is hazardous. Remember, the use of a chamois will
Figure 6-32. Aviation fuel color-coding system. not always ensure decontaminated fuel. Worn-out chamois
will not lter water; neither will a new, clean chamois that
In addition to the color of the fuel itself, the color-coding is already water-wet or damp. Most imitation chamois skins
system extends to decals and various airport fuel handling will not lter water.
equipment. For example, all AVGAS is identied by name,
using white letters on a red background. In contrast, turbine Refueling Procedures
fuels are identied by white letters on a black background. Static electricity is formed by the friction of air passing over the
surfaces of an aircraft in ight and by the ow of fuel through
Fuel Contamination the hose and nozzle during refueling. Nylon, Dacron, or wool
Accidents attributed to powerplant failure from fuel clothing is especially prone to accumulate and discharge static
contamination have often been traced to: electricity from the person to the funnel or nozzle. To guard
Inadequate preight inspection by the pilot. against the possibility of static electricity igniting fuel fumes,
a ground wire should be attached to the aircraft before the fuel
Servicing aircraft with improperly ltered fuel from
cap is removed from the tank. Because both the aircraft and
small tanks or drums.
refueler have different static charges, bonding both components
Storing aircraft with partially lled fuel tanks. to each other is critical. By bonding both components to each
Lack of proper maintenance. other, the static differential charge is equalized. The refueling
nozzle should be bonded to the aircraft before refueling begins
Fuel should be drained from the fuel strainer quick drain and and should remain bonded throughout the refueling process.
from each fuel tank sump into a transparent container, and When a fuel truck is used, it should be grounded prior to the
then checked for dirt and water. When the fuel strainer is fuel nozzle contacting the aircraft.
being drained, water in the tank may not appear until all the
fuel has been drained from the lines leading to the tank. This If fueling from drums or cans is necessary, proper bonding
indicates that water remains in the tank, and is not forcing the and grounding connections are important. Drums should be
fuel out of the fuel lines leading to the fuel strainer. Therefore, placed near grounding posts and the following sequence of
drain enough fuel from the fuel strainer to be certain that fuel connections observed:
is being drained from the tank. The amount will depend on 1. Drum to ground
the length of fuel line from the tank to the drain. If water or
2. Ground to aircraft
other contaminants are found in the rst sample, drain further
samples until no trace appears. 3. Bond drum to aircraft or nozzle to aircraft before the
fuel cap is removed
Water may also remain in the fuel tanks after the drainage
from the fuel strainer has ceased to show any trace of water. When disconnecting, reverse the order.

6-27
The passage of fuel through a chamois increases the charge except the ignition system. Equipment that commonly uses
of static electricity and the danger of sparks. The aircraft the electrical system for its source of energy includes:
must be properly grounded and the nozzle, chamois lter, Position lights
and funnel bonded to the aircraft. If a can is used, it should
be connected to either the grounding post or the funnel. Anticollision lights
Under no circumstances should a plastic bucket or similar Landing lights
nonconductive container be used in this operation.
Taxi lights
Electrical System Interior cabin lights
Most aircraft are equipped with either a 14- or a 28-volt direct Instrument lights
current electrical system. A basic aircraft electrical system Radio equipment
consists of the following components:
Turn indicator
Alternator/generator
Fuel gauges
Battery
Electric fuel pump
Master/battery switch
Stall warning system
Alternator/generator switch
Pitot heat
Bus bar, fuses, and circuit breakers
Starting motor
Voltage regulator
Ammeter/loadmeter Many aircraft are equipped with a battery switch that controls
the electrical power to the aircraft in a manner similar
Associated electrical wiring
to the master switch. In addition, an alternator switch is
installed which permits the pilot to exclude the alternator
Engine-driven alternators or generators supply electric
from the electrical system in the event of alternator failure.
current to the electrical system. They also maintain a
[Figure 6-33]
sufcient electrical charge in the battery. Electrical energy
stored in a battery provides a source of electrical power for
starting the engine and a limited supply of electrical power
for use in the event the alternator or generator fails.

Most direct-current generators will not produce a sufcient

amount of electrical current at low engine rpm to operate the
entire electrical system. During operations at low engine rpm,
the electrical needs must be drawn from the battery, which
can quickly be depleted.

Alternators have several advantages over generators.

Alternators produce sufcient current to operate the entire
electrical system, even at slower engine speeds, by producing
alternating current, which is converted to direct current. The
electrical output of an alternator is more constant throughout
a wide range of engine speeds.

Some aircraft have receptacles to which an external ground Figure 6-33. On this master switch, the left half is for the alternator
power unit (GPU) may be connected to provide electrical and the right half is for the battery.
energy for starting. These are very useful, especially
during cold weather starting. Follow the manufacturers
With the alternator half of the switch in the OFF position, the
recommendations for engine starting using a GPU.
entire electrical load is placed on the battery. All nonessential
electrical equipment should be turned off to conserve battery
The electrical system is turned on or off with a master switch.
power.
Turning the master switch to the ON position provides
electrical energy to all the electrical equipment circuits

6-28
A bus bar is used as a terminal in the aircraft electrical system Spare fuses of the proper amperage limit should be carried
to connect the main electrical system to the equipment using in the aircraft to replace defective or blown fuses. Circuit
electricity as a source of power. This simplies the wiring breakers have the same function as a fuse but can be manually
system and provides a common point from which voltage can reset, rather than replaced, if an overload condition occurs in
be distributed throughout the system. [Figure 6-34] the electrical system. Placards at the fuse or circuit breaker
panel identify the circuit by name and show the amperage
Fuses or circuit breakers are used in the electrical system to limit.
protect the circuits and equipment from electrical overload.

Alternator Low-voltage
control unit warning light

To inst
Low volt out LTS circuit To fuel quantity indicators
Power in
breaker P
FUEL IND.
R
Sense (+) To flashing beacon
F Alternator
I
Field M BCN PITOT
To pitot heat
Sense (-)
B
A To radio cooling fan
Ground
G R PULL
OFF To strobe lights
B Pull off Y STROBE
RADIO FAN

To landing and taxi lights

B
LDG LTS
ALT U
To ignition switch
B S
A A Alternator field
circuit breaker FLAP
To wing flap system
Clock L T
T 0
To red doorpost maplight
-30 +30

Ammeter To low-voltage warning light

- 60 + 60
Master INST LTS
switch AMP To instrument, radio, compass
and post lights
r
rte To oil temperature gauge
Oil pressure Sta
switch To turn coordinator
To low-vacuum warning light
A
Switch/circuit breaker to
V standby vacuum pump
I STBY VAC

O To white doorpost light

To wing N To audio muting relay
flap circuit
Flight hour Starter breaker I To control wheel maplight
recorder contactor
C NAV
S DOME To navigation lights
To dome light
B To radio
Battery
U RADIO 1
contactor Magnetos S
tery
Bat Ground service To radio
plug receptacle L R RADIO 2

To radio or transponder
and encoding altimeter
Fuse Diode RADIO 3
Circuit breaker (auto-reset)
Resistor
To radio
CODE

Circuit breaker (push to reset) RADIO 4

Circuit breaker (pulloff,

Capacitor (Noise Filter)
push to reset)

Figure 6-34. Electrical system schematic.

6-29
An ammeter is used to monitor the performance of the aircraft hydraulics is often used on small airplanes to operate wheel
electrical system. The ammeter shows if the alternator/ brakes, retractable landing gear, and some constant-speed
generator is producing an adequate supply of electrical power. propellers. On large airplanes, hydraulics is used for ight
It also indicates whether or not the battery is receiving an control surfaces, wing aps, spoilers, and other systems.
electrical charge.
A basic hydraulic system consists of a reservoir, pump (either
Ammeters are designed with the zero point in the center hand, electric, or engine driven), a lter to keep the uid clean,
of the face and a negative or positive indication on either selector valve to control the direction of ow, relief valve to
side. [Figure 6-35] When the pointer of the ammeter is relieve excess pressure, and an actuator. [Figure 6-36]
on the plus side, it shows the charging rate of the battery.
A minus indication means more current is being drawn
from the battery than is being replaced. A full-scale minus Hydraulic fluid supply
deection indicates a malfunction of the alternator/generator. Return fluid
A full-scale positive deection indicates a malfunction of
Hydraulic pressure
the regulator. In either case, consult the AFM or POH for
appropriate action to be taken.

0
-30 +30

Motion
0 30 60 Pump
- 60 + 60 ALT AMPS

AMP

System relief valve

Loadmeter
Ammeter
Selector valve Double acting cylinder

Figure 6-35. Ammeter and loadmeter.

Figure 6-36. Basic hydraulic system.
Not all aircraft are equipped with an ammeter. Some have
a warning light that, when lighted, indicates a discharge in The hydraulic uid is pumped through the system to an
the system as a generator/alternator malfunction. Refer to the actuator or servo. A servo is a cylinder with a piston inside
AFM or POH for appropriate action to be taken. that turns uid power into work and creates the power needed
to move an aircraft system or ight control. Servos can be
Another electrical monitoring indicator is a loadmeter. either single-acting or double-acting, based on the needs of
This type of gauge has a scale beginning with zero and the system. This means that the uid can be applied to one
shows the load being placed on the alternator/generator. or both sides of the servo, depending on the servo type. A
[Figure 6-35] The loadmeter reects the total percentage of single-acting servo provides power in one direction. The
the load placed on the generating capacity of the electrical selector valve allows the uid direction to be controlled.
system by the electrical accessories and battery. When all This is necessary for operations such as the extension and
electrical components are turned off, it reects only the retraction of landing gear during which the uid must work
amount of charging current demanded by the battery. in two different directions. The relief valve provides an outlet
for the system in the event of excessive uid pressure in the
A voltage regulator controls the rate of charge to the battery system. Each system incorporates different components to
by stabilizing the generator or alternator electrical output. The meet the individual needs of different aircraft.
generator/alternator voltage output should be higher than the
battery voltage. For example, a 12-volt battery would be fed A mineral-based hydraulic uid is the most widely used type
by a generator/alternator system of approximately 14 volts. for small aircraft. This type of hydraulic uid, a kerosene-like
The difference in voltage keeps the battery charged. petroleum product, has good lubricating properties, as well
as additives to inhibit foaming and prevent the formation of
Hydraulic Systems corrosion. It is chemically stable, has very little viscosity
There are multiple applications for hydraulic use in aircraft, change with temperature, and is dyed for identication.
depending on the complexity of the aircraft. For example, Since several types of hydraulic uids are commonly used,

6-30
an aircraft must be serviced with the type specied by the Nosewheels are either steerable or castering. Steerable
manufacturer. Refer to the AFM/POH or the Maintenance nosewheels are linked to the rudders by cables or rods, while
Manual. castering nosewheels are free to swivel. In both cases, the
aircraft is steered using the rudder pedals. Aircraft with a
Landing Gear castering nosewheel may require the pilot to combine the use
The landing gear forms the principal support of an aircraft of the rudder pedals with independent use of the brakes.
on the surface. The most common type of landing gear
consists of wheels, but aircraft can also be equipped with Tailwheel Landing Gear Airplanes
oats for water operations or skis for landing on snow. Tailwheel landing gear aircraft have two main wheels
[Figure 6-37] attached to the airframe ahead of its CG that support most of
the weight of the structure. A tailwheel at the very back of the
fuselage provides a third point of support. This arrangement
allows adequate ground clearance for a larger propeller
and is more desirable for operations on unimproved elds.
[Figure 6-38]

Figure 6-37. The landing gear supports the airplane during the
takeoff run, landing, taxiing, and when parked.

The landing gear on small aircraft consists of three wheels:

two main wheels (one located on each side of the fuselage)
and a third wheel positioned either at the front or rear of the Figure 6-38. Tailwheel landing gear.
airplane. Landing gear employing a rear-mounted wheel is
called conventional landing gear. Airplanes with conventional With the CG located behind the main gear, directional
landing gear are often referred to as tailwheel airplanes. When control of this type aircraft becomes more difcult while on
the third wheel is located on the nose, it is called a nosewheel, the ground. This is the main disadvantage of the tailwheel
and the design is referred to as a tricycle gear. A steerable landing gear. For example, if the pilot allows the aircraft
nosewheel or tailwheel permits the airplane to be controlled to swerve while rolling on the ground at a low speed, he or
throughout all operations while on the ground. she may not have sufcient rudder control and the CG will
attempt to get ahead of the main gear which may cause the
Tricycle Landing Gear Airplanes airplane to ground loop.
A tricycle gear airplane has three advantages:
1. It allows more forceful application of the brakes during Lack of good forward visibility when the tailwheel is on or
landings at high speeds without causing the aircraft to near the ground is a second disadvantage of tailwheel landing
nose over. gear aircraft. These inherent problems mean specic training
is required in tailwheel aircraft.
2. It permits better forward visibility for the pilot during
takeoff, landing, and taxiing. Fixed and Retractable Landing Gear
3. It tends to prevent ground looping (swerving) by Landing gear can also be classified as either fixed or
providing more directional stability during ground retractable. A xed gear always remains extended and has
operation since the aircrafts center of gravity (CG) the advantage of simplicity combined with low maintenance.
is forward of the main wheels. The forward CG keeps A retractable gear is designed to streamline the airplane by
the airplane moving forward in a straight line rather allowing the landing gear to be stowed inside the structure
than ground looping. during cruising ight. [Figure 6-39]

6-31
Figure 6-39. Fixed (left) and retractable (right) gear airplanes.

Brakes
Airplane brakes are located on the main wheels and are Cabin heat Air scoops
valve
applied by either a hand control or by foot pedals (toe or heel).
Foot pedals operate independently and allow for differential Heat exchanger
braking. During ground operations, differential braking can Heat shroud
supplement nosewheel/tailwheel steering. Turbocharger
compressor
Forward section
Pressurized Aircraft air outlets
Aircraft are own at high altitudes for two reasons. First, an Flow control
aircraft own at high altitude consumes less fuel for a given venturi
airspeed than it does for the same speed at a lower altitude
because the aircraft is more efcient at a high altitude. Floor level outlets

Second, bad weather and turbulence may be avoided by ying To cabin altitude
controller
in relatively smooth air above the storms. Many modern
aircraft are being designed to operate at high altitudes, taking
advantage of that environment. In order to y at higher
altitudes, the aircraft must be pressurized. It is important
for pilots who y these aircraft to be familiar with the basic
Safety/dump valve Outflow valve
operating principles.

In a typical pressurization system, the cabin, flight Ambient air

compartment, and baggage compartments are incorporated Compressor discharge air
into a sealed unit capable of containing air under a pressure
CODE

Pressurization air
higher than outside atmospheric pressure. On aircraft powered
Pre-heated ambient air
by turbine engines, bleed air from the engine compressor
section is used to pressurize the cabin. Superchargers may Conditioned pressurization air

be used on older model turbine-powered aircraft to pump Pressurized cabin

air into the sealed fuselage. Piston-powered aircraft may use
air supplied from each engine turbocharger through a sonic Figure 6-40. High performance airplane pressurization system.
venturi (ow limiter). Air is released from the fuselage by
a device called an outow valve. By regulating the air exit, injury to passengers and crew. In addition, the pressurization
the outow valve allows for a constant inow of air to the system permits a reasonably fast exchange of air from
pressurized area. [Figure 6-40] the inside to the outside of the cabin. This is necessary to
eliminate odors and to remove stale air. [Figure 6-41]
A cabin pressurization system typically maintains a cabin
pressure altitude of approximately 8,000 feet at the maximum Pressurization of the aircraft cabin is an accepted method of
designed cruising altitude of an aircraft. This prevents rapid protecting occupants against the effects of hypoxia. Within a
changes of cabin altitude that may be uncomfortable or cause pressurized cabin, occupants can be transported comfortably

6-32
 Atmosphere pressure
The cabin pressure regulator controls cabin pressure to a
selected value in the isobaric range and limits cabin pressure
Altitude (ft) Pressure (psi)
to a preset differential value in the differential range. When an
Sea level 14.7
aircraft reaches the altitude at which the difference between
2,000 13.7
the pressure inside and outside the cabin is equal to the
4,000 12.7
The altitude at which the highest differential pressure for which the fuselage structure
6,000 11.8
standard air pressure is
8,000 10.9 is designed, a further increase in aircraft altitude will result in
equal to 10.9 psi can be
found at 8,000 feet. 10,000 10.1 a corresponding increase in cabin altitude. Differential control
12,000 9.4 is used to prevent the maximum differential pressure, for
At an altitude of 28,000 14,000 8.6 which the fuselage was designed, from being exceeded. This
feet, standard atmo- 16,000 8.0 differential pressure is determined by the structural strength of
spheric pressure is 4.8 18,000 7.3 the cabin and often by the relationship of the cabin size to the
psi. By adding this 20,000 6.8
pressure to the cabin probable areas of rupture, such as window areas and doors.
22,000 6.2
pressure differential of
24,000 5.7
6.1 psi difference (psid), The cabin air pressure safety valve is a combination
26,000 5.2
a total air pressure of
10.9 psi is obtained. 28,000 4.8 pressure relief, vacuum relief, and dump valve. The pressure
30,000 4.4 relief valve prevents cabin pressure from exceeding a
predetermined differential pressure above ambient pressure.
Figure 6-41. Standard atmospheric pressure chart. The vacuum relief prevents ambient pressure from exceeding
cabin pressure by allowing external air to enter the cabin
and safely for long periods of time, particularly if the cabin
when ambient pressure exceeds cabin pressure. The ight
altitude is maintained at 8,000 feet or below, where the use
deck control switch actuates the dump valve. When this
of oxygen equipment is not required. The ight crew in this
switch is positioned to ram, a solenoid valve opens, causing
type of aircraft must be aware of the danger of accidental
the valve to dump cabin air to atmosphere.
loss of cabin pressure and be prepared to deal with such an
emergency whenever it occurs.
The degree of pressurization and the operating altitude of
the aircraft are limited by several critical design factors.
The following terms will aid in understanding the operating
Primarily, the fuselage is designed to withstand a particular
principles of pressurization and air conditioning systems:
maximum cabin differential pressure.
Aircraft altitudethe actual height above sea level at
which the aircraft is ying Several instruments are used in conjunction with the
Ambient temperaturethe temperature in the area pressurization controller. The cabin differential pressure gauge
immediately surrounding the aircraft indicates the difference between inside and outside pressure.
This gauge should be monitored to assure that the cabin does
Ambient pressurethe pressure in the area immediately
not exceed the maximum allowable differential pressure. A
surrounding the aircraft
cabin altimeter is also provided as a check on the performance
Cabin altitudecabin pressure in terms of equivalent of the system. In some cases, these two instruments are
altitude above sea level combined into one. A third instrument indicates the cabin rate
Differential pressurethe difference in pressure of climb or descent. A cabin rate-of-climb instrument and a
between the pressure acting on one side of a wall and cabin altimeter are illustrated in Figure 6-42.
the pressure acting on the other side of the wall. In
aircraft air-conditioning and pressurizing systems, it is Decompression is dened as the inability of the aircrafts
the difference between cabin pressure and atmospheric pressurization system to maintain its designed pressure
pressure. differential. This can be caused by a malfunction in the
pressurization system or structural damage to the aircraft.

The cabin pressure control system provides cabin pressure Physiologically, decompressions fall into two categories:
regulation, pressure relief, vacuum relief, and the means
for selecting the desired cabin altitude in the isobaric and Explosive decompressiona change in cabin pressure
differential range. In addition, dumping of the cabin pressure faster than the lungs can decompress, possibly causing
is a function of the pressure control system. A cabin pressure lung damage. Normally, the time required to release
regulator, an outow valve, and a safety valve are used to air from the lungs without restrictions, such as
accomplish these functions. masks, is 0.2 seconds. Most authorities consider any

6-33
 Cabin differential
AL T
BIN et pressure indicator
CA 00 Fe 0
2 4
10 (pounds per square
I CABIN CLIMB
35 0
DIFF 1 5
inch differential)

.5 THOUSAND FT PER MIN 30 PRESS

0 6 6
PSI
2
Cabin pressure
.5 25 5 altitude indicator
3
I 4 4 10 (thousands of feet)

2 20
15
Maximum cabin
differential pressure
limit
Cabin rate-of-climb indicator Cabin/differential pressure indicator

Figure 6-42. Cabin pressurization instruments.

decompression that occurs in less than 0.5 seconds to Decompression caused by structural damage to the aircraft
be explosive and potentially dangerous. presents another type of danger to pilots, crew, and
Rapid decompressiona change in cabin pressure passengersbeing tossed or blown out of the aircraft if
in which the lungs decompress faster than the cabin, they are located near openings. Individuals near openings
resulting in no likelihood of lung damage. should wear safety harnesses or seatbelts at all times when
the aircraft is pressurized and they are seated. Structural
During an explosive decompression, there may be noise, and damage also has the potential to expose them to wind blasts
one may feel dazed for a moment. The cabin air lls with and extremely cold temperatures.
fog, dust, or ying debris. Fog occurs due to the rapid drop in
temperature and the change of relative humidity. Normally, Rapid descent from altitude is necessary if these problems are
the ears clear automatically. Air rushes from the mouth and to be minimized. Automatic visual and aural warning systems
nose due to the escape of air from the lungs, and may be are included in the equipment of all pressurized aircraft.
noticed by some individuals.
Oxygen Systems
Rapid decompression decreases the period of useful Most high altitude aircraft come equipped with some type
consciousness because oxygen in the lungs is exhaled rapidly, of xed oxygen installation. If the aircraft does not have
reducing pressure on the body. This decreases the partial a xed installation, portable oxygen equipment must be
pressure of oxygen in the blood and reduces the pilots readily accessible during ight. The portable equipment
effective performance time by one-third to one-fourth its usually consists of a container, regulator, mask outlet,
normal time. For this reason, an oxygen mask should be worn and pressure gauge. Aircraft oxygen is usually stored in
when ying at very high altitudes (35,000 feet or higher). It high pressure system containers of 1,8002,200 psi. When
is recommended that the crewmembers select the 100 percent the ambient temperature surrounding an oxygen cylinder
oxygen setting on the oxygen regulator at high altitude if decreases, pressure within that cylinder decreases because
the aircraft is equipped with a demand or pressure demand pressure varies directly with temperature if the volume of
oxygen system. a gas remains constant. If a drop in indicated pressure on a
supplemental oxygen cylinder is noted, there is no reason to
The primary danger of decompression is hypoxia. Quick, suspect depletion of the oxygen supply, which has simply
proper utilization of oxygen equipment is necessary to avoid been compacted due to storage of the containers in an
unconsciousness. Another potential danger that pilots, crew, unheated area of the aircraft. High pressure oxygen containers
and passengers face during high altitude decompressions is should be marked with the psi tolerance (i.e., 1,800 psi) before
evolved gas decompression sickness. This occurs when the lling the container to that pressure. The containers should
pressure on the body drops sufciently, nitrogen comes out be supplied with aviation oxygen only, which is 100 percent
of solution, and forms bubbles that can have adverse effects pure oxygen. Industrial oxygen is not intended for breathing
on some body tissues.

6-34
and may contain impurities, and medical oxygen contains Oxygen Masks
water vapor that can freeze in the regulator when exposed to There are numerous types and designs of oxygen masks in
cold temperatures. To assure safety, periodic inspection and use. The most important factor in oxygen mask use is to insure
servicing of the oxygen system should be done. the masks and oxygen system are compatible. Crew masks
are tted to the users face with a minimum of leakage and
An oxygen system consists of a mask or cannula and a usually contain a microphone. Most masks are the oronasal
regulator that supplies a ow of oxygen dependent upon type, which covers only the mouth and nose.
cabin altitude. Cannulas are not approved for ights above
18,000 feet. Regulators approved for use up to 40,000 feet A passenger mask may be a simple, cup-shaped rubber
are designed to provide zero percent cylinder oxygen and molding sufciently exible to obviate individual tting. It
100 percent cabin air at cabin altitudes of 8,000 feet or may have a simple elastic head strap or the passenger may
less, with the ratio changing to 100 percent oxygen and hold it to his or her face.
zero percent cabin air at approximately 34,000 feet cabin
altitude. [Figure 6-43] Regulators approved up to 45,000 feet All oxygen masks should be kept clean to reduce the danger
are designed to provide 40 percent cylinder oxygen and 60 of infection and prolong the life of the mask. To clean the
percent cabin air at lower altitudes, with the ratio changing to mask, wash it with a mild soap and water solution and rinse
100 percent at the higher altitude. Pilots should avoid ying it with clear water. If a microphone is installed, use a clean
above 10,000 feet without oxygen during the day and above swab, instead of running water, to wipe off the soapy solution.
8,000 feet at night. The mask should also be disinfected. A gauze pad that has
been soaked in a water solution of Merthiolate can be used
to swab out the mask. This solution used should contain
one-fth teaspoon of Merthiolate per quart of water. Wipe
the mask with a clean cloth and air dry.

Cannula
A cannula is an ergonomic piece of plastic tubing which
runs under the nose and is often used to administer oxygen
in non-pressurized aircraft. [Figure 6-44] Cannulas are
typically more comfortable then masks and can be used up
to 18,000 feet. Altitudes greater than 18,000 feet require the
Figure 6-43. Oxygen system regulator.

Pilots should be aware of the danger of re when using

oxygen. Materials that are nearly reproof in ordinary air may
be susceptible to combustion in oxygen. Oils and greases may
ignite if exposed to oxygen, and cannot be used for sealing
the valves and ttings of oxygen equipment. Smoking during
any kind of oxygen equipment use is prohibited. Before
each ight, the pilot should thoroughly inspect and test all
oxygen equipment. The inspection should include a thorough
examination of the aircraft oxygen equipment, including
available supply, an operational check of the system, and
assurance that the supplemental oxygen is readily accessible.
The inspection should be accomplished with clean hands and
should include a visual inspection of the mask and tubing
for tears, cracks, or deterioration; the regulator for valve
and lever condition and positions; oxygen quantity; and the
location and functioning of oxygen pressure gauges, ow
indicators and connections. The mask should be donned and
the system should be tested. After any oxygen use, verify that
all components and valves are shut off. Figure 6-44. Cannula with green flow detector.

6-35
use of an oxygen mask. Many cannulas have a ow meter
in the line. If equipped, a periodic check of the green ow
detector should be part of a pilots regular scan.

Diluter-Demand Oxygen Systems

Diluter-demand oxygen systems supply oxygen only when
the user inhales through the mask. An automix lever allows
the regulators to automatically mix cabin air and oxygen or
supply 100 percent oxygen, depending on the altitude. The
demand mask provides a tight seal over the face to prevent
dilution with outside air and can be used safely up to 40,000
feet. A pilot who has a beard or mustache should be sure it is
trimmed in a manner that will not interfere with the sealing
of the oxygen mask. The t of the mask around the beard
or mustache should be checked on the ground for proper
sealing.

Pressure-Demand Oxygen Systems

Pressure-demand oxygen systems are similar to diluter
demand oxygen equipment, except that oxygen is supplied to
the mask under pressure at cabin altitudes above 34,000 feet.
Figure 6-45. Continuous flow mask and rebreather bag.
Pressure-demand regulators create airtight and oxygen-tight
seals, but they also provide a positive pressure application of of oxygen needed by 5085 percent. Most pulse-demand
oxygen to the mask face piece that allows the users lungs oxygen systems also incorporate an internal barometer
to be pressurized with oxygen. This feature makes pressure that automatically compensates for changes in altitude by
demand regulators safe at altitudes above 40,000 feet. Some increasing the amount of oxygen delivered for each pulse as
systems may have a pressure demand mask with the regulator altitude is increased. [Figure 6-46]
attached directly to the mask, rather than mounted on the
instrument panel or other area within the ight deck. The
mask-mounted regulator eliminates the problem of a long
hose that must be purged of air before 100 percent oxygen
begins owing into the mask.

Continuous-Flow Oxygen System

Continuous-ow oxygen systems are usually provided for
passengers. The passenger mask typically has a reservoir
bag, which collects oxygen from the continuous-ow oxygen
system during the time when the mask user is exhaling.
The oxygen collected in the reservoir bag allows a higher
aspiratory flow rate during the inhalation cycle, which
reduces the amount of air dilution. Ambient air is added to
the supplied oxygen during inhalation after the reservoir bag
oxygen supply is depleted. The exhaled air is released to the
cabin. [Figure 6-45]

Electrical Pulse-Demand Oxygen System

Portable electrical pulse-demand oxygen systems deliver
oxygen by detecting an individuals inhalation effort and
provide oxygen ow during the initial portion of inhalation.
Pulse demand systems do not waste oxygen during the
breathing cycle because oxygen is only delivered during
inhalation. Compared to continuous-ow systems, the pulse-
demand method of oxygen delivery can reduce the amount Figure 6-46. EDS-011 portable pulse-demand oxygen system.

6-36
Pulse Oximeters Anti-Ice and Deice Systems
A pulse oximeter is a device that measures the amount of Anti-icing equipment is designed to prevent the formation of
oxygen in an individuals blood, in addition to heart rate. ice, while deicing equipment is designed to remove ice once
This non-invasive device measures the color changes that it has formed. These systems protect the leading edge of wing
red blood cells undergo when they become saturated with and tail surfaces, pitot and static port openings, fuel tank vents,
oxygen. By transmitting a special light beam through a stall warning devices, windshields, and propeller blades. Ice
ngertip to evaluate the color of the red cells, a pulse oximeter detection lighting may also be installed on some aircraft to
can calculate the degree of oxygen saturation within one determine the extent of structural icing during night ights.
percent of directly measured blood oxygen. Because of their
portability and speed, pulse oximeters are very useful for pilots Most light aircraft have only a heated pitot tube and are not
operating in nonpressurized aircraft above 12,500 feet where certied for ight in icing. These light aircraft have limited
supplemental oxygen is required. A pulse oximeter permits cross-country capability in the cooler climates during late
crewmembers and passengers of an aircraft to evaluate their fall, winter, and early spring. Noncerticated aircraft must
actual need for supplemental oxygen. [Figure 6-47] exit icing conditions immediately. Refer to the AFM/POH
for details.

Airfoil Anti-Ice and Deice

Inatable deicing boots consist of a rubber sheet bonded to
the leading edge of the airfoil. When ice builds up on the
leading edge, an engine-driven pneumatic pump inates the
rubber boots. Many turboprop aircraft divert engine bleed
air to the wing to inate the rubber boots. Upon ination,
the ice is cracked and should fall off the leading edge of the
wing. Deicing boots are controlled from the ight deck by
a switch and can be operated in a single cycle or allowed to
cycle at automatic, timed intervals. [Figure 6-48]

Figure 6-47. Onyx pulse oximeter.

Servicing of Oxygen Systems

Before servicing any aircraft with oxygen, consult the
specic aircraft service manual to determine the type of
equipment required and procedures to be used. Certain
precautions should be observed whenever aircraft oxygen
systems are to be serviced. Oxygen system servicing should
be accomplished only when the aircraft is located outside
of the hangars. Personal cleanliness and good housekeeping
are imperative when working with oxygen. Oxygen under Tubes deflated
pressure and petroleum products create spontaneous results
when they are brought in contact with each other. Service
people should be certain to wash dirt, oil, and grease
(including lip salves and hair oil) from their hands before
working around oxygen equipment. It is also essential that
clothing and tools are free of oil, grease, and dirt. Aircraft
with permanently installed oxygen tanks usually require two
persons to accomplish servicing of the system. One should
be stationed at the service equipment control valves, and
the other stationed where he or she can observe the aircraft
system pressure gauges. Oxygen system servicing is not
recommended during aircraft fueling operations or while
other work is performed that could provide a source of Tubes inflated
ignition. Oxygen system servicing while passengers are on
board the aircraft is not recommended. Figure 6-48. Deicing boots on the leading edge of the wing.

6-37
In the past it was believed that if the boots were cycled too
soon after encountering ice, the ice layer would expand
instead of breaking off, resulting in a condition referred to as
ice bridging. Consequently, subsequent deice boot cycles
would be ineffective at removing the ice buildup. Although
some residual ice may remain after a boot cycle, bridging
does not occur with any modern boots. Pilots can cycle the
boots as soon as an ice accumulation is observed. Consult
the AFM/POH for information on the operation of deice
boots on an aircraft.

Many deicing boot systems use the instrument system suction Figure 6-48. TKS weeping wing anti-ice/deicing system.
gauge and a pneumatic pressure gauge to indicate proper boot
operation. These gauges have range markings that indicate If used early enough, the alcohol will prevent ice from
the operating limits for boot operation. Some systems may building up on the windscreen. The rate of alcohol ow can be
also incorporate an annunciator light to indicate proper boot controlled by a dial in the ight deck according to procedures
operation. recommended by the aircraft manufacturer.

Proper maintenance and care of deicing boots are important Another effective method of anti-icing equipment is the
for continued operation of this system. They need to be electric heating method. Small wires or other conductive
carefully inspected during preight. material is imbedded in the windscreen. The heater can be
turned on by a switch in the ight deck, causing an electrical
Another type of leading edge protection is the thermal anti-ice current to be passed across the shield through the wires to
system. Heat provides one of the most effective methods for provide sufcient heat to prevent the formation of ice on
preventing ice accumulation on an airfoil. High performance the windscreen. The heated windscreen should only be used
turbine aircraft often direct hot air from the compressor during ight. Do not leave it on during ground operations, as
section of the engine to the leading edge surfaces. The hot it can overheat and cause damage to the windscreen. Warning:
air heats the leading edge surfaces sufciently to prevent the the electrical current can cause compass deviation errors by
formation of ice. A newer type of thermal anti-ice system as much as 40.
referred to as thermawing uses electrically heated graphite
foil laminate applied to the leading edge of the wing and Propeller Anti-Ice
horizontal stabilizer. Thermawing systems typically have Propellers are protected from icing by the use of alcohol or
two zones of heat application. One zone on the leading edge electrically heated elements. Some propellers are equipped
receives continuous heat; the second zone further aft receives with a discharge nozzle that is pointed toward the root of the
heat in cycles to dislodge the ice allowing aerodynamic forces blade. Alcohol is discharged from the nozzles, and centrifugal
to remove it. Thermal anti-ice systems should be activated force drives the alcohol down the leading edge of the blade.
prior to entering icing conditions. The boots are also grooved to help direct the ow of alcohol.
This prevents ice from forming on the leading edge of the
An alternate type of leading edge protection that is not as propeller. Propellers can also be tted with propeller anti-ice
common as thermal anti-ice and deicing boots is known boots. The propeller boot is divided into two sectionsthe
as a weeping wing. The weeping-wing design uses small inboard and the outboard sections. The boots are imbedded
holes located in the leading edge of the wing to prevent with electrical wires that carry current for heating the
the formation and build-up of ice. An antifreeze solution propeller. The prop anti-ice system can be monitored for
is pumped to the leading edge and weeps out through the proper operation by monitoring the prop anti-ice ammeter.
holes. Additionally, the weeping wing is capable of deicing During the preight inspection, check the propeller boots for
an aircraft. When ice has accumulated on the leading edges, proper operation. If a boot fails to heat one blade, an unequal
application of the antifreeze solution chemically breaks down blade loading can result, and may cause severe propeller
the bond between the ice and airframe, allowing aerodynamic vibration. [Figure 6-49]
forces to remove the ice. [Figure 6-48]

Windscreen Anti-Ice
There are two main types of windscreen anti-ice systems.
The rst system directs a ow of alcohol to the windscreen.

6-38
 10
PROP ANTI-ICE AMMETER
When the system is operating, 0 20
the prop ammeter indicates
normal operating range. As
each boot section cycles, the PROP DEICER
AMPS
ammeter fluctuates.

Outboard section

Inboard section

PROP ANTI-ICE BOOT

The boot is divided into two sections: inboard and outboard.
When the anti-ice is operating, the inboard section heats on
each blade, and then cycles to the outboard section. If a
boot fails to heat properly on one blade, unequal ice loading
may result, causing severe vibration.

Figure 6-49. Prop ammeter and anti-ice boots.

Other Anti-Ice and Deice Systems

Pitot and static ports, fuel vents, stall-warning sensors, and
other optional equipment may be heated by electrical elements.
Operational checks of the electrically heated systems are to
be checked in accordance with the AFM /POH.

Operation of aircraft anti-icing and deicing systems should be

checked prior to encountering icing conditions. Encounters
with structural ice require immediate action. Anti-icing and
deicing equipment are not intended to sustain long-term ight
in icing conditions.

Chapter Summary
All aircraft have a requirement for essential systems such
as the engine, propeller, induction, ignition systems as
well as the fuel, lubrication, cooling, electrical, landing
gear, and environmental control systems to support ight.
Understanding the aircraft systems of the aircraft being
own is critical to its safe operation and proper maintenance.
Consult the AFM/POH for specic information pertaining to
the aircraft being own. Various manufacturer and owners
group websites can also be a valuable source of additional
information.

6-39
6-40
Chapter 7

Flight
Instruments
Introduction
In order to safely y any aircraft, a pilot must understand
how to interpret and operate the ight instruments. The
pilot also needs to be able to recognize associated errors and
malfunctions of these instruments. This chapter addresses the
pitot-static system and associated instruments, the vacuum
system and related instruments, gyroscopic instruments, and
the magnetic compass. When a pilot understands how each
instrument works and recognizes when an instrument is
malfunctioning, he or she can safely utilize the instruments
to their fullest potential.

Pitot-Static Flight Instruments

The pitot-static system is a combined system that utilizes the
static air pressure, and the dynamic pressure due to the motion
of the aircraft through the air. These combined pressures are
utilized for the operation of the airspeed indicator (ASI),
altimeter, and vertical speed indicator (VSI). [Figure 7-1]

7-1
 Airspeed indicator (ASI) Vertical speed indicator (VSI) Altimeter

29.8
29.9
30.0

Pressure chamber

Static chamber Static port

Baffle plate

Pitot tube

Drain hole

Ram air Static hole

Heater (35 watts)

Heater (100 watts) Pitot heater switch Alternate static source

Figure 7-1. Pitot-static system and instruments.

Impact Pressure Chamber and Lines be checked prior to ight to insure that neither is blocked.
The pitot tube is utilized to measure the total combined Many aircraft have pitot tube covers installed when they sit
pressures that are present when an aircraft moves through for extended periods of time. This helps to keep bugs and
the air. Static pressure, also known as ambient pressure, is other objects from becoming lodged in the opening of the
always present whether an aircraft is moving or at rest. It is pitot tube.
simply the barometric pressure in the local area. Dynamic
pressure is present only when an aircraft is in motion; The one instrument that utilizes the pitot tube is the ASI. The
therefore, it can be thought of as a pressure due to motion. total pressure is transmitted to the ASI from the pitot tubes
Wind also generates dynamic pressure. It does not matter if pressure chamber via a small tube. The static pressure is
the aircraft is moving through still air at 70 knots or if the also delivered to the opposite side of the ASI which serves
aircraft is facing a wind with a speed of 70 knots, the same to cancel out the two static pressures, thereby leaving the
dynamic pressure is generated. dynamic pressure to be indicated on the instrument. When the
dynamic pressure changes, the ASI shows either increase or
When the wind blows from an angle less than 90 off the decrease, corresponding to the direction of change. The two
nose of the aircraft, dynamic pressure can be depicted on the remaining instruments (altimeter and VSI) utilize only the
ASI. The wind moving across the airfoil at 20 knots is the static pressure which is derived from the static port.
same as the aircraft moving through calm air at 20 knots.
The pitot tube captures the dynamic pressure, as well as the Static Pressure Chamber and Lines
static pressure that is always present. The static chamber is vented through small holes to the
free undisturbed air on the side(s) of the aircraft. As the
The pitot tube has a small opening at the front which allows atmospheric pressure changes, the pressure is able to move
the total pressure to enter the pressure chamber. The total freely in and out of the instruments through the small lines
pressure is made up of dynamic pressure plus static pressure. which connect the instruments into the static system. An
In addition to the larger hole in the front of the pitot tube, alternate static source is provided in some aircraft to provide
there is a small hole in the back of the chamber which static pressure should the primary static source become
allows moisture to drain from the system should the aircraft blocked. The alternate static source is normally found inside
enter precipitation. Both openings in the pitot tube need to of the ight deck. Due to the venturi effect of the air owing

7-2
around the fuselage, the air pressure inside the ight deck is
lower than the exterior pressure. 1,000 ft. pointer

100 ft. pointer

When the alternate static source pressure is used, the
following instrument indications are observed: Aneroid wafers 10,000 ft. pointer
1. The altimeter indicates a slightly higher altitude than
actual.
2. The ASI indicates an airspeed greater than the actual
airspeed.
3. The VSI shows a momentary climb and then stabilizes
if the altitude is held constant.

Each pilot is responsible for consulting the Aircraft Flight

Manual (AFM) or the Pilots Operating Handbook (POH)
to determine the amount of error that is introduced into the Crosshatch flag
Static port A crosshatched area appears on
system when utilizing the alternate static source. In an aircraft some altimeters when displaying
not equipped with an alternate static source, an alternate an altitude below 10,000 feet MSL.

method of introducing static pressure into the system should

a blockage occur is to break the glass face of the VSI. This Barometric scale adjustment knob
most likely renders the VSI inoperative. The reason for
Altimeter setting window
choosing the VSI as the instrument to break is that it is the
least important static source instrument for ight.
Figure 7-2. Altimeter.
Altimeter
static pressure. Conversely, if the static pressure is less than
The altimeter is an instrument that measures the height of the pressure inside of the wafers, the wafers are able to expand
an aircraft above a given pressure level. Pressure levels which increases the volume. The expansion and contraction
are discussed later in detail. Since the altimeter is the only of the wafers moves the mechanical linkage, which drives the
instrument that is capable of indicating altitude, this is one of needles on the face of the ASI.
the most vital instruments installed in the aircraft. To use the
altimeter effectively, the pilot must understand the operation
Principle of Operation
of the instrument, as well as the errors associated with the
The pressure altimeter is an aneroid barometer that measures
altimeter and how each effect the indication.
the pressure of the atmosphere at the level where the altimeter
is located, and presents an altitude indication in feet. The
A stack of sealed aneroid wafers comprise the main
altimeter uses static pressure as its source of operation.
component of the altimeter. An aneroid wafer is a sealed
Air is denser at sea level than aloftas altitude increases,
wafer that is evacuated to an internal pressure of 29.92 inches
atmospheric pressure decreases. This difference in pressure
of mercury (29.92 "Hg). These wafers are free to expand
at various levels causes the altimeter to indicate changes in
and contract with changes to the static pressure. A higher
altitude.
static pressure presses down on the wafers and causes them
to collapse. A lower static pressure (less than 29.92 "Hg)
The presentation of altitude varies considerably between
allows the wafers to expand. A mechanical linkage connects
different types of altimeters. Some have one pointer while
the wafer movement to the needles on the indicator face,
others have two or more. Only the multipointer type is
which translates compression of the wafers into a decrease
discussed in this handbook. The dial of a typical altimeter
in altitude and translates an expansion of the wafers into an
is graduated with numerals arranged clockwise from zero
increase in altitude. [Figure 7-2]
to nine. Movement of the aneroid element is transmitted
through gears to the three hands that indicate altitude. The
Notice how the static pressure is introduced into the rear of
shortest hand indicates altitude in tens of thousands of feet,
the sealed altimeter case. The altimeters outer chamber is
the intermediate hand in thousands of feet, and the longest
sealed, which allows the static pressure to surround the aneroid
hand in hundreds of feet.
wafers. If the static pressure is higher than the pressure in the
aneroid wafers (29.92 "Hg), then the wafers are compressed
until the pressure inside the wafers is equal to the surrounding

7-3
This indicated altitude is correct, however, only when the sea BELOW. Conversely, if an aircraft is own from a low
level barometric pressure is standard (29.92 "Hg), the sea level pressure area to a high pressure area without an adjustment
free air temperature is standard (+15 degrees Celsius (C) or of the altimeter, the actual altitude of the aircraft is higher
59 degrees Fahrenheit (F)), and the pressure and temperature than the indicated altitude. Once in ight, it is important to
decrease at a standard rate with an increase in altitude. frequently obtain current altimeter settings en route to ensure
Adjustments for nonstandard pressures are accomplished by terrain and obstruction clearance.
setting the corrected pressure into a barometric scale located
on the face of the altimeter. The barometric pressure window is Many altimeters do not have an accurate means of being
sometimes referred to as the Kollsman window; only after the adjusted for barometric pressures in excess of 31.00 inches
altimeter is set does it indicate the correct altitude. The word of mercury ("Hg). When the altimeter cannot be set to the
correct will need to be better explained when referring to higher pressure setting, the aircraft actual altitude will be
types of altitudes, but is commonly used in this case to denote higher than the altimeter indicates. When low barometric
the approximate altitude above sea level. In other words, the pressure conditions occur (below 28.00), ight operations
indicated altitude refers to the altitude read off of the altitude by aircraft unable to set the actual altimeter setting are not
which is uncorrected, after the barometric pressure setting recommended.
is dialed into the Kollsman window. The additional types of
altitudes are further explained later. Adjustments to compensate for nonstandard pressure do not
compensate for nonstandard temperature. Since cold air is
Effect of Nonstandard Pressure and Temperature denser than warm air, when operating in temperatures that are
It is easy to maintain a consistent height above ground if the colder than standard, the altitude is lower than the altimeter
barometric pressure and temperature remain constant, but indication. [Figure 7-3] It is the magnitude of this difference
this is rarely the case. The pressure temperature can change that determines the magnitude of the error. It is the difference
between takeoff and landing even on a local ight. If these due to colder temperatures that concerns the pilot. When ying
changes are not taken into consideration, ight becomes into a cooler air mass while maintaining a constant indicated
dangerous. altitude, true altitude is lower. If terrain or obstacle clearance
is a factor in selecting a cruising altitude, particularly in
If altimeters could not be adjusted for nonstandard pressure, a mountainous terrain, remember to anticipate that a colder-
hazardous situation could occur. For example, if an aircraft is than-standard temperature places the aircraft lower than the
own from a high pressure area to a low pressure area without altimeter indicates. Therefore, a higher indicated altitude may
adjusting the altimeter, a constant altitude will be displayed, be required to provide adequate terrain clearance. A variation
but the actual height of the aircraft above the ground would of the memory aid used for pressure can be employed:
be lower then the indicated altitude. There is an old aviation FROM HOT TO COLD, LOOK OUT BELOW. When the
axiom: GOING FROM A HIGH TO A LOW, LOOK OUT air is warmer than standard, the aircraft is higher than the

5,00
0 foo
t pre
ssur
e lev
el

4,000
foot p
ressu
re lev
el

3,000 fo
ot pres
sure le
vel

2,000 foot
pressure le
vel

1,000 foot pressure

level

Sea level
30C 15C 0C

Figure 7-3. Effects of nonstandard temperature on an altimeter.

7-4
altimeter indicates. Altitude corrections for temperature can If each pilot in a given area is using the same altimeter setting,
be computed on the navigation computer. each altimeter should be equally affected by temperature and
pressure variation errors, making it possible to maintain the
Extremely cold temperatures will also affect altimeter desired vertical separation between aircraft. This does not
indications. Figure 7-4, which was derived from ICAO guarantee vertical separation though. It is still imperative to
formulas, indicates how much error can exist when the maintain a regimented visual scan for intruding air trafc.
temperature is extremely cold.
When ying over high, mountainous terrain, certain atmospheric
conditions cause the altimeter to indicate an altitude of 1,000
Height Above Airport in Feet
Temp 0 C

feet or more higher than the actual altitude. For this reason, a
Reported

generous margin of altitude should be allowednot only for

00

00

00

00

00

00
0

0
20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90
10

15

20

30

40

50
possible altimeter error, but also for possible downdrafts that
+10 10 10 10 10 20 20 20 20 20 30 40 60 80 90 might be associated with high winds.
0 20 20 30 30 40 40 50 50 60 90 120 170 230 280
-10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 150 200 290 390 490
To illustrate the use of the altimeter setting system, follow a
-20 30 50 60 70 90 100 120 130 140 210 280 420 570 710
ight from Dallas Love Field, Texas, to Abilene Municipal
-30 40 60 80 100 120 140 150 170 190 280 380 570 760 950
Airport, Texas, via Mineral Wells. Before taking off from
-40 50 80 100 120 150 170 190 220 240 360 480 720 970 1210
Love Field, the pilot receives a current altimeter setting of
-50 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 450 590 890 1190 1500
29.85 "Hg from the control tower or ATIS, and sets this value
in the altimeter setting window. The altimeter indication
Figure 7-4. Look at the chart using a temperature of 10 C and
should then be compared with the known airport elevation of
the aircraft altitude is 1,000 feet above the airport elevation. The
487 feet. Since most altimeters are not perfectly calibrated,
chart shows that the reported current altimeter setting may place
an error may exist.
the aircraft as much as 100 feet below the altitude indicated by
the altimeter.
When over Mineral Wells, assume the pilot receives a current
altimeter setting of 29.94 "Hg and sets this in the altimeter
Setting the Altimeter window. Before entering the traffic pattern at Abilene
Most altimeters are equipped with a barometric pressure Municipal Airport, a new altimeter setting of 29.69 "Hg
setting window (or Kollsman window) providing a means to is received from the Abilene Control Tower, and set in the
adjust the altimeter. A knob is located at the bottom of the altimeter setting window. If the pilot desires to y the trafc
instrument for this adjustment. pattern at approximately 800 feet above the terrain, and the
eld elevation of Abilene is 1,791 feet, an indicated altitude of
To adjust the altimeter for variation in atmospheric pressure, 2,600 feet should be maintained (1,791 feet + 800 feet = 2,591
the pressure scale in the altimeter setting window, calibrated feet, rounded to 2,600 feet).
in inches of mercury ("Hg) and/or millibars (mb), is adjusted
to match the given altimeter setting. Altimeter setting is The importance of properly setting the altimeter cannot be
dened as station pressure reduced to sea level, but, an overemphasized. Assume the pilot did not adjust the altimeter
altimeter setting is accurate only in the vicinity of the at Abilene to the current setting and continued using the
reporting station. Therefore, the altimeter must be adjusted as Mineral Wells setting of 29.94 "Hg. When entering the Abilene
the ight progresses from one station to the next. Air trafc trafc pattern at an indicated altitude of 2,600 feet, the aircraft
control (ATC) will advise when updated altimeter settings would be approximately 250 feet below the proper trafc
are available. If a pilot is not utilizing ATC assistance, pattern altitude. Upon landing, the altimeter would indicate
local altimeter settings can be obtained by monitoring local approximately 250 feet higher than the eld elevation.
automated weather observing system/automated surface
Mineral Wells altimeter setting 29.94
observation system (AWOS/ASOS) or automatic terminal
information service (ATIS) broadcasts. Abilene altimeter setting 29.69
Difference 0.25
Many pilots condently expect the current altimeter setting
will compensate for irregularities in atmospheric pressure at (Since 1 inch of pressure is equal to approximately 1,000 feet
all altitudes, but this is not always true. The altimeter setting of altitude, 0.25 x 1,000 feet = 250 feet.)
broadcast by ground stations is the station pressure corrected
to mean sea level. It does not account for the irregularities at
higher levels, particularly the effect of nonstandard temperature.

7-5
When determining whether to add or subtract the amount This movement is transmitted through mechanical linkage
of altimeter error, remember that, when the actual pressure to rotate the pointers.
is lower than what is set in the altimeter window, the actual
altitude of the aircraft is lower than what is indicated on the A decrease in pressure causes the altimeter to indicate an
altimeter. increase in altitude, and an increase in pressure causes the
altimeter to indicate a decrease in altitude. Accordingly, if
The following is another method of computing the altitude the aircraft is sitting on the ground with a pressure level of
deviation. Start by subtracting the current altimeter setting from 29.98 "Hg and the pressure level changes to 29.68 "Hg, the
29.94 "Hg. Always remember to place the original setting as altimeter would show an increase of approximately 300 feet
the top number. Then subtract the current altimeter setting. in altitude. This pressure change is most noticeable when the
Mineral Wells altimeter setting 29.94 aircraft is left parked over night. As the pressure falls, the
altimeter interprets this as a climb. The altimeter indicates
Abilene altimeter setting 29.69 an altitude above the actual eld elevation. If the barometric
29.94 29.69 = Difference 0.25 pressure setting is reset to the current altimeter setting of
29.68 "Hg, then the eld elevation is again indicated on the
(Since 1 inch of pressure is equal to approximately 1,000 feet altimeter.
of altitude, 0.25 x 1,000 feet = 250 feet.) Always subtract the
number from the indicated altitude. This pressure change is not as easily noticed in ight since
aircraft y specic altitudes. The aircraft steadily decreases
2,600 250 = 2,350
true altitude while the altimeter is held constant through pilot
action as discussed in the previous section.
Now, try a lower pressure setting. Adjust from altimeter
setting 29.94 to 30.56 "Hg.
Knowing the aircrafts altitude is vitally important to a
Mineral Wells altimeter setting 29.94 pilot. The pilot must be sure that the aircraft is ying high
Altimeter setting 30.56 enough to clear the highest terrain or obstruction along the
intended route. It is especially important to have accurate
29.94 30.56 = Difference 0.62
altitude information when visibility is restricted. To clear
obstructions, the pilot must constantly be aware of the altitude
(Since 1 inch of pressure is equal to approximately 1,000 feet
of the aircraft and the elevation of the surrounding terrain. To
of altitude, 0.62 x 1,000 feet = 620 feet.) Always subtract
reduce the possibility of a midair collision, it is essential to
the number from the indicated altitude.
maintain altitude in accordance with air trafc rules.
2,600 (620) = 3,220
Types of Altitude
The pilot will be 620 feet high. Altitude in itself is a relevant term only when it is specically
stated to which type of altitude a pilot is referring to.
Notice the difference is a negative number. Starting with the Normally when the term altitude is used, it is referring to
current indicated altitude of 2,600 feet, subtracting a negative altitude above sea level since this is the altitude which is
number is the same as adding the two numbers. By utilizing used to depict obstacles and airspace, as well as to separate
this method, a pilot should be able to better understand what air trafc.
is happening with the aircrafts altitude. This method always
yields the correct result and tells a pilot what the altitude is Altitude is vertical distance above some point or level used as
and the direction. (The implications of not understanding a reference. There are as many kinds of altitude as there are
where the errors lie and in what direction are important to a reference levels from which altitude is measured, and each
safe ight.) If the altitude was lower than actually indicated, may be used for specic reasons. Pilots are mainly concerned
an aircraft could be in danger of colliding with an obstacle. with ve types of altitudes:

Altimeter Operation 1. Indicated altituderead directly from the altimeter

(uncorrected) when it is set to the current altimeter
There are two means by which the altimeter pointers can
setting.
be moved. The rst is a change in air pressure, while the
other is an adjustment to the barometric scale. When the 2. True altitudethe vertical distance of the aircraft above
aircraft climbs or descends, changing pressure within the sea levelthe actual altitude. It is often expressed as
altimeter case expands or contracts the aneroid barometer. feet above mean sea level (MSL). Airport, terrain,

7-6
 and obstacle elevations on aeronautical charts are true surveyed eld elevation, the instrument should be referred to
altitudes. a certicated instrument repair station for recalibration.
3. Absolute altitudethe vertical distance of an aircraft
above the terrain, or above ground level (AGL). Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI)
The VSI, which is sometimes called a vertical velocity
4. Pressure altitudethe altitude indicated when indicator (VVI), indicates whether the aircraft is climbing,
the altimeter setting window (barometric scale) is descending, or in level ight. The rate of climb or descent
adjusted to 29.92 "Hg. This is the altitude above the is indicated in feet per minute (fpm). If properly calibrated,
standard datum plane, which is a theoretical plane the VSI indicates zero in level ight. [Figure 7-5]
where air pressure (corrected to 15 C) equals 29.92"
Hg. Pressure altitude is used to compute density
altitude, true altitude, true airspeed (TAS), and other
performance data.
5. Density altitudepressure altitude corrected
for variations from standard temperature. When
conditions are standard, pressure altitude and density
2 3
VERTICAL SPEED
altitude are the same. If the temperature is above THOUSAND FT PER MIN

standard, the density altitude is higher than pressure 4

altitude. If the temperature is below standard, the OWN

density altitude is lower than pressure altitude. This 3

2
is an important altitude because it is directly related
to the aircrafts performance.

A pilot must understand how the performance of the aircraft

is directly related to the density of the air. The density of
the air affects how much power a naturally aspirated engine
produces, as well as how efcient the airfoils are. If there are
Figure 7-5. Vertical speed indicator (VSI).
fewer air molecules (lower pressure) to accelerate through
the propeller, the acceleration to rotation speed is longer
and thus produces a longer takeoff roll, which translates to Principle of Operation
a decrease in performance. Although the VSI operates solely from static pressure, it is a
differential pressure instrument. It contains a diaphragm with
As an example, consider an airport with a eld elevation connecting linkage and gearing to the indicator pointer inside
of 5,048 feet MSL where the standard temperature is 5 C. an airtight case. The inside of the diaphragm is connected
Under these conditions, pressure altitude and density altitude directly to the static line of the pitot-static system. The area
are the same5,048 feet. If the temperature changes to outside the diaphragm, which is inside the instrument case,
30 C, the density altitude increases to 7,855 feet. This is also connected to the static line, but through a restricted
means an aircraft would perform on takeoff as though the orice (calibrated leak).
eld elevation were 7,855 feet at standard temperature.
Conversely, a temperature of 25 C would result in a density Both the diaphragm and the case receive air from the static
altitude of 1,232 feet. An aircraft would perform much better line at existing atmospheric pressure. The diaphragm receives
under these conditions. unrestricted air while the case receives the static pressure via
the metered leak. When the aircraft is on the ground or in level
Instrument Check ight, the pressures inside the diaphragm and the instrument
Prior to each ight, a pilot should examine the altimeter for case are equal and the pointer is at the zero indication. When
proper indications in order to verify its validity. To determine the aircraft climbs or descends, the pressure inside the
the condition of an altimeter, set the barometric scale to the diaphragm changes immediately, but due to the metering
current reported altimeter setting transmitted by the local action of the restricted passage, the case pressure remains
automated ight service station (AFSS) or any other reliable higher or lower for a short time, causing the diaphragm to
source, such as ATIS, AWOS, or ASOS. The altimeter contract or expand. This causes a pressure differential that
pointers should indicate the surveyed eld elevation of the is indicated on the instrument needle as a climb or descent.
airport. If the indication is off more than 75 feet from the

7-7
 a positive rate of climb and then, once a stabilized climb is
Accelerometer established, a rate of climb can be referenced.

Airspeed Indicator (ASI)

The ASI is a sensitive, differential pressure gauge which
measures and promptly indicates the difference between pitot
(impact/dynamic pressure) and static pressure. These two
.5 UP
I 2 pressures are equal when the aircraft is parked on the ground
3
0 in calm air. When the aircraft moves through the air, the
.5 D
OW
I
N
4 pressure on the pitot line becomes greater than the pressure
2 3 in the static lines. This difference in pressure is registered by
Inlet from static port the airspeed pointer on the face of the instrument, which is
calibrated in miles per hour, knots (nautical miles per hour),
Calibrated leak or both. [Figure 7-7]

Diaphragm
Figure 7-6. An IVSI incorporates accelerometers to help the Long lever Sector

instrument immediately indicate changes in vertical speed.

Pitot connection
When the pressure differential stabilizes at a denite ratio, 50
the needle indicates the rate of altitude change. Pitot tube
100

The VSI displays two different types of information:

150
Trend information shows an immediate indication of
an increase or decrease in the aircrafts rate of climb 200
or descent.
Rate information shows a stabilized rate of change in
altitude.
Ram air Static air line Handstaff pinion

The trend information is the direction of movement of the

VSI needle. For example, if an aircraft is maintaining level Figure 7-7. Airspeed indicator (ASI).
ight and the pilot pulls back on the control yoke causing the
nose of the aircraft to pitch up, the VSI needle moves upward The ASI is the one instrument that utilizes both the pitot,
to indicate a climb. If the pitch attitude is held constant, as well as the static system. The ASI introduces the static
the needle stabilizes after a short period (69 seconds) and pressure into the airspeed case while the pitot pressure
indicates the rate of climb in hundreds of fpm. The time (dynamic) is introduced into the diaphragm. The dynamic
period from the initial change in the rate of climb, until the pressure expands or contracts one side of the diaphragm,
VSI displays an accurate indication of the new rate, is called which is attached to an indicating system. The system drives
the lag. Rough control technique and turbulence can extend the mechanical linkage and the airspeed needle.
the lag period and cause erratic and unstable rate indications.
Some aircraft are equipped with an instantaneous vertical Just as in altitudes, there are multiple types of airspeeds.
speed indicator (IVSI), which incorporates accelerometers to Pilots need to be very familiar with each type.
compensate for the lag in the typical VSI. [Figure 7-6]
Indicated airspeed (IAS)the direct instrument
Instrument Check
reading obtained from the ASI, uncorrected for
As part of a preight check, proper operation of the VSI must variations in atmospheric density, installation error,
be established. Make sure the VSI indicates near zero prior or instrument error. Manufacturers use this airspeed
to leaving the ramp area and again just before takeoff. If the as the basis for determining aircraft performance.
VSI indicates anything other than zero, that indication can Takeoff, landing, and stall speeds listed in the AFM/
be referenced as the zero mark. Normally, if the needle is POH are IAS and do not normally vary with altitude
not exactly zero, it is only slightly above or below the zero or temperature.
line. After takeoff, the VSI should trend upward to indicate

7-8
 Calibrated airspeed (CAS)IAS corrected for As shown in Figure 7-8, ASIs on single-engine small aircraft
installation error and instrument error. Although include the following standard color-coded markings:
manufacturers attempt to keep airspeed errors to a White arccommonly referred to as the ap operating
minimum, it is not possible to eliminate all errors range since its lower limit represents the full ap stall
throughout the airspeed operating range. At certain speed and its upper limit provides the maximum ap
airspeeds and with certain ap settings, the installation speed. Approaches and landings are usually own at
and instrument errors may total several knots. This speeds within the white arc.
error is generally greatest at low airspeeds. In the
cruising and higher airspeed ranges, IAS and CAS Lower limit of white arc (VS0)the stalling speed
are approximately the same. Refer to the airspeed or the minimum steady ight speed in the landing
calibration chart to correct for possible airspeed conguration. In small aircraft, this is the power-off
errors. stall speed at the maximum landing weight in the
landing conguration (gear and aps down).
True airspeed (TAS)CAS corrected for altitude
and nonstandard temperature. Because air density Upper limit of the white arc (VFE)the maximum
decreases with an increase in altitude, an aircraft has speed with the aps extended.
to be own faster at higher altitudes to cause the same Green arcthe normal operating range of the aircraft.
pressure difference between pitot impact pressure Most ying occurs within this range.
and static pressure. Therefore, for a given CAS, TAS
Lower limit of green arc (VS1)the stalling speed
increases as altitude increases; or for a given TAS,
or the minimum steady ight speed obtained in a
CAS decreases as altitude increases. A pilot can nd
specied conguration. For most aircraft, this is the
TAS by two methods. The most accurate method is
power-off stall speed at the maximum takeoff weight
to use a ight computer. With this method, the CAS
in the clean conguration (gear up, if retractable, and
is corrected for temperature and pressure variation by
aps up).
using the airspeed correction scale on the computer.
Extremely accurate electronic ight computers are Upper limit of green arc (V NO )the maximum
also available. Just enter the CAS, pressure altitude, structural cruising speed. Do not exceed this speed
and temperature, and the computer calculates the TAS. except in smooth air.
A second method, which is a rule of thumb, provides Yellow arccaution range. Fly within this range only
the approximate TAS. Simply add 2 percent to the in smooth air, and then, only with caution.
CAS for each 1,000 feet of altitude. The TAS is the
speed which is used for ight planning and is used
when ling a ight plan. VNE(red line)
VSO
Groundspeed (GS)the actual speed of the airplane Yellow arc
over the ground. It is TAS adjusted for wind. GS
F 120 90 60 30
decreases with a headwind, and increases with a
0 -3
0 VS1
PRESS 0
ALT 5

tailwind. AIRSPEED 10

160 KNOTS 40
15
140

Airspeed Indicator Markings

20

140 60
Aircraft weighing 12,500 pounds or less, manufactured after VNO
H

White arc
MP
H

120 100
MP

1945, and certicated by the FAA, are required to have ASIs

120
120

marked in accordance with a standard color-coded marking 80 .S.

100 T.A TS
system. This system of color-coded markings enables a pilot 100 80
K

to determine at a glance certain airspeed limitations that are Green arc

VFE
important to the safe operation of the aircraft. For example,
if during the execution of a maneuver, it is noted that the
airspeed needle is in the yellow arc and rapidly approaching
Figure 7-8. Airspeed indicator (ASI).
the red line, the immediate reaction should be to reduce
airspeed.

7-9
 Red line (VNE)never exceed speed. Operating above sure the pitot tube cover is removed. Then, check the pitot and
this speed is prohibited since it may result in damage static port openings. A blocked pitot tube affects the accuracy
or structural failure. of the ASI, but, a blockage of the static port not only affects
the ASI, but also causes errors in the altimeter and VSI.
Other Airspeed Limitations
Some important airspeed limitations are not marked on the Blocked Pitot System
face of the ASI, but are found on placards and in the AFM/ The pitot system can become blocked completely or only
POH. These airspeeds include: partially if the pitot tube drain hole remains open. If the pitot
Design maneuvering speed (VA)the maximum tube becomes blocked and its associated drain hole remains
speed at which the structural designs limit load can clear, ram air no longer is able to enter the pitot system. Air
be imposed (either by gusts or full deection of the already in the system vents through the drain hole, and the
control surfaces) without causing structural damage. remaining pressure drops to ambient (outside) air pressure.
It is important to consider weight when referencing Under these circumstances, the ASI reading decreases to
this speed. For example, VA may be 100 knots when zero, because the ASI senses no difference between ram and
an airplane is heavily loaded, but only 90 knots when static air pressure. The ASI no longer operates since dynamic
the load is light. pressure can not enter the pitot tube opening. Static pressure
is able to equalize on both sides since the pitot drain hole
Landing gear operating speed (VLO)the maximum is still open. The apparent loss of airspeed is not usually
speed for extending or retracting the landing gear if instantaneous but happens very quickly. [Figure 7-9]
ying an aircraft with retractable landing gear.
Landing gear extended speed (VLE)the maximum
speed at which an aircraft can be safely own with
the landing gear extended.
Best angle-of-climb speed (VX)the airspeed at
which an aircraft gains the greatest amount of altitude
in a given distance. It is used during a short-eld Pitot tube Static port
takeoff to clear an obstacle.
Best rate-of-climb speed (VY)the airspeed that Blockage
provides the most altitude gain in a given period of
time.
Drain hole
Single-engine best rate-of-climb (VYSE)the best
rate-of-climb or minimum rate-of-sink in a light
Figure 7-9. A blocked pitot tube, but clear drain hole.
twin-engine aircraft with one engine inoperative. It is
marked on the ASI with a blue line. VYSE is commonly
referred to as Blue Line. If both the pitot tube opening and the drain hole should
become clogged simultaneously, then the pressure in the pitot
Minimum control speed (VMC)the minimum ight
tube is trapped. No change is noted on the airspeed indication
speed at which a light, twin-engine aircraft can be
should the airspeed increase or decrease. If the static port
satisfactorily controlled when an engine suddenly
is unblocked and the aircraft should change altitude, then a
becomes inoperative and the remaining engine is at
change is noted on the ASI. The change is not related to a
takeoff power.
change in airspeed but a change in static pressure. The total
pressure in the pitot tube does not change due to the blockage;
Instrument Check
however, the static pressure will change.
Prior to takeoff, the ASI should read zero. However, if there
is a strong wind blowing directly into the pitot tube, the ASI Because airspeed indications rely upon both static and
may read higher than zero. When beginning the takeoff, make dynamic pressure together, the blockage of either of these
sure the airspeed is increasing at an appropriate rate. systems affects the ASI reading. Remember that the ASI has
a diaphragm in which dynamic air pressure is entered. Behind
Blockage of the Pitot-Static System this diaphragm is a reference pressure called static pressure
Errors almost always indicate blockage of the pitot tube, the that comes from the static ports. The diaphragm pressurizes
static port(s), or both. Blockage may be caused by moisture against this static pressure and as a result changes the airspeed
(including ice), dirt, or even insects. During preight, make indication via levers and indicators. [Figure 7-10]

7-10
 tube always provides static pressure in addition to dynamic
pressure.

Therefore, the airspeed indication is the result of two

pressures: the pitot tube static and dynamic pressure within
the diaphragm as measured against the static pressure in case.
Blockage What does this mean if the pitot tube is obstructed?
Static port

If the aircraft were to descend, the pressure in the pitot

Pitot tube system including the diaphragm would remain constant. It is
clogged and the diaphragm is at a single pressure. But as the
descent is made, the static pressure would increase against
Drain hole the diaphragm causing it to compress thereby resulting in an
indication of decreased airspeed. Conversely, if the aircraft
were to climb, the static pressure would decrease allowing
the diaphragm to expand, thereby showing an indication of
greater airspeed. [Figure 7-10]
Clim
b
The pitot tube may become blocked during ight due to
visible moisture. Some aircraft may be equipped with pitot
heat for ight in visible moisture. Consult the AFM/POH for
specic procedures regarding the use of pitot heat.

cen
t Blocked Static System
Des
If the static system becomes blocked but the pitot tube remains
clear, the ASI continues to operate; however, it is inaccurate.
The airspeed indicates lower than the actual airspeed when
the aircraft is operated above the altitude where the static
ports became blocked, because the trapped static pressure is
Figure 7-10. Blocked pitot system with clear static system. higher than normal for that altitude. When operating at a lower
altitude, a faster than actual airspeed is displayed due to the
For example, take an aircraft and slow it down to zero knots relatively low static pressure trapped in the system.
at given altitude. If the static port (providing static pressure)
and the pitot tube (providing dynamic pressure) are both Revisiting the ratios that were used to explain a blocked pitot
unobstructed, the following claims can be made: tube, the same principle applies for a blocked static port. If
1. The ASI would be zero. the aircraft descends, the static pressure increases on the pitot
side showing an increase on the ASI. This assumes that the
2. There must be a relationship between both dynamic
aircraft does not actually increase its speed. The increase in
and static pressure. At zero speed, dynamic pressure
static pressure on the pitot side is equivalent to an increase
and static pressure are the same: static air pressure.
in dynamic pressure since the pressure can not change on
3. Because both dynamic and static air pressure are equal the static side.
at zero speed with increased speed, dynamic pressure
must include two components: static pressure and If an aircraft begins to climb after a static port becomes
dynamic pressure. blocked, the airspeed begins to show a decrease as the aircraft
continues to climb. This is due to the decrease in static pressure
It can be inferred that airspeed indication must be based upon on the pitot side, while the pressure on the static side is held
a relationship between these two pressures, and indeed it is. constant.
An ASI uses the static pressure as a reference pressure and
as a result, the ASIs case is kept at this pressure behind the A blockage of the static system also affects the altimeter and
diaphragm. On the other hand, the dynamic pressure through VSI. Trapped static pressure causes the altimeter to freeze
the pitot tube is connected to a highly sensitive diaphragm at the altitude where the blockage occurred. In the case of
within the ASI case. Because an aircraft in zero motion the VSI, a blocked static system produces a continuous zero
(regardless of altitude) results in a zero airspeed, the pitot indication. [Figure 7-11]

7-11
 displayed for pilot reference. An additional pilot-controlled
Inaccurate airspeed indications
airspeed bug is available to set at any desired reference speed.
As on traditional analogue ASIs, the electronic airspeed tape
Constant zero indication on VSI
displays the color-coded ranges for the ap operating range,
normal range, and caution range. [Figure 7-12] The number
Frozen altimeter
value changes color to red when the airspeed exceeds VNE to
warn the pilot of exceeding the maximum speed limitation.
29.8

Attitude Indicator
29.9
30.0

One improvement over analogue instrumentation is the

larger attitude indicator on EFD. The articial horizon spans
the entire width of the PFD. [Figure 7-12] This expanded
Pitot tube
instrumentation offers better reference through all phases of
ight and all ight maneuvers. The attitude indicator receives
Blockage
its information from the Attitude Heading and Reference
System (AHRS).
Static port

Altimeter
Figure 7-11. Blocked static system.
The altimeter is located on the right side of the PFD.
Some aircraft are equipped with an alternate static source [Figure 7-12] As the altitude increases, the larger numbers
in the ight deck. In the case of a blocked static source, descend from the top of the display tape, with the current altitude
opening the alternate static source introduces static pressure being displayed in the black box in the center of the display tape.
from the ight deck back into the system. Flight deck static The altitude is displayed in increments of 20 feet.
pressure is lower than outside static pressure. Check the
aircraft AOM/POH for airspeed corrections when utilizing Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI)
alternate static pressure. The VSI is displayed to the right of the altimeter tape and can
take the form of an arced indicator or a vertical speed tape.
Electronic Flight Display (EFD) [Figure 7-12] Both are equipped with a vertical speed bug.
Advances in digital displays and solid state electronic Heading Indicator
components have been introduced into the flight decks
The heading indicator is located below the articial horizon
of general aviation (GA) aircraft. In addition to the
and is normally modeled after a Horizontal Situation
improvement in system reliability, which increases overall
Indicator (HSI). [Figure 7-12] As in the case of the attitude
safety, electronic flight displays (EFD) have decreased
indicator, the heading indicator receives its information from
the overall cost of equipping aircraft with state-of-the-art
the magnetometer which feeds information to the AHRS unit
instrumentation. Primary electronic instrumentation packages
and then out to the PFD.
are less prone to failure than their analogue counterparts. No
longer is it necessary for aircraft designers to create cluttered
Turn Indicator
panel layouts in order to accommodate all necessary ight
The turn indicator takes a slightly different form than the
instruments. Instead, multi-panel digital flight displays
traditional instrumentation. A sliding bar moves left and right
combine all ight instruments onto a single screen which is
below the triangle to indicate deection from coordinated
called a primary ight display (PFD). The traditional six
ight. [Figure 7-12] Reference for coordinated ight comes
pack of instruments is now displayed on one liquid crystal
from accelerometers contained in the AHRS unit.
display (LCD) screen.
Tachometer
Airspeed Tape
The sixth instrument normally associated with the six pack
Congured similarly to traditional panel layouts, the ASI
package is the tachometer. This is the only instrument that is
is located on the left side of the screen and is displayed as
not located on the PFD. The tachometer is normally located
a vertical speed tape. As the aircraft increases in speed, the
on the multi-function display (MFD). In the event of a display
larger numbers descend from the top of the tape. The TAS is
screen failure, it is displayed on the remaining screen with
displayed at the bottom of the tape through the input to the air
the PFD ight instrumentation. [Figure 7-13]
data computer (ADC) from the outside air temperature probe.
Airspeed markings for VX, VY, and rotation speed (VR) are

7-12
Slip/Skid Indicator Turn Rate Indicator
The slip/skid indicator [Figure 7-12] is the horizontal The turn rate indicator, illustrated in Figure 7-12, is typically
line below the roll pointer. Like a ball in a turn-and-slip found directly above the rotating compass card. Tick marks to
indicator, a bar width off center is equal to one ball width the left and right of the luber line denote the turn (standard-
displacement. rate versus half standard-rate). Typically denoted by a trend
line, if the trend vector is extended to the second tick mark
the aircraft is in a standard-rate turn.

NAV1 108.00 113.00 WPT _ _ _ _ _ _ DIS _ _ ._ NM DTK _ _ _T TRK 360 134.000 118.000 COM1
NAV2 108.00 Attitude Indicator
110.60 Slip Skid Indicator 123.800 Altimeter
118.000 COM2

4000
130 4300
2

120 4200
Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI)
1
Air Speed Indicator 110 4100
1 20
100 4000
3900
9 80
90 3900 1

80 3800
270 2

70
TAS 106KT 4300

Turn Indicator
VOR 1

Horizontal Situation Indicator Slip/Skid Indicator

270
270
OAT 6C XPDR 5537 IDNT LCL10:12:34
Turn Rate Indicator Tick Marks
INSET PFD OBS CDI DME XPDR IDENT TMR/REF NRST ALERTS

Turn Rate Trend Vector

Figure 7-12. Primary flight display. Note that the actual location of indications vary depending on manufacturers.

Figure 7-13. Multi-function display.

7-13
Individual panel displays are able to be congured for a variety
of aircraft simply by installing different software packages.
[Figure 7-14] Manufacturers are also able to upgrade existing
instrument displays in a similar manner, eliminating the need
to replace individual gauges in order to upgrade.

00 210 220 230 240 250 260 270

58
140

UY
120 70
102
100 10 10 6 710
3 0 .3 0
00:03:29 65
UX 80
VS
60 10 2320B 10 W Figure 7-15. Teledynes 90004 TAS/Plus Air Data Computer (ADC)
S
40 70 computes air data information from the pitot-static pneumatic
E
N system, aircraft temperature probe, and barometric correction
MA239 5800
device to help create a clear picture of flight characteristics.
IFR APPR ANG 239 A 239 2.3NM

autopilot control system. In the event of system malfunction,

the ADC can quickly be removed and replaced in order to
decrease down time and maintenance turn-around times.

Altitude information is derived from the static pressure port

just as an analogue system does; however, the static pressure
does not enter a diaphragm. The ADC computes the received
barometric pressure and sends a digital signal to the PFD to
display the proper altitude readout. Electronic ight displays
also show trend vectors which show the pilot how the altitude
and airspeed are progressing.

Trend Vectors
Trend vectors are magenta lines which move up and down
both the ASI and the altimeter. [Figures 7-16 and 7-17] The

Figure 7-14. Cheltons FlightLogic (top) and Avidynes Entegra Airspeed trend vector
(bottom) are examples of panel displays that are configurable.

Air Data Computer (ADC)

1 150

140
Electronic ight displays utilize the same type of instrument
inputs as traditional analogue gauges; however, the processing
system is different. The pitot static inputs are received by an
0 130
1
ADC. The ADC computes the difference between the total 120
20
pressure and the static pressure, and generates the information 9
necessary to display the airspeed on the PFD. Outside air 110
temperatures are also monitored and introduced into various
components within the system, as well as being displayed on
100
the PFD screen. [Figure 7-15]
90
TAS 120KT

The ADC is a separate solid state device which, in addition to

providing data to the PFD, is capable of providing data to the Figure 7-16. Airspeed trend vector.

7-14
 There are two fundamental properties of gyroscopic action:
Airspeed trend vector rigidity in space and precession.

1 150

140
Rigidity in Space
Rigidity in space refers to the principle that a gyroscope

0 130
1
remains in a xed position in the plane in which it is spinning.
An example of rigidity in space is that of a bicycle wheel.
As the bicycle wheels increase speed, they become more and
120
20 more stable in their plane of rotation. This is why a bicycle is
9 very unstable and very maneuverable at low speeds and very
110 stable and less maneuverable at higher speeds.

100 By mounting this wheel, or gyroscope, on a set of gimbal

rings, the gyro is able to rotate freely in any direction. Thus,
90
TAS 120KT if the gimbal rings are tilted, twisted, or otherwise moved,
the gyro remains in the plane in which it was originally
Figure 7-17. Altimeter trend vector. spinning. [Figure 7-18]
ADC computes the rate of change and displays the 6-second
projection of where the aircraft will be. Pilots can utilize
the trend vectors to better control the aircrafts attitude. By
including the trend vectors in the instrument scan, pilots are
able to precisely control airspeed and altitude. Additional
information can be obtained by referencing the Instrument
Flying Handbook or specic avionics manufacturers training
material.

Gyroscopic Flight Instruments

Several ight instruments utilize the properties of a gyroscope
for their operation. The most common instruments containing
gyroscopes are the turn coordinator, heading indicator, and
the attitude indicator. To understand how these instruments
operate requires knowledge of the instrument power systems,
gyroscopic principles, and the operating principles of each
instrument.

Gyroscopic Principles Figure 7-18. Regardless of the position of its base, a gyro tends to
Any spinning object exhibits gyroscopic properties. A wheel remain rigid in space, with its axis of rotation pointed in a constant
or rotor designed and mounted to utilize these properties is direction.
called a gyroscope. Two important design characteristics of an
instrument gyro are great weight for its size, or high density, Precession
and rotation at high speed with low friction bearings. Precession is the tilting or turning of a gyro in response to a
deective force. The reaction to this force does not occur at
There are two general types of mountings; the type used the point at which it was applied; rather, it occurs at a point
depends upon which property of the gyro is utilized. A freely that is 90 later in the direction of rotation. This principle
or universally mounted gyroscope is free to rotate in any allows the gyro to determine a rate of turn by sensing the
direction about its center of gravity. Such a wheel is said to amount of pressure created by a change in direction. The rate
have three planes of freedom. The wheel or rotor is free to at which the gyro precesses is inversely proportional to the
rotate in any plane in relation to the base and is balanced so speed of the rotor and proportional to the deective force.
that, with the gyro wheel at rest, it remains in the position
in which it is placed. Restricted or semi-rigidly mounted
gyroscopes are those mounted so that one of the planes of
freedom is held xed in relation to the base.

7-15
Using the example of the bicycle, precession acts on the or pressure required for instrument operation varies, but is
wheels in order to allow the bicycle to turn. While riding usually between 4.5 "Hg and 5.5 "Hg.
at normal speed, it is not necessary to turn the handle bars
in the direction of the desired turn. A rider simply leans in One source of vacuum for the gyros is a vane-type engine-
the direction that he or she wishes to go. Since the wheels driven pump that is mounted on the accessory case of
are rotating in a clockwise direction when viewed from the the engine. Pump capacity varies in different airplanes,
right side of the bicycle, if a rider leans to the left, a force is depending on the number of gyros.
applied to the top of the wheel to the left. The force actually
acts 90 in the direction of rotation, which has the effect of A typical vacuum system consists of an engine-driven
applying a force to the front of the tire, causing the bicycle vacuum pump, relief valve, air lter, gauge, and tubing
to move to the left. There is a need to turn the handlebars at necessary to complete the connections. The gauge is mounted
low speeds because of the instability of the slowly turning in the aircrafts instrument panel and indicates the amount
gyros, and also to increase the rate of turn. of pressure in the system (vacuum is measured in inches of
mercury less than ambient pressure).
Precession can also create some minor errors in some
instruments. [Figure 7-19] Precession can cause a freely As shown in Figure 7-20, air is drawn into the vacuum system
spinning gyro to become displaced from its intended plane by the engine-driven vacuum pump. It rst goes through
of rotation through bearing friction, etc. Certain instruments a lter, which prevents foreign matter from entering the
may require corrective realignment during ight, such as the vacuum or pressure system. The air then moves through the
heading indicator. attitude and heading indicators, where it causes the gyros
to spin. A relief valve prevents the vacuum pressure, or
Pla suction, from exceeding prescribed limits. After that, the air
ne is expelled overboard or used in other systems, such as for
of
Ro
tat inating pneumatic deicing boots.
ion ce
of For
Plane
FOR
CE It is important to monitor vacuum pressure during ight,
because the attitude and heading indicators may not provide
P
la

reliable information when suction pressure is low. The

n
e
o
f

vacuum, or suction, gauge is generally marked to indicate

P
re
ce
ss

the normal range. Some aircraft are equipped with a warning

io
n

light that illuminates when the vacuum pressure drops below

the acceptable level.

When the vacuum pressure drops below the normal operating

range, the gyroscopic instruments may become unstable and
inaccurate. Cross checking the instruments routinely is a
good habit to develop.

Figure 7-19. Precession of a gyroscope resulting from an applied Turn Indicators

deflective force. Aircraft use two types of turn indicators: turn-and-slip
indicator and turn coordinator. Because of the way the gyro
Sources of Power is mounted, the turn-and-slip indicator shows only the rate of
In some aircraft, all the gyros are vacuum, pressure, or turn in degrees per second. The turn coordinator is mounted
electrically operated. In other aircraft, vacuum or pressure at an angle, or canted, so it can initially show roll rate. When
systems provide the power for the heading and attitude the roll stabilizes, it indicates rate of turn. Both instruments
indicators, while the electrical system provides the power for indicate turn direction and quality (coordination), and also
the turn coordinator. Most aircraft have at least two sources serve as a backup source of bank information in the event an
of power to ensure at least one source of bank information is attitude indicator fails. Coordination is achieved by referring
available if one power source fails. The vacuum or pressure to the inclinometer, which consists of a liquid-lled curved
system spins the gyro by drawing a stream of air against the tube with a ball inside. [Figure 7-21]
rotor vanes to spin the rotor at high speed, much like the
operation of a waterwheel or turbine. The amount of vacuum

7-16
 Heading Indicator Vacuum relief valve
33 3

30

6
Overboard vent line
24

I2
2I I5

Vacuum pump

20 20
I0 I0

I0 I0
I
20 20

STBY PWR TEST

4 6
SUCTION
CT
2 8
INCHES MERCURT

0 I0
Suction Attitude Indicator
Gauge

Vacuum air filter

Figure 7-20. Typical vacuum system.

Turn-and-Slip Indicator invalid. Certain instruments have specic pitch and bank
The gyro in the turn-and-slip indicator rotates in the vertical limits that induce a tumble of the gyro.
plane, corresponding to the aircrafts longitudinal axis. A
single gimbal limits the planes in which the gyro can tilt, and Turn Coordinator
a spring tries to return it to center. Because of precession, a The gimbal in the turn coordinator is canted; therefore, its
yawing force causes the gyro to tilt left or right, as viewed gyro can sense both rate of roll and rate of turn. Since turn
from the pilot seat. The turn-and-slip indicator uses a pointer, coordinators are more prevalent in training aircraft, this
called the turn needle, to show the direction and rate of turn. discussion concentrates on that instrument. When rolling into
The turn-and-slip indicator is incapable of tumbling off or out of a turn, the miniature aircraft banks in the direction
its rotational axis because of the restraining springs. When the aircraft is rolled. A rapid roll rate causes the miniature
extreme forces are applied to a gyro, the gyro is displaced aircraft to bank more steeply than a slow roll rate.
from its normal plane of rotation, rendering its indications

Horizontal gyro

Gimbal Gyro rotation

Gimbal rotation Gimbal rotation
Gyro rotation

Canted gyro
Standard rate turn index

Standard rate turn index

Inclinometer Inclinometer

Turn coordinator Turn-and-slip indicator

Figure 7-21. Turn indicators rely on controlled precession for their operation.

7-17
The turn coordinator can be used to establish and maintain turn is too great for the angle of bank, and the ball moves
a standard-rate turn by aligning the wing of the miniature to the outside of the turn. To correct for these conditions,
aircraft with the turn index. Figure 7-22 shows a picture of a and improve the quality of the turn, remember to step on
turn coordinator. There are two marks on each side (left and the ball. Varying the angle of bank can also help restore
right) of the face of the instrument. The rst mark is used to coordinated ight from a slip or skid. To correct for a slip,
reference a wings level zero rate of turn. The second mark decrease bank and/or increase the rate of turn. To correct for
on the left and right side of the instrument serve to indicate a skid, increase the bank and/or decrease the rate of turn.
a standard rate of turn. A standard-rate turn is dened as a
turn rate of 3 per second. The turn coordinator indicates only Yaw String
the rate and direction of turn; it does not display a specic One additional tool which can be added to the aircraft is a
angle of bank. yaw string. A yaw string is simply a string or piece of yarn
attached to the center of the wind screen. When in coordinated
D.C. D.C.
ight, the string trails straight back over the top of the wind
ELEC. ELEC.

screen. When the aircraft is either slipping or skidding,

the yaw string moves to the right or left depending on the
direction of slip or skid.
TURN COORDINATOR TURN COORDINATOR

L R L R
2 MIN.
NO PITCH
INFORMATION
2 MIN.
NO PITCH
INFORMATION
Instrument Check
During the preight, check to see that the inclinometer is
full of uid and has no air bubbles. The ball should also be
Slipping turn Skidding turn
resting at its lowest point. When taxiing, the turn coordinator
should indicate a turn in the correct direction while the ball
D.C.
ELEC.
moves opposite the direction of the turn.

Attitude Indicator
TURN COORDINATOR
The attitude indicator, with its miniature aircraft and horizon
L R
2 MIN.
NO PITCH
bar, displays a picture of the attitude of the aircraft. The
INFORMATION
relationship of the miniature aircraft to the horizon bar is
the same as the relationship of the real aircraft to the actual
Coordinated turn horizon. The instrument gives an instantaneous indication of
even the smallest changes in attitude.
Figure 7-22. If inadequate right rudder is applied in a right turn, a
slip results. Too much right rudder causes the aircraft to skid through The gyro in the attitude indicator is mounted in a horizontal
the turn. Centering the ball results in a coordinated turn. plane and depends upon rigidity in space for its operation.
The horizon bar represents the true horizon. This bar is
xed to the gyro and remains in a horizontal plane as the
Inclinometer
aircraft is pitched or banked about its lateral or longitudinal
The inclinometer is used to depict aircraft yaw, which is
axis, indicating the attitude of the aircraft relative to the true
the side-to-side movement of the aircrafts nose. During
horizon. [Figure 7-23]
coordinated, straight-and-level ight, the force of gravity
causes the ball to rest in the lowest part of the tube, centered
The gyro spins in the horizontal plane and resists deection of
between the reference lines. Coordinated ight is maintained
the rotational path. Since the gyro relies on rigidity in space,
by keeping the ball centered. If the ball is not centered, it can
the aircraft actually rotates around the spinning gyro.
be centered by using the rudder.
An adjustment knob is provided with which the pilot may
To center the ball, apply rudder pressure on the side to which
move the miniature aircraft up or down to align the miniature
the ball is deected. Use the simple rule, step on the ball, to
aircraft with the horizon bar to suit the pilots line of vision.
remember which rudder pedal to press. If aileron and rudder
Normally, the miniature aircraft is adjusted so that the wings
are coordinated during a turn, the ball remains centered in the
overlap the horizon bar when the aircraft is in straight-and-
tube. If aerodynamic forces are unbalanced, the ball moves
level cruising ight.
away from the center of the tube. As shown in Figure 7-22, in
a slip, the rate of turn is too slow for the angle of bank, and
the ball moves to the inside of the turn. In a skid, the rate of

7-18
 The pitch and bank limits depend upon the make and model
Bank index of the instrument. Limits in the banking plane are usually
Gimbal rotation
from 100 to 110, and the pitch limits are usually from 60
to 70. If either limit is exceeded, the instrument will tumble
or spill and will give incorrect indications until realigned. A
2 20
number of modern attitude indicators do not tumble.
20 I0 I0
I0 0

I I0
Every pilot should be able to interpret the banking scale
I0
20
0 20 illustrated in Figure 7-24. Most banking scale indicators on
the top of the instrument move in the same direction from
TEST
BY PW
R
that in which the aircraft is actually banked. Some other
models move in the opposite direction from that in which the
Roll gimbal aircraft is actually banked. This may confuse the pilot if the
Horizon reference arm
indicator is used to determine the direction of bank. This scale
Gyro should be used only to control the degree of desired bank.
Pitch gimbal
The relationship of the miniature aircraft to the horizon bar
should be used for an indication of the direction of bank.
Figure 7-23. Attitude indicator.

20
20
I0 20 20
20 I0
I0 I0 20
I0
I0
I0
20 I0
I0 I0 I0 20
I0
20 20 20
20

STBY PWR TEST STBY PWR TEST STBY PWR TEST

Climbing left bank Straight climb Climbing right bank

Pointer
10 Ba
20 n
k

30
sc

20
a

20
le

I0
20
45 I0
I0 20
I0
I0
20 I00
20
I0 20 20 60 I0
20
I0 I0 20

STBY PWR TEST

90 STBY PWR TEST

I0 II0
20 20

STBY PWR TEST

Level left bank Level right bank

Artificial horizon Adjustment knob

20
20
20 20
I0 I0
20 I0 I0
I0 20
I0
I0
20 I0
I0
I0 I0
0 20
20 20 I00
20
20

STBY PWR TEST STBY PWR TEST STBY PWR TEST

Descending left bank Straight descent Descending right bank

Figure 7-24. Attitude representation by the attitude indicator corresponds to the relation of the aircraft to the real horizon.

7-19
The attitude indicator is reliable and the most realistic ight caused by friction, the heading indicator may indicate as
instrument on the instrument panel. Its indications are very much as 15 error per every hour of operation.
close approximations of the actual attitude of the aircraft.
Some heading indicators referred to as horizontal situation
Heading Indicator indicators (HSI) receive a magnetic north reference from
The heading indicator is fundamentally a mechanical a magnetic slaving transmitter, and generally need no
instrument designed to facilitate the use of the magnetic adjustment. The magnetic slaving transmitter is called a
compass. Errors in the magnetic compass are numerous, magnetometer.
making straight ight and precision turns to headings difcult
to accomplish, particularly in turbulent air. A heading Attitude and Heading Reference System (AHRS)
indicator, however, is not affected by the forces that make Electronic ight displays have replaced free-spinning gyros
the magnetic compass difcult to interpret. [Figure 7-25] with solid-state laser systems that are capable of ight at
any attitude without tumbling. This capability is the result
of the development of the Attitude and Heading Reference
Main drive gear Compass card gear System (AHRS).
Gimbal rotation
The AHRS sends attitude information to the PFD in order
to generate the pitch and bank information of the attitude
33 3 indicator. The heading information is derived from a
magnetometer which senses the earths lines of magnetic
6

ux. This information is then processed and sent out to the

PFD to generate the heading display. [Figure 7-26]
I2

I5
2I

Gimbal Adjustment gears

Gyro Adjustment knob

Figure 7-25. A heading indicator displays headings based on a 360

azimuth, with the final zero omitted. For example, 6 represents
060, while 21 indicates 210. The adjustment knob is used to
align the heading indicator with the magnetic compass.

The operation of the heading indicator depends upon the

principle of rigidity in space. The rotor turns in a vertical
plane and xed to the rotor is a compass card. Since the rotor
remains rigid in space, the points on the card hold the same
position in space relative to the vertical plane of the gyro. The Figure 7-26. Attitude and heading reference system (AHRS).
aircraft actually rotates around the rotating gyro, not the other
way around. As the instrument case and the aircraft revolve The Flux Gate Compass System
around the vertical axis of the gyro, the card provides clear As mentioned earlier, the lines of ux in the Earths magnetic
and accurate heading information. eld have two basic characteristics: a magnet aligns with
them, and an electrical current is induced, or generated, in
Because of precession caused by friction, the heading any wire crossed by them.
indicator creeps or drifts from a heading to which it is set.
Among other factors, the amount of drift depends largely The ux gate compass that drives slaved gyros uses the
upon the condition of the instrument. If the bearings are worn, characteristic of current induction. The ux valve is a small,
dirty, or improperly lubricated, the drift may be excessive. segmented ring, like the one in Figure 7-27, made of soft iron
Another error in the heading indicator is caused by the fact that readily accepts lines of magnetic ux. An electrical coil
that the gyro is oriented in space, and the Earth rotates in is wound around each of the three legs to accept the current
space at a rate of 15 in 1 hour. Thus, discounting precession

7-20
 Figure 7-28. The current in each of the three pickup coils changes
with the heading of the aircraft..

The slaving control and compensator unit has a push button

that provides a means of selecting either the slaved gyro
or free gyro mode. This unit also has a slaving meter
and two manual heading-drive buttons. The slaving meter
indicates the difference between the displayed heading and
the magnetic heading. A right deection indicates a clockwise
Figure 7-27. The soft iron frame of the flux valve accepts the flux
error of the compass card; a left deflection indicates a
from the Earths magnetic field each time the current in the center
counterclockwise error. Whenever the aircraft is in a turn
coil reverses. This flux causes current to flow in the three pickup
and the card rotates, the slaving meter shows a full deection
coils.
to one side or the other. When the system is in free gyro
induced in this ring by the Earths magnetic eld. A coil mode, the compass card may be adjusted by depressing the
wound around the iron spacer in the center of the frame has appropriate heading-drive button.
400 Hz alternating current (AC) owing through it. During
the times when this current reaches its peak, twice during A separate unit, the magnetic slaving transmitter is mounted
each cycle, there is so much magnetism produced by this remotely, usually in a wingtip to eliminate the possibility of
coil that the frame cannot accept the lines of ux from the
Earths eld.

As the current reverses between the peaks, it demagnetizes

the frame so it can accept the ux from the Earths eld. As
this ux cuts across the windings in the three coils, it causes
current to ow in them. These three coils are connected in
such a way that the current owing in them changes as the
heading of the aircraft changes. [Figure 7-28]

The three coils are connected to three similar but smaller coils
in a synchro inside the instrument case. The synchro rotates
the dial of a radio magnetic indicator (RMI) or a HSI.

Remote Indicating Compass

Remote indicating compasses were developed to compensate
for the errors and limitations of the older type of heading
indicators. The two panel-mounted components of a typical
system are the pictorial navigation indicator and the slaving
control and compensator unit. [Figure 7-29] The pictorial Figure 7-29. Pictorial navigation indicator (HSI, top), slaving meter
navigation indicator is commonly referred to as an HSI. (lower right), and slaving control compensator unit (lower left).

7-21
magnetic interference. It contains the ux valve, which is The bank and pitch limits of the heading indicator vary
the direction-sensing device of the system. A concentration with the particular design and make of instrument. On some
of lines of magnetic force, after being amplied, becomes heading indicators found in light aircraft, the limits are
a signal relayed to the heading indicator unit, which is also approximately 55 of pitch and 55 of bank. When either of
remotely mounted. This signal operates a torque motor in these attitude limits is exceeded, the instrument tumbles
the heading indicator unit that processes the gyro unit until or spills and no longer gives the correct indication until
it is aligned with the transmitter signal. The magnetic slaving reset. After spilling, it may be reset with the caging knob.
transmitter is connected electrically to the HSI. Many of the modern instruments used are designed in such
a manner that they do not tumble.
There are a number of designs of the remote indicating
compass; therefore, only the basic features of the system are An additional precession error may occur due to a gyro not
covered here. Instrument pilots must become familiar with spinning fast enough to maintain its alignment. When the
the characteristics of the equipment in their aircraft. vacuum system stops producing adequate suction to maintain
the gyro speed, the heading indicator and the attitude indicator
As instrument panels become more crowded and the pilots gyros begin to slow down. As they slow, they become more
available scan time is reduced by a heavier ight deck susceptible to deection from the plane of rotation. Some
workload, instrument manufacturers have worked toward aircraft have warning lights to indicate that a low vacuum
combining instruments. One good example of this is the situation has occurred. Other aircraft may have only a vacuum
RMI in Figure 7-30. The compass card is driven by signals gauge that indicates the suction.
from the ux valve, and the two pointers are driven by an
automatic direction nder (ADF) and a very high frequency Instrument Check
(VHF) omni-directional radio range (VOR). As the gyro spools up, make sure there are no abnormal
sounds. While taxiing, the instrument should indicate turns in
the correct direction, and precession should not be abnormal.
At idle power settings, the gyroscopic instruments using the
vacuum system might not be up to operating speeds and
precession might occur more rapidly than during ight.

Compass Systems
The Earth is a huge magnet, spinning in space, surrounded
by a magnetic eld made up of invisible lines of ux. These
lines leave the surface at the magnetic north pole and reenter
at the magnetic South Pole.

Lines of magnetic ux have two important characteristics:

any magnet that is free to rotate will align with them, and
an electrical current is induced into any conductor that cuts
across them. Most direction indicators installed in aircraft
Figure 7-30. Driven by signals from a flux valve, the compass card make use of one of these two characteristics.
in this RMI indicates the heading of the aircraft opposite the upper
center index mark. The green pointer is driven by the ADF. Magnetic Compass
One of the oldest and simplest instruments for indicating
direction is the magnetic compass. It is also one of the basic
Heading indicators that do not have this automatic
instruments required by Title 14 of the Code of Federal
northseeking capability are called free gyros, and require
Regulations (14 CFR) part 91 for both VFR and IFR ight.
periodic adjustment. It is important to check the indications
frequently (approximately every 15 minutes) and reset the
A magnet is a piece of material, usually a metal containing
heading indicator to align it with the magnetic compass
iron, which attracts and holds lines of magnetic flux.
when required. Adjust the heading indicator to the magnetic
Regardless of size, every magnet has two poles: north and
compass heading when the aircraft is straight and level at a
south. When one magnet is placed in the eld of another, the
constant speed to avoid compass errors.
unlike poles attract each other, and like poles repel.

7-22
An aircraft magnetic compass, such as the one in Figure 7-30, A compensator assembly mounted on the top or bottom
has two small magnets attached to a metal oat sealed inside a of the compass allows an aviation maintenance technician
bowl of clear compass uid similar to kerosene. A graduated (AMT) to create a magnetic eld inside the compass housing
scale, called a card, is wrapped around the oat and viewed that cancels the inuence of local outside magnetic elds.
through a glass window with a lubber line across it. The card This is done to correct for deviation error. The compensator
is marked with letters representing the cardinal directions, assembly has two shafts whose ends have screwdriver slots
north, east, south, and west, and a number for each 30 accessible from the front of the compass. Each shaft rotates
between these letters. The nal 0 is omitted from these one or two small compensating magnets. The end of one shaft
directions. For example, 3 = 30, 6 = 60, and 33 = 330. is marked E-W, and its magnets affect the compass when the
There are long and short graduation marks between the letters aircraft is pointed east or west. The other shaft is marked
and numbers, each long mark representing 10 and each short N-S and its magnets affect the compass when the aircraft is
mark representing 5. pointed north or south.

Magnetic Compass Induced Errors

The magnetic compass is the simplest instrument in the
panel, but it is subject to a number of errors that must be
considered.

Variation
The Earth rotates about its geographic axis; maps and charts
are drawn using meridians of longitude that pass through the
geographic poles. Directions measured from the geographic
poles are called true directions. The magnetic North Pole to
which the magnetic compass points is not collocated with
the geographic North Pole, but is some 1,300 miles away;
Figure 7-31. A magnetic compass. The vertical line is called the directions measured from the magnetic poles are called
lubber line. magnetic directions. In aerial navigation, the difference
between true and magnetic directions is called variation. This
same angular difference in surveying and land navigation is
The oat and card assembly has a hardened steel pivot in its called declination.
center that rides inside a special, spring-loaded, hard glass
jewel cup. The buoyancy of the oat takes most of the weight Figure 7-32 shows the isogonic lines that identify the number
off the pivot, and the uid damps the oscillation of the oat of degrees of variation in their area. The line that passes near
and card. This jewel-and-pivot type mounting allows the oat Chicago is called the agonic line. Anywhere along this line
freedom to rotate and tilt up to approximately 18 angle of the two poles are aligned, and there is no variation. East
bank. At steeper bank angles, the compass indications are of this line, the magnetic North Pole is to the west of the
erratic and unpredictable. geographic North Pole and a correction must be applied to a
compass indication to get a true direction.
The compass housing is entirely full of compass uid. To
prevent damage or leakage when the uid expands and
contracts with temperature changes, the rear of the compass
case is sealed with a exible diaphragm, or with a metal
bellows in some compasses.

The magnets align with the Earths magnetic eld and the
pilot reads the direction on the scale opposite the lubber line.
Note that in Figure 7-31, the pilot sees the compass card from
its backside. When the pilot is ying north as the compass
shows, east is to the pilots right. On the card, 33, which
represents 330 (west of north), is to the right of north. The
reason for this apparent backward graduation is that the card
remains stationary, and the compass housing and the pilot turn
around it, always viewing the card from its backside. Figure 7-32. Isogonic lines are lines of equal variation.

7-23
Flying in the Washington, D.C., area, for example, the variation
is 10 west. If a pilot wants to y a true course of south (180),
the variation must be added to this, resulting in a magnetic course
of 190 to y. Flying in the Los Angeles, California, area, the
variation is 14 east. To y a true course of 180 there, the pilot
would have to subtract the variation and y a magnetic course
of 166. The variation error does not change with the heading of
the aircraft; it is the same anywhere along the isogonic line.
Figure 7-34. A compass correction card shows the deviation
Deviation correction for any heading.
The magnets in a compass align with any magnetic eld.
complete the compass coreection card. If the pilot wants to
Local magnetic elds in an aircraft caused by electrical
y a magnetic heading of 120 and the aircraft is operating
current owing in the structure, in nearby wiring or any
with the radios on, the pilot should y a compass heading
magnetized part of the structure, conict with the Earths
of 123.
magnetic eld and cause a compass error called deviation.
The corrections for variation and deviation must be applied
Deviation, unlike variation, is different on each heading,
in the correct sequence and is shown below, starting from
but it is not affected by the geographic location. Variation
the true course desired.
error cannot be reduced or changed, but deviation error can
be minimized when an AMT performs the maintenance task
Step 1: Determine the Magnetic Course
known as swinging the compass.
True Course (180) Variation (+10) = Magnetic Course (190)
Most airports have a compass rose, which is a series of lines
The magnetic course (190) is steered if there is no deviation
marked out on a ramp or maintenance runup area where there
error to be applied. The compass card must now be considered
is no magnetic interference. Lines, oriented to magnetic north,
for the compass course of 190.
are painted every 30, as shown in Figure 7-33.
Step 2: Determine the Compass Course
Magnetic Course (190, from step 1) Deviation (2, from
True north correction card) = Compass Course (188)

330 N NOTE: Intermediate magnetic courses between those listed

300 030 on the compass card need to be interpreted. Therefore, to
steer a true course of 180, the pilot would follow a compass
W 060 course of 188.

240 E
To nd the true course that is being own when the compass
course is known:
210 120 Compass Course Deviation = Magnetic Course Variation=
True Course
S 150

Dip Errors
Figure 7-33. Utilization of a compass rose aids compensation for The lines of magnetic ux are considered to leave the Earth
deviation errors. at the magnetic North Pole and enter at the magnetic South
The AMT aligns the aircraft on each magnetic heading and Pole. At both locations the lines are perpendicular to the
adjusts the compensating magnets to minimize the difference Earths surface. At the magnetic equator, which is halfway
between the compass indication and the actual magnetic between the poles, the lines are parallel with the surface. The
heading of the aircraft. Any error that cannot be removed magnets in a compass align with this eld, and near the poles
is recorded on a compass correction card, like the one in they dip, or tilt, the oat and card. The oat is balanced with
Figure 7-34, and placed in a cardholder near the compass. The a small dip-compensating weight, to dampen the effects of
pilot can taxi the aircraft to the compass rose and maneuver dip when operating in the middle latitudes of the northern
the aircraft to the headings prescribed by the AMT, and if hemisphere. This dip (and weight) causes two very noticeable
authorized to do so, the AMT can also taxi and maneuver the errors: northerly turning error and acceleration error.
aircraft; however, only the AMT can adjust the compass or

7-24
The pull of the vertical component of the Earths magnetic eld When an aircraft is ying on a heading of south and begins
causes northerly turning error, which is apparent on a heading a turn toward east, the Earths magnetic eld pulls on the
of north or south. When an aircraft ying on a heading of north end of the magnet that rotates the card toward east, the same
makes a turn toward east, the aircraft banks to the right, and direction the turn is being made. If the turn is made from
the compass card tilts to the right. The vertical component of south toward west, the magnetic pull starts the card rotating
the Earths magnetic eld pulls the northseeking end of the toward westagain, in the same direction the turn is being
magnet to the right, and the oat rotates, causing the card to made. The rule for this error is: when starting a turn from a
rotate toward west, the direction opposite the direction the turn southerly heading, the compass indication leads the turn.
is being made. [Figure 7-35]
In acceleration error, the dip-correction weight causes the end
If the turn is made from north to west, the aircraft banks to of the oat and card marked N (the south-seeking end) to be
the left and the compass card tilts down on the left side. The heavier than the opposite end. When the aircraft is ying at
magnetic eld pulls on the end of the magnet that causes the a constant speed on a heading of east or west, the oat and
card to rotate toward east. This indication is again opposite to card is level. The effects of magnetic dip and the weight are
the direction the turn is being made. The rule for this error is: approximately equal. If the aircraft accelerates on a heading
when starting a turn from a northerly heading, the compass of east [Figure 7-36], the inertia of the weight holds its end of
indication lags behind the turn. the oat back and the card rotates toward north. As soon as the

Figure 7-35. Northerly turning error.

Figure 7-36. Effects of acceleration error.

7-25
speed of the aircraft stabilizes, the card swings back to its east Lags or Leads
indication. If, while ying on this easterly heading, the aircraft When starting a turn from a northerly heading, the compass
decelerates, the inertia causes the weight to move ahead and the lags behind the turn. When starting a turn from a southerly
card rotates toward south until the speed again stabilizes. heading, the compass leads the turn.

When ying on a heading of west, the same things happen. Eddy Current Damping
Inertia from acceleration causes the weight to lag, and the
The decreased amplitude of oscillations by the interaction
card rotates toward north. When the aircraft decelerates on
of magnetic elds. In the case of a vertical card magnetic
a heading of west, inertia causes the weight to move ahead
compass, flux from the oscillating permanent magnet
and the card rotates toward south.
produces eddy currents in a damping disk or cup. The
magnetic ux produced by the eddy currents opposes the ux
A mnemonic, or memory jogger, for the effect of acceleration
from the permanent magnet and decreases the oscillations.
error is the word ANDS (accelerationnorth, deceleration
south). Acceleration causes an indication toward north; Outside Air Temperature (OAT) Gauge
deceleration causes an indication toward south.
The outside air temperature (OAT) gauge is a simple and
Oscillation Error effective device mounted so that the sensing element is
exposed to the outside air. The sensing element consists
Oscillation is a combination of all of the other errors, and it
of a bimetallic-type thermometer in which two dissimilar
results in the compass card swinging back and forth around
materials are welded together in a single strip and twisted
the heading being flown. When setting the gyroscopic
into a helix. One end is anchored into protective tube and the
heading indicator to agree with the magnetic compass, use
other end is afxed to the pointer, which reads against the
the average indication between the swings.
calibration on a circular face. OAT gauges are calibrated in
degrees C, F, or both. An accurate air temperature provides
The Vertical Card Magnetic Compass
the pilot with useful information about temperature lapse rate
The oating magnet type of compass not only has all the errors
with altitude change. [Figure 7-38]
just described, but also lends itself to confused reading. It is
easy to begin a turn in the wrong direction because its card
appears backward. East is on what the pilot would expect to be 40
20 60
the west side. The vertical card magnetic compass eliminates
0
some of the errors and confusion. The dial of this compass 0 20 80
is graduated with letters representing the cardinal directions, -20

numbers every 30, and tick marks every 5. The dial is rotated -20 40 100
by a set of gears from the shaft-mounted magnet, and the nose -40
of the symbolic aircraft on the instrument glass represents the -40 60 120
lubber line for reading the heading of the aircraft from the dial. C
-60 140
Eddy currents induced into an aluminum-damping cup damp, F
or decrease, oscillation of the magnet. [Figure 7-37]

Figure 7-38. Outside air temperature (OAT) gauge.

N 3
33 Chapter Summary
W 30

Flight instruments enable an aircraft to be operated with

maximum performance and enhanced safety, especially when
E 12

ying long distances. Manufacturers provide the necessary

24

15 ight instruments, but to use them effectively, pilots need

S 21 to understand how they operate. As a pilot, it is important to
become very familiar with the operational aspects of the pitot-
static system and associated instruments, the vacuum system
and associated instruments, the gyroscopic instruments, and
the magnetic compass.

Figure 7-37. Vertical card compass.

7-26
Chapter 8

Flight Manuals and

Other Documents
Introduction
Each aircraft comes with documentation and a set of manuals
with which a pilot must be familiar in order to y that aircraft.
This chapter covers airplane ight manuals (AFM), the
pilots operating handbook (POH), and aircraft documents
pertaining to ownership, airworthiness, maintenance, and
operations with inoperative equipment. Knowledge of these
required documents and manuals is essential for a pilot to
conduct a safe ight.

Airplane Flight Manuals (AFM)

Flight manuals and operating handbooks are concise reference
books that provide specic information about a particular
aircraft or subject. They contain basic facts, information,
and/or instructions for the pilot about the operation of an
aircraft, ying techniques, etc., and are intended to be kept
at hand for ready reference.

8-1
The aircraft owner/information manual is a document Most manufacturers include a table of contents, which
developed by the manufacturer and contains general identies the order of the entire manual by section number
information about the make and model of aircraft. The and title. Usually, each section also contains a table of
manual is not pproved by the Federal Aviation Administration contents for that section. Page numbers reect the section
(FAA) and is not specic to an individual aircraft. The and page within that section (1-1, 1-2, 2-1, 3-1, etc.). If the
manual provides general information about the operation of manual is published in loose-leaf form, each section is usually
an aircraft, is not kept current, and cannot be substituted for marked with a divider tab indicating the section number or
the AFM/POH. title, or both. The Emergency Procedures section may have
a red tab for quick identication and reference.
An AFM is a document developed by the manufacturer and
approved by the FAA. This book contains the information General (Section 1)
and instructions required to operate an aircraft safely. A The General section provides the basic descriptive
pilot must comply with this information which is specic information on the airframe and powerplant(s). Some
to a particular make and model aircraft, usually by serial manuals include a three-dimensional drawing of the aircraft
number. An AFM contains the operating procedures and that provides dimensions of various components. Included
limitations of that aircraft. Title 14 of the Code of Federal are such items as wingspan, maximum height, overall length,
Regulations (14 CFR) part 91 requires that pilots comply wheelbase length, main landing gear track width, diameter
with the operating limitations specied in the approved ight of the rotor system, maximum propeller diameter, propeller
manuals, markings, and placards. ground clearance, minimum turning radius, and wing area.
This section serves as a quick reference and helps a pilot
Originally, ight manuals followed whatever format and become familiar with the aircraft.
content the manufacturer felt was appropriate, but this
changed with the acceptance of Specication No. 1 prepared The last segment of the General section contains denitions,
by the General Aviation Manufacturers Association (GAMA). abbreviations, explanations of symbology, and some of
Specication No. 1 established a standardized format for all the terminology used in the POH. At the option of the
general aviation airplane and helicopter ight manuals. manufacturer, metric and other conversion tables may also
be included.
The POH is a document developed by the aircraft manufacturer
and contains FAA approved AFM information. If POH is Limitations (Section 2)
used in the main title, a statement must be included on the The Limitations section contains only those limitations required
title page indicating that sections of the document are FAA by regulation or that are necessary for the safe operation of
approved as the AFM. the aircraft, powerplant, systems, and equipment. It includes
operating limitations, instrument markings, color-coding, and
The POH for most light aircraft built after 1975 is also basic placards. Some of the limitation areas are: airspeed,
designated as the FAA-approved ight manual. The typical powerplant, weight and loading distribution, and ight.
AFM/POH contains the following nine sections: General;
Limitations; Emergency Procedures; Normal Procedures; Airspeed
Performance; Weight and Balance/Equipment List; Systems Airspeed limitations are shown on the airspeed indicator
Description; Handling, Service, and Maintenance; and (ASI) by color coding and on placards or graphs in the aircraft.
Supplements. Manufacturers also have the option of including [Figure 8-1] A red line on the ASI shows the airspeed limit
additional sections, such as one on Safety and Operational beyond which structural damage could occur. This is called the
Tips or an alphabetical index at the end of the POH. never-exceed speed (VNE). A yellow arc indicates the speed
range between maximum structural cruising speed (VNO) and
Preliminary Pages VNE. Operation of an airplane in the yellow airspeed arc is
While the AFM/POH may appear similar for the same make for smooth air only, and then only with caution. A green arc
and model of aircraft, each manual is unique and contains depicts the normal operating speed range, with the upper end
specic information about a particular aircraft, such as the at VNO, and the lower end at stalling speed at maximum weight
equipment installed and weight and balance information. with the landing gear and aps retracted (VS1). For airplanes
Manufacturers are required to include the serial number and the ap operating range is depicted by the white arc, with the
registration on the title page to identify the aircraft to which upper end at the maximum ap extended speed (VFE), and
the manual belongs. If a manual does not indicate a specic the lower end at the stalling speed with the landing gear and
aircraft registration and serial number, it is limited to general aps in the landing conguration (VSO).
study purposes only.

8-2
 Maximum
245 II5

T 200 I00 P
P R
E F 60 S E
M I50 I Normal operating range
P I00 20 S
S
75 0
OIL
Minimum

Figure 8-3. Minimum, maximum, and normal operating range

markings on oil gauge.

Figure 8-1. Single-engine airpseed indicator. a red radial line and the normal operating range with a green
arc. [Figure 8-4] Some instruments may have a yellow arc
In addition to the markings listed above, small multi-engine to indicate a caution area.
airplanes will have a red radial line to indicate single-engine
minimum controllable airspeed (VMC). A blue radial line Weight and Loading Distribution
is used to indicate single-engine best rate of climb speed at
Weight and Loading Distribution contains the maximum
maximum weight at sea level (VYSE). [Figure 8-2]
certicated weights, as well as the center of gravity (CG)
range. The location of the reference datum used in balance
computations is included in this section. Weight and balance
computations are not provided in this area, but rather in the
IAS
weight and balance section of the AFM/POH.
260 40
AIRSPEED
IRS
KNOTS
KNO 60
25
0
200

180 200 80
30
160
140

160
TAS
100
25 35
MANIFOLD
140 PRESSURE
PR
120
20 40
IN Hg
15 AL g .
45
Figure 8-2. Multi-engine airpseed indicator.
10 50
Powerplant
The Powerplant Limitations portion describes operating
limitations on an aircrafts reciprocating or turbine engine(s).
These include limitations for takeoff power, maximum
continuous power, and maximum normal operating power,
I5 20
which is the maximum power the engine can produce without
any restrictions and is depicted by a green arc. Other items I0 RPM
HUNDREDS
25
that can be included in this area are the minimum and
I
maximum oil and fuel pressures, oil and fuel grades, and I0
30
propeller operating limits. [Figure 8-3]
5
3 HOURS

All reciprocating-engine powered aircraft must have a

AVOID
CONTINUOUS
OPERATION
35
BETWEEN 2250
AND 2350 RPM

revolutions per minute (rpm) indicator for each engine.

Aircraft equipped with a constant-speed propeller or rotor
system use a manifold pressure gauge to monitor power
Figure 8-4. Manifold pressure gauge (top) and tachometer
output and a tachometer to monitor propeller or rotor speed.
Both instruments depict the maximum operating limit with (bottom).

8-3
Flight Limits recommended procedures for handling malfunctions that are
Flight Limits list authorized maneuvers with appropriate not considered emergencies.
entry speeds, ight load factor limits, and kinds of operation
limits. It also indicates those maneuvers that are prohibited, Normal Procedures (Section 4)
such as spins or acrobatic ight, as well as operational This section begins with a list of the airspeeds for normal
limitations such as ight into known icing conditions. operations. The next area consists of several checklists that
may include preight inspection, before starting procedures,
Placards starting engine, before taxiing, taxiing, before takeoff, climb,
Most aircraft display one or more placards that contain cruise, descent, before landing, balked landing, after landing,
information having a direct bearing on the safe operation of and post ight procedures. An Amplied Procedures area
the aircraft. These placards are located in conspicuous places follows the checklists to provide more detailed information
and are reproduced in the Limitations section or as directed about the various previously mentioned procedures.
by an Airworthiness Directive (AD). [Figure 8-5]
To avoid missing important steps, always use the appropriate
checklists when available. Consistent adherence to approved
checklists is a sign of a disciplined and competent pilot.

Performance (Section 5)
The Performance section contains all the information required
by the aircraft certication regulations, and any additional
performance information the manufacturer deems important to
pilot ability to safely operate the aircraft. Performance charts,
tables, and graphs vary in style, but all contain the same basic
information. Examples of the performance information found
in most ight manuals include a graph or table for converting
calibrated airspeed to true airspeed; stall speeds in various
congurations; and data for determining takeoff and climb
performance, cruise performance, and landing performance.
Figure 8-6 is an example of a typical performance graph. For
more information on use of the charts, graphs, and tables,
refer to Chapter 10, Aircraft Performance.

Weight and Balance/Equipment List (Section 6)

The Weight and Balance/Equipment List section contains all
Figure 8-5. Placards are used to depict aircraft limitations. the information required by the FAA to calculate the weight
and balance of an aircraft. Manufacturers include sample
Emergency Procedures (Section 3) weight and balance problems. Weight and balance is discussed
Checklists describing the recommended procedures and in greater detail in Chapter 9, Weight and Balance.
airspeeds for coping with various types of emergencies or
Systems Description (Section 7)
critical situations are located in the Emergency Procedures
section. Some of the emergencies covered include: This section describes the aircraft systems in a manner
engine failure, re, and system failure. The procedures appropriate to the pilot most likely to operate the aircraft.
for inflight engine restarting and ditching may also be For example, a manufacturer might assume an experienced
included. Manufacturers may first show an emergency pilot will be reading the information for an advanced aircraft.
checklist in an abbreviated form, with the order of items For more information on aircraft systems, refer to Chapter
reecting the sequence of action. Amplied checklists that 6, Aircraft Systems.
provide additional information on the procedures follow
the abbreviated checklist. To be prepared for emergency Handling, Service, and Maintenance (Section 8)
situations, memorize the immediate action items and, after The Handling, Service, and Maintenance section describes
completion, refer to the appropriate checklist. the maintenance and inspections recommended by the
manufacturer (and the regulations). Additional maintenance or
Manufacturers may include an optional subsection inspections may be required by the issuance of AD applicable
titled Abnormal Procedures. This subsection describes to the airframe, engine, propeller, or components.

8-4
 EXAMPLE
Gross weight: 2,170 pounds Calibrated stall speed 70
Angle of bank: 20
Indicated stall speed
Flap position: 40
Stall speed, indicated: 44 knots

60
Maximum weight - 2,440 (pounds)

Stall speed (knots)

0 Flaps 50

0 Flaps 40
40 Flaps

40 Flaps
30

2,400 2,200 2,000 1,800 1,600 0 20 40 60

Gross weight (pounds) Angle of bank (degrees)

Figure 8-6. Stall speed chart.

This section also describes preventive maintenance that

may be accomplished by certicated pilots, as well as the
manufacturers recommended ground handling procedures. It
includes considerations for hangaring, tie-down, and general
storage procedures for the aircraft.

Supplements (Section 9)
The Supplements section contains information necessary
to safely and efciently operate the aircraft when equipped
with optional systems and equipment (not provided with the
standard aircraft). Some of this information may be supplied
by the aircraft manufacturer or by the manufacturer of the
optional equipment. The appropriate information is inserted
into the ight manual at the time the equipment is installed.
Autopilots, navigation systems, and air-conditioning
systems are examples of equipment described in this section.
[Figure 8-7]
Figure 8-7. Supplements provide information on optional

Safety Tips (Section 10) equipment.

The Safety Tips section is an optional section containing a
review of information that enhances the safe operation of the
aircraft. For example, physiological factors, general weather
information, fuel conservation procedures, high altitude
operations, or cold weather operations might be discussed.

8-5
Aircraft Documents For additional information, see 14 CFR section 47.41. When
Certicate of Aircraft Registration one of the events listed in 14 CFR section 47.41 occurs, the
previous owner must notify the FAA by lling in the back of
Before an aircraft can be own legally, it must be registered
the Certicate of Aircraft Registration, and mailing it to:
with the FAA Aircraft Registry. The Certicate of Aircraft
Registration, which is issued to the owner as evidence of
FAA Aircraft Registration Branch, AFS-750
the registration, must be carried in the aircraft at all times.
P.O. Box 25504
[Figure 8-8]
Oklahoma City, OK 73125-0504
The Certicate of Aircraft Registration cannot be used for
A dealers aircraft registration certicate is another form of
operations when:
registration certicate, but is valid only for required ight
The aircraft is registered under the laws of a foreign tests by the manufacturer or in ights that are necessary for
country. the sale of the aircraft by the manufacturer or a dealer. The
The aircrafts registration is canceled upon written dealer must remove the certicate when the aircraft is sold.
request of the certicate holder.
Upon complying with 14 CFR section 47.31, the pink
The aircraft is totally destroyed or scrapped.
copy of the application for an Aircraft Registration
The ownership of the aircraft is transferred. Application, Aeronautical Center (AC) Form 8050-1,
The certificate holder loses United States provides authorization to operate an unregistered aircraft
citizenship. for a period not to exceed 90 days. Since the aircraft is

Figure 8-8. AC Form 8050-3, Certificate of Aircraft Registration.

8-6
unregistered, it cannot be operated outside of the United If evidence of ownership can not be supplied, an afdavit
States until a permanent Certicate of Aircraft Registration stating why it is not available must be submitted on the AC
is received and placed in the aircraft. Form 8050-88A.

The FAA does not issue any certicate of ownership or If an owner wants to register a newly manufactured LSA
endorse any information with respect to ownership on a that will be certicated as an experimental light sport aircraft
Certicate of Aircraft Registration. under 14 CFR section 21.191(i)(2), the following items must
be provided: AC Form 8050-88A or its equivalent (completed
NOTE: For additional information concerning the Aircraft by the LSA manufacturer, unless previously submitted
Registration Application or the Aircraft Bill of Sale, contact to the Registry by the manufacturer), evidence from the
the nearest FAA Flight Standards District Ofce (FSDO). manufacturer of ownership of an aircraft (kit-built or y-
away), AC Form 8050-1, and a $5.00 registration fee.
Light Sport Aircraft (LSA)
The FAA recently added a new category called Light Sport Airworthiness Certicate
Aircraft (LSA). Requirements for registration of these An Airworthiness Certicate is issued by a representative
aircraft differ from those of other aircraft. The following of the FAA after the aircraft has been inspected, is found to
guidelines are provided for LSA registration, but a more meet the requirements of 14 CFR part 21, and is in condition
detailed explanation can be found on the FAA website at for safe operation. The Airworthiness Certicate must be
http//www.faa.gov. displayed in the aircraft so it is legible to the passengers and
crew whenever it is operated. The Airworthiness Certicate
An existing LSA that has not been issued a United States is transferred with the aircraft except when it is sold to a
or foreign airworthiness certicate, and does not meet the foreign purchaser.
provisions of 14 CFR section 103.1, must meet specic
criteria in order to be certicated as an experimental LSA A Standard Airworthiness Certificate is issued for
under 14 CFR section 21.191 (i)(l) before January 31, 2008. aircraft type certicated in the normal, utility, acrobatic,
The following items must be provided: evidence of ownership commuter, transport categories, and manned free balloons.
of the parts or the manufacturers kit, Aircraft Registration Figure 8-9 illustrates a Standard Airworthiness Certicate,
Application (AC Form 8050-1), and a $5.00 registration fee. and an explanation of each item in the certicate follows.

Figure 8-9. FAA Form 8100-2, Standard Airworthiness Certificate.

8-7
 1. Nationality and Registration Marks. The N Aircraft Maintenance
indicates the aircraft is registered in the United States. Maintenance is defined as the preservation, inspection,
Registration marks consist of a series of up to ve overhaul, and repair of an aircraft, including the replacement
numbers or numbers and letters. In this case, N2631A of parts. Regular and proper maintenance ensures that
is the registration number assigned to this airplane. an aircraft meets an acceptable standard of airworthiness
2. Manufacturer and Model. Indicates the manufacturer, throughout its operational life.
make, and model of the aircraft.
Although maintenance requirements vary for different
3. Aircraft Serial Number. Indicates the manufacturers types of aircraft, experience shows that aircraft need some
serial number assigned to the aircraft, as noted on the type of preventive maintenance every 25 hours of ying
aircraft data plate. time or less, and minor maintenance at least every 100
4. Category. Indicates the category in which the aircraft hours. This is inuenced by the kind of operation, climatic
must be operated. In this case, it must be operated conditions, storage facilities, age, and construction of the
in accordance with the limitations specied for the aircraft. Manufacturers supply maintenance manuals, parts
NORMAL category. catalogs, and other service information that should be used
5. Authority and Basis for Issuance. Indicates the aircraft in maintaining the aircraft.
conforms to its type certicate and is considered in
condition for safe operation at the time of inspection
Aircraft Inspections
and issuance of the certicate. Any exemptions from 14 CFR part 91 places primary responsibility on the owner or
the applicable airworthiness standards are briey operator for maintaining an aircraft in an airworthy condition.
noted here and the exemption number given. The word Certain inspections must be performed on the aircraft, and
NONE is entered if no exemption exists. the owner must maintain the airworthiness of the aircraft
during the time between required inspections by having any
6. Terms and Conditions. Indicates the Airworthiness
defects corrected.
Certicate is in effect indenitely if the aircraft is
maintained in accordance with 14 CFR parts 21, 43,
14 CFR part 91, subpart E, requires the inspection of all civil
and 91, and the aircraft is registered in the United
aircraft at specic intervals to determine the overall condition.
States.
The interval depends upon the type of operations in which the
aircraft is engaged. All aircraft need to be inspected at least
Also included are the date the certificate was issued
once each 12 calendar months, while inspection is required
and the signature and office identification of the FAA
for others after each 100 hours of operation. Some aircraft
representative.
are inspected in accordance with an inspection system set up
to provide for total inspection of the aircraft on the basis of
A Standard Airworthiness Certificate remains in effect
calendar time, time in service, number of system operations,
if the aircraft receives the required maintenance and is
or any combination of these.
properly registered in the United States. Flight safety relies
in part on the condition of the aircraft, which is determined
All inspections should follow the current manufacturers
by inspections performed by mechanics, approved repair
maintenance manual, including the Instructions for
stations, or manufacturers that meet specic requirements
Continued Airworthiness concerning inspections intervals,
of 14 CFR part 43.
parts replacement, and life-limited items as applicable to
the aircraft.
A Special Airworthiness Certicate is issued for all aircraft
certicated in other than the Standard classications, such
Annual Inspection
as Experimental, Restricted, Limited, Provisional, and LSA.
Any reciprocating engine or single-engine turbojet/
LSA receive a pink special airworthiness certicate. There
turbopropeller-powered small aircraft (12,500 pounds and
are exceptions. For example, the Piper Cub is in the new LSA
under) own for business or pleasure and not own for
category, but it was certicated as a normal aircraft during
compensation or hire is required to be inspected at least
its manufacture. When purchasing an aircraft classied as
annually. The inspection shall be performed by a certicated
other than Standard, it is recommended that the local FSDO
airframe and powerplant (A&P) mechanic who holds an
be contacted for an explanation of the pertinent airworthiness
inspection authorization (IA) by the manufacturer of the
requirements and the limitations of such a certicate.

8-8
aircraft or by a certicated and appropriately rated repair Emergency Locator Transmitter
station. The aircraft may not be operated unless the annual An emergency locator transmitter (ELT) is required by 14
inspection has been performed within the preceding 12 CFR section 91.207 and must be inspected within 12 calendar
calendar months. A period of 12 calendar months extends months after the last inspection for the following:
from any day of a month to the last day of the same month the
Proper installation
following year. An aircraft overdue for an annual inspection
may be operated under a Special Flight Permit issued by Battery corrosion
the FAA for the purpose of ying the aircraft to a location Operation of the controls and crash sensor
where the annual inspection can be performed. However, all
applicable ADs that are due must be complied with before The presence of a sufcient signal radiated from its
the ight. antenna

100-Hour Inspection The ELT must be attached to the airplane in such a manner
All aircraft under 12,500 pounds (except turbojet/ that the probablity of damage to the transmitter in the event
turbopropeller-powered multi-engine airplanes and turbine of crash impact is minimized. Fixed and deployable automatic
powered rotorcraft), used to carry passengers for hire, must type transmitters must be attached to the airplane as far aft
have received a 100-hour inspection within the preceding 100 as practicable. Batteries used in the ELTs must be replaced
hours of time in service and have been approved for return to (or recharged, if the batteries are rechargeable):
service. Additionally, an aircraft used for ight instruction When the transmitter has been in use for more than 1
for hire, when provided by the person giving the ight cumulative hour.
instruction, must also have received a 100-hour inspection. When 50 percent of the battery useful life (or, for
This inspection must be performed by an FAA-certicated rechargeable batteries, 50 percent of useful life of the
A&P mechanic, an appropriately rated FAA-certicated repair charge) has expired.
station, or by the aircraft manufacturer. An annual inspection,
or an inspection for the issuance of an Airworthiness An expiration date for replacing (or recharging) the battery
Certificate may be substituted for a required 100-hour must be legibly marked on the outside of the transmitter
inspection. The 100-hour limitation may be exceeded by not and entered in the aircraft maintenance record. This does
more than 10 hours while en route to reach a place where not apply to batteries that are essentially unaffected during
the inspection can be done. The excess time used to reach a storage intervals, such as water-activated batteries.
place where the inspection can be done must be included in
computing the next 100 hours of time in service. Preight Inspections
The preight inspection is a thorough and systematic means
Other Inspection Programs
by which a pilot determines if the aircraft is airworthy and in
The annual and 100-hour inspection requirements do not
condition for safe operation. POHs and owner/information
apply to large (over 12,500 pounds) airplanes, turbojets, or
manuals contain a section devoted to a systematic method
turbopropeller-powered multi-engine airplanes or to aircraft
of performing a preight inspection.
for which the owner complies with a progressive inspection
program. Details of these requirements may be determined
by reference to 14 CFR section 43.11 and 14 CFR part 91, Minimum Equipment Lists (MEL) and
subpart E, and by inquiring at a local FSDO. Operations With Inoperative Equipment
14 CFR requires that all aircraft instruments and installed
Altimeter System Inspection equipment be operative prior to each departure. When the
14 CFR section 91.411 requires that the altimeter, encoding FAA adopted the minimum equipment list (MEL) concept
altimeter, and related system be tested and inspected in the for 14 CFR part 91 operations, this allowed operations with
preceding 24 months before operated in controlled airspace inoperative equipment determined to be nonessential for safe
under instrument ight rules (IFR). ight. At the same time, it allowed part 91 operators, without
an MEL, to defer repairs on nonessential equipment within
Transponder Inspection the guidelines of part 91.
14 CFR section 91.413 requires that before a transponder can
be used under 14 CFR section 91.215(a), it shall be tested
and inspected within the preceding 24 months.

8-9
The FAA has two acceptable methods of deferring The use of an MEL for an aircraft operated under 14
maintenance on small rotorcraft, non-turbine powered CFR part 91 also allows for the deferral of inoperative
airplanes, gliders, or lighter-than-air aircraft operated under items or equipment. The primary guidance becomes the
part 91. They are the deferral provision of 14 CFR section FAA-approved MEL issued to that specic operator and
91.213(d) and an FAA-approved MEL. N-numbered aircraft.

The deferral provision of 14 CFR section 91.213(d) is The FAA has developed master minimum equipment lists
widely used by most pilot/operators. Its popularity is due (MMELs) for aircraft in current use. Upon written request by
to simplicity and minimal paperwork. When inoperative an operator, the local FSDO may issue the appropriate make
equipment is found during preight or prior to departure, the and model MMEL, along with an LOA, and the preamble.
decision should be to cancel the ight, obtain maintenance The operator then develops operations and maintenance
prior to ight, or to defer the item or equipment. (O&M) procedures from the MMEL. This MMEL with O&M
procedures now becomes the operators MEL. The MEL,
Maintenance deferrals are not used for inight discrepancies. LOA, preamble, and procedures document developed by the
The manufacturers AFM/POH procedures are to be used in operator must be on board the aircraft when it is operated.
those situations. The discussion that follows assumes that The FAA considers an approved MEL to be a supplemental
the pilot wishes to defer maintenance that would ordinarily type certicate (STC) issued to an aircraft by serial number
be required prior to ight. and registration number. It, therefore, becomes the authority
to operate that aircraft in a condition other than originally
Using the deferral provision of 14 CFR section 91.213(d), type certicated.
the pilot determines whether the inoperative equipment is
required by type design, 14 CFR, or ADs. If the inoperative With an approved MEL, if the position lights were discovered
item is not required, and the aircraft can be safely operated inoperative prior to a daytime ight, the pilot would make
without it, the deferral may be made. The inoperative item an entry in the maintenance record or discrepancy record
shall be deactivated or removed and an INOPERATIVE provided for that purpose. The item is then either repaired or
placard placed near the appropriate switch, control, or deferred in accordance with the MEL. Upon conrming that
indicator. If deactivation or removal involves maintenance daytime ight with inoperative position lights is acceptable in
(removal always will), it must be accomplished by certicated accordance with the provisions of the MEL, the pilot would
maintenance personnel and recorded in accordance with 14 leave the position lights switch OFF, open the circuit breaker
CFR part 43. (or whatever action is called for in the procedures document),
and placard the position light switch as INOPERATIVE.
For example, if the position lights (installed equipment)
were discovered to be inoperative prior to a daytime ight, There are exceptions to the use of the MEL for deferral. For
the pilot would follow the requirements of 14 CFR section example, should a component fail that is not listed in the MEL
91.213(d). as deferrable (the tachometer, aps, or stall warning device,
for example), then repairs are required to be performed prior
The deactivation may be a process as simple as the pilot to departure. If maintenance or parts are not readily available
positioning a circuit breaker to the OFF position, or as at that location, a special ight permit can be obtained from
complex as rendering instruments or equipment totally the nearest FSDO. This permit allows the aircraft to be
inoperable. Complex maintenance tasks require a certicated own to another location for maintenance. This allows an
and appropriately rated maintenance person to perform the aircraft that may not currently meet applicable airworthiness
deactivation. In all cases, the item or equipment must be requirements, but is capable of safe ight, to be operated
placarded INOPERATIVE. under the restrictive special terms and conditions attached
to the special ight permit.
All small rotorcraft, non-turbine powered airplanes, gliders,
or lighter-than-air aircraft operated under 14 CFR part 91 Deferral of maintenance is not to be taken lightly,
are eligible to use the maintenance deferral provisions of 14 and due consideration should be given to the effect an
CFR section 91.213(d). However, once an operator requests inoperative component may have on the operation of an
an MEL, and a Letter of Authorization (LOA) is issued by the aircraft, particularly if other items are inoperative. Further
FAA, then the use of the MEL becomes mandatory for that information regarding MELs and operations with inoperative
aircraft. All maintenance deferrals must be accomplished in equipment can be found in AC 91-67, Minimum Equipment
accordance with the terms and conditions of the MEL and Requirements for General Aviation Operations Under CFR
the operator-generated procedures document. Part 91.

8-10
Preventive Maintenance of any primary structure or operating system or
interfere with an operating system or affect the primary
Preventive maintenance is considered to be simple or minor
structure of the aircraft; making small, simple repairs
preservation operations and the replacement of small standard
to fairings, nonstructural cover plates, cowlings, and
parts, not involving complex assembly operations. Allowed
small patches and reinforcements not changing the
items of preventative maintenance are listed and limited to
contour to interfere with proper air ow; replacing
the items of 14 CFR part 43, appendix A(c).
side windows where that work does not interfere with
the structure or any operating system such as controls,
Maintenance Entries
electrical equipment, etc.
All pilots who maintain or perform preventive maintenance
must make an entry in the maintenance record of the aircraft. Replacing safety belts, seats or seat parts with
The entry must include: replacement parts approved for the aircraft, not
involving disassembly of any primary structure or
1. A description of the work, such as changed oil (Shell operating system, bulbs, reectors, and lenses of
Aero-50) at 2,345 hours. position and landing lights.
2. The date of completion of the work performed. Replacing wheels and skis where no weight-and-
3. The entry of the pilots name, signature, certicate balance computation is involved; replacing any
number, and type of certicate held. cowling not requiring removal of the propeller or
disconnection of ight controls; replacing or cleaning
Examples of Preventive Maintenance spark plugs and setting of spark plug gap clearance;
The following examples of preventive maintenance are taken replacing any hose connection, except hydraulic
from 14 CFR Part 43, Maintenance, Preventive Maintenance, connections; however, prefabricated fuel lines may
Rebuilding, and Alternation, which should be consulted for be replaced.
a more in-depth look at preventive maintenance a pilot can Cleaning or replacing fuel and oil strainers or lter
perform on an aircraft. Remember, preventive maintenance elements; servicing batteries, cleaning of balloon
is limited to work that does not involve complex assembly burner pilot and main nozzles in accordance with the
operations and includes: balloon manufacturers instructions.
Removal, installation, and repair of landing gear The interchange of balloon baskets and burners on
tires and shock cords; servicing landing gear shock envelopes when the basket or burner is designated as
struts by adding oil, air, or both; servicing gear wheel interchangeable in the balloon type certicate data
bearings; replacing defective safety wiring or cotter and the baskets and burners are specically designed
keys; lubrication not requiring disassembly other than for quick removal and installation; adjustment
removal of nonstructural items such as cover plates, of nonstructural standard fasteners incidental to
cowlings, and fairings; making simple fabric patches operations.
not requiring rib stitching or the removal of structural
The installations of anti-misfueling devices to reduce
parts or control surfaces. In the case of balloons,
the diameter of fuel tank ller openings only if the
the making of small fabric repairs to envelopes
specic device has been made a part of the aircraft type
(as dened in, and in accordance with, the balloon
certicate data by the aircraft manufacturer, the aircraft
manufacturers instructions) not requiring load tape
manufacturer has provided FAA-approved instructions
repair or replacement.
for installation of the specic device, and installation
Replenishing hydraulic uid in the hydraulic reservoir; does not involve the disassembly of the existing tank
renishing decorative coating of fuselage, balloon ller opening; troubleshooting and repairing broken
baskets, wings, tail group surfaces (excluding balanced circuits in landing light wiring circuits.
control surfaces), fairings, cowlings, landing gear, cabin,
Removing and replacing self-contained, front instrument
or ight deck interior when removal or disassembly
panel-mounted navigation and communication devices
of any primary structure or operating system is not
employing tray-mounted connectors that connect the
required; applying preservative or protective material
unit when the unit is installed into the instrument
to components where no disassembly of any primary
panel; excluding automatic ight control systems,
structure or operating system is involved and where
transponders, and microwave frequency distance
such coating is not prohibited or is not contrary to
measuring equipment (DME). The approved unit must
good practices; repairing upholstery and decorative
be designed to be readily and repeatedly removed and
furnishings of the cabin, ight deck, or balloon basket
replaced, and pertinent instructions must be provided.
interior when the repair does not require disassembly

8-11
 Prior to the units intended use, an operational check Special Flight Permits
must be performed in accordance with the applicable A special ight permit is a Special Airworthiness Certicate
sections of 14 CFR part 91 on checking, removing, authorizing operation of an aircraft that does not currently
and replacing magnetic chip detectors. meet applicable airworthiness requirements but is safe
Inspection and maintenance tasks prescribed and for a specic ight. Before the permit is issued, an FAA
specifically identified as preventive maintenance inspector may personally inspect the aircraft, or require it
in a primary category aircraft type certificate or to be inspected by an FAA-certicated A&P mechanic or an
supplemental type certicate holders approved special appropriately certicated repair station to determine its safety
inspection and preventive maintenance program when for the intended ight. The inspection shall be recorded in
accomplished on a primary category aircraft. the aircraft records.

Updating self-contained, front instrument panel- The special ight permit is issued to allow the aircraft to be
mounted air traffic control (ATC) navigational own to a base where repairs, alterations, or maintenance
software databases (excluding those of automatic can be performed; for delivering or exporting the aircraft; or
ight control systems, transponders, and microwave for evacuating an aircraft from an area of impending danger.
frequency DME) only if no disassembly of the unit is A special ight permit may be issued to allow the operation
required and pertinent instructions are provided; prior of an overweight aircraft for ight beyond its normal range
to the units intended use, an operational check must over water or land areas where adequate landing facilities
be performed in accordance with applicable sections or fuel is not available.
of 14 CFR part 91.
If a special ight permit is needed, assistance and the necessary
Certicated pilots, excluding student pilots, sport pilots, and forms may be obtained from the local FSDO or Designated
recreational pilots, may perform preventive maintenance Airworthiness Representative (DAR). [Figure 8-10]
on any aircraft that is owned or operated by them provided
that aircraft is not used in air carrier service or 14 CFR part
121, 129, or 135. A pilot holding a sport pilot certicate
Airworthiness Directives (ADs)
may perform preventive maintenance on an aircraft owned A primary safety function of the FAA is to require correction
or operated by that pilot if that aircraft is issued a special of unsafe conditions found in an aircraft, aircraft engine,
airworthiness certicate in the LSA category. (Sport pilots propeller, or appliance when such conditions exist and
operating LSA should refer to 14 CFR part 65 for maintenance are likely to exist or develop in other products of the same
privileges.) 14 CFR part 43, appendix A, contains a list of the design. The unsafe condition may exist because of a design
operations that are considered to be preventive maintenance. defect, maintenance, or other causes. 14 CFR part 39 and
Airworthiness Directives (ADs) dene the authority and
Repairs and Alterations responsibility of the Administrator for requiring the necessary
Repairs and alterations are classied as either major or minor. corrective action. ADs are used to notify aircraft owners and
14 CFR part 43, appendix A, describes the alterations and other interested persons of unsafe conditions and to specify
repairs considered major. Major repairs or alterations shall the conditions under which the product may continue to be
be approved for return to service on FAA Form 337, Major operated. ADs are divided into two categories:
Repair and Alteration, by an appropriately rated certicated 1. Those of an emergency nature requiring immediate
repair station, an FAA-certicated A&P mechanic holding compliance prior to further ight
an IA, or a representative of the Administrator. Minor repairs
2. Those of a less urgent nature requiring compliance
and minor alterations may be approved for return to service
within a specied period of time
with a proper entry in the maintenance records by an FAA-
certicated A&P mechanic or an appropriately certicated
ADs are regulatory and shall be complied with unless a
repair station.
specic exemption is granted. It is the responsibility of the
aircraft owner or operator to ensure compliance with all
For modifications of experimental aircraft, refer to the
pertinent ADs, including those ADs that require recurrent
operating limitations issued to that aircraft. Modications
or continuing action. For example, an AD may require a
in accordance with FAA Order 8130.2, Airworthiness
repetitive inspection each 50 hours of operation, meaning
Certication of Aircraft and Related Products, may require
the particular inspection shall be accomplished and recorded
the notication of the issuing authority.

8-12
Figure 8-10. FAA Form 8130-7, Special Airworthiness Certificate.

every 50 hours of time in service. Owners/operators are aircraft and helicopter books contain all ADs applicable to
reminded there is no provision to overy the maximum hour small aircraft (12,500 pounds or less maximum certicated
requirement of an AD unless it is specically written into the takeoff weight) and ADs applicable to all helicopters. The
AD. To help determine if an AD applies to an amateur-built large aircraft books contain all ADs applicable to large
aircraft, contact the local FSDO. aircraft.

14 CFR section 91.417 requires a record to be maintained For current information on how to order paper copies of AD
that shows the current status of applicable ADs, including books and the AD Biweekly visit the FAA online regulatory
the method of compliance; the AD number and revision date, and guidance library at: http://rgl.faa.gov.
if recurring; next due date and time; the signature; kind of
certicate; and certicate number of the repair station or Aircraft Owner/Operator Responsibilities
mechanic who performed the work. For ready reference, The registered owner/operator of an aircraft is responsible
many aircraft owners have a chronological listing of the for:
pertinent ADs in the back of their aircraft, engine, and
propeller maintenance records. Having a current Airworthiness Certicate and a
Certicate of Aircraft Registration in the aircraft.
All ADs and the AD Biweekly are free on the Internet Maintaining the aircraft in an airworthy condition,
at http://rgl.faa.gov. In July of 2007, the FAA made ADs including compliance with all applicable ADs, and
available through e-mail. Individuals can enroll for the e- assuring that maintenance is properly recorded.
mail service at the link above. Mailing paper copies of ADs Keeping abreast of current regulations concerning the
will be discontinued when the e-mail system is proven to operation and maintenance of the aircraft.
be effective.
Notifying the FAA Aircraft Registry immediately
Paper copies of the Summary of Airworthiness Directives and of any change of permanent mailing address, or of
the AD Biweekly may be purchased from the Superintendent the sale or export of the aircraft, or of the loss of the
of Documents. The Summary contains all the valid ADs eligibility to register an aircraft. (Refer to 14 CFR
previously published and is divided into two areas. The small section 47.41.)

8-13
 Having a current Federal Communications Commission
(FCC) radio station license if equipped with radios,
including emergency locator transmitter (ELT), if
operated outside of the United States.

Chapter Summary
Knowledge of an aircrafts AFM/POH and documents such as
ADs help a pilot to have ready access to pertinent information
needed to safely y a particular aircraft. By understanding
the operations, limitations, and performance characteristics
of the aircraft, the pilot can make good ight decisions.
By learning what preventive maintenance is allowed on
the aircraft, a pilot can maintain his or her aircraft in an
airworthy condition. The goal of every pilot is a safe ight;
ight manuals and aircraft documentation are essential tools
used to reach that goal.

8-14
Chapter 9

Weight and
Balance
Introduction
Compliance with the weight and balance limits of any aircraft
is critical to ight safety. Operating above the maximum
weight limitation compromises the structural integrity of
an aircraft and adversely affects its performance. Operation
with the center of gravity (CG) outside the approved limits
results in control difculty.

Weight Control
As discussed in Chapter 4, Aerodynamics of Flight, weight
is the force with which gravity attracts a body toward the
center of the Earth. It is a product of the mass of a body and
the acceleration acting on the body. Weight is a major factor
in aircraft construction and operation, and demands respect
from all pilots.

The force of gravity continuously attempts to pull an aircraft

down toward Earth. The force of lift is the only force that
counteracts weight and sustains an aircraft in ight. The
amount of lift produced by an airfoil is limited by the airfoil
design, angle of attack (AOA), airspeed, and air density. To
assure that the lift generated is sufcient to counteract weight,
loading an aircraft beyond the manufacturers recommended
weight must be avoided. If the weight is greater than the lift
generated, the aircraft may be incapable of ight.

Effects of Weight
Any item aboard the aircraft that increases the total weight
is undesirable for performance. Manufacturers attempt to
make an aircraft as light as possible without sacricing
strength or safety.

9-1
The pilot should always be aware of the consequences of Balance, Stability, and Center of Gravity
overloading. An overloaded aircraft may not be able to leave
Balance refers to the location of the CG of an aircraft, and is
the ground, or if it does become airborne, it may exhibit
important to stability and safety in ight. The CG is a point
unexpected and unusually poor ight characteristics. If not
at which the aircraft would balance if it were suspended at
properly loaded, the initial indication of poor performance
that point.
usually takes place during takeoff.
The primary concern in balancing an aircraft is the fore and
Excessive weight reduces the ight performance in almost
aft location of the CG along the longitudinal axis. The CG
every respect. For example, the most important performance
is not necessarily a xed point; its location depends on the
deciencies of an overloaded aircraft are:
distribution of weight in the aircraft. As variable load items are
Higher takeoff speed shifted or expended, there is a resultant shift in CG location.
Longer takeoff run The distance between the forward and back limits for the
position of the center for gravity or CG range is certied for
Reduced rate and angle of climb an aircraft by the manufacturer. The pilot should realize that
Lower maximum altitude if the CG is displaced too far forward on the longitudinal
Shorter range axis, a nose-heavy condition will result. Conversely, if the
CG is displaced too far aft on the longitudinal axis, a tail
Reduced cruising speed heavy condition results. It is possible that the pilot could not
Reduced maneuverability control the aircraft if the CG location produced an unstable
condition. [Figure 9-1]
Higher stalling speed
Higher approach and landing speed Location of the CG with reference to the lateral axis is also
Longer landing roll important. For each item of weight existing to the left of the
fuselage centerline, there is an equal weight existing at a
Excessive weight on the nose wheel or tail wheel
corresponding location on the right. This may be upset by
unbalanced lateral loading. The position of the lateral CG
The pilot must be knowledgeable about the effect of weight
is not computed in all aircraft, but the pilot must be aware
on the performance of the particular aircraft being own.
that adverse effects arise as a result of a laterally unbalanced
Preight planning should include a check of performance
condition. In an airplane, lateral unbalance occurs if the fuel
charts to determine if the aircrafts weight may contribute
load is mismanaged by supplying the engine(s) unevenly from
to hazardous ight operations. Excessive weight in itself
tanks on one side of the airplane. The pilot can compensate
reduces the safety margins available to the pilot, and becomes
for the resulting wing-heavy condition by adjusting the
even more hazardous when other performance-reducing
factors are combined with excess weight. The pilot must
also consider the consequences of an overweight aircraft if Empty Full
an emergency condition arises. If an engine fails on takeoff
or airframe ice forms at low altitude, it is usually too late to
reduce an aircrafts weight to keep it in the air.

Weight Changes
Lateral unbalance will cause wing heaviness.
The operating weight of an aircraft can be changed by
simply altering the fuel load. Gasoline has considerable
Excess baggage
weight6 pounds per gallon. Thirty gallons of fuel may
weigh more than one passenger. If a pilot lowers airplane
weight by reducing fuel, the resulting decrease in the range
of the airplane must be taken into consideration during ight
planning. During ight, fuel burn is normally the only weight
change that takes place. As fuel is used, an aircraft becomes
lighter and performance is improved.
Longitudinal unbalance will cause
Changes of xed equipment have a major effect upon the either nose or tail heaviness.
weight of an aircraft. The installation of extra radios or
instruments, as well as repairs or modications may also
Figure 9-1. Lateral and longitudinal unbalance.
affect the weight of an aircraft.

9-2
trim or by holding a constant control pressure. This action pilots operating handbook (POH). If the CG is not within the
places the aircraft controls in an out-of-streamline condition, allowable limits after loading, it will be necessary to relocate
increases drag, and results in decreased operating efciency. some items before ight is attempted.
Since lateral balance is addressed when needed in the aircraft
flight manual (AFM) and longitudinal balance is more The forward CG limit is often established at a location that
critical, further reference to balance in this handbook means is determined by the landing characteristics of an aircraft.
longitudinal location of the CG. A single pilot operating a During landing, one of the most critical phases of ight,
small rotorcraft, may require additional weight to keep the exceeding the forward CG limit may result in excessive loads
aircraft laterally balanced. on the nosewheel, a tendency to nose over on tailwheel type
airplanes, decreased performance, higher stalling speeds, and
Flying an aircraft that is out of balance can produce increased higher control forces.
pilot fatigue with obvious effects on the safety and efciency
of ight. The pilots natural correction for longitudinal Control
unbalance is a change of trim to remove the excessive control In extreme cases, a CG location that is beyond the forward
pressure. Excessive trim, however, has the effect of reducing limit may result in nose heaviness, making it difcult or
not only aerodynamic efciency but also primary control impossible to are for landing. Manufacturers purposely
travel distance in the direction the trim is applied. place the forward CG limit as far rearward as possible to
aid pilots in avoiding damage when landing. In addition to
Effects of Adverse Balance decreased static and dynamic longitudinal stability, other
Adverse balance conditions affect ight characteristics in undesirable effects caused by a CG location aft of the
much the same manner as those mentioned for an excess allowable range may include extreme control difculty,
weight condition. It is vital to comply with weight and violent stall characteristics, and very light control forces
balance limits established for all aircraft, especially rotorcraft. which make it easy to overstress an aircraft inadvertently.
Operating above the maximum weight limitation compromises
the structural integrity of the rotorcraft and adversely affects A restricted forward CG limit is also specied to assure
performance. Balance is also critical because on some fully that sufcient elevator/control deection is available at
loaded rotorcraft, CG deviations as small as three inches can minimum airspeed. When structural limitations do not limit
dramatically change handling characteristics. Stability and the forward CG position, it is located at the position where
control are also affected by improper balance. full-up elevator/control deection is required to obtain a high
AOA for landing.
Stability
Loading in a nose-heavy condition causes problems in The aft CG limit is the most rearward position at which the
controlling and raising the nose, especially during takeoff CG can be located for the most critical maneuver or operation.
and landing. Loading in a tail heavy condition has a serious As the CG moves aft, a less stable condition occurs, which
effect upon longitudinal stability, and reduces the capability decreases the ability of the aircraft to right itself after
to recover from stalls and spins. Tail heavy loading also maneuvering or turbulence.
produces very light control forces, another undesirable
characteristic. This makes it easy for the pilot to inadvertently For some aircraft, both fore and aft CG limits may be
overstress an aircraft. specied to vary as gross weight changes. They may also
be changed for certain operations, such as acrobatic ight,
It is important to reevaluate the balance in a rotorcraft retraction of the landing gear, or the installation of special
whenever loading changes. In most aircraft, off-loading a loads and devices that change the ight characteristics.
passenger is unlikely to adversely affect the CG, but off-
loading a passenger from a rotorcraft can create an unsafe The actual location of the CG can be altered by many variable
ight condition. An out-of-balance loading condition also factors and is usually controlled by the pilot. Placement of
decreases maneuverability since cyclic control is less baggage and cargo items determines the CG location. The
effective in the direction opposite to the CG location. assignment of seats to passengers can also be used as a means
of obtaining a favorable balance. If an aircraft is tail heavy, it
Limits for the location of the CG are established by the is only logical to place heavy passengers in forward seats.
manufacturer. These are the fore and aft limits beyond
which the CG should not be located for ight. These limits Fuel burn can also affect the CG based on the location of the
are published for each aircraft in the Type Certicate Data fuel tanks. For example, most small aircraft carry fuel in the
Sheet (TCDS), or aircraft specication and the AFM or

9-3
wings very near the CG and burning off fuel has little effect criteria for negligible weight change is outlined in Advisory
on the loaded CG. On rotorcraft, the fuel tanks are often Circular (AC) 43.13-1 (as revised), Methods Techniques and
located behind the CG and fuel consumption from a tank PracticesAircraft Inspection and Repair:
aft of the rotor mast causes the loaded CG to move forward. One pound or less for an aircraft whose weight empty
A rotorcraft in this condition has a nose-low attitude when is less than 5,000 pounds;
coming to a hover following a vertical takeoff. Excessive
rearward displacement of the cyclic control is needed to Two pounds or less for aircraft with an empty weight
maintain a hover in a no-wind condition. Flight should not of more than 5,000 pounds to 50,000 pounds;
be continued since rearward cyclic control fades as fuel is Five pounds or less for aircraft with an empty weight
consumed. Deceleration to a stop may also be impossible. In of more than 50,000 pounds.
the event of engine failure and autorotation, there may not be
enough cyclic control to are properly for a landing. Negligible CG change is any change of less than 0.05 percent
Mean Aerodynamic Chord (MAC) for xed-wing aircraft, 0.2
Management of Weight and Balance Control percent of the maximum allowable CG range for rotorcraft.
Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) section Exceeding these limits would require a weight and balance
23.23 requires establishment of the ranges of weights and check.
CGs within which an aircraft may be operated safely. The
manufacturer provides this information, which is included in Before any ight, the pilot should determine the weight
the approved AFM, TCDS, or aircraft specications. and balance condition of the aircraft. Simple and orderly
procedures based on sound principles have been devised
While there are no specied requirements for a pilot operating by the manufacturer for the determination of loading
under 14 CFR part 91 to conduct weight and balance conditions. The pilot uses these procedures and exercises
calculations prior to each ight, 14 CFR section 91.9 requires good judgment when determining weight and balance. In
the pilot in command (PIC) to comply with the operating many modern aircraft, it is not possible to ll all seats,
limits in the approved AFM. These limits include the weight baggage compartments, and fuel tanks, and still remain within
and balance of the aircraft. To enable pilots to make weight the approved weight and balance limits. If the maximum
and balance computations, charts and graphs are provided passenger load is carried, the pilot must often reduce the fuel
in the approved AFM. load or reduce the amount of baggage.

Weight and balance control should be a matter of concern to 14 CFR part 125 requires aircraft with 20 or more seats or
all pilots. The pilot controls loading and fuel management weighing 6,000 pounds or more to be weighed every 36
(the two variable factors that can change both total weight calendar months. Multi-engine aircraft operated under a
and CG location) of a particular aircraft. The aircraft owner 14 CFR part 135 are also required to be weighed every 36
or operator should make certain that up-to-date information months. Aircraft operated under 14 CFR part 135 are exempt
is available for pilot use, and should ensure that appropriate from the 36 month requirement if operated under a weight
entries are made in the records when repairs or modications and balance system approved in the operations specications
have been accomplished. The removal or addition of of the certicate holder. AC 43.13-1, Acceptable Methods,
equipment results in changes to the CG. Techniques and PracticesAircraft Inspection and Repair
also requires that the aircraft mechanic must ensure the
Weight changes must be accounted for and the proper weight and balance data in the aircraft records is current and
notations made in weight and balance records. The equipment accurate after a 100-hour or annual inspection.
list must be updated, if appropriate. Without such information,
the pilot has no foundation upon which to base the necessary Terms and Denitions
calculations and decisions. The pilot should be familiar with terms used in working
problems related to weight and balance. The following list
Standard parts with negligible weight or the addition of of terms and their denitions is standardized, and knowledge
minor items of equipment such as nuts, bolts, washers, of these terms aids the pilot to better understand weight and
rivets, and similar standard parts of negligible weight on balance calculations of any aircraft. Terms dened by the
xed-wing aircraft do not require a weight and balance General Aviation Manufacturers Association (GAMA) as
check. Rotorcraft are, in general, more critical with respect industry standard are marked in the titles with GAMA.
to control with changes in the CG position. The following

9-4
 Arm (moment arm)the horizontal distance in inches Maximum takeoff weightthe maximum allowable
from the reference datum line to the CG of an item. The weight for takeoff.
algebraic sign is plus (+) if measured aft of the datum, Maximum weightthe maximum authorized weight
and minus () if measured forward of the datum. of the aircraft and all of its equipment as specied in
Basic empty weight (GAMA)the standard empty the TCDS for the aircraft.
weight plus the weight of optional and special Maximum zero fuel weight (GAMA)the maximum
equipment that have been installed. weight, exclusive of usable fuel.
Center of gravity (CG)the point about which an Mean aerodynamic chord (MAC)the average
aircraft would balance if it were possible to suspend distance from the leading edge to the trailing edge of
it at that point. It is the mass center of the aircraft, the wing.
or the theoretical point at which the entire weight of
the aircraft is assumed to be concentrated. It may be Momentthe product of the weight of an item
expressed in inches from the reference datum, or in multiplied by its arm. Moments are expressed in
percent of MAC. The CG is a three-dimensional point pound-inches (in-lb). Total moment is the weight of
with longitudinal, lateral, and vertical positioning in the airplane multiplied by the distance between the
the aircraft. datum and the CG.

CG limitsthe specified forward and aft points Moment index (or index)a moment divided by a
within which the CG must be located during ight. constant such as 100, 1,000, or 10,000. The purpose of
These limits are indicated on pertinent aircraft using a moment index is to simplify weight and balance
specications. computations of aircraft where heavy items and long
arms result in large, unmanageable numbers.
CG rangethe distance between the forward and aft CG
limits indicated on pertinent aircraft specications. Payload (GAMA)the weight of occupants, cargo,
and baggage.
Datum (reference datum)an imaginary vertical plane
or line from which all measurements of arm are taken. Standard empty weight (GAMA)aircraft weight
The datum is established by the manufacturer. Once that consists of the airframe, engines, and all items of
the datum has been selected, all moment arms and the operating equipment that have xed locations and are
location of CG range are measured from this point. permanently installed in the aircraft, including xed
ballast, hydraulic uid, unusable fuel, and full engine
Deltaa Greek letter expressed by the symbol
to oil.
indicate a change of values. As an example,
CG
indicates a change (or movement) of the CG. Standard weightsestablished weights for numerous
items involved in weight and balance computations.
Floor load limitthe maximum weight the floor These weights should not be used if actual weights are
can sustain per square inch/foot as provided by the available. Some of the standard weights are:
manufacturer.
Gasoline ............................................... 6 lb/US gal
Fuel loadthe expendable part of the load of the
aircraft. It includes only usable fuel, not fuel required Jet A, Jet A-1 .................................... 6.8 lb/US gal
to ll the lines or that which remains trapped in the Jet B ...................................................6.5 lb/US gal
tank sumps.
Oil ......................................................7.5 lb/US gal
Licensed empty weightthe empty weight that
Water .....................................................8.35 lb/US gal
consists of the airframe, engine(s), unusable fuel, and
undrainable oil plus standard and optional equipment Stationa location in the aircraft that is identied by
as specied in the equipment list. Some manufacturers a number designating its distance in inches from the
used this term prior to GAMA standardization. datum. The datum is, therefore, identied as station
zero. An item located at station +50 would have an
Maximum landing weightthe greatest weight that
arm of 50 inches.
an aircraft normally is allowed to have at landing.
Useful loadthe weight of the pilot, copilot,
Maximum ramp weightthe total weight of a loaded
passengers, baggage, usable fuel, and drainable oil. It is
aircraft, and includes all fuel. It is greater than the
the basic empty weight subtracted from the maximum
takeoff weight due to the fuel that will be burned during
allowable gross weight. This term applies to general
the taxi and runup operations. Ramp weight may also
aviation (GA) aircraft only.
be referred to as taxi weight.

9-5
Principles of Weight and Balance Computations of the object or part is often referred to as the station. If
It might be advantageous at this point to review and the weight of any object or component is multiplied by the
discuss some of the basic principles of weight and balance distance from the datum (arm), the product is the moment.
determination. The following method of computation can be The moment is the measurement of the gravitational force
applied to any object or vehicle for which weight and balance that causes a tendency of the weight to rotate about a point
information is essential. or axis and is expressed in inch-pounds (in-lb).

By determining the weight of the empty aircraft and adding To illustrate, assume a weight of 50 pounds is placed on
the weight of everything loaded on the aircraft, a total weight the board at a station or point 100 inches from the datum.
can be determineda simple concept. A greater problem, The downward force of the weight can be determined by
particularly if the basic principles of weight and balance are multiplying 50 pounds by 100 inches, which produces a
not understood, is distributing this weight in such a manner moment of 5,000 in-lb. [Figure 9-3]
that the entire mass of the loaded aircraft is balanced around a
point (CG) that must be located within specied limits. Datum
100"
The point at which an aircraft balances can be determined by
locating the CG, which is, as stated in the denitions of terms,
the imaginary point at which all the weight is concentrated. To 50
provide the necessary balance between longitudinal stability lb
and elevator control, the CG is usually located slightly
forward of the center of lift. This loading condition causes Fulcrum
a nose-down tendency in ight, which is desirable during Moment = 5,000 in-lb
ight at a high AOA and slow speeds. Wt x Arm = Moment
(lb) x (in) = (in-lb)
Note: The datum is assumed to be
50 x 100 = 5,000
As mentioned earlier, a safe zone within which the balance located at the fulcrum.
point (CG) must fall is called the CG range. The extremities
of the range are called the forward CG limits and aft CG Figure 9-3. Determining moment.
limits. These limits are usually specied in inches, along the
longitudinal axis of the airplane, measured from a reference To establish a balance, a total of 5,000 in-lb must be applied
point called a datum reference. The datum is an arbitrary to the other end of the board. Any combination of weight
point, established by aircraft designers, which may vary in and distance which, when multiplied, produces a 5,000 in-lb
location between different aircraft. [Figure 9-2] moment will balance the board. For example (illustrated in
Figure 9-4), if a 100-pound weight is placed at a point (station)
The distance from the datum to any component part or any 25 inches from the datum, and another 50-pound weight is
object loaded on the aircraft, is called the arm. When the placed at a point (station) 50 inches from the datum, the sum
object or component is located aft of the datum, it is measured of the product of the two weights and their distances will total
in positive inches; if located forward of the datum, it is a moment of 5,000 in-lb, which will balance the board.
measured as negative inches, or minus inches. The location
Datum
CG 50" 100"
range 25"
Fwd limit Aft limit
Datum
100
50 lb 50
lb lb
() (+)
Arm Arm
Fulcrum
Moment = 700 in-lb 2,500 2,500 5,000
in-lb in-lb in-lb
( + ) Arm 70"

Wt x Arm = Moment 100 x 25 = 2,500

10 lb
(lb) x (in) = (in-lb) 50 x 50 = 2,500
Total = 5,000
Sta 0 Sta 70

Figure 9-2. Weight and balance. Figure 9-4. Establishing a balance.

9-6
Weight and Balance Restrictions 2. Enter the moment for each item listed. Remember
An aircrafts weight and balance restrictions should be weight x arm = moment.
closely followed. The loading conditions and empty weight 3. Find the total weight and total moment.
of a particular aircraft may differ from that found in the
AFM/POH because modications or equipment changes may 4. To determine the CG, divide the total moment by the
have been made. Sample loading problems in the AFM/POH total weight.
are intended for guidance only; therefore, each aircraft must
be treated separately. Although an aircraft is certied for a NOTE: The weight and balance records for a particular
specied maximum gross takeoff weight, it will not safely aircraft will provide the empty weight and moment, as well
take off with this load under all conditions. Conditions that as the information on the arm distance. [Figure 9-5]
affect takeoff and climb performance, such as high elevations,
Item Weight Arm Moment
high temperatures, and high humidity (high density altitudes)
Aircraft Empty Weight 2,100 78.3 164,430
may require a reduction in weight before ight is attempted.
Front Seat Occupants 340 85.0 28,900
Other factors to consider prior to takeoff are runway length,
Rear Seat Occupants 350 121.0 42,350
runway surface, runway slope, surface wind, and the presence Fuel 450 75.0 33,750
of obstacles. These factors may require a reduction in weight Baggage Area 1 80 150.0 12,000
prior to ight.
Total 3,320 281,430
Some aircraft are designed so that it is difcult to load them 281,430 3,320 = 84.8
in a manner that will place the CG out of limits. These are
Figure 9-5. Example of weight and balance computations.
usually small aircraft with the seats, fuel, and baggage areas
located near the CG limit. Pilots must be aware that while
within CG limits these aircraft can be overloaded in weight. The total loaded weight of 3,320 pounds does not exceed
Other aircraft can be loaded in such a manner that they will the maximum gross weight of 3,400 pounds, and the CG of
be out of CG limits even though the useful load has not been 84.8 is within the 7886 inch range; therefore, the aircraft is
exceeded. Because of the effects of an out-of-balance or loaded within limits.
overweight condition, a pilot should always be sure that an
aircraft is properly loaded. Graph Method
Another method for determining the loaded weight and CG is
Determining Loaded Weight and CG the use of graphs provided by the manufacturers. To simplify
calculations, the moment may sometimes be divided by 100,
There are various methods for determining the loaded weight 1,000, or 10,000. [Figures 9-6, 9-7, and 9-8]
and CG of an aircraft. There is the computational method, as
well as methods that utilize graphs and tables provided by Front seat occupants....................................340 pounds
the aircraft manufacturer. Rear seat occupants ......................................300 pounds
Fuel .................................................................40 gallons
Computational Method
The following is an example of the computational method Baggage area 1 ...............................................20 pounds
involving the application of basic math functions.
Sample Loading Problem Weight (lb) Moment
(in-lb/1,000)
Aircraft Allowances:
1. Basic Empty Weight (Use data pertaining
Maximum gross weight...................... 3,400 pounds to aircraft as it is presently equipped.)
Includes unusable fuel and full oil 1,467 57.3
CG range............................................. 7886 inches 2. Usable Fuel (At 6 lb/gal)
Standard Tanks (40 gal maximum) 240 11.5
Given: Long Range Tanks (50 gal maximum)
Integral Tanks (62 gal maximum)
Weight of front seat occupants............. 340 pounds Integral Reduced Fuel (42 gal)
Weight of rear seat occupants.............. 350 pounds 3. Pilot and Front Passenger (Station 34 to 46) 340 12.7
4. Rear Passengers 300 21.8
Fuel........................................................... 75 gallons
5. Baggage Area 1 or Passenger on Childs
Weight of baggage in area 1....................80 pounds Seat (Station 82 to 108, 120 lb maximum) 20 1.9
6. Baggage Area 2
1. List the weight of the aircraft, occupants, fuel, and (Station 108 to 142, 50 lb maximum)
baggage. Remember that aviation gas (AVGAS) 7. Weight and Moment 2,367 105.2
weighs 6 pounds per gallon and is used in this
Figure 9-6. Weight and balance data.
example.

9-7
 Load Moment/1,000 (Kilogram-Millimeters)
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400

200

400
rs 175
n ge
se
62 gal***(234.7 liters)
as
350
arP
340 Re

r
60 gal (227.1 liters)

te
150

/li
kg
300

Load Weight (Kilograms)

er

.7
50 gal**(189.3 liters)

;0
ng
125

al
se
Load Weight (Pounds)

/g
s

lb
250
Pa

6
42 gal reduced***(159 liters)

l(
nt

e
40 gal*(189.3 liters)
o

Fu
100
Fr

200
&
lot

30 gal (113.6 liters)

Pi

75
150

20 gal (75.7 liters)

50
100 Baggage Area 1 or Maximum Usable Fuel
Passenger on Childs Seat * Standard Tanks
10 gal (37.9 liters) ** Long Range Tanks 25
50
*** Internal Tanks
Baggage Area 2
0 0
5 10 12.7 15 20 25 30
Load Moment/1,000 (Inch-Pounds)

Figure 9-7. Loading graph.

Loaded Airplane Moment/1,000 (Kilogram-Millimeters)

600 700 800 900 1,000 1,100 1,200 1,300

1,100
2,400
2,367
1,050
2,300

Loaded Airplane Weight (Kilograms)

Loaded Airplane Weight (Pounds)

2,200 Normal 1,000

Category

2,100 950

2,000
900
y
g or

1,900
te
Ca

850
y
ilit

1,800
Ut

800
1,700
750
1,600
700
1,500
45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110
105.2
Loaded Aircraft Moment/1,000 (Inch-Pounds)

Figure 9-8. CG moment envelope.

9-8
The same steps should be followed as in the computational the lines intersect within the envelope, the aircraft is loaded
method except the graphs provided will calculate the within limits. In this sample loading problem, the aircraft is
moments and allow the pilot to determine if the aircraft is loaded within limits.
loaded within limits. To determine the moment using the
loading graph, nd the weight and draw a line straight across Table Method
until it intercepts the item for which the moment is to be The table method applies the same principles as the
calculated. Then draw a line straight down to determine the computational and graph methods. The information
moment. (The red line on the loading graph represents the and limitations are contained in tables provided by the
moment for the pilot and front passenger. All other moments manufacturer. Figure 9-9 is an example of a table and a
were determined in the same way.) Once this has been done weight and balance calculation based on that table. In this
for each item, total the weight and moments and draw a line problem, the total weight of 2,799 pounds and moment of
for both weight and moment on the CG envelope graph. If 2,278/100 are within the limits of the table.

Occupants Minimum Maximum

Usable Fuel Weight Moment Moment
Front Seat Rear Seats 100 100
Main Wing Tanks Arm 75 Arm 85 Arm 121
2,400 1,848 2,057
Moment Moment
Moment Weight Weight 2,410 1,856 2,065
Gallons Weight 100 100
100 2,420 1,863 2,074
120 102 120 145 2,430 1,871 2,083
5 30 22 130 110 130 157 2,440 1,879 2,091
10 60 45 140 119 140 169 2,450 1,887 2,100
15 90 68 FUEL TANK 150 128 150 182 2,460 1,894 2,108
20 120 90 160 136 160 194 2,470 1,092 2,117
25 150 112 170 144 170 206 2,480 1,911 2,125
30 180 135 180 153 180 218 2,490 1,921 2,134
35 210 158 190 162 190 230
40 240 180 200 170 200 242 2,500 1,932 2,143
44 264 198 2,510 1,942 2,151
2,520 1,953 2,160
2,530 1,963 2,168
2,540 1,974 2,176
SEATING AREA

2,550 1,984 2,184

2,560 1,995 2,192
2,570 2,005 2,200
2,580 2,016 2,208
2,590 2,026 2,216
BAGGAGE AREA
OIL 2,600 2,037 2,224
2,610 2,048 2,232
2,620 2,058 2,239
Minimum Maximum 2,630 2,069 2,247
*Oil Baggage or 5th Weight Moment Moment 2,640 2,080 2,255
Seat Occupant 100 100 2,650 2,090 2,263
Quarts Weight Moment 2,660 2,101 2,271
100 Arm 140
2,100 1,617 1,800 2,670 2,112 2,279
10 19 5 Moment 2,110 1,625 1,808 2,680 2,123 2,287
Weight 2,120 1,632 1,817 2,690 2,133 2,295
FUEL TANK 100
*Included in basic empty weight 2,130 1,640 1,825
10 14
2,140 1,648 1,834 2,700 2,144 2,303
20 28
2,150 1,656 1,843 2,710 2,155 2,311
Empty Weight ~ 2,015 30 42 2,160 1,663 1,851 2,720 2,166 2,319
MOM/ 100 ~ 1,554 40 56 2,170 1,671 1,860 2,730 2,177 2,326
50 70 2,180 1,679 1,868 2,740 2,188 2,334
60 84 2,190 1,686 1,877 2,750 2,199 2,342
Moment Limits vs Weight 70 98 2,760 2,210 2,350
Moment limits are based on the following weight and 80 112 2,200 1,694 1,885 2,770 2,221 2,358
center of gravity limit data (landing gear down). 90 126 2,210 1,702 1,894 2,780 2,232 2,366
Weight Forward AFT 100 140 2,220 1,709 1,903 2,790 2,243 2,374
Condition CG Limit CG Limit 110 154 2,230 1,717 1,911
2,950 lb (takeoff 82.1 84.7 120 168 2,240 1,725 1,920 2,800 2,254 2,381
or landing) 182 2,250 1,733 1,928 2,810 2,265 2,389
2,525 lb 77.5 85.7 2,260 1,740 1,937 2,820 2,276 2,397
2,475 lb or less 77.0 85.7
2,270 1,748 1,945 2,830 2,287 2,405
2,280 1,756 1,954 2,840 2,298 2,413
Sample Loading Problem Weight Moment 2,290 1,763 1,963 2,850 2,309 2,421
2,300 1,771 1,971 2,860 2,320 2,426
Basic empty weight 2,015 1,554 2,310 1,779 1,980 2,870 2,332 2,436
Fuel main tanks (44 gal) 264 198 2,320 1,786 1,988 2,880 2,343 2,444
*Front seat passengers 300 254 2,330 1,794 1,997 2,890 2,354 2,452
2,340 1,802 2,005 2,900 2,365 3,460
*Rear seat passengers 190 230 2,350 1,810 2,014 2,910 2,377 2,468
Baggage 30 42 2,360 1,817 2,023 2,920 2,388 2,475
2,370 1,825 2,031 2,930 2,399 2,483
2,380 1,833 2,040 2,940 2,411 2,491
Total 2,799 2,278/100 2,390 1,840 2,048 2,950 2,422 2,499
* Interpolate or, as in this case, add appropriate numbers.

Figure 9-9. Loading schedule placard.

9-9
Computations With a Negative Arm most satisfactory solution to this problem is to shift baggage,
Figure 9-10 is a sample of weight and balance computation passengers, or both. The pilot should be able to determine
using an airplane with a negative arm. It is important to the minimum load shift needed to make the aircraft safe for
remember that a positive times a negative equals a negative, ight. Pilots should be able to determine if shifting a load to
and a negative would be subtracted from the total moments. a new location will correct an out-of-limit condition. There
are some standardized calculations that can help make these
Item Weight Arm Moment determinations.
Licensed Empty Weight 1,011.9 68.6 69,393.0
Oil (6 quarts) 11.0 31.0 341.0
Weight Shifting
Fuel (18 gallons) 108.0 84.0 9,072.0
Fuel, Auxiliary (18 gallons) 108.0 84.0 9,072.0 When weight is shifted from one location to another, the
Pilot 170.0 81.0 13,770.0 total weight of the aircraft is unchanged. The total moments,
Passenger 170.0 81.0 13,770.0 however, do change in relation and proportion to the
Baggage 70.0 105.0 7,350.0 direction and distance the weight is moved. When weight is
moved forward, the total moments decrease; when weight
Total 1,648.9 122,086.0
is moved aft, total moments increase. The moment change
CG 74.0
is proportional to the amount of weight moved. Since many
Figure 9-10. Sample weight and balance using a negative. aircraft have forward and aft baggage compartments, weight
may be shifted from one to the other to change the CG. If
Computations With Zero Fuel Weight starting with a known aircraft weight, CG, and total moments,
Figure 9-11 is a sample of weight and balance computation calculate the new CG (after the weight shift) by dividing the
using an aircraft with a zero fuel weight. In this example, new total moments by the total aircraft weight.
the total weight of the aircraft less fuel is 4,240 pounds,
which is under the zero fuel weight of 4,400 pounds. If the To determine the new total moments, nd out how many
total weight of the aircraft without fuel had exceeded 4,400 moments are gained or lost when the weight is shifted.
pounds, passengers or cargo would have needed to be reduced Assume that 100 pounds has been shifted from station 30 to
to bring the weight at or below the max zero fuel weight. station 150. This movement increases the total moments of
the aircraft by 12,000 in-lb.
Item Weight Arm Moment
Basic Empty Weight 3,230 CG 90.5 292,315.0 Moment when
Front Seat Occupants 335 89.0 29,815.0 at station 150 = 100 lb x 150 in = 15,000 in-lb
3rd & 4th Seat Occupants 350 126.0 44,100.0
Forward Facing
5th & 6th Seat Occupants 200 157.0 31,400.0
Moment when
Nose Baggage 100 10.0 1,000.0 at station 30 = 100 lb x 30 in = 3,000 in-lb
Aft Baggage 25 183.0 4,575.0
Moment change = [15,000 - 3,000] = 12,000 in-lb
Zero Fuel Weight Max 4,400 pounds
Subtotal 4,240 CG 95.1 403,205.0
Fuel 822 113.0 92,886.0
Ramp Weight Max 5,224 pounds By adding the moment change to the original moment (or
Subtotal Ramp Weight 5,062 CG 98.0 496,091.0
subtracting if the weight has been moved forward instead of
* Less Fuel for Start,
Taxi, and Takeoff 24 113.0 2,712.0 aft), the new total moments are obtained. Then determine the
Subtotal new CG by dividing the new moments by the total weight:
Takeoff Weight 5,038 CG 97.9 493,379.0
Less Fuel to Destination 450 113.0 50,850.0
Total moments =
Max Landing Weight 4,940 pounds
Actual Landing Weight 4,588 CG 96.5 442,529.0 616,000 in-lb + 12,000 in-lb = 628,000 in-lb
*Fuel for start, taxi, and takeoff is normally 24 pounds.

Figure 9-11. Sample weight and balance using an aircraft with a

CG = 628,000 in-lb = 78.5 in
8,000 lb
published zero fuel weight.

The shift has caused the CG to shift to station 78.5.

Shifting, Adding, and Removing Weight
A pilot must be able to solve any problems accurately that
involve the shift, addition, or removal of weight. For example,
the pilot may load the aircraft within the allowable takeoff
weight limit, then nd a CG limit has been exceeded. The

9-10
A simpler solution may be obtained by using a computer Example
or calculator and a proportional formula. This can be done
Given:
because the CG will shift a distance that is proportional to Aircraft total weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6,100 lb
the distance the weight is shifted. CG station. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80.0 in

Determine the location of the CG if 100 pounds is removed from

Example station 150.
Weight shifted CG (change of CG)
= Solution:
Total weight Distance weight is shifted
Weight removed CG
100 CG =
= New total weight Distance between weight and old CG
8,000 120
100 lb CG
CG = 1.5 in =
6,100 lb 100 lb 150 in 80 in
The change of CG is added to (or subtracted from when appropriate)
100 lb CG
the original CG to determine the new CG: =
77 + 1.5 = 78.5 inches aft of datum 6,000 lb 70 in

CG = 1.2 in forward
The shifting weight proportion formula can also be used to determine
how much weight must be shifted to achieve a particular shift of the CG. Subtract CG from old CG
The following problem illustrates a solution of this type. New CG = 80 in 1.2 in = 78.8 in

Example
when the aircraft burns fuel in ight, thereby reducing the
Given:
Aircraft total weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7,800 lb weight located at the fuel tanks. Most small aircraft are
CG station. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81.5 in designed with the fuel tanks positioned close to the CG;
Aft CG limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80.5 in
therefore, the consumption of fuel does not affect the CG to
Determine how much cargo must be shifted from the aft cargo compart- any great extent.
ment at station 150 to the forward cargo compartment at station 30 to
move the CG to exactly the aft limit.
The addition or removal of cargo presents a CG change
Solution:
problem that must be calculated before ight. The problem
Weight to be shifted CG
Total weight
=
Distance weight is shifted
may always be solved by calculations involving total
moments. A typical problem may involve the calculation
Weight to be shifted 1.0 in
= of a new CG for an aircraft which, when loaded and ready
7,800 lb 120 in

Weight to be shifted = 65 lb
for ight, receives some additional cargo or passengers just
before departure time.

Weight Addition or Removal In the previous examples, the
CG is either added or
In many instances, the weight and balance of the aircraft will subtracted from the old CG. Deciding which to accomplish is
be changed by the addition or removal of weight. When this best handled by mentally calculating which way the CG will
happens, a new CG must be calculated and checked against shift for the particular weight change. If the CG is shifting
the limitations to see if the location is acceptable. This type aft, the
CG is added to the old CG; if the CG is shifting
of weight and balance problem is commonly encountered forward, the
CG is subtracted from the old CG.

Example Chapter Summary

Given: Operating an aircraft within the weight and balance limits
Aircraft total weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6,860 lb
CG station. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80.0 in is critical to ight safety. Pilots must ensure that the CG is
and remains within approved limits for all phases of a ight.
Determine the location of the CG if 140 pounds of baggage is added to
station 150. Additional information on weight, balance, CG, and aircraft
stability can be found in FAA-H-8083-1, Aircraft Weight
Solution:
and Balance Handbook. Those pilots ying helicopters or
Added weight CG
= gyroplanes should consult the Rotorcraft Flying Handbook,
New total weight Distance between weight and old CG

140 lb CG
FAA-H-8083-21, for specic information relating to aircraft
=
6,860 lb + 140 lb 150 in 80 in type.
140 lb CG
=
7,000 lb 70 in

CG = 1.4 in aft

Add CG to old CG
New CG = 80 in + 1.4 in = 81.4 in

9-11
9-12
Chapter 10

Aircraft
Performance
Introduction
This chapter discusses the factors that affect aircraft
performance, which include the aircraft weight, atmospheric
conditions, runway environment, and the fundamental
physical laws governing the forces acting on an aircraft.

Importance of Performance Data

The performance or operational information section of the
Aircraft Flight Manual/Pilots Operating Handbook (AFM/
POH) contains the operating data for the aircraft; that is, the
data pertaining to takeoff, climb, range, endurance, descent,
and landing. The use of this data in ying operations is
mandatory for safe and efcient operation. Considerable
knowledge and familiarity of the aircraft can be gained
through study of this material.

10-1
It must be emphasized that the manufacturers information pounds per square inch (psi). The density of air has signicant
and data furnished in the AFM/POH is not standardized. effects on the aircrafts performance. As air becomes less
Some provide the data in tabular form, while others use dense, it reduces:
graphs. In addition, the performance data may be presented Power, because the engine takes in less air.
on the basis of standard atmospheric conditions, pressure
altitude, or density altitude. The performance information in Thrust, because the propeller is less efcient in thin
the AFM/POH has little or no value unless the user recognizes air.
those variations and makes the necessary adjustments. Lift, because the thin air exerts less force on the
airfoils.
To be able to make practical use of the aircrafts capabilities
and limitations, it is essential to understand the signicance The pressure of the atmosphere varies with time and altitude.
of the operational data. The pilot must be cognizant of the Due to the changing atmospheric pressure, a standard
basis for the performance data, as well as the meanings of reference was developed. The standard atmosphere at sea level
the various terms used in expressing performance capabilities is a surface temperature of 59 degrees Fahrenheit (F) or 15
and limitations. degrees Celsius (C) and a surface pressure of 29.92 inches of
mercury ("Hg) or 1013.2 millibars (mb). [Figure 10-1]
Since the characteristics of the atmosphere have a major
effect on performance, it is necessary to review two dominant
factorspressure and temperature. Inches of
Standard Millibars Standard
Mercury
Sea Level Sea Level
Structure of the Atmosphere Pressure 30 1016 Pressure
The atmosphere is an envelope of air that surrounds the Earth 29.92"Hg 25 847 1013 mb
and rests upon its surface. It is as much a part of the Earth as 20 677
its land and water. However, air differs from land and water
15 508
inasmuch as it is a mixture of gases. It has mass, weight, and
indenite shape. 10 339

5 170
Air, like any other uid, is able to ow and change its shape Atmospheric Pressure
0 0
when subjected to even minute pressures because of the lack of
strong molecular cohesion. For example, gas will completely
fill any container into which it is placed, expanding or
contracting to adjust its shape to the limits of the container.

The atmosphere is composed of 78 percent nitrogen, 21 percent

oxygen, and 1 percent other gases, such as argon or helium.
Most of the oxygen is contained below 35,000 feet altitude.
Figure 10-1. Standard sea level pressure.
Atmospheric Pressure
Though there are various kinds of pressure, pilots are mainly
A standard temperature lapse rate is one in which the
concerned with atmospheric pressure. It is one of the basic
temperature decreases at the rate of approximately 3.5 F or
factors in weather changes, helps to lift the aircraft, and
2 C per thousand feet up to 36,000 feet. Above this point,
actuates some of the most important ight instruments in
the temperature is considered constant up to 80,000 feet. A
the aircraft. These instruments often include the altimeter,
standard pressure lapse rate is one in which pressure decreases
the airspeed indicator (ASI), the vertical speed indicator, and
at a rate of approximately 1 "Hg per 1,000 feet of altitude gain
the manifold pressure gauge.
to 10,000 feet. [Figure 10-2] The International Civil Aviation
Organization (ICAO) has established this as a worldwide
Though air is very light, it has mass and is affected by the
standard, and it is often referred to as International Standard
attraction of gravity. Therefore, like any other substance, it
Atmosphere (ISA) or ICAO Standard Atmosphere. Any
has weight; because it has weight, it has force. Since it is a
temperature or pressure that differs from the standard lapse
uid substance, this force is exerted equally in all directions,
rates is considered nonstandard temperature and pressure.
and its effect on bodies within the air is called pressure.
Adjustments for nonstandard temperatures and pressures are
Under standard conditions at sea level, the average pressure
provided on the manufacturers performance charts.
exerted by the weight of the atmosphere is approximately 14.7

10-2
 Pressure Temperature 2. By applying a correction factor to the indicated altitude
Altitude (ft) according to the reported altimeter setting.
("Hg) (C) (F)
0 29.92 15.0 59.0
1,000 28.86 13.0 55.4 Density Altitude
2,000 27.82 11.0 51.9 The more appropriate term for correlating aerodynamic
3,000 26.82 9.1 48.3
performance in the nonstandard atmosphere is density
4,000 25.84 7.1 44.7
5,000 24.89 5.1 41.2
altitudethe altitude in the standard atmosphere
6,000 23.98 3.1 37.6 corresponding to a particular value of air density.
7,000 23.09 1.1 34.0
8,000 22.22 0.9 30.5 Density altitude is pressure altitude corrected for nonstandard
9,000 21.38 2.8 26.9 temperature. As the density of the air increases (lower
10,000 20.57 4.8 23.3 density altitude), aircraft performance increases. Conversely,
11,000 19.79 6.8 19.8 as air density decreases (higher density altitude), aircraft
12,000 19.02 8.8 16.2
performance decreases. A decrease in air density means a
13,000 18.29 10.8 12.6
14,000 17.57 12.7 9.1
high density altitude; an increase in air density means a lower
15,000 16.88 14.7 5.5 density altitude. Density altitude is used in calculating aircraft
16,000 16.21 16.7 1.9 performance. Under standard atmospheric condition, air at
17,000 15.56 18.7 1.6 each level in the atmosphere has a specic density; under
18,000 14.94 20.7 5.2 standard conditions, pressure altitude and density altitude
19,000 14.33 22.6 8.8 identify the same level. Density altitude, then, is the vertical
20,000 13.74 24.6 12.3 distance above sea level in the standard atmosphere at which
Figure 10-2. Properties of standard atmosphere.
a given density is to be found.

Since all aircraft performance is compared and evaluated with The computation of density altitude must involve consideration
respect to the standard atmosphere, all aircraft instruments of pressure (pressure altitude) and temperature. Since aircraft
are calibrated for the standard atmosphere. Thus, certain performance data at any level is based upon air density under
corrections must apply to the instrumentation, as well as the standard day conditions, such performance data apply to air
aircraft performance, if the actual operating conditions do density levels that may not be identical to altimeter indications.
not t the standard atmosphere. In order to account properly Under conditions higher or lower than standard, these levels
for the nonstandard atmosphere, certain related terms must cannot be determined directly from the altimeter.
be dened.
Density altitude is determined by first finding pressure
Pressure Altitude altitude, and then correcting this altitude for nonstandard
Pressure altitude is the height above the standard datum temperature variations. Since density varies directly with
plane (SDP). The aircraft altimeter is essentially a sensitive pressure, and inversely with temperature, a given pressure
barometer calibrated to indicate altitude in the standard altitude may exist for a wide range of temperature by allowing
atmosphere. If the altimeter is set for 29.92 "Hg SDP, the the density to vary. However, a known density occurs for any
altitude indicated is the pressure altitudethe altitude in the one temperature and pressure altitude. The density of the air,
standard atmosphere corresponding to the sensed pressure. of course, has a pronounced effect on aircraft and engine
performance. Regardless of the actual altitude at which the
The SDP is a theoretical level where the pressure of the aircraft is operating, it will perform as though it were operating
atmosphere is 29.92 "Hg and the weight of air is 14.7 psi. As at an altitude equal to the existing density altitude.
atmospheric pressure changes, the SDP may be below, at, or
above sea level. Pressure altitude is important as a basis for For example, when set at 29.92 "Hg, the altimeter may
determining aircraft performance, as well as for assigning indicate a pressure altitude of 5,000 feet. According to the
ight levels to aircraft operating at above 18,000 feet. AFM/POH, the ground run on takeoff may require a distance
of 790 feet under standard temperature conditions.
The pressure altitude can be determined by either of two
methods: However, if the temperature is 20 C above standard, the
expansion of air raises the density level. Using temperature
1. By setting the barometric scale of the altimeter to
correction data from tables or graphs, or by deriving the
29.92 "Hg and reading the indicated altitude, or

10-3
density altitude with a computer, it may be found that the
density level is above 7,000 feet, and the ground run may be
15,000
closer to 1,000 feet.

0
,00
14
Air density is affected by changes in altitude, temperature, 14,000

0
,00
and humidity. High density altitude refers to thin air while

13
low density altitude refers to dense air. The conditions that 13,000

0
result in a high density altitude are high elevations, low

,00
12

)
atmospheric pressures, high temperatures, high humidity, or

et
12,000

(fe
some combination of these factors. Lower elevations, high

e
,00

ud
11
atmospheric pressure, low temperatures, and low humidity

tit
al
11,000
are more indicative of low density altitude.

e
0

r
,00

su
10

es
Pr
Using a ight computer, density altitude can be computed 10,000

Stand

00
by inputting the pressure altitude and outside air temperature

9,0
at ight level. Density altitude can also be determined by

a
9,000

rd tem
referring to the table and chart in Figures 10-3 and 10-4.

00
8,0
peratu
Method for Determining 8,000

Density altitude (feet)

Pressure Altitude Alternate Method for Determining

00
7,0
Pressure Altitude

re
Altimeter Altitude
setting correction 7,000

00
28.0 1,825

6,0
28.1 1,725 6,000
28.2 1,630

00
5,0
28.3 1,535
28.4 1,435 5,000

00
28.5 1,340

4,0
28.6 1,245 4,000
28.7 1,150

00
3,0
28.8 1,050
28.9 955 3,000
To field

00
Add

29.0 865
elevation 2,0
29.1 770
2,000
29.2 675
00
1,0

29.3 580
l
ve
le
29.4 485 1,000
a
Se

29.5 390

0
0

00
00

29.6 300 -2,

-1,

Sea level
Field elevation is sea level

29.7 205 C -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40

29.8 110
F 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
29.9 20
To get
29.92 0 Outside air temperature (OAT)
pressure altitude
30.0 75
30.1 165
Figure 10-4. Density altitude chart.
30.2 255
30.3 350 Effects of Pressure on Density
30.4 440
Subtract

From field
Since air is a gas, it can be compressed or expanded. When
30.5 530
elevation air is compressed, a greater amount of air can occupy a
30.6 620
30.7 710 given volume. Conversely, when pressure on a given volume
30.8 805 of air is decreased, the air expands and occupies a greater
30.9 895 space. That is, the original column of air at a lower pressure
31.0 965 contains a smaller mass of air. In other words, the density is
decreased. In fact, density is directly proportional to pressure.
Figure 10-3. Field elevation versus pressure. The aircraft is located If the pressure is doubled, the density is doubled, and if the
on a field which happens to be at sea level. Set the altimeter to the pressure is lowered, so is the density. This statement is true
current altimeter setting (29.7). The difference of 205 feet is added only at a constant temperature.
to the elevation or a PA of 205 feet.

10-4
Effects of Temperature on Density take off in a very short distance is an important factor to the
Increasing the temperature of a substance decreases its density. pilot who operates in and out of short, unimproved airelds.
Conversely, decreasing the temperature increases the density. The ability to carry heavy loads, y at high altitudes at fast
Thus, the density of air varies inversely with temperature. speeds, or travel long distances is essential performance for
This statement is true only at a constant pressure. operators of airline and executive type aircraft.

In the atmosphere, both temperature and pressure decrease The primary factors most affected by performance are the
with altitude, and have conicting effects upon density. takeoff and landing distance, rate of climb, ceiling, payload,
However, the fairly rapid drop in pressure as altitude is range, speed, maneuverability, stability, and fuel economy.
increased usually has the dominant effect. Hence, pilots can Some of these factors are often directly opposed: for example,
expect the density to decrease with altitude. high speed versus short landing distance, long range versus
great payload, and high rate of climb versus fuel economy. It
Effects of Humidity (Moisture) on Density is the preeminence of one or more of these factors that dictates
The preceding paragraphs are based on the presupposition of differences between aircraft and explains the high degree of
perfectly dry air. In reality, it is never completely dry. The specialization found in modern aircraft.
small amount of water vapor suspended in the atmosphere
may be negligible under certain conditions, but in other The various items of aircraft performance result from the
conditions humidity may become an important factor in the combination of aircraft and powerplant characteristics. The
performance of an aircraft. Water vapor is lighter than air; aerodynamic characteristics of the aircraft generally dene
consequently, moist air is lighter than dry air. Therefore, as the the power and thrust requirements at various conditions of
water content of the air increases, the air becomes less dense, ight, while powerplant characteristics generally dene the
increasing density altitude and decreasing performance. It is power and thrust available at various conditions of ight.
lightest or least dense when, in a given set of conditions, it The matching of the aerodynamic conguration with the
contains the maximum amount of water vapor. powerplant is accomplished by the manufacturer to provide
maximum performance at the specic design condition (e.g.,
Humidity, also called relative humidity, refers to the amount range, endurance, and climb).
of water vapor contained in the atmosphere, and is expressed
as a percentage of the maximum amount of water vapor Straight-and-Level Flight
the air can hold. This amount varies with the temperature; All of the principal components of ight performance involve
warm air can hold more water vapor, while colder air can steady-state ight conditions and equilibrium of the aircraft.
hold less. Perfectly dry air that contains no water vapor has For the aircraft to remain in steady, level ight, equilibrium
a relative humidity of zero percent, while saturated air that must be obtained by a lift equal to the aircraft weight and a
cannot hold any more water vapor has a relative humidity powerplant thrust equal to the aircraft drag. Thus, the aircraft
of 100 percent. Humidity alone is usually not considered an drag denes the thrust required to maintain steady, level
essential factor in calculating density altitude and aircraft ight. As presented in Chapter 4, Aerodynamics of Flight,
performance; however, it does contribute. all parts of an aircraft contribute to the drag, either induced
(from lifting surfaces) or parasite drag.
The higher the temperature, the greater amount of water
vapor that the air can hold. When comparing two separate air While the parasite drag predominates at high speed, induced
masses, the rst warm and moist (both qualities making air drag predominates at low speed. [Figure 10-5] For example,
lighter) and the second cold and dry (both qualities making
it heavier), the rst must be less dense than the second.
Total drag
Pressure, temperature, and humidity have a great inuence
on aircraft performance because of their effect upon density.
There is no rule-of-thumb or chart used to compute the effects
L/DMAX
Drag

of humidity on density altitude, but it must be taken into Parasite drag

consideration. Expect a decrease in overall performance in
high humidity conditions. Stall

Induced drag
Performance
Performance is a term used to describe the ability of an aircraft Speed
to accomplish certain things that make it useful for certain
purposes. For example, the ability of an aircraft to land and Figure 10-5. Drag versus speed.

10-5
if an aircraft in a steady ight condition at 100 knots is then Although the terms power and thrust are sometimes
accelerated to 200 knots, the parasite drag becomes four used interchangeably, erroneously implying that they are
times as great, but the power required to overcome that synonymous, it is important to distinguish between the two
drag is eight times the original value. Conversely, when the when discussing climb performance. Work is the product of
aircraft is operated in steady, level ight at twice as great a a force moving through a distance and is usually independent
speed, the induced drag is one-fourth the original value, and of time. Work is measured by several standards; the most
the power required to overcome that drag is only one-half common unit is called a foot-pound. If a one pound mass
the original value. is raised one foot, a work unit of one foot-pound has been
performed. The common unit of mechanical power is
When an aircraft is in steady, level ight, the condition of horsepower; one horsepower is work equivalent to lifting
equilibrium must prevail. The unaccelerated condition of ight 33,000 pounds a vertical distance of one foot in one minute.
is achieved with the aircraft trimmed for lift equal to weight The term power implies work rate or units of work per unit
and the powerplant set for a thrust to equal the aircraft drag. of time, and as such is a function of the speed at which the
force is developed. Thrust, also a function of work, means
The maximum level ight speed for the aircraft will be obtained the force that imparts a change in the velocity of a mass. This
when the power or thrust required equals the maximum power force is measured in pounds but has no element of time or
or thrust available from the powerplant. [Figure 10-6] The rate. It can be said then, that during a steady climb, the rate
minimum level ight airspeed is not usually dened by thrust of climb is a function of excess thrust.
or power requirement since conditions of stall or stability and
control problems generally predominate. This relationship means that, for a given weight of an aircraft,
the angle of climb depends on the difference between thrust
and drag, or the excess power. [Figure 10-7] Of course, when
m available po the excess thrust is zero, the inclination of the ightpath is
Maximu wer
zero, and the aircraft will be in steady, level ight. When the
High cruise speed thrust is greater than the drag, the excess thrust will allow
Maximum level flight speed
Power required

a climb angle depending on the value of excess thrust. On

the other hand, when the thrust is less than the drag, the
Low cruise speed deciency of thrust will allow an angle of descent.
Min. speed

rag
hr
Power required

us

rd
Reserve thrust
ta

Speed
do
va

ab
il

re
le
i
qu

Figure 10-6. Power versus speed.

re

Stall st
ru
Climb Performance Th

Climb performance is a result of using the aircrafts potential

energy provided by one, or a combination of two factors. The
rst is the use of excess power above that required for level Speed for max. angle of climb
ight. An aircraft equipped with an engine capable of 200
Speed
horsepower (at a given altitude) but using 130 horsepower
to sustain level ight (at a given airspeed) has 70 excess Figure 10-7. Thrust versus climb angle.
horsepower available for climbing. A second factor is that
the aircraft can tradeoff its kinetic energy and increase its The most immediate interest in the climb angle performance
potential energy by reducing its airspeed. The reduction in involves obstacle clearance. The most obvious purpose for
airspeed will increase the aircrafts potential energy thereby which it might be used is to clear obstacles when climbing
also making the aircraft climb. Both terms, power and thrust out of short or conned airports.
are often used in aircraft performance however, they should
not be confused.

10-6
The maximum angle of climb would occur where there the optimum. Of course, climb performance would be most
exists the greatest difference between thrust available and critical with high gross weight, at high altitude, in obstructed
thrust required; i.e., for the propeller-powered airplane, the takeoff areas, or during malfunction of a powerplant. Then,
maximum excess thrust and angle of climb will occur at some optimum climb speeds are necessary.
speed just above the stall speed. Thus, if it is necessary to
clear an obstacle after takeoff, the propeller-powered airplane Weight has a very pronounced effect on aircraft performance.
will attain maximum angle of climb at an airspeed close toif If weight is added to an aircraft, it must y at a higher angle
not atthe takeoff speed. of attack (AOA) to maintain a given altitude and speed. This
increases the induced drag of the wings, as well as the parasite
Of greater interest in climb performance are the factors that drag of the aircraft. Increased drag means that additional
affect the rate of climb. The vertical velocity of an aircraft thrust is needed to overcome it, which in turn means that less
depends on the flight speed and the inclination of the reserve thrust is available for climbing. Aircraft designers
ightpath. In fact, the rate of climb is the vertical component go to great effort to minimize the weight since it has such a
of the ightpath velocity. marked effect on the factors pertaining to performance.

For rate of climb, the maximum rate would occur where A change in an aircrafts weight produces a twofold effect on
there exists the greatest difference between power available climb performance. First, a change in weight will change the
and power required. [Figure 10-8] The above relationship drag and the power required. This alters the reserve power
means that, for a given weight of an aircraft, the rate of climb available, which in turn, affects both the climb angle and the
depends on the difference between the power available and climb rate. Secondly, an increase in weight will reduce the
the power required, or the excess power. Of course, when the maximum rate of climb, but the aircraft must be operated at a
excess power is zero, the rate of climb is zero and the aircraft higher climb speed to achieve the smaller peak climb rate.
is in steady, level ight. When power available is greater
than the power required, the excess power will allow a rate An increase in altitude also will increase the power required
of climb specic to the magnitude of excess power. and decrease the power available. Therefore, the climb
performance of an aircraft diminishes with altitude. The
speeds for maximum rate of climb, maximum angle of climb,
Power available and power required

and maximum and minimum level ight airspeeds vary with

ed

t altitude. As altitude is increased, these various speeds nally

quir

je
le converge at the absolute ceiling of the aircraft. At the absolute
ab
r re

il
ava ceiling, there is no excess of power and only one speed will
we

er allow steady, level ight. Consequently, the absolute ceiling

Po

w
Po
of an aircraft produces zero rate of climb. The service ceiling
ble pro is the altitude at which the aircraft is unable to climb at a rate
availa pe
wer
Po greater than 100 feet per minute (fpm). Usually, these specic
lle
r

performance reference points are provided for the aircraft at

Reserve
power

a specic design conguration. [Figure 10-9]

Speed for max. rate of climb
In discussing performance, it frequently is convenient to use
Speed the terms power loading, wing loading, blade loading, and disk
loading. Power loading is expressed in pounds per horsepower
Figure 10-8. Power versus climb rate.
and is obtained by dividing the total weight of the aircraft by
During a steady climb, the rate of climb will depend on excess the rated horsepower of the engine. It is a signicant factor
power while the angle of climb is a function of excess thrust. in an aircrafts takeoff and climb capabilities. Wing loading
is expressed in pounds per square foot and is obtained by
The climb performance of an aircraft is affected by certain dividing the total weight of an airplane in pounds by the wing
variables. The conditions of the aircrafts maximum climb area (including ailerons) in square feet. It is the airplanes
angle or maximum climb rate occur at specic speeds, wing loading that determines the landing speed. Blade loading
and variations in speed will produce variations in climb is expressed in pounds per square foot and is obtained by
performance. There is sufcient latitude in most aircraft that dividing the total weight of a helicopter by the area of the
small variations in speed from the optimum do not produce rotor blades. Blade loading is not to be confused with disk
large changes in climb performance, and certain operational loading, which is the total weight of a helicopter divided by
considerations may require speeds slightly different from the area of the disk swept by the rotor blades.

10-7
 specic endurance = ight hours
pounds of fuel
24,000
22,000 or
20,000
specic endurance = ight hours/hour
pounds of fuel/hour
Standard altitude (feet)

18,000 Absolute ceiling

16,000 Service ceiling

or
14,000
12,000 specic endurance = 1
10,000 Best angle Best rate fuel ow
of climb (Vx) of climb (Vy)
8,000
Fuel ow can be dened in either pounds or gallons. If
6,000
maximum endurance is desired, the ight condition must
4,000
provide a minimum fuel ow. In Figure 10-10 at point A
2,000 the airspeed is low and fuel ow is high. This would occur
Sea level
70 80 90 100 110 120
during ground operations or when taking off and climbing.
As airspeed is increased, power requirements decrease due
Indicated airspeed (knots)
to aerodynamic factors and fuel ow decreases to point B.
Figure 10-9. Absolute and service ceiling. This is the point of maximum endurance. Beyond this point
increases in airspeed come at a cost. Airspeed increases
Range Performance require additional power and fuel flow increases with
The ability of an aircraft to convert fuel energy into ying additional power.
distance is one of the most important items of aircraft
performance. In ying operations, the problem of efcient Cruise flight operations for maximum range should be
range operation of an aircraft appears in two general forms: conducted so that the aircraft obtains maximum specic range
1. To extract the maximum ying distance from a given throughout the ight. The specic range can be dened by
fuel load the following relationship.
2. To y a specied distance with a minimum expenditure
specic range = NM
of fuel
pounds of fuel
A common element for each of these operating problems is the
or
specic range; that is, nautical miles (NM) of ying distance
versus the amount of fuel consumed. Range must be clearly
specic range = NM/hour
distinguished from the item of endurance. Range involves
pounds of fuel/hour
consideration of ying distance, while endurance involves
consideration of ying time. Thus, it is appropriate to dene
or
a separate term, specic endurance.
de
Fuel flow/Power required (HP)

ltitu
At a

e
e lin
renc
Maximum endurance at Refe
minimum power required
Applicable for a particular
A Weight
Altitude
B Maximum range at L/DMAX Configuration

Speed

Figure 10-10. Airspeed for maximum endurance.

10-8
specic range = knots ight and on performance charts power can be substituted
fuel ow for fuel ow. This fact allows for the determination of range
If maximum specic range is desired, the ight condition must through analysis of power required versus speed.
provide a maximum of speed per fuel ow. While the peak value
of specic range would provide maximum range operation, The maximum endurance condition would be obtained at the
long-range cruise operation is generally recommended at some point of minimum power required since this would require the
slightly higher airspeed. Most long-range cruise operations are lowest fuel ow to keep the airplane in steady, level ight.
conducted at the ight condition that provides 99 percent of Maximum range condition would occur where the ratio of
the absolute maximum specic range. The advantage of such speed to power required is greatest. [Figure 10-10]
operation is that one percent of range is traded for three to ve
percent higher cruise speed. Since the higher cruise speed has The maximum range condition is obtained at maximum lift/
a great number of advantages, the small sacrice of range is drag ratio (L/DMAX), and it is important to note that for a given
a fair bargain. The values of specic range versus speed are aircraft conguration, the L/DMAX occurs at a particular AOA
affected by three principal variables: and lift coefcient, and is unaffected by weight or altitude.
1. Aircraft gross weight A variation in weight will alter the values of airspeed and
power required to obtain the L/DMAX. [Figure 10-11]
2. Altitude
3. The external aerodynamic configuration of the
aircraft.

t
ht gh eigh
L/DMAX

w
r w i c w h er

t
These are the source of range and endurance operating data

g
eig ei
Hi
Power required
included in the performance section of the AFM/POH.

we as
Lo B
Cruise control of an aircraft implies that the aircraft is operated
to maintain the recommended long-range cruise condition
throughout the ight. Since fuel is consumed during cruise, the
gross weight of the aircraft will vary and optimum airspeed, Constant altitude
altitude, and power setting can also vary. Cruise control means
the control of the optimum airspeed, altitude, and power setting
to maintain the 99 percent maximum specic range condition.
Speed
At the beginning of cruise ight, the relatively high initial
weight of the aircraft will require specic values of airspeed, Figure 10-11. Effect of weight.
altitude, and power setting to produce the recommended cruise
condition. As fuel is consumed and the aircrafts gross weight The variations of speed and power required must be monitored
decreases, the optimum airspeed and power setting may by the pilot as part of the cruise control procedure to maintain
decrease, or, the optimum altitude may increase. In addition, the L/DMAX. When the aircrafts fuel weight is a small part of
the optimum specic range will increase. Therefore, the pilot the gross weight and the aircrafts range is small, the cruise
must provide the proper cruise control procedure to ensure control procedure can be simplied to essentially maintaining
that optimum conditions are maintained. a constant speed and power setting throughout the time of
cruise ight. However, a long-range aircraft has a fuel weight
Total range is dependent on both fuel available and specic that is a considerable part of the gross weight, and cruise
range. When range and economy of operation are the principal control procedures must employ scheduled airspeed and
goals, the pilot must ensure that the aircraft is operated at the power changes to maintain optimum range conditions.
recommended long-range cruise condition. By this procedure,
the aircraft will be capable of its maximum design-operating The variations of speed and power required must be
radius, or can achieve ight distances less than the maximum monitored by the pilot as part of the cruise control procedure
with a maximum of fuel reserve at the destination. to maintain the L/DMAX. When the aircrafts fuel weight is a
small part of the gross weight and the aircrafts range is small,
A propeller-driven aircraft combines the propeller with the the cruise control procedure can be simplied to essentially
reciprocating engine for propulsive power. Fuel ow is maintaining a constant speed and power setting throughout
determined mainly by the shaft power put into the propeller the time of cruise ight. However, a long-range aircraft has a
rather than thrust. Thus, the fuel ow can be related directly fuel weight that is a considerable part of the gross weight, and
to the power required to maintain the aircraft in steady, level cruise control procedures must employ scheduled airspeed
and power changes to maintain optimum range conditions.

10-9
The effect of altitude on the range of a propeller-driven aircraft Region of Reversed Command
is illustrated in Figure 10-12. A ight conducted at high altitude The aerodynamic properties of an aircraft generally determine
has a greater true airspeed (TAS), and the power required is the power requirements at various conditions of ight, while
proportionately greater than when conducted at sea level. The the powerplant capabilities generally determine the power
drag of the aircraft at altitude is the same as the drag at sea level, available at various conditions of ight. When an aircraft
but the higher TAS causes a proportionately greater power is in steady, level ight, a condition of equilibrium must
required. NOTE: The straight line that is tangent to the sea level prevail. An unaccelerated condition of ight is achieved
power curve is also tangent to the altitude power curve. when lift equals weight, and the powerplant is set for thrust
equal to drag. The power required to achieve equilibrium in
constant-altitude ight at various airspeeds is depicted on a
power required curve. The power required curve illustrates

e
ud
ltit
the fact that at low airspeeds near the stall or minimum
vel

a
a le

At
controllable airspeed, the power setting required for steady,
Se
Power required

level ight is quite high.

Flight in the region of normal command means that while

holding a constant altitude, a higher airspeed requires a higher
power setting and a lower airspeed requires a lower power
Constant weight
setting. The majority of aircraft ying (climb, cruise, and
L/DMAX maneuvers) is conducted in the region of normal command.

Speed
Flight in the region of reversed command means ight in
which a higher airspeed requires a lower power setting and
Figure 10-12. Effect of altitude on range. a lower airspeed requires a higher power setting to hold
altitude. It does not imply that a decrease in power will
The effect of altitude on specic range also can be appreciated produce lower airspeed. The region of reversed command is
from the previous relationships. If a change in altitude causes encountered in the low speed phases of ight. Flight speeds
identical changes in speed and power required, the proportion below the speed for maximum endurance (lowest point
of speed to power required would be unchanged. The fact on the power curve) require higher power settings with a
implies that the specic range of a propeller-driven aircraft decrease in airspeed. Since the need to increase the required
would be unaffected by altitude. Actually, this is true to the power setting with decreased speed is contrary to the normal
extent that specic fuel consumption and propeller efciency command of ight, the regime of ight speeds between the
are the principal factors that could cause a variation of speed for minimum required power setting and the stall speed
specic range with altitude. If compressibility effects are (or minimum control speed) is termed the region of reversed
negligible, any variation of specic range with altitude is command. In the region of reversed command, a decrease in
strictly a function of engine/propeller performance. airspeed must be accompanied by an increased power setting
in order to maintain steady ight.
An aircraft equipped with a reciprocating engine will
experience very little, if any, variation of specic range up Figure 10-13 shows the maximum power available as a
to its absolute altitude. There is negligible variation of brake curved line. Lower power settings, such as cruise power,
specic fuel consumption for values of brake horsepower would also appear in a similar curve. The lowest point on
below the maximum cruise power rating of the engine that the power required curve represents the speed at which the
is the lean range of engine operation. Thus, an increase in lowest brake horsepower will sustain level ight. This is
altitude will produce a decrease in specic range only when termed the best endurance airspeed.
the increased power requirement exceeds the maximum cruise
power rating of the engine. One advantage of supercharging An airplane performing a low airspeed, high pitch attitude
is that the cruise power may be maintained at high altitude, power approach for a short-eld landing is an example
and the aircraft may achieve the range at high altitude with of operating in the region of reversed command. If an
the corresponding increase in TAS. The principal differences unacceptably high sink rate should develop, it may be
in the high altitude cruise and low altitude cruise are the TAS possible for the pilot to reduce or stop the descent by applying
and climb fuel requirements. power. But without further use of power, the airplane would
probably stall or be incapable of aring for the landing.

10-10
 Takeoff and Landing Performance
The majority of pilot-caused aircraft accidents occur during
Maximum powe the takeoff and landing phase of ight. Because of this fact,
r avail
able the pilot must be familiar with all the variables that inuence
the takeoff and landing performance of an aircraft and must
Power setting

Region of
strive for exacting, professional procedures of operation

d
reversed Excess power

re
ui
command
during these phases of ight.

q
re
r
we
Po
Takeoff and landing performance is a condition of accelerated
and decelerated motion. For instance, during takeoff, an
aircraft starts at zero speed and accelerates to the takeoff
Best endurance speed speed to become airborne. During landing, the aircraft touches
down at the landing speed and decelerates to zero speed. The
Speed important factors of takeoff or landing performance are:

Figure 10-13. Power required curve. The takeoff or landing speed is generally a function
of the stall speed or minimum ying speed.
Merely lowering the nose of the airplane to regain ying
The rate of acceleration/deceleration during the
speed in this situation, without the use of power, would result
takeoff or landing roll. The speed (acceleration and
in a rapid sink rate and corresponding loss of altitude.
deceleration) experienced by any object varies directly
with the imbalance of force and inversely with the
If during a soft-eld takeoff and climb, for example, the pilot
mass of the object. An airplane on the runway moving
attempts to climb out of ground effect without rst attaining
at 75 knots has four times the energy it has traveling
normal climb pitch attitude and airspeed, the airplane may
at 37 knots. Thus, an airplane requires four times as
inadvertently enter the region of reversed command at a
much distance to stop as required at half the speed.
dangerously low altitude. Even with full power, the airplane
may be incapable of climbing or even maintaining altitude. The takeoff or landing roll distance is a function of
The pilots only recourse in this situation is to lower the pitch both acceleration/deceleration and speed.
attitude in order to increase airspeed, which will inevitably
result in a loss of altitude. Runway Surface and Gradient
Runway conditions affect takeoff and landing performance.
Airplane pilots must give particular attention to precise Typically, performance chart information assumes paved, level,
control of airspeed when operating in the low ight speeds smooth, and dry runway surfaces. Since no two runways are
of the region of reversed command. alike, the runway surface differs from one runway to another,
as does the runway gradient or slope. [Figure 10-14]

Figure 10-14. Takeoff distance chart.

10-11
Figure 10-15. An aircrafts performance depends greatly on the runway surface.

Runway surfaces vary widely from one airport to another. Ensure that runways are adequate in length for takeoff
The runway surface encountered may be concrete, asphalt, acceleration and landing deceleration when less than ideal
gravel, dirt, or grass. The runway surface for a specic airport surface conditions are being reported.
is noted in the Airport/Facility Directory (A/FD). Any surface
that is not hard and smooth will increase the ground roll The gradient or slope of the runway is the amount of change
during takeoff. This is due to the inability of the tires to roll in runway height over the length of the runway. The gradient
smoothly along the runway. Tires can sink into soft, grassy, is expressed as a percentage such as a 3 percent gradient. This
or muddy runways. Potholes or other ruts in the pavement means that for every 100 feet of runway length, the runway
can be the cause of poor tire movement along the runway. height changes by 3 feet. A positive gradient indicates the
Obstructions such as mud, snow, or standing water reduce the runway height increases, and a negative gradient indicates the
airplanes acceleration down the runway. Although muddy runway decreases in height. An upsloping runway impedes
and wet surface conditions can reduce friction between acceleration and results in a longer ground run during takeoff.
the runway and the tires, they can also act as obstructions However, landing on an upsloping runway typically reduces
and reduce the landing distance. [Figure 10-15] Braking the landing roll. A downsloping runway aids in acceleration
effectiveness is another consideration when dealing with on takeoff resulting in shorter takeoff distances. The opposite
various runway types. The condition of the surface affects is true when landing, as landing on a downsloping runway
the braking ability of the airplane. increases landing distances. Runway slope information is
contained in the A/FD. [Figure 10-16]
The amount of power that is applied to the brakes without
skidding the tires is referred to as braking effectiveness.

Runway surface

Airport name
Runway slope and direction of slope

Runway

Figure 10-16. Airport/facility directory (A/FD) information.

10-12
Water on the Runway and Dynamic Hydroplaning braking may be ineffective, so aerodynamic braking should
Water on the runways reduces the friction between the tires be used to its fullest advantage.
and the ground, and can reduce braking effectiveness. The
ability to brake can be completely lost when the tires are Takeoff Performance
hydroplaning because a layer of water separates the tires from The minimum takeoff distance is of primary interest in
the runway surface. This is also true of braking effectiveness the operation of any aircraft because it denes the runway
when runways are covered in ice. requirements. The minimum takeoff distance is obtained by
taking off at some minimum safe speed that allows sufcient
When the runway is wet, the pilot may be confronted with margin above stall and provides satisfactory control and
dynamic hydroplaning. Dynamic hydroplaning is a condition initial rate of climb. Generally, the lift-off speed is some xed
in which the aircraft tires ride on a thin sheet of water rather percentage of the stall speed or minimum control speed for the
than on the runways surface. Because hydroplaning wheels aircraft in the takeoff conguration. As such, the lift-off will
are not touching the runway, braking and directional control be accomplished at some particular value of lift coefcient
are almost nil. To help minimize dynamic hydroplaning, and AOA. Depending on the aircraft characteristics, the lift-
some runways are grooved to help drain off water; most off speed will be anywhere from 1.05 to 1.25 times the stall
runways are not. speed or minimum control speed.

Tire pressure is a factor in dynamic hydroplaning. Using To obtain minimum takeoff distance at the specic lift-off
the simple formula in Figure 10-17, a pilot can calculate speed, the forces that act on the aircraft must provide the
the minimum speed, in knots, at which hydroplaning will maximum acceleration during the takeoff roll. The various
begin. In plain language, the minimum hydroplaning speed forces acting on the aircraft may or may not be under the
is determined by multiplying the square root of the main gear control of the pilot, and various procedures may be necessary
tire pressure in psi by nine. For example, if the main gear tire in certain aircraft to maintain takeoff acceleration at the
pressure is at 36 psi, the aircraft would begin hydroplaning highest value.
at 54 knots.
The powerplant thrust is the principal force to provide the
Minimum dynamic hydroplaning speed (rounded off) = acceleration and, for minimum takeoff distance, the output
thrust should be at a maximum. Lift and drag are produced
as soon as the aircraft has speed, and the values of lift and
drag depend on the AOA and dynamic pressure.

9x Tire pressure (in psi)

In addition to the important factors of proper procedures,
many other variables affect the takeoff performance of an
aircraft. Any item that alters the takeoff speed or acceleration
rate during the takeoff roll will affect the takeoff distance.

For example, the effect of gross weight on takeoff distance

36 = 6 is signicant and proper consideration of this item must be
9 x 6 = 54 knots made in predicting the aircrafts takeoff distance. Increased
gross weight can be considered to produce a threefold effect
Figure 10-17. Tire pressure. on takeoff performance:
1. Higher lift-off speed
Landing at higher than recommended touchdown speeds will
expose the aircraft to a greater potential for hydroplaning. 2. Greater mass to accelerate
And once hydroplaning starts, it can continue well below the 3. Increased retarding force (drag and ground friction)
minimum initial hydroplaning speed.
If the gross weight increases, a greater speed is necessary to
On wet runways, directional control can be maximized produce the greater lift necessary to get the aircraft airborne
by landing into the wind. Abrupt control inputs should be at the takeoff lift coefcient. As an example of the effect of
avoided. When the runway is wet, anticipate braking problems a change in gross weight, a 21 percent increase in takeoff
well before landing and be prepared for hydroplaning. Opt for weight will require a 10 percent increase in lift-off speed to
a suitable runway most aligned with the wind. Mechanical support the greater weight.

10-13
A change in gross weight will change the net accelerating
80
force and change the mass that is being accelerated. If the

e
lin
aircraft has a relatively high thrust-to-weight ratio, the change 70

ce
en
in the net accelerating force is slight and the principal effect 60

er
Percent increase

ef
on acceleration is due to the change in mass. in takeoff or

R
landing distance 50
40
For example, a 10 percent increase in takeoff gross weight
30
would cause: Ratio of wind
velocity to takeoff 20
A 5 percent increase in takeoff velocity. or landing speed
10 Tailwind
At least a 9 percent decrease in rate of acceleration. 30% 20% 10%

At least a 21 percent increase in takeoff distance. Headwind

10% 20% 30%
10
Ratio of wind
20 velocity to takeoff
With ISA conditions, increasing the takeoff weight of the or landing speed
average Cessna 182 from 2,400 pounds to 2,700 pounds (11 30

percent increase) results in an increased takeoff distance from 40

440 feet to 575 feet (23 percent increase). 50 Percent decrease
in takeoff or
60 landing distance
For the aircraft with a high thrust-to-weight ratio, the
increase in takeoff distance might be approximately 21 to
Figure 10-18. Effect of wind on takeoff and landing.
22 percent, but for the aircraft with a relatively low thrust-
to-weight ratio, the increase in takeoff distance would be control, or have a very low initial rate of climb. In some cases,
approximately 25 to 30 percent. Such a powerful effect an excessive AOA may not allow the aircraft to climb out
requires proper consideration of gross weight in predicting of ground effect. On the other hand, an excessive airspeed
takeoff distance. at takeoff may improve the initial rate of climb and feel
of the aircraft, but will produce an undesirable increase in
The effect of wind on takeoff distance is large, and proper takeoff distance. Assuming that the acceleration is essentially
consideration also must be provided when predicting takeoff unaffected, the takeoff distance varies with the square of the
distance. The effect of a headwind is to allow the aircraft takeoff velocity.
to reach the lift-off speed at a lower groundspeed while the
effect of a tailwind is to require the aircraft to achieve a Thus, ten percent excess airspeed would increase the takeoff
greater groundspeed to attain the lift-off speed. distance 21 percent. In most critical takeoff conditions, such
an increase in takeoff distance would be prohibitive, and the
A headwind that is 10 percent of the takeoff airspeed will pilot must adhere to the recommended takeoff speeds.
reduce the takeoff distance approximately 19 percent.
However, a tailwind that is 10 percent of the takeoff airspeed The effect of pressure altitude and ambient temperature
will increase the takeoff distance approximately 21 percent. In is to dene the density altitude and its effect on takeoff
the case where the headwind speed is 50 percent of the takeoff performance. While subsequent corrections are appropriate
speed, the takeoff distance would be approximately 25 percent for the effect of temperature on certain items of powerplant
of the zero wind takeoff distance (75 percent reduction). performance, density altitude denes specic effects on
takeoff performance. An increase in density altitude can
The effect of wind on landing distance is identical to its produce a twofold effect on takeoff performance:
effect on takeoff distance. Figure 10-18 illustrates the general
1. Greater takeoff speed
effect of wind by the percent change in takeoff or landing
distance as a function of the ratio of wind velocity to takeoff 2. Decreased thrust and reduced net accelerating force
or landing speed.
If an aircraft of given weight and conguration is operated at
The effect of proper takeoff speed is especially important greater heights above standard sea level, the aircraft requires
when runway lengths and takeoff distances are critical. The the same dynamic pressure to become airborne at the takeoff
takeoff speeds specied in the AFM/POH are generally lift coefcient. Thus, the aircraft at altitude will take off at the
the minimum safe speeds at which the aircraft can become same indicated airspeed (IAS) as at sea level, but because of
airborne. Any attempt to take off below the recommended the reduced air density, the TAS will be greater.
speed means that the aircraft could stall, be difcult to

10-14
The effect of density altitude on powerplant thrust depends aircraft during the landing roll may require various procedures
much on the type of powerplant. An increase in altitude to maintain landing deceleration at the peak value.
above standard sea level will bring an immediate decrease in
power output for the unsupercharged reciprocating engine. A distinction should be made between the procedures for
However, an increase in altitude above standard sea level will minimum landing distance and an ordinary landing roll with
not cause a decrease in power output for the supercharged considerable excess runway available. Minimum landing
reciprocating engine until the altitude exceeds the critical distance will be obtained by creating a continuous peak
operating altitude. For those powerplants that experience deceleration of the aircraft; that is, extensive use of the brakes
a decay in thrust with an increase in altitude, the effect for maximum deceleration. On the other hand, an ordinary
on the net accelerating force and acceleration rate can be landing roll with considerable excess runway may allow
approximated by assuming a direct variation with density. extensive use of aerodynamic drag to minimize wear and tear
Actually, this assumed variation would closely approximate on the tires and brakes. If aerodynamic drag is sufcient to
the effect on aircraft with high thrust-to-weight ratios. cause deceleration, it can be used in deference to the brakes
in the early stages of the landing roll; i.e., brakes and tires
Proper accounting of pressure altitude and temperature is suffer from continuous hard use, but aircraft aerodynamic
mandatory for accurate prediction of takeoff roll distance. drag is free and does not wear out with use. The use of
The most critical conditions of takeoff performance are the aerodynamic drag is applicable only for deceleration to 60
result of some combination of high gross weight, altitude, or 70 percent of the touchdown speed. At speeds less than
temperature, and unfavorable wind. In all cases, the pilot 60 to 70 percent of the touchdown speed, aerodynamic drag
must make an accurate prediction of takeoff distance from is so slight as to be of little use, and braking must be utilized
the performance data of the AFM/POH, regardless of the to produce continued deceleration. Since the objective during
runway available, and strive for a polished, professional the landing roll is to decelerate, the powerplant thrust should
takeoff procedure. be the smallest possible positive value (or largest possible
negative value in the case of thrust reversers).
In the prediction of takeoff distance from the AFM/POH data,
the following primary considerations must be given: In addition to the important factors of proper procedures,
Pressure altitude and temperatureto dene the effect many other variables affect the landing performance. Any
of density altitude on distance item that alters the landing speed or deceleration rate during
the landing roll will affect the landing distance.
Gross weighta large effect on distance
Winda large effect due to the wind or wind The effect of gross weight on landing distance is one of the
component along the runway principal items determining the landing distance. One effect
of an increased gross weight is that a greater speed will be
Runway slope and conditionthe effect of an incline
required to support the aircraft at the landing AOA and lift
and retarding effect of factors such as snow or ice
coefcient. For an example of the effect of a change in gross
Landing Performance weight, a 21 percent increase in landing weight will require
a ten percent increase in landing speed to support the greater
In many cases, the landing distance of an aircraft will dene
weight.
the runway requirements for ight operations. The minimum
landing distance is obtained by landing at some minimum
When minimum landing distances are considered, braking
safe speed, which allows sufcient margin above stall and
friction forces predominate during the landing roll and, for
provides satisfactory control and capability for a go-around.
the majority of aircraft congurations, braking friction is the
Generally, the landing speed is some xed percentage of
main source of deceleration.
the stall speed or minimum control speed for the aircraft
in the landing conguration. As such, the landing will be
The minimum landing distance will vary in direct proportion
accomplished at some particular value of lift coefcient
to the gross weight. For example, a ten percent increase in
and AOA. The exact values will depend on the aircraft
gross weight at landing would cause a:
characteristics but, once dened, the values are independent
of weight, altitude, and wind. Five percent increase in landing velocity
Ten percent increase in landing distance
To obtain minimum landing distance at the specied landing
speed, the forces that act on the aircraft must provide maximum A contingency of this is the relationship between weight and
deceleration during the landing roll. The forces acting on the braking friction force.

10-15
The effect of wind on landing distance is large and deserves greatest required landing distances and critical levels of
proper consideration when predicting landing distance. Since energy dissipation required of the brakes. In all cases, it is
the aircraft will land at a particular airspeed independent of necessary to make an accurate prediction of minimum landing
the wind, the principal effect of wind on landing distance is distance to compare with the available runway. A polished,
the change in the groundspeed at which the aircraft touches professional landing procedure is necessary because the
down. The effect of wind on deceleration during the landing landing phase of ight accounts for more pilot-caused aircraft
is identical to the effect on acceleration during the takeoff. accidents than any other single phase of ight.

The effect of pressure altitude and ambient temperature is to In the prediction of minimum landing distance from the AFM/
dene density altitude and its effect on landing performance. POH data, the following considerations must be given:
An increase in density altitude increases the landing speed Pressure altitude and temperatureto dene the effect
but does not alter the net retarding force. Thus, the aircraft of density altitude
at altitude lands at the same IAS as at sea level but, because
of the reduced density, the TAS is greater. Since the aircraft Gross weightwhich denes the CAS for landing.
lands at altitude with the same weight and dynamic pressure, Winda large effect due to wind or wind component
the drag and braking friction throughout the landing roll have along the runway
the same values as at sea level. As long as the condition is
Runway slope and conditionrelatively small
within the capability of the brakes, the net retarding force
correction for ordinary values of runway slope, but a
is unchanged, and the deceleration is the same as with the
signicant effect of snow, ice, or soft ground
landing at sea level. Since an increase in altitude does not alter
deceleration, the effect of density altitude on landing distance
A tail wind of ten knots increases the landing distance by
is due to the greater TAS.
about 21 percent. An increase of landing speed by ten percent
increases the landing distance by 20 percent. Hydroplaning
The minimum landing distance at 5,000 feet is 16 percent
makes braking ineffective until a decrease of speed to that
greater than the minimum landing distance at sea level. The
determined using Figure 10-17.
approximate increase in landing distance with altitude is
approximately three and one-half percent for each 1,000 feet
For instance, a pilot is downwind for runway 18, and the
of altitude. Proper accounting of density altitude is necessary
tower asks if runway 27 could be accepted. There is a light
to accurately predict landing distance.
rain and the winds are out of the east at ten knots. The pilot
accepts because he or she is approaching the extended
The effect of proper landing speed is important when runway
centerline of runway 27. The turn is tight and the pilot must
lengths and landing distances are critical. The landing speeds
descend (dive) to get to runway 27. After becoming aligned
specied in the AFM/POH are generally the minimum safe
with the runway and at 50 feet AGL, the pilot is already 1,000
speeds at which the aircraft can be landed. Any attempt to land
feet down the 3,500 feet runway. The airspeed is still high by
at below the specied speed may mean that the aircraft may
about ten percent (should be at 70 knots and is at about 80
stall, be difcult to control, or develop high rates of descent.
knots). The wind of ten knots is blowing from behind.
On the other hand, an excessive speed at landing may improve
the controllability slightly (especially in crosswinds), but
First, the airspeed being high by about ten percent (80 knots
causes an undesirable increase in landing distance.
versus 70 knots), as presented in the performance chapter,
results in a 20 percent increase in the landing distance.
A ten percent excess landing speed causes at least a 21 percent
In performance planning, the pilot determined that at 70
increase in landing distance. The excess speed places a greater
knots the distance would be 1,600 feet. However, now it
working load on the brakes because of the additional kinetic
is increased by 20 percent and the required distance is now
energy to be dissipated. Also, the additional speed causes
1,920 feet.
increased drag and lift in the normal ground attitude, and the
increased lift reduces the normal force on the braking surfaces.
The newly revised landing distance of 1,920 feet is also
The deceleration during this range of speed immediately after
affected by the wind. In looking at Figure 10-18, the affect
touchdown may suffer, and it is more probable for a tire to be
of the wind is an additional 20 percent for every ten miles
blown out from braking at this point.
per hour (mph) in wind. This is computed not on the original
estimate but on the estimate based upon the increased
The most critical conditions of landing performance are
airspeed. Now the landing distance is increased by another
combinations of high gross weight, high density altitude,
and unfavorable wind. These conditions produce the

10-16
320 feet for a total requirement of 2,240 feet to land the VS1the calibrated power-off stalling speed or the minimum
airplane after reaching 50 feet AGL. steady ight speed at which the aircraft is controllable in a
specied conguration.
That is the original estimate of 1,600 under planned
conditions plus the additional 640 feet for excess speed VYthe speed at which the aircraft will obtain the maximum
and the tailwind. Given the pilot overshot the threshhold increase in altitude per unit of time. This best rate-of-climb
by 1,000 feet, the total length required is 3, 240 on a 3,500 speed normally decreases slightly with altitude.
foot runway; 260 feet to spare. But this is in a perfect
environment. Most pilots become fearful as the end of the VXthe speed at which the aircraft will obtain the highest
runway is facing them just ahead. A typical pilot reaction altitude in a given horizontal distance. This best angle-of-
is to brakeand brake hard. Because the aircraft does not climb speed normally increases slightly with altitude.
have antilock braking features like a car, the brakes lock,
and the aircraft hydroplanes on the wet surface of the runway VLEthe maximum speed at which the aircraft can be safely
until decreasing to a speed of about 54 knots (the square own with the landing gear extended. This is a problem
root of the tire pressure (36) x 9). Braking is ineffective involving stability and controllability.
when hydroplaning.
VLOthe maximum speed at which the landing gear can
The 260 feet that a pilot might feel is left over has long since be safely extended or retracted. This is a problem involving
evaporated as the aircraft hydroplaned the rst 300500 feet the air loads imposed on the operating mechanism during
when the brakes locked. This is an example of a true story, extension or retraction of the gear.
but one which only changes from year to year because of new
participants and aircraft with different N-numbers. VFEthe highest speed permissible with the wing aps in a
prescribed extended position. This is because of the air loads
In this example, the pilot actually made many bad decisions. imposed on the structure of the aps.
Bad decisions, when combined, have a synergy greater
than the individual errors. Therefore, the corrective actions VAthe calibrated design maneuvering airspeed. This is
become larger and larger until correction is almost impossible. the maximum speed at which the limit load can be imposed
Aeronautical decision-making will be discussed more fully in (either by gusts or full deection of the control surfaces)
Chapter 17, Aeronautical Decision-Making (ADM). without causing structural damage. Operating at or below
manuevering speed does not provide structural protection
Performance Speeds against multiple full control inputs in one axis or full control
inputs in more than one axis at the same time.
True Airspeed (TAS)the speed of the aircraft in relation to
the air mass in which it is ying.
VNOthe maximum speed for normal operation or the
maximum structural cruising speed. This is the speed at
Indicated Airspeed (IAS)the speed of the aircraft as
which exceeding the limit load factor may cause permanent
observed on the ASI. It is the airspeed without correction
deformation of the aircraft structure.
for indicator, position (or installation), or compressibility
errors.
VNEthe speed which should never be exceeded. If ight is
attempted above this speed, structural damage or structural
Calibrated Airspeed (CAS)the ASI reading corrected for
failure may result.
position (or installation), and instrument errors. (CAS is
equal to TAS at sea level in standard atmosphere.) The color Performance Charts
coding for various design speeds marked on ASIs may be
IAS or CAS. Performance charts allow a pilot to predict the takeoff, climb,
cruise, and landing performance of an aircraft. These charts,
Equivalent Airspeed (EAS)the ASI reading corrected provided by the manufacturer, are included in the AFM/POH.
for position (or installation), or instrument error, and for Information the manufacturer provides on these charts has
adiabatic compressible ow for the particular altitude. (EAS been gathered from test ights conducted in a new aircraft,
is equal to CAS at sea level in standard atmosphere.) under normal operating conditions while using average
piloting skills, and with the aircraft and engine in good
VS0the calibrated power-off stalling speed or the minimum working order. Engineers record the ight data and create
steady ight speed at which the aircraft is controllable in the performance charts based on the behavior of the aircraft
landing conguration. during the test ights. By using these performance charts,

10-17
a pilot can determine the runway length needed to take off The remainder of this section covers performance information
and land, the amount of fuel to be used during ight, and the for aircraft in general and discusses what information the
time required to arrive at the destination. It is important to charts contain and how to extract information from the charts
remember that the data from the charts will not be accurate by direct reading and interpolation methods. Every chart
if the aircraft is not in good working order or when operating contains a wealth of information that should be used when
under adverse conditions. Always consider the necessity to ight planning. Examples of the table, graph, and combined
compensate for the performance numbers if the aircraft is not graph formats for all aspects of ight will be discussed.
in good working order or piloting skills are below average.
Each aircraft performs differently and, therefore, has different Interpolation
performance numbers. Compute the performance of the Not all of the information on the charts is easily extracted.
aircraft prior to every ight, as every ight is different. (See Some charts require interpolation to nd the information for
appendix for examples of performance charts for a Cessna specic ight conditions. Interpolating information means
Model 172R and Challenger 605.) that by taking the known information, a pilot can compute
intermediate information. However, pilots sometimes round
Every chart is based on certain conditions and contains off values from charts to a more conservative gure.
notes on how to adapt the information for ight conditions.
It is important to read every chart and understand how to Using values that reect slightly more adverse conditions
use it. Read the instructions provided by the manufacturer. provides a reasonable estimate of performance information
For an explanation on how to use the charts, refer to the and gives a slight margin of safety. The following illustration
example provided by the manufacturer for that specic chart. is an example of interpolating information from a takeoff
[Figure 10-19] distance chart. [Figure 10-20]

The information manufacturers furnish is not standardized. Density Altitude Charts

Information may be contained in a table format, and other Use a density altitude chart to gure the density altitude at the
information may be contained in a graph format. Sometimes departing airport. Using Figure 10-21, determine the density
combined graphs incorporate two or more graphs into one chart altitude based on the given information.
to compensate for multiple conditions of ight. Combined
graphs allow the pilot to predict aircraft performance for Sample Problem 1
variations in density altitude, weight, and winds all on one
Airport Elevation...............................................5,883 feet
chart. Because of the vast amount of information that can be
extracted from this type of chart, it is important to be very OAT...........................................................................70 F
accurate in reading the chart. A small error in the beginning Altimeter...........................................................30.10" Hg
can lead to a large error at the end.

,
,

Figure 10-19. Conditions notes chart.

10-18
 Conditions
Flaps 10 TAKEOFF DISTANCE
Full throttle prior to brake release MAXIMUM WEIGHT 2,400 LB
Paved level runway
Zero wind

Takeoff 0 C 10 C 20 C 30 C 40 C
Weight speed KIAS Press
(lb) ALT Grnd Total feet Grnd Total feet Grnd Total feet Grnd Total feet Grnd Total feet
Lift AT (feet) Roll to clear Roll to clear Roll to clear Roll to clear Roll to clear
off 50 ft (feet) 50 ft OBS (feet) 50 ft OBS (feet) 50 ft OBS (feet) 50 ft OBS (feet) 50 ft OBS
2,400 51 56 S.L. 795 1,460 860 1,570 925 1,685 995 1,810 1,065 1,945
1,000 875 1,605 940 1,725 1,015 1,860 1,090 2,000 1,170 2,155
2,000 960 1,770 1,035 1,910 1,115 2,060 1,200 2,220 1,290 2,395
3,000 1,055 1,960 1,140 2,120 1,230 2,295 1,325 2,480 1,425 2,685
4,000 1,165 2,185 1,260 2,365 1,355 2,570 1,465 2,790 1,575 3,030
5,000 1,285 2,445 1,390 2,660 1,500 2,895 1,620 3,160 1,745 3,455
6,000 1,425 2,755 1,540 3,015 1,665 3,300 1,800 3,620 1,940 3,990
7,000 1,580 3,140 1,710 3,450 1,850 3,805 2,000 4,220 --- ---
8,000 1,755 3,615 1,905 4,015 2,060 4,480 --- --- --- ---

To find the takeoff distance for a pressure altitude of 2,500 feet

15
at 20 C, average the ground roll for 2,000 feet and 3,000 feet.

conversion factor
0

Pressure altitude
Altimeter setting
,00
14
1,115 + 1,230
= 1,173 feet

("Hg)
14
2

0
,00
13
Figure 10-20. Interpolating charts.
13

0
,00
First, compute the pressure altitude conversion. Find 30.10

12

)
28.0 1,824

et
under the altimeter heading. Read across to the second 12

(fe
28.1 1,727

e
,00
column. It reads 165. Therefore, it is necessary to subtract

ud
11

tit
28.2 1,630
165 from the airport elevation giving a pressure altitude of

al
11

re
28.3 1,533

0
5,718 feet. Next, locate the outside air temperature on the

,00

su
Approximate density altitude (thousand feet)

10

es
28.4 1,436
scale along the bottom of the graph. From 70, draw a line up

Pr
10 28.5 1,340
Stand
to the 5,718 feet pressure altitude line, which is about two-

00
28.6 1,244

9,0
thirds of the way up between the 5,000 and 6,000 foot lines. ard te
Draw a line straight across to the far left side of the graph 9 28.7 1,148

and read the approximate density altitude. The approximate 00 28.8 1,053
8,0
mpera

density altitude in thousands of feet is 7,700 feet. 8 28.9 957

29.0 863
00
ture
7,0

Takeoff Charts 7
29.1 768

Takeoff charts are typically provided in several forms and allow

00

29.2 673
6,0

a pilot to compute the takeoff distance of the aircraft with no 29.3 579
6
aps or with a specic ap conguration. A pilot can also 29.4 485
00
5,0

compute distances for a no ap takeoff over a 50 foot obstacle 29.5 392

5
scenario, as well as with aps over a 50 foot obstacle. The 29.6 298
00

takeoff distance chart provides for various aircraft weights,

4,0

29.7 205
altitudes, temperatures, winds, and obstacle heights. 4 29.8 112
00
3,0

29.9 20
Sample Problem 2 3 29.92 0
00

Pressure Altitude...............................................2,000 feet

2,0

30.0 73

2 30.1 165
l

OAT..........................................................................22 C
ve
00

le

30.2 257
1,0

Takeoff Weight.............................................2,600 pounds

Se

1 30.3 348
Headwind...............................................................6 knots 30.4 440
0
00

30.5 531
-1,

Obstacle Height.......................................50 foot obstacle S.L.

C -18 -12 -7 -1 4 10 16 21 27 32 38 30.6 622

Refer to Figure 10-22. This chart is an example of a combined 30.7 712

F 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
takeoff distance graph. It takes into consideration pressure 30.8 803
Outside air temperature
altitude, temperature, weight, wind, and obstacles all on one
chart. First, nd the correct temperature on the bottom left- Figure 10-21. Density altitude chart.

10-19
 6,000

for
Takeoff speed

le
Associated conditions

ab
Weight

lic
Reference line

Reference line

Reference line
Lift-off 50 ft

pp
pounds Power Full throttle 2,600 rpm

ta
kts MPH kts MPH 5,000

no
Mixture Lean to appropriate fuel

te
es

ia
2,950 66 76 72 83 pressure

lin

ed
ide

rm
2,800 64 74 70 81 Flaps Up ts

Gu
gh

te
i

In
2,600 63 72 68 78

d
Landing Retract after positive he 4,000

in
e
cl

ilw
2,400 61 70 66 76 gear climb established
a
st

Ta
2,200 58 67 63 73 Cowl Open b
O
flaps
3,000
He
A adw
et IS ind
de - fe
ltitu
re a 2,000
ssu
Pre
000
10, 00
8,0
00 1,000
6,0 00
4,0 000
2, .L.
S

0
C -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 2,800 2,600 2,400 2,200 0 10 20 30 0 50
Outside air temperature Weight Wind component Obstacle
(pounds) (knots) height (feet)
F -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120

Figure 10-22. Takeoff distance graph.

hand side of the graph. Follow the line from 22 C straight left to right across the table. The takeoff speed is in the second
up until it intersects the 2,000 foot altitude line. From that column and, in the third column under pressure altitude, nd
point, draw a line straight across to the rst dark reference the pressure altitude of 3,000 feet. Carefully follow that line
line. Continue to draw the line from the reference point in to the right until it is under the correct temperature column
a diagonal direction following the surrounding lines until it of 30 C. The ground roll total reads 1,325 feet and the total
intersects the corresponding weight line. From the intersection required to clear a 50 foot obstacle is 2,480 feet. At this point,
of 2,600 pounds, draw a line straight across until it reaches the there is an 18 knot headwind. According to the notes section
second reference line. Once again, follow the lines in a diagonal under point number two, decrease the distances by ten percent
manner until it reaches the six knot headwind mark. Follow for each 9 knots of headwind. With an 18 knot headwind, it
straight across to the third reference line and from here, draw is necessary to decrease the distance by 20 percent. Multiply
a line in two directions. First, draw a line straight across to 1,325 feet by 20 percent (1,325 x .20 = 265), subtract the
gure the ground roll distance. Next, follow the diagonal lines product from the total distance (1,325 265 = 1,060). Repeat
again until it reaches the corresponding obstacle height. In this this process for the total distance over a 50 foot obstacle. The
case, it is a 50 foot obstacle. Therefore, draw the diagonal line ground roll distance is 1,060 feet and the total distance over
to the far edge of the chart. This results in a 600 foot ground a 50 foot obstacle is 1,984 feet.
roll distance and a total distance of 1,200 feet over a 50 foot
obstacle. To nd the corresponding takeoff speeds at lift-off Climb and Cruise Charts
and over the 50 foot obstacle, refer to the table on the top of Climb and cruise chart information is based on actual
the chart. In this case, the lift-off speed at 2,600 pounds would ight tests conducted in an aircraft of the same type. This
be 63 knots and over the 50 foot obstacle would be 68 knots. information is extremely useful when planning a cross-
country to predict the performance and fuel consumption of
Sample Problem 3 the aircraft. Manufacturers produce several different charts
Pressure Altitude...............................................3,000 feet for climb and cruise performance. These charts include
everything from fuel, time, and distance to climb, to best
OAT.........................................................................30 C power setting during cruise, to cruise range performance.
Takeoff Weight............................................2,400 pounds
The rst chart to check for climb performance is a fuel,
Headwind............................................................18 knots
time, and distance-to-climb chart. This chart will give the
fuel amount used during the climb, the time it will take to
Refer to Figure 10-23. This chart is an example of a takeoff
accomplish the climb, and the ground distance that will
distance table for short-eld takeoffs. For this table, rst nd
be covered during the climb. To use this chart, obtain the
the takeoff weight. Once at 2,400 pounds, begin reading from

10-20
 Flaps 10

Conditions
TAKEOFF DISTANCE
Full throttle prior to brake release MAXIMUM WEIGHT 2,400 LB
Paved level runway
Zero wind SHORT FIELD
1. Prior to takeoff from fields above 3,000 feet elevation, the mixture should be leaned to give maximum rpm in a full throttle, static runup.
Notes

2. Decrease distances 10% for each 9 knots headwind. For operation with tailwind up to 10 knots, increase distances by 10% for each 2 knots.
3. For operation on a dry, grass runway, increase distances by 15% of the ground roll figure.

Takeoff 0 C 10 C 20 C 30 C 40 C
speed KIAS Press
Weight ALT Grnd Total feet Grnd Total feet Grnd Total feet Grnd Total feet Grnd Total feet
(lb) Lift AT (FT) Roll to clear Roll to clear Roll to clear Roll to clear Roll to clear
off 50 ft (FT) 50 ft OBS (FT) 50 ft OBS (FT) 50 ft OBS (FT) 50 ft OBS (FT) 50 ft OBS

2,400 51 56 S.L. 795 1,460 860 1,570 925 1,685 995 1,810 1,065 1,945
1,000 875 1,605 940 1,725 1,015 1,860 1,090 2,000 1,170 2,155
2,000 960 1,770 1,035 1,910 1,115 2,060 1,200 2,220 1,290 2,395
3,000 1,055 1,960 1,140 2,120 1,230 2,295 1,325 2,480 1,425 2,685
4,000 1,165 2,185 1,260 2,365 1,355 2,570 1,465 2,790 1,575 3,030
5,000 1,285 2,445 1,390 2,660 1,500 2,895 1,620 3,160 1,745 3,455
6,000 1,425 2,755 1,540 3,015 1,665 3,300 1,800 3,620 1,940 3,990
7,000 1,580 3,140 1,710 3,450 1,850 3,805 2,000 4,220 --- ---
8,000 1,755 3,615 1,905 4,015 2,060 4,480 --- --- --- ---
2,200 49 54 S.L. 650 1,195 700 1,280 750 1,375 805 1,470 865 1,575
1,000 710 1,310 765 1,405 825 1,510 885 1,615 950 1,735
2,000 780 1,440 840 1,545 905 1,660 975 1,785 1,045 1,915
3,000 855 1,585 925 1,705 995 1,835 1,070 1,975 1,150 2,130
4,000 945 1,750 1,020 1,890 1,100 2,040 1,180 2,200 1,270 2,375
5,000 1,040 1,945 1,125 2,105 1,210 2,275 1,305 2,465 1,405 2,665
6,000 1,150 2,170 1,240 2,355 1,340 2,555 1,445 2,775 1,555 3,020
7,000 1,270 2,440 1,375 2,655 1,485 2,890 1,605 3,155 1,730 3,450
8,000 1,410 2,760 1,525 3,015 1,650 3,305 1,785 3,630 1,925 4,005
2,000 46 51 S.L. 525 970 565 1,035 605 1,110 650 1,185 695 1,265
1,000 570 1,060 615 1,135 665 1,215 710 1,295 765 1,385
2,000 625 1,160 675 1,240 725 1,330 780 1,425 840 1,525
3,000 690 1,270 740 1,365 800 1,465 860 1,570 920 1,685
4,000 755 1,400 815 1,500 880 1,615 945 1,735 1,015 1,865
5,000 830 1,545 900 1,660 970 1,790 2,145 1,925 1,120 2,070
6,000 920 1,710 990 1,845 1,070 1,990 2,405 2,145 1,235 2,315
7,000 1,015 1,900 1,095 2,055 1,180 2,225 2,715 2,405 1,370 2,605
8,000 1,125 2,125 1,215 2,305 1,310 2,500 1,410 2,715 1,520 2,950

Figure 10-23. Takeoff distance short field charts.

information for the departing airport and for the cruise

altitude. Using Figure 10-24, calculate the fuel, time, and
distance to climb based on the information provided.

0
20,00 T - fe
et
es ile
s
re AL ut lm
ns

Pressu in ica
allo

18,000 ut
-m

- na
l-g

ce
e

16,000
m

an
Ti

st
F ue

D i
14,000
Cruise
12,000 Associated conditions
10,000 Maximum continuous power*
3,600 lb gross weight
8,000
Flaps up
6,000 90 KIAS
No wind
4,000
* 2,700 rpm & 36 in M.P. (3-blade prop)
2,000 2,575 rpm & 36 in M.P. (2-blade prop)

Departure
Sea level

-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40C 0 10 20 30 40 50

Outside air temperature Fuel, time and distance to climb

Figure 10-24. Fuel time distance climb chart.

10-21
Sample Problem 4
Flaps up
Gear up
Departing Airport Pressure Altitude.................6,000 feet

Conditions
2,500 RPM
30" Hg NORMAL CLIMB
Departing Airport OAT............................................25 C 120 PPH fuel flow 110 KIAS
Cowl flaps open
Cruise Pressure Altitude..................................10,000 feet Standard temperature

1. Add 16 pounds of fuel for engine start, taxi, and takeoff allowance.
Cruise OAT..............................................................10 C

Notes
2. Increase time, fuel, and distance by 10% for each 7C above standard
temperature.
3. Distances shown are based on zero wind.
First, nd the information for the departing airport. Find the
OAT for the departing airport along the bottom, left-hand side From sea level
Press Rate of
Weight
of the graph. Follow the line from 25 C straight up until it (pounds)
ALT climb
Time Fuel used
Distance
(feet) FPM (nautical
intersects the line corresponding to the pressure altitude of (minutes) (pounds)
miles)
6,000 feet. Continue this line straight across until it intersects 4,000 S.L. 605 0 0 0
all three lines for fuel, time, and distance. Draw a line straight 4,000 570 7 14 13
8,000 530 14 28 27
down from the intersection of altitude and fuel, altitude and 12,000 485 22 44 43
16,000 430 31 62 63
time, and a third line at altitude and distance. It should read 20,000 365 41 82 87
three and one-half gallons of fuel, 6.5 minutes of time, and 3,700 S.L. 700 0 0 0
4,000 665 6 12 11
nine NM. Next, repeat the steps to nd the information for 8,000 625 12 24 23
the cruise altitude. It should read six and one-half gallons 12,000 580 19 37 37
16,000 525 26 52 53
of fuel, 11.5 minutes of time, and 15 NM. Take each set of 20,000 460 34 68 72
numbers for fuel, time, and distance and subtract them from S.L. 810 0 0 0
4,000 775 5 10 9
one another (6.5 3.5 = 3 gallons of fuel). It will take three 3,400 8,000 735 10 21 20
gallons of fuel and 5 minutes of time to climb to 10,000 12,000 690 16 32 31
16,000 635 22 44 45
feet. During that climb, the distance covered is six NM. 20,000 565 29 57 61

Remember, according to the notes at the top of the chart, these

numbers do not take into account wind, and it is assumed Figure 10-25. Fuel time distance climb.
maximum continuous power is being used.
by ten percent for each 7 above standard. Multiply the ndings
by ten percent or .10 (10 x .10 = 1, 1 + 10 = 11 minutes). After
The next example is a fuel, time, and distance-to-climb table.
accounting for the additional ten percent, the ndings should
For this table, use the same basic criteria as for the previous
read 11 minutes, 23.1 pounds of fuel, and 22 NM. Notice that
chart. However, it is necessary to gure the information in a
the fuel is reported in pounds of fuel, not gallons. Aviation fuel
different manner. Refer to Figure 10-25 to work the following
weighs six pounds per gallon, so 23.1 pounds of fuel is equal
sample problem.
to 3.85 gallons of fuel (23.1 6 = 3.85).
Sample Problem 5
The next example is a cruise and range performance chart.
Departing Airport Pressure Altitude..................Sea level This type of table is designed to give TAS, fuel consumption,
Departing Airport OAT............................................22 C endurance in hours, and range in miles at specic cruise
congurations. Use Figure 10-26 to determine the cruise and
Cruise Pressure Altitude....................................8,000 feet
range performance under the given conditions.
Takeoff Weight.............................................3,400 pounds
Sample Problem 6
To begin, nd the given weight of 3,400 in the rst column of
Pressure Altitude...............................................5,000 feet
the chart. Move across to the pressure altitude column to nd
the sea level altitude numbers. At sea level, the numbers read RPM..................................................................2,400 rpm
zero. Next, read the line that corresponds with the cruising Fuel Carrying Capacity..................38 gallons, no reserve
altitude of 8,000 feet. Normally, a pilot would subtract these
two sets of number from one another, but given the fact that Find 5,000 feet pressure altitude in the rst column on the
the numbers read zero at sea level, it is known that the time left-hand side of the table. Next, nd the correct rpm of 2,400
to climb from sea level to 8,000 feet is 10 minutes. It is also in the second column. Follow that line straight across and
known that 21 pounds of fuel will be used and 20 NM will be read the TAS of 116 mph, and a fuel burn rate of 6.9 gallons
covered during the climb. However, the temperature is 22 C, per hour. As per the example, the aircraft is equipped with
which is 7 above the standard temperature of 15 C. The notes a fuel carrying capacity of 38 gallons. Under this column,
section of this chart indicate that the ndings must be increased

10-22
 Sample Problem 7

Conditions
Gross weight2,300 lb.
Standard conditions
Zero wind
Pressure Altitude at Cruise................................6,000 feet
Lean mixture
Notes
OAT..................................................36 F above standard
Maximum cruise is normally limited to 75% power.

Refer to Figure 10-27 for this sample problem. First, locate

ALT RPM % TAS GAL/
38 gal
(no reserve)
48 gal
(no reserve)
the pressure altitude of 6,000 feet on the far left side of the
BHP MPH Hour
Endr. Range Endr. Range table. Follow that line across to the far right side of the table
hours miles hours miles under the 20 C (or 36 F) column. At 6,000 feet, the rpm
2,500 2,700 86 134 9.7 3.9 525 4.9 660
2,600 79 129 8.6 4.4 570 5.6 720 setting of 2,450 will maintain 65 percent continuous power
2,500 72 123 7.8 4.9 600 6.2 760
2,400 65 117 7.2 5.3 620 6.7 780 at 21.0 "Hg with a fuel ow rate of 11.5 gallons per hour and
2,300 58 111 6.7 5.7 630 7.2 795 airspeed of 161 knots.
2,200 52 103 6.3 6.1 625 7.7 790

5,000 2,700 82 134 9.0 4.2 565 5.3 710

2,600 75 128 8.1 4.7 600 5.9 760 Another type of cruise chart is a best power mixture range
2,500 68 122 7.4 5.1 625 6.4 790
2,400 61 116 6.9 5.5 635 6.9 805 graph. This graph gives the best range based on power
2,300 55 108 6.5 5.9 635 7.4 805
2,200 49 100 6.0 6.3 630 7.9 795 setting and altitude. Using Figure 10-28, nd the range at
8.4
65 percent power with and without a reserve based on the
7,500 2,700 78 133 4.5 600 5.7 755
2,600 71 127 7.7 4.9 625 6.2 790 provided conditions.
2,500 64 121 7.1 5.3 645 6.7 810
2,400 58 113 6.7 5.7 645 7.2 820
2,300 52 105 6.2 6.1 640 7.7 810
Sample Problem 8
10,000 2,650 70 129 7.6 5.0 640 6.3 810
2,600 67 125 7.3 5.2 650 6.5 820 OAT....................................................................Standard
2,500 61 118 6.9 5.5 655 7.0 830
2,400 55 110 6.4 5.9 650 7.5 825 Pressure Altitude...............................................5,000 feet
2,300 49 100 6.0 6.3 635 8.0 800

Figure 10-26. Cruise and range performance. First, move up the left side of the graph to 5,000 feet and
standard temperature. Follow the line straight across the
read that the endurance in hours is 5.5 hours and the range
graph until it intersects the 65 percent line under both the
in miles is 635 miles.
reserve and no reserve categories. Draw a line straight down
from both intersections to the bottom of the graph. At 65
Cruise power setting tables are useful when planning cross-
percent power with a reserve, the range is approximately
country ights. The table gives the correct cruise power
522 miles. At 65 percent power with no reserve, the range
settings, as well as the fuel ow and airspeed performance
should be 581 miles.
numbers at that altitude and airspeed.
The last cruise chart referenced is a cruise performance graph.
This graph is designed to tell the TAS performance of the
airplane depending on the altitude, temperature, and power

CRUISE POWER SETTING

65% MAXIMUM CONTINUOUS POWER (OR FULL THROTTLE)
2,800 POUNDS

ISA -20 (-36 F) Standard day (ISA) ISA +20 (+36 F)

Engine Man. Fuel Engine Man. Fuel Engine Man. Fuel

Press IOAT speed press flow per TAS IOAT speed press flow per TAS IOAT speed press flow per TAS
ALT engine engine engine
F C RPM " HG PSI GPH kts MPH F C RPM " HG PSI GPH kts MPH F C RPM " HG PSI GPH kts MPH
S.L. 27 -3 2,450 20.7 6.6 11.5 147 169 63 17 2,450 21.2 6.6 11.5 150 173 99 37 2,450 21.8 6.6 11.5 153 176
2,000 19 -7 2,450 20.4 6.6 11.5 149 171 55 13 2,450 21.0 6.6 11.5 153 176 91 33 2,450 21.5 6.6 11.5 156 180
4,000 12 -11 2,450 20.1 6.6 11.5 152 175 48 9 2,450 20.7 6.6 11.5 156 180 84 29 2,450 21.3 6.6 11.5 159 183
6,000 5 -15 2,450 19.8 6.6 11.5 155 178 41 5 2,450 20.4 6.6 11.5 158 182 79 26 2,450 21.0 6.6 11.5 161 185
8,000 -2 -19 2,450 19.5 6.6 11.5 157 181 36 2 2,450 20.2 6.6 11.5 161 185 72 22 2,450 20.8 6.6 11.5 164 189
10,000 -8 -22 2,450 19.2 6.6 11.5 160 184 28 -2 2,450 19.9 6.6 11.5 163 188 64 18 2,450 20.3 6.5 11.4 166 191
12,000 -15 -26 2,450 18.8 6.4 11.3 162 186 21 -6 2,450 18.8 6.1 10.9 163 188 57 14 2,450 18.8 5.9 10.6 163 188
14,000 -22 -30 2,450 17.4 5.8 10.5 159 183 14 -10 2,450 17.4 5.6 10.1 160 184 50 10 2,450 17.4 5.4 9.8 160 184
16,000 -29 -34 2,450 16.1 5.3 9.7 156 180 7 -14 2,450 16.1 5.1 9.4 156 180 43 6 2,450 16.1 4.9 9.1 155 178
Notes

1. Full throttle manifold pressure settings are approximate.

2. Shaded area represents operation with full throttle.

Figure 10-27. Cruise power setting.

10-23
 14 -13 Begin by nding the correct OAT on the bottom, left side of
45 minutes reserve at 55%
power best economy mixture No reserve the graph. Move up that line until it intersects the pressure
12 -9 altitude of 6,000 feet. Draw a line straight across to the

Power 65%

%
%
%

Power 55
Power 65
Power 55
65 percent, best power line. This is the solid line, which
10 -5
represents best economy. Draw a line straight down from
this intersection to the bottom of the graph. The TAS at 65

75%
8 -1 %75

Power
Power
percent best power is 140 knots. However, it is necessary
6 3
to subtract 8 knots from the speed since there are no wheel
fairings. This note is listed under the title and conditions.
4 7 Range may be reduced The TAS will be 132 knots.
Notes

by up to 7% if wheel
fairings are not installed

2 11 Crosswind and Headwind Component Chart

Every aircraft is tested according to Federal Aviation
S.L. 15
450 500 550 600 500 550 600 650
Administration (FAA) regulations prior to certication. The
aircraft is tested by a pilot with average piloting skills in
Standard Temperature C
Pressure ALT (1,000 feet)

Range (nautical miles)

(Includes distance to climb and descend) 90 crosswinds with a velocity up to 0.2 VSO or two-tenths
Associated conditions of the aircrafts stalling speed with power off, gear down,
Add 0.6 NM for each
degree Celsius above Mixture Leaned per section 4 and aps down. This means that if the stalling speed of the
standard temperature
Notes

Weight 2,300 lb.

and subtract 1 NM for aircraft is 45 knots, it must be capable of landing in a 9-knot,
each degree Celsius Wings No
below standard Fuel 48 gal usable 90 crosswind. The maximum demonstrated crosswind
temperature.
Wheel Fairings installed component is published in the AFM/POH. The crosswind and
Cruise Mid cruise
headwind component chart allows for guring the headwind
Figure 10-28. Best power mixture range. and crosswind component for any given wind direction and
velocity.
setting. Using Figure 10-29, nd the TAS performance based
on the given information. Sample Problem 10
Runway..........................................................................17
Sample Problem 9
Wind........................................................140 at 25 knots
OAT.........................................................................16 C
Pressure Altitude...............................................6,000 feet Refer to Figure 10-30 to solve this problem. First, determine
Power Setting................................65 percent, best power how many degrees difference there is between the runway
and the wind direction. It is known that runway 17 means
Wheel Fairings..............................................Not installed
a direction of 170; from that subtract the wind direction of
140. This gives a 30 angular difference, or wind angle. Next,
locate the 30 mark and draw a line from there until it intersects
Notes

Subtract 8 knots if wheel

fairings are not installed.
000
20,
r 75%
55%

5%
Sta

00
18,0
nd

Power

Power

Powe

Best power
a

000
rd

Best economy
pro

16,
rop

t)
t

(fee
em

ep
ade

000 ALT
pe

14, re
ssu
lad

Associated conditions
-bl
rat

00 Pre
12,0
3-b
2
ure

Weight 3,600 lb. gross weight

000
.P.

10, Flaps Up
M.P
.M

00 Best power Mixture leaned to 100

6 IN

8,0
IN.

rich of peak EGT

at 3

0
36

6,00 Best economy Mixture leaned to peak EGT

at
rpm

00
4,0
rpm

1,650 Max allowable EGT

l
leve
75

00 Wheel Fairings installed

2,0
00

Sea
2,5
2,7

-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 100 120 140 160 180 200
Outside air temperature (C) True airspeed (knots)

Figure 10-29. Cruise performance graph.

10-24
 0
Sample Problem 11
10
70
20 Pressure Altitude...............................................1,250 feet
30
60 Temperature.........................................................Standard
Win 40
d ve
loc
i ty Refer to Figure 10-31. This example makes use of a landing
Headwind component

50
50
distance table. Notice that the altitude of 1,250 feet is not
40
on this table. It is, therefore, necessary to interpolate to nd
60 the correct landing distance. The pressure altitude of 1,250
30
is halfway between sea level and 2,500 feet. First, nd the
70 column for sea level and the column for 2,500 feet. Take the
20
total distance of 1,075 for sea level and the total distance of
80
1,135 for 2,500 and add them together. Divide the total by
two to obtain the distance for 1,250 feet. The distance is 1,105
10
feet total landing distance to clear a 50 foot obstacle. Repeat
90 this process to obtain the ground roll distance for the pressure
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 altitude. The ground roll should be 457.5 feet.
Crosswind component
Sample Problem 12
Figure 10-30. Crosswind component chart.
OAT.......................................................................... 57 F
the correct wind velocity of 25 knots. From there, draw a Pressure Altitude.............................................. 4,000 feet
line straight down and a line straight across. The headwind
Landing Weight...........................................2,400 pounds
component is 22 knots and the crosswind component is 13
knots. This information is important when taking off and Headwind.............................................................. 6 knots
landing so that, rst of all, the appropriate runway can be Obstacle Height..................................................... 50 feet
picked if more than one exists at a particular airport, but also
so that the aircraft is not pushed beyond its tested limits. Using the given conditions and Figure 10-32, determine the
landing distance for the aircraft. This graph is an example of
Landing Charts a combined landing distance graph and allows compensation
Landing performance is affected by variables similar to those for temperature, weight, headwinds, tailwinds, and varying
affecting takeoff performance. It is necessary to compensate obstacle height. Begin by nding the correct OAT on the
for differences in density altitude, weight of the airplane, and scale on the left side of the chart. Move up in a straight
headwinds. Like takeoff performance charts, landing distance line to the correct pressure altitude of 4,000 feet. From this
information is available as normal landing information, as intersection, move straight across to the rst dark reference
well as landing distance over a 50 foot obstacle. As usual, read line. Follow the lines in the same diagonal fashion until the
the associated conditions and notes in order to ascertain the correct landing weight is reached. At 2,400 pounds, continue
basis of the chart information. Remember, when calculating in a straight line across to the second dark reference line.
landing distance that the landing weight will not be the same Once again, draw a line in a diagonal manner to the correct
as the takeoff weight. The weight must be recalculated to wind component and then straight across to the third dark
compensate for the fuel that was used during the ight.
Conditions

Flaps lowered to 40 LANDING DISTANCE

Power off
Hard surface runway
Zero wind

Gross At sea level & 59 F At 2,500 ft & 59 F At 5,000 ft & 41 F At 7,500 ft & 32 F
Approach speed
weight IAS, MPH
lb Ground roll Total to clear Total to clear Total to clear Total to clear
50 ft OBS Ground roll 50 ft OBS
Ground roll
50 ft OBS
Ground roll
50 ft OBS

1,600 60 445 1,075 470 1,135 495 1,195 520 1,255

1. Decrease the distances shown by 10% for each 4 knots of headwind.

Note

2. Increase the distance by 10% for each 60 F temperature increase above standard.
3. For operation on a dry, grass runway, increase distances (both ground roll and total to clear 50 ft obstacle) by 20% of the total to clear 50 ft obstacle figure.

Figure 10-31. Landing distance table.

10-25
 3,500

ts te
igh ia
Speed

he ed
Associated conditions

sta In ot
Reference line

Reference line

Reference line
Weight

cle term
Ob e for es n
at 50 feet
(pounds) 3,000

bl lin
Power Retarded to maintain kts MPH

ca e
pli uid
900 feet/on final approach

ap G
Flaps Down 2,950 70 80
Landing gear Down 2,800 68 78
2,600 65 75 2,500
Runway Paved, level, dry surface
72

nd
Approach speed IAS as tabulated 2,400 63

wi
Braking Maximum 2,200 60 69

Tail
2,000

(feet)
itude
su re alt 1,500
Pres He
ad
00 wi
10,0 00 nd
8,0 0
6,00 00
4,0 000 1,000
2, S.L. ISA

500
C -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 2,800 2,600 2,400 2,200 0 10 20 30 0 50
Outside air temperature Weight Wind component Obstacle
(pounds) (knots) height (feet)
F -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120

Figure 10-32. Landing distance graph.

reference line. From this point, draw a line in two separate Angle of bank
Gross weight
directions: one straight across to gure the ground roll and 2,750 lb
Level 30 45 60
Gear and flaps up
one in a diagonal manner to the correct obstacle height. This
MPH 62 67 74 88
should be 900 feet for the total ground roll and 1,300 feet for On
Power

knots 54 58 64 76
the total distance over a 50 foot obstacle. Off
MPH 75 81 89 106
knots 65 70 77 92
Gear and flaps down
Stall Speed Performance Charts On
MPH 54 58 64 76
Power

knots 47 50 56 66
Stall speed performance charts are designed to give an
MPH 66 71 78 93
understanding of the speed at which the aircraft will stall Off
knots 57 62 68 81
in a given conguration. This type of chart will typically
take into account the angle of bank, the position of the gear Figure 10-33. Stall speed table.
and aps, and the throttle position. Use Figure 10-33 and
Performance charts provide valuable information to the
the accompanying conditions to nd the speed at which the
pilot. Take advantage of these charts. A pilot can predict the
airplane will stall.
performance of the aircraft under most ying conditions, and
this enables a better plan for every ight. The Code of Federal
Sample Problem 13
Regulations (CFR) requires that a pilot be familiar with all
Power........................................................................ OFF information available prior to any ight. Pilots should use
Flaps....................................................................... Down the information to their advantage as it can only contribute
to safety in ight.
Gear........................................................................ Down
Angle of Bank............................................................. 45 Transport Category Airplane
Performance
First, locate the correct ap and gear conguration. The Transport category aircraft are certicated under Title 14
bottom half of the chart should be used since the gear and of the CFR (14 CFR) parts 25 and 29. The airworthiness
aps are down. Next, choose the row corresponding to a certication standards of part 25 and 29 require proven
power-off situation. Now, nd the correct angle of bank levels of performance and guarantee safety margins for these
column, which is 45. The stall speed is 78 mph, and the aircraft, regardless of the specic operating regulations under
stall speed in knots would be 68 knots. which they are employed.

10-26
Major Differences in Transport Category VSstalling speed or the minimum steady ight speed
Versus Non-Transport Category Performance at which the aircraft is controllable.
Requirements
VMCGminimum control speed on the ground, with
Full temperature accountabilityall of the performance one engine inoperative, (critical engine on two-engine
charts for the transport category aircraft require that airplanes) takeoff power on other engine(s), using
takeoff and climb performance be computed with the aerodynamic controls only for directional control
full effects of temperature considered. (must be less than V1).
Climb performance expressed as percent gradient VMCAminimum control speed in the air, with one
of climbthe transport category aircrafts climb engine inoperative, (critical engine on two-engine
performance is expressed as a percent gradient of aircraft) operating engine(s) at takeoff power,
climb rather than a gure calculated in fpm of climb. maximum of 5 bank into the good engine(s).
This percent gradient of climb is a much more practical V1critical engine failure speed or decision speed.
expression of performance since it is the aircrafts Engine failure below this speed shall result in an
angle of climb that is critical in an obstacle clearance aborted takeoff; above this speed the takeoff run
situation. should be continued.
Change in lift-off techniquelift-off technique in VRspeed at which the rotation of the aircraft is
transport category aircraft allows the reaching of V2 initiated to takeoff attitude. The speed cannot be less
(takeoff safety speed) after the aircraft is airborne. than V1 or less than 1.05 times VMC. With an engine
This is possible because of the excellent acceleration failure, it must also allow for the acceleration to V2
and reliability characteristics of the engines on these at the 35-foot height at the end of the runway.
aircraft and due to the larger surplus of power.
VLOFlift-off speed. The speed at which the aircraft
Performance requirements applicable to all segments rst becomes airborne.
of aviationall aircraft certicated by the FAA in the
transport category, whatever the size, must be operated V2the takeoff safety speed which must be attained
in accordance with the same performance criteria. at the 35-foot height at the end of the required runway
This applies to both commercial and non-commercial distance. This is essentially the best one-engine
operations. operative angle of climb speed for the aircraft and
should be held until clearing obstacles after takeoff,
Performance Requirements or until at least 400 feet above the ground.
The performance requirements that the transport category VFSnal segment climb speed, which is based upon
aircraft must meet are: one-engine inooerative climb, clean conguration, and
mximum continuos power setting.
Takeoff
All of the V speeds should be considered during every
Takeoff speeds
takeoff. The V1, VR, V2, and VFS speeds should be visibly
Takeoff runway required posted in the ightdeck for reference during the takeoff.
Takeoff climb required
Takeoff speeds vary with aircraft weight. Before takeoff
Obstacle clearance requirements speeds can be computed, the pilot must rst determine the
maximum allowable takeoff weight. The three items that can
Landing limit takeoff weight are runway requirements, takeoff climb
Landing speeds requirements, and obstacle clearance requirements.
Landing runway required
Runway Requirements
Landing climb required The runway requirements for takeoff are affected by:
Pressure altitude
Takeoff Planning
Listed below are the speeds that affect the transport category Temperature
aircrafts takeoff performance. The ight crew must be Headwind component
thoroughly familiar with each of these speeds and how they Runway gradient or slope
are used in takeoff planning.
Aircraft weight

10-27
The runway required for takeoff must be based upon the 3. Takeoff distancethe distance required to complete
possible loss of an engine at the most critical point, which is an all-engines operative takeoff to the 35-foot height.
at V1 (decision speed). By regulation, the aircrafts takeoff It must be at least 15 percent less than the distance
weight has to accommodate the longest of three distances: required for a one-engine inoperative engine takeoff.
1. Accelerate-go distancethe distance required to This distance is not normally a limiting factor as it is
accelerate to V1 with all engines at takeoff power, usually less than the one-engine inoperative takeoff
experience an engine failure at V1 and continue the distance.
takeoff on the remaining engine(s). The runway
required includes the distance required to climb to 35 These three required takeoff runway considerations are
feet by which time V2 speed must be attained. shown in Figure 10-34.

2. Accelerate-stop distancethe distance required to Balanced Field Length

accelerate to V1 with all engines at takeoff power,
In most cases, the pilot will be working with a performance
experience an engine failure at V1, and abort the takeoff
chart for takeoff runway required, which will give balanced
and bring the aircraft to a stop using braking action
eld length information. This means that the distance
only (use of thrust reversing is not considered).

Takeoff distance with

an engine failure

35'
25

All engine acceleration One engine acceleration

V1

Accelerate-stop
distance
25

All engine acceleration Stop distance

V1 VR VLO

115% All engine takeoff

distance

35'
25

All engine takeoff distance to 35' 15% margin

All engine takeoff field length

Figure 10-34. Minimum required takeoff.

10-28
shown for the takeoff will include both the accelerate-go and For other than normal takeoff conditions, such as with
accelerate-stop distances. One effective means of presenting engine anti-ice, anti-skid brakes inoperative, or extremes in
the normal takeoff data is shown in the tabulated chart in temperature or runway slope, the pilot should consult the
Figure 10-35. appropriate takeoff performance charts in the performance
section of the AFM.
The chart in Figure 10-35 shows the runway distance required
under normal conditions and is useful as a quick reference There are other occasions of very high weight and
chart for the standard takeoff. The V speeds for the various temperature where the runway requirement may be dictated
weights and conditions are also shown. by the maximum brake kinetic energy limits that affect

Cabin pressurization On TAKEOFF RUNWAY REQUIREMENTS

Conditions

Zero slope runway Standard ISA conditions

No flapsAnti-ice RAM air inlets Off
Anti-skid On
Distances100 feet (V1 KIAS)
Notes

Shaded area indicates conditions that do not meet second segment climb requirements.
Refer to F.M. for takeoff limitations.

Takeoff Temp. Pressure altitude (feet)

gross weight Headwind
at brake (knots)
F C Sea level (V1) 1,000 (V1) 2,000 (V1) 3,000 (V1) 4,000 (V1) 5,000 (V1) 6,000 (V1)
release
30 -1.1 47 (121) 48 (121) 50 (120) 53 (121) 57 (122) 62 (123) 70 (123)
50 10 48 (121) 51 (121) 55 (121) 60 (122) 63 (123) 69 (124) 77 (125) 0
19,612 70 21 53 (122) 56 (122) 60 (123) 65 (124) 70 (125) 77 (125) 85 (126)
VR = 126 90 32 58 (123) 62 (124) 68 (124) 73 (125) 78 (126) 85 (127) 95 (129)
30 -1.1 43 (121) 43 (121) 45 (120) 48 (121) 52 (122) 56 (123) 64 (123)
V2 = 134 50 10 43 (121) 46 (121) 50 (122) 55 (122) 57 (123) 63 (124) 70 (125) 20
70 21 48 (122) 51 (122) 55 (123) 59 (124) 63 (125) 70 (125) 77 (126)
90 32 53 (123) 57 (124) 62 (124) 66 (125) 71 (126) 77 (127) 85 (129)
30 -1.1 45 (118) 45 (118) 47 (117) 50 (118) 54 (119) 59 (120) 66 (120)
50 10 46 (118) 48 (118) 51 (118) 56 (119) 59 (120) 65 (121) 73 (121) 0
19,000 70 21 50 (118) 53 (119) 57 (120) 66 (121) 66 (121) 72 (122) 80 (123)
VR = 124 90 32 55 (120) 59 (121) 64 (121) 73 (122) 73 (123) 80 (124) 90 (124)
30 -1.1 40 (118) 41 (118) 43 (117) 45 (118) 49 (119) 54 (120) 60 (120)
V2 = 131 50 10 42 (118) 44 (118) 46 (118) 51 (119) 54 (120) 59 (121) 66 (121) 20
70 21 45 (118) 48 (119) 52 (120) 56 (121) 60 (121) 65 (122) 72 (123)
90 32 50 (120) 54 (121) 58 (121) 63 (122) 66 (123) 73 (124) 81 (124)
30 -1.1 40 (114) 41 (114) 42 (113) 45 (113) 49 (114) 53 (115) 60 (115)
50 10 41 (115) 43 (114) 46 (114) 50 (115) 53 (115) 59 (116) 66 (117) 0
18,000 70 21 45 (114) 48 (115) 51 (115) 56 (116) 59 (116) 65 (116) 72 (117)
VR = 119 90 32 50 (115) 53 (116) 58 (116) 62 (117) 66 (118) 73 (118) 80 (119)
30 -1.1 36 (114) 37 (114) 38 (113) 41 (113) 45 (114) 48 (115) 54 (115)
V2 = 127 50 10 37 (115) 39 (114) 42 (114) 46 (115) 48 (115) 54 (116) 60 (117) 20
70 21 41 (114) 44 (115) 46 (115) 51 (116) 56 (116) 59 (116) 65 (117)
90 32 46 (115) 48 (116) 53 (116) 56 (117) 60 (118) 66 (118) 73 (119)
30 -1.1 36 (108) 37 (108) 38 (107) 40 (108) 44 (109) 48 (110) 53 (111)
50 10 37 (110) 39 (108) 41 (109) 45 (110) 48 (110) 53 (111) 59 (112) 0
17,000 70 21 40 (108) 43 (110) 46 (111) 50 (111) 53 (112) 58 (111) 65 (113)
VR = 115 90 32 45 (111) 46 (112) 52 (112) 56 (113) 59 (114) 65 (114) 72 (114)
30 -1.1 32 (108) 33 (108) 34 (107) 36 (108) 40 (109) 44 (110) 48 (111)
V2 = 124 50 10 34 (110) 35 (108) 37 (109) 41 (110) 44 (110) 48 (111) 54 (112) 20
70 21 36 (108) 39 (110) 42 (111) 45 (111) 48 (112) 53 (111) 59 (113)
90 32 41 (111) 44 (112) 47 (112) 51 (113) 54 (114) 59 (114) 65 (114)
30 -1.1 32 (104) 33 (103) 34 (103) 36 (103) 39 (105) 43 (106) 48 (106)
50 10 34 (105) 35 (103) 37 (104) 41 (105) 43 (106) 47 (107) 53 (107) 0
16,000 70 21 36 (104) 38 (105) 41 (105) 45 (106) 48 (107) 52 (107) 58 (108)
VR = 111 90 32 41 (106) 43 (107) 46 (107) 50 (108) 53 (108) 58 (109) 64 (110)
30 -1.1 29 (104) 30 (103) 31 (103) 32 (103) 35 (105) 39 (106) 44 (106)
V2 = 120 50 10 31 (105) 32 (103) 33 (104) 37 (105) 39 (106) 43 (107) 48 (107) 20
70 21 32 (104) 34 (105) 37 (105) 41 (106) 44 (107) 47 (107) 53 (108)
90 32 37 (106) 39 (107) 42 (107) 45 (108) 48 (108) 53 (109) 58 (110)
30 -1.1 28 (98) 30 (98) 30 (98) 32 (98) 35 (99) 38 (101) 42 (101)
50 10 30 (100) 31 (98) 33 (99) 36 (100) 38 (101) 42 (102) 46 (102) 0
15,000 70 21 32 (99) 34 (100) 37 (101) 40 (102) 42 (102) 46 (102) 51 (103)
VR = 106 90 32 36 (101) 38 (102) 41 (102) 44 (103) 47 (104) 51 (104) 56 (105)
30 -1.1 25 (98) 27 (98) 27 (98) 29 (98) 32 (99) 34 (101) 38 (101)
V2 = 116 50 10 27 (100) 29 (98) 30 (99) 32 (100) 34 (101) 38 (102) 42 (102) 20
70 21 29 (99) 31 (100) 33 (101) 36 (102) 38 (102) 42 (102) 46 (103)
90 32 32 (101) 34 (102) 37 (102) 40 (103) 43 (104) 46 (104) 51 (105)

Figure 10-35. Normal takeoff runway required.

10-29
the aircrafts ability to stop. Under these conditions, the NOTE: Climb gradient can best be described as being a
accelerate-stop distance may be greater than the accelerate- specic gain of vertical height for a given distance covered
go. The procedure to bring performance back to a balanced horizontally. For instance, a 2.4 percent gradient means that
eld takeoff condition is to limit the V1 speed so that it 24 feet of altitude would be gained for each 1,000 feet of
does not exceed the maximum brake kinetic energy speed distance covered horizontally across the ground.
(sometimes called VBE). This procedure also results in a
reduction in allowable takeoff weight. The following brief explanation of the one-engine inoperative
climb prole may be helpful in understanding the chart in
Climb Requirements Figure 10-36.
After the aircraft has reached the 35 foot height with one engine
inoperative, there is a requirement that it be able to climb First Segment
at a specied climb gradient. This is known as the takeoff This segment is included in the takeoff runway required
ightpath requirement. The aircrafts performance must be charts, and is measured from the point at which the aircraft
considered based upon a one-engine inoperative climb up to becomes airborne until it reaches the 35-foot height at the
1,500 feet above the ground. The takeoff ightpath prole end of the runway distance required. Speed initially is VLO
with required gradients of climb for the various segments and must be V2 at the 35 foot height.
and congurations is shown in Figure 10-36.

3rd segment 4th

Ground roll 1st segmentclimb 2nd segmentclimb acceleration segment
climb

1,500'
400'
V2
35'

V1 VR VLOF

Landing gear
Down Retraction Retracted
Engine
All operating One inoperative
Airspeed
Variable V2 Variable VFS or
1.25 Vs min.
Flaps
Down Retracted
Power
Takeoff M.C.

1st T/O 2nd T/O Transition Final T/O M.C. = Maximum continuous
Items segment segment (acceleration) segment V1 = Critical-engine-failure speed
2 Engine Positive 2.4% Positive 1.2% V2 = Takeoff safety speed
3 Engine 3.0% 2.7% Positive 1.5% VS = Calibrated stalling speed, or
* 4 Engine 5.0% 3.0% Positive 1.7% minimum steady flight speed at
Wing flaps T.O. T.O. T.O. Up which the aircraft is controllable
Landing gear Down Up Up Up VR = Speed at which aircraft can
Engines 1 Out 1 Out 1 Out 1 Out start safely raising nose wheel
Power T.O. T.O. T.O. M.C. off surface (Rotational Speed)
Air speed VLOF V2 V2 V2 1.25 VS(Min) 1.25 VS(Min) VLOF = Speed at point where airplane
lifts off

* Required Absolute Minimum Gradient of Flightpath

Figure 10-36. One engine inoperative takeoff.

10-30
Second Segment be met. The aircraft may well be capable of lifting off with
This is the most critical segment of the prole. The second one engine inoperative, but it must then be able to climb
segment is the climb from the 35 foot height to 400 feet and clear obstacles. Although second segment climb may
above the ground. The climb is done at full takeoff power not present much of a problem at the lower altitudes, at the
on the operating engine(s), at V2 speed, and with the aps higher altitude airports and higher temperatures, the second
in the takeoff conguration. The required climb gradient segment climb chart should be consulted to determine the
in this segment is 2.4 percent for two-engine aircraft, 2.7 effects on maximum takeoff weights before guring takeoff
percent for three-engine aircraft, and 3.0 percent for four- runway distance required.
engine aircraft.
Air Carrier Obstacle Clearance
Third or Acceleration Segment Requirements
During this segment, the airplane is considered to be Regulations require that large transport category turbine
maintaining the 400 feet above the ground and accelerating powered aircraft certicated after September 30, 1958, be
from the V2 speed to the VFS speed before the climb prole taken off at a weight that allows a net takeoff ightpath
is continued. The aps are raised at the beginning of the (one engine inoperative) that clears all obstacles either by
acceleration segment and power is maintained at the takeoff a height of at least 35 feet vertically, or by at least 200 feet
setting as long as possible (5 minutes maximum). horizontally within the airport boundaries and by at least 300
feet horizontally after passing the boundaries. The takeoff
Fourth or Final Segment ightpath is considered to begin 35 feet above the takeoff
This segment is from the 400 to 1,500 foot AGL altitude surface at the end of the takeoff distance, and extends to a
with power set at maximum continuous. The required climb point in the takeoff at which the aircraft is 1,500 feet above
in this segment is a gradient of 1.2 percent for two-engine the takeoff surface, or at which the transition from the takeoff
airplanes, 1.55 for three-engine airplanes, and 1.7 percent to the en route conguration is completed. The net takeoff
for four-engine airplanes. ightpath is the actual takeoff ightpath reduced at each point
by 0.8 percent for two engine aircraft, 0.9 percent for three-
Second Segment Climb Limitations engine aircraft, and 1.0 percent for four-engine aircraft.
The second segment climb requirements, from 35 to 400
feet, are the most restrictive (or hardest to meet) of the Air carrier pilots therefore are responsible not only for
climb segments. The pilot must determine that the second determining that there is enough runway available for an
segment climb is met for each takeoff. In order to achieve this engine inoperative takeoff (balanced field length), and
performance at the higher density altitude conditions, it may the ability to meet required climb gradients; but they must
be necessary to limit the takeoff weight of the aircraft. also assure that the aircraft will safely be able to clear any
obstacles that may be in the takeoff ightpath. The net
It must be realized that, regardless of the actual available takeoff ightpath and obstacle clearance required are shown
length of the takeoff runway, takeoff weight must be in Figure 10-37.
adjusted so that the second segment climb requirements can

path
light
akeoff f
35'
actual t
um
Minim htpath
400'
ta k eoff flig
Net e path
aranc
s ta c le cle
Ob
35'

35'

Figure 10-37. Takeoff obstacle clearance.

10-31
The usual method of computing net takeoff flightpath VREF1.3 times the stalling speed in the landing
performance is to add up the total ground distances required conguration. This is the required speed at the 50-foot
for each of the climb segments and/or use obstacle clearance height above the threshold end of the runway.
performance charts in the AFM. Although this obstacle Approach climbthe speed which gives the best climb
clearance requirement is seldom a limitation at the normally performance in the approach confguration, with one
used airports, it is quite often an important consideration engine inoperative, and with maximum takeoff power
under critical conditions such as high takeoff weight and/or on the operating engine(s). The required gradient of
high density altitude. Consider that at a 2.4 percent climb climb in this conguration is 2.1 percent for two-
gradient (2.4 feet up for every 100 feet forward) a 1,500 engine aircraft, 2.4 percent for three-emgine aircraft,
foot altitude gain would take a horizontal distance of 10.4 and 2.7 percent for four-engine aircraft.
NM to achieve.
Landing climbthe speed giving the best performance
Summary of Takeoff Requirements in the full landing configuration with maximum
In order to establish the allowable takeoff weight for a takeoff power on all engines. The gradient of climb
transport category aircraft, at any aireld, the following must required in this conguration is 3.2 percent.
be considered:
Planning the Landing
Aireld pressure altitude
As in the takeoff, the landing speeds shown above should be
Temperature precomputed and visible to both pilots prior to the landing.
Headwind component The VREF speed, or threshold speed, is used as a reference
speed throughout the trafc pattern or instrument approach
Runway length
as in the following example:
Runway gradient or slope
Obstacles in the ightpath VREF plus 30K Downwind or procedure turn
VREF plus 20K Base leg or nal course inbound to nal
Once the above details are known and applied to the x
appropriate performance charts, it is possible to determine VREF plus 10K Final or nal course inbound from x
the maximum allowable takeoff weight. This weight would (ILS nal)
be the lower of the maximum weights as allowed by: VREF Speed at the 50 foot height above the
threshold
Balanced eld length required
Engine inoperative climb ability (second segment Landing Requirements
limited) The maximum landing weight of an aircraft can be restricted
Obstacle clearance requirement by either the approach climb requirements or by the landing
runway available.
In practice, restrictions to takeoff weight at low altitude
airports are usually due to runway length limitations; engine Approach Climb Requirements
inoperative climb limitations are most common at the higher The approach climb is usually more limiting (or more difcult
altitude airports. All limitations to weight must be observed. to meet) than the landing climb, primarily because it is based
Since the combined weight of fuel and payload in the aircraft upon the ability to execute a missed approach with one engine
may amount to nearly half the maximum takeoff weight, inoperative. The required climb gradient can be affected
it is usually possible to reduce fuel weight to meet takeoff by pressure altitude and temperature and, as in the second
limitations. If this is done, however, ight planning must be segment climb in the takeoff, aircraft weight must be limited
recalculated in light of reduced fuel and range. as needed in order to comply with this climb requirement.

Landing Performance
As in the takeoff planning, certain speeds must be considered
during landing. These speeds are shown below.
VSOstalling speed or the minimum steady ight
speed in the landing conguration.

10-32
Landing Runway Required Summary of Landing Requirements
The runway distance needed for landing can be affected by In order to establish the allowable landing weight for a
the following: transport category aircraft, the following details must be
considered:
Pressure altitude
Aireld pressure altitude
Temperature
Temperature
Headwind component
Headwind component
Runway gradient or slope
Runway length
Aircraft weight
Runway gradient or slope
In computing the landing distance required, some manufacturers Runway surface condition
do not include all of the above items in their charts, since the
regulations state that only pressure altitude, wind, and aircraft With these details, it is possible to establish the maximum
weight must be considered. Charts are provided for anti-skid allowable landing weight, which will be the lower of the
on and anti-skid off conditions, but the use of reverse thrust is weights as dictated by:
not used in computing required landing distances.
Landing runway requirements
The landing distance, as required by the regulations, is Approach climb requirements
that distance needed to land and come to a complete stop
from a point 50 feet above the threshold end of the runway. In practice, the approach climb limitations (ability to climb
It includes the air distance required to travel from the 50 in approach conguration with one engine inoperative)
foot height to touchdown (which can consume 1,000 feet are seldom encountered because the landing weights upon
of runway distance), plus the stopping distance, with no arrival at the destination airport are usually low. However,
margin left over. This is all that is required for 14 CFR part as in the second segment climb requirement for takeoff, this
91 operators (non-air carrier), and all that is shown on some approach climb gradient must be met and landing weights
landing distance required charts. must be restricted if necessary. The most likely conditions
that would make the approach climb critical would be the
For air carriers and other commercial operators subject to landings at high weights and high pressure altitudes and
14 CFR part 121, a different set of rules applies stating that temperatures, which might be encountered if a landing were
the required landing distance from the 50 foot height cannot required shortly after takeoff.
exceed 60 percent of the actual runway length available.
In all cases, the minimum airspeed allowed at the 50 foot Landing eld requirements can more frequently limit an
height must be no less than 1.3 times the aircrafts stalling aircrafts allowable landing weight than the approach climb
speed in the landing conguration. This speed is commonly limitations. Again, however, unless the runway is particularly
called the aircrafts VREF speed and varies with landing short, this is seldom problematical as the average landing
weight. Figure 10-38 is a diagram of these landing runway weight at the destination rarely approaches the maximum
requirements. design landing weight due to fuel burn off.

VSO
App
roac
1.3 V h
SO

Complete stop
50'
25

Required landing distance per 14 CFR part 91 40% of runway length

Required landing runway length per 14 CFR part 121

Figure 10-38. Landing runway requirements.

10-33
Chapter Summary
Performance characteristics and capabilities vary greatly
among aircraft. Moreover, aircraft weight, atmospheric
conditions, and external environmental factors can
signicantly affect aircraft performance. It is essential that
a pilot become intimately familiar with the performance
characteristics and capabilities of the aircraft being own.
The primary source of this information is the AFM/POH.

10-34
Chapter 11

Weather Theory
Introduction
Weather is an important factor that influences aircraft
performance and ying safety. It is the state of the atmosphere
at a given time and place, with respect to variables such as
temperature (heat or cold), moisture (wetness or dryness),
wind velocity (calm or storm), visibility (clearness or
cloudiness), and barometric pressure (high or low). The term
weather can also apply to adverse or destructive atmospheric
conditions, such as high winds.

This chapter explains basic weather theory and offers pilots

background knowledge of weather principles. It is designed
to help them gain a good understanding of how weather
affects daily ying activities. Understanding the theories
behind weather helps a pilot make sound weather decisions
based on the reports and forecasts obtained from a Flight
Service Station (FSS) weather specialist and other aviation
weather services.

Be it a local ight or a long cross-country ight, decisions

based on weather can dramatically affect the safety of the
ight.

11-1
Atmosphere
The atmosphere is a blanket of air made up of a mixture of
gases that surrounds the Earth and reaches almost 350 miles
1%
from the surface of the Earth. This mixture is in constant
motion. If the atmosphere were visible, it might look like 21% Oxygen
an ocean with swirls and eddies, rising and falling air, and
waves that travel for great distances.

og en
Life on Earth is supported by the atmosphere, solar energy,
and the planets magnetic elds. The atmosphere absorbs
energy from the Sun, recycles water and other chemicals, and
78%
Nitr
works with the electrical and magnetic forces to provide a
moderate climate. The atmosphere also protects life on Earth
from high energy radiation and the frigid vacuum of space.

Composition of the Atmosphere Figure 11-1. Composition of the atmosphere.

In any given volume of air, nitrogen accounts for 78 percent (temperature changes), chemical composition, movement,
of the gases that comprise the atmosphere, while oxygen and density. [Figure 11-2]
makes up 21 percent. Argon, carbon dioxide, and traces of
other gases make up the remaining one percent. This cubic The rst layer, known as the troposphere, extends from sea
foot also contains some water vapor, varying from zero to level up to 20,000 feet (8 kilometers (km)) over the northern
about ve percent by volume. This small amount of water and southern poles and up to 48,000 feet (14.5 km) over the
vapor is responsible for major changes in the weather. equatorial regions. The vast majority of weather, clouds,
[Figure 11-1] storms, and temperature variances occur within this rst layer
of the atmosphere. Inside the troposphere, the temperature
The envelope of gases surrounding the Earth changes decreases at a rate of about 2 Celsius (C) every 1,000 feet
from the ground up. Four distinct layers or spheres of the of altitude gain, and the pressure decreases at a rate of about
atmosphere have been identied using thermal characteristics one inch per 1,000 feet of altitude gain.

ere et
o sph 280,000 fe
erm
Th
her
e feet
p 160,000
sos
Me
ere feet
ph 20,000
tos
S tra
e re
sph
ropo
T

Figure 11-2. Layers of the atmosphere.

11-2
At the top of the troposphere is a boundary known as the
tropopause, which traps moisture and the associated weather
in the troposphere. The altitude of the tropopause varies with
latitude and with the season of the year; therefore, it takes
on an elliptical shape, as opposed to round. Location of the
tropopause is important because it is commonly associated
with the location of the jet stream and possible clear air
turbulence.

Above the tropopause are three more atmospheric levels. The

rst is the stratosphere, which extends from the tropopause to
a height of about 160,000 feet (50 km). Little weather exists
in this layer and the air remains stable although certain types
of clouds occasionally extend in it. Above the stratosphere
are the mesosphere and thermosphere which have little
inuence over weather.

Atmospheric Circulation Figure 11-3. Circulation pattern in a static environment.

As noted earlier, the atmosphere is in constant motion.
Certain factors combine to set the atmosphere in motion, but a Atmospheric Pressure
major factor is the uneven heating of the Earths surface. This The unequal heating of the Earths surface not only modies
heating upsets the equilibrium of the atmosphere, creating air density and creates circulation patterns; it also causes
changes in air movement and atmospheric pressure. The changes in air pressure or the force exerted by the weight
movement of air around the surface of the Earth is called of air molecules. Although air molecules are invisible, they
atmospheric circulation. still have weight and take up space.

Heating of the Earths surface is accomplished by several Imagine a sealed column of air that has a footprint of one
processes, but in the simple convection-only model used for square inch and is 350 miles high. It would take 14.7 pounds
this discussion, the Earth is warmed by energy radiating from of effort to lift that column. This represents the airs weight;
the sun. The process causes a circular motion that results if the column is shortened, the pressure exerted at the bottom
when warm air rises and is replaced by cooler air. (and its weight) would be less.

Warm air rises because heat causes air molecules to spread The weight of the shortened column of air at 18,000 feet is
apart. As the air expands, it becomes less dense and lighter approximately 7.4 pounds; almost 50 percent that at sea level.
than the surrounding air. As air cools, the molecules pack For instance, if a bathroom scale (calibrated for sea level)
together more closely, becoming denser and heavier than were raised to 18,000 feet, the column of air weighing 14.7
warm air. As a result, cool, heavy air tends to sink and replace pounds at sea level would be 18,000 feet shorter, and would
warmer, rising air. weigh approximately 7.3 pounds (50 percent) less than at
sea level. [Figure 11-4]
Because the Earth has a curved surface that rotates on a tilted
axis while orbiting the sun, the equatorial regions of the Earth The actual pressure at a given place and time differs with
receive a greater amount of heat from the sun than the polar altitude, temperature, and density of the air. These conditions
regions. The amount of sun that heats the Earth depends on also affect aircraft performance, especially with regard to
the time of year and the latitude of the specic region. All of takeoff, rate of climb, and landings.
these factors affect the length of time and the angle at which
sunlight strikes the surface. Coriolis Force
In general atmospheric circulation theory, areas of low
Solar heating causes higher temperatures in equatorial areas pressure exist over the equatorial regions and areas of high
which causes the air to be less dense and rise. As the warm pressure exist over the polar regions due to a difference in
air ows toward the poles, it cools, becoming denser, and temperature. The resulting low pressure allows the high-
sinks back toward the surface. [Figure 11-3] pressure air at the poles to ow along the planets surface

11-3
 1Square Inch
1Square Inch
1Square Inch
1Square Inch

1
7.4
lb
18,0
00 f
eet
1

Sea
14

lb
.7

leve Figure 11-5. Three-cell circulation pattern due to the rotation of

l the Earth.

Figure 11-4. Atmosphere weights.

about 30 latitude, creating an area of high pressure as it
sinks toward the surface. Then, it ows southward along
toward the equator. While this pattern of air circulation is the surface back toward the equator. Coriolis force bends
correct in theory, the circulation of air is modied by several the ow to the right, thus creating the northeasterly trade
forces, the most important of which is the rotation of the winds that prevail from 30 latitude to the equator. Similar
Earth. forces create circulation cells that encircle the Earth between
30 and 60 latitude, and between 60 and the poles. This
The force created by the rotation of the Earth is known as circulation pattern results in the prevailing westerly winds
the Coriolis force. This force is not perceptible to humans as in the conterminous United States.
they walk around because humans move slowly and travel
relatively short distances compared to the size and rotation Circulation patterns are further complicated by seasonal
rate of the Earth. However, the Coriolis force signicantly changes, differences between the surfaces of continents and
affects bodies that move over great distances, such as an air oceans, and other factors such as frictional forces caused
mass or body of water. by the topography of the Earths surface which modify the
movement of the air in the atmosphere. For example, within
The Coriolis force deects air to the right in the Northern 2,000 feet of the ground, the friction between the surface and
Hemisphere, causing it to follow a curved path instead of a the atmosphere slows the moving air. The wind is diverted from
straight line. The amount of deection differs depending on its path because the frictional force reduces the Coriolis force.
the latitude. It is greatest at the poles, and diminishes to zero Thus, the wind direction at the surface varies somewhat from
at the equator. The magnitude of Coriolis force also differs the wind direction just a few thousand feet above the Earth.
with the speed of the moving bodythe greater the speed,
the greater the deviation. In the Northern Hemisphere, the Measurement of Atmosphere Pressure
rotation of the Earth deects moving air to the right and Atmospheric pressure is typically measured in inches of
changes the general circulation pattern of the air. mercury ("Hg) by a mercurial barometer. [Figure 11-6] The
barometer measures the height of a column of mercury inside a
The speed of the Earths rotation causes the general ow glass tube. A section of the mercury is exposed to the pressure
to break up into three distinct cells in each hemisphere. of the atmosphere, which exerts a force on the mercury. An
[Figure 11-5] In the Northern Hemisphere, the warm air at increase in pressure forces the mercury to rise inside the tube.
the equator rises upward from the surface, travels northward, When the pressure drops, mercury drains out of the tube,
and is deected eastward by the rotation of the Earth. By decreasing the height of the column. This type of barometer is
the time it has traveled one-third of the distance from the typically used in a laboratory or weather observation station,
equator to the North Pole, it is no longer moving northward, is not easily transported, and difcult to read.
but eastward. This air cools and sinks in a belt-like area at

11-4
 To provide a common reference, the International Standard
At sea level in a standard
Atmosphere (ISA) has been established. These standard
atmosphere, the weight
of the atmosphere conditions are the basis for certain ight instruments and
(14.7 lb/in2) supports most aircraft performance data. Standard sea level pressure
a column of mercury is dened as 29.92 "Hg and a standard temperature of 59 F
29.92 inches high.
(15 C). Atmospheric pressure is also reported in millibars
(mb), with 1 "Hg equal to approximately 34 mb. Standard sea

re
ric pressu
level pressure is 1,013.2 mb. Typical mb pressure readings
Height of mercury
29.92" (760 mm)

range from 950.0 to 1,040.0 mb. Constant pressure charts and

hurricane pressure reports are written using mb.

Atmosphe
Since weather stations are located around the globe, all local
barometric pressure readings are converted to a sea level
pressure to provide a standard for records and reports. To
achieve this, each station converts its barometric pressure by
adding approximately 1 "Hg for every 1,000 feet of elevation.
For example, a station at 5,000 feet above sea level, with a
reading of 24.92 "Hg, reports a sea level pressure reading of
29.92 "Hg. [Figure 11-8] Using common sea level pressure
readings helps ensure aircraft altimeters are set correctly,
Sea level based on the current pressure readings.
29.92 "Hg = 1,013.2 mb (hPa) = 14.7 lb/in2
By tracking barometric pressure trends across a large area,
weather forecasters can more accurately predict movement
Figure 11-6. Mercurial barometer. of pressure systems and the associated weather. For example,
An aneroid barometer is an alternative to a mercurial tracking a pattern of rising pressure at a single weather station
barometer; it is easier to read and transport. [Figure 11-7] The generally indicates the approach of fair weather. Conversely,
aneroid barometer contains a closed vessel, called an aneroid decreasing or rapidly falling pressure usually indicates
cell that contracts or expands with changes in pressure. The approaching bad weather and, possibly, severe storms.
aneroid cell attaches to a pressure indicator with a mechanical
linkage to provide pressure readings. The pressure sensing Altitude and Atmospheric Pressure
part of an aircraft altimeter is essentially an aneroid As altitude increases, atmospheric pressure decreases. On
barometer. It is important to note that due to the linkage average, with every 1,000 feet of increase in altitude, the
mechanism of an aneroid barometer, it is not as accurate as atmospheric pressure decreases 1 "Hg. As pressure decreases,
a mercurial barometer. the air becomes less dense or thinner. This is the equivalent
of being at a higher altitude and is referred to as density
er
altitude (DA). As pressure decreases, DA increases and has
gh
Hi a pronounced effect on aircraft performance.
ure ss
eric pre

Differences in air density caused by changes in temperature

result in a change in pressure. This, in turn, creates motion in
h
Atmosp

the atmosphere, both vertically and horizontally, in the form

of currents and wind. The atmosphere is almost constantly
in motion as it strives to reach equilibrium. These never-
Lower
Sealed aneroid cell ending air movements set up chain reactions which cause a
Sealed aneroid cell continuing variety in the weather.
Sealed aneroid cell

Figure 11-7. Aneroid barometer.

11-5
 Station Pressure
Denver
24.92 "Hg

Standard Atmosphere
Station Pressure
New Orleans
29.92 "Hg

New Orleans 29.92 "Hg

Denver 29.92 "Hg

Figure 11-8. Station pressure is converted to and reported in sea level pressure.

Altitude and Flight ground run at sea level requires more than double that at a
pressure altitude of 8,000 feet. [Figure 11-9]. It is also true
Altitude affects every aspect of flight from aircraft
that at higher altitudes, due to the decreased density of the
performance to human performance. At higher altitudes,
air, aircraft engines and propellers are less efcient. This
with a decreased atmospheric pressure, takeoff and landing
leads to reduced rates of climb and a greater ground run for
distances are increased, as are climb rates.
obstacle clearance.
When an aircraft takes off, lift must be developed by the
ow of air around the wings. If the air is thin, more speed
Altitude and the Human Body
is required to obtain enough lift for takeoff; therefore, the As discussed earlier, nitrogen and other trace gases make
ground run is longer. An aircraft that requires 745 feet of up 79 percent of the atmosphere, while the remaining 21

Pressure Altitude: Sea level TAKEOFF DISTANCE

MAXIMUM WEIGHT 2,400 LB

0 C
Pressure
altitude Ground Total feet
(feet) roll to clear
(feet) 50 foot obstacle

S.L. 745 1,320

1,000 815 1,445
2,000 895 1,585
3,000 980 1,740
745 feet 4,000 1,075 1,920
5,000 1,185 2,125
6,000 1,305 2,360
7,000 1,440 2,635
8,000 1,590 2,960
Pressure Altitude: 8,000 feet

1,590 feet

Figure 11-9. Takeoff distances increase with increased altitude.

11-6
percent is life sustaining, atmospheric oxygen. At sea level,
atmospheric pressure is great enough to support normal
growth, activity, and life. By 18,000 feet, the partial pressure
of oxygen is reduced and adversely affects the normal
activities and functions of the human body.

The reactions of the average person become impaired at an

altitude of about 10,000 feet, but for some people impairment
can occur at an altitude as low as 5,000 feet. The physiological
reactions to hypoxia or oxygen deprivation are insidious and
affect people in different ways. These symptoms range from
mild disorientation to total incapacitation, depending on
body tolerance and altitude. Supplemental oxygen or cabin
pressurization systems help pilots y at higher altitudes and
overcome the effects of oxygen deprivation.

Wind and Currents

Air ows from areas of high pressure into areas of low
pressure because air always seeks out lower pressure. Air Figure 11-10. Circulation pattern about areas of high and low
pressure, temperature changes, and the Coriolis force work in pressure.
combination to create two kinds of motion in the atmosphere is a better understanding of what type of weather to expect
vertical movement of ascending and descending currents, in a given area along a route of ight based on the prevailing
and horizontal movement in the form of wind. Currents and areas of highs and lows.
winds are important as they affect takeoff, landing, and cruise
ight operations. Most importantly, currents and winds or While the theory of circulation and wind patterns is accurate
atmospheric circulation cause weather changes. for large scale atmospheric circulation, it does not take into
account changes to the circulation on a local scale. Local
Wind Patterns conditions, geological features, and other anomalies can
In the Northern Hemisphere, the ow of air from areas of change the wind direction and speed close to the Earths
high to low pressure is deected to the right and produces surface.
a clockwise circulation around an area of high pressure.
This is known as anticyclonic circulation. The opposite Convective Currents
is true of low-pressure areas; the air ows toward a low Different surfaces radiate heat in varying amounts. Plowed
and is deected to create a counterclockwise or cyclonic ground, rocks, sand, and barren land give off a large amount of
circulation. [Figure 11-10] heat; water, trees, and other areas of vegetation tend to absorb
and retain heat. The resulting uneven heating of the air creates
High pressure systems are generally areas of dry, stable, small areas of local circulation called convective currents.
descending air. Good weather is typically associated with
high pressure systems for this reason. Conversely, air ows Convective currents cause the bumpy, turbulent air sometimes
into a low pressure area to replace rising air. This air tends experienced when ying at lower altitudes during warmer
to be unstable, and usually brings increasing cloudiness and weather. On a low altitude ight over varying surfaces,
precipitation. Thus, bad weather is commonly associated updrafts are likely to occur over pavement or barren places,
with areas of low pressure. and downdrafts often occur over water or expansive areas
of vegetation like a group of trees. Typically, these turbulent
A good understanding of high and low pressure wind patterns conditions can be avoided by ying at higher altitudes, even
can be of great help when planning a ight, because a pilot above cumulus cloud layers. [Figure 11-12]
can take advantage of benecial tailwinds. [Figure 11-11]
When planning a ight from west to east, favorable winds Convective currents are particularly noticeable in areas with
would be encountered along the northern side of a high a land mass directly adjacent to a large body of water, such
pressure system or the southern side of a low pressure system. as an ocean, large lake, or other appreciable area of water.
On the return ight, the most favorable winds would be along During the day, land heats faster than water, so the air over the
the southern side of the same high pressure system or the land becomes warmer and less dense. It rises and is replaced
northern side of a low pressure system. An added advantage

11-7
Figure 11-11. Favorable winds near a high pressure system.

Figure 11-12. Convective turbulence avoidance.

by cooler, denser air owing in from over the water. This Effect of Obstructions on Wind
causes an onshore wind, called a sea breeze. Conversely, at Another atmospheric hazard exists that can create problems
night land cools faster than water, as does the corresponding for pilots. Obstructions on the ground affect the ow of
air. In this case, the warmer air over the water rises and is wind and can be an unseen danger. Ground topography and
replaced by the cooler, denser air from the land, creating an large buildings can break up the ow of the wind and create
offshore wind called a land breeze. This reverses the local wind gusts that change rapidly in direction and speed. These
wind circulation pattern. Convective currents can occur obstructions range from manmade structures like hangars
anywhere there is an uneven heating of the Earths surface. to large natural obstructions, such as mountains, bluffs, or
[Figure 11-13] canyons. It is especially important to be vigilant when ying
in or out of airports that have large buildings or natural
Convective currents close to the ground can affect a pilots obstructions located near the runway. [Figure 11-15]
ability to control the aircraft. For example, on nal approach,
the rising air from terrain devoid of vegetation sometimes The intensity of the turbulence associated with ground
produces a ballooning effect that can cause a pilot to obstructions depends on the size of the obstacle and the
overshoot the intended landing spot. On the other hand, primary velocity of the wind. This can affect the takeoff and
an approach over a large body of water or an area of thick landing performance of any aircraft and can present a very
vegetation tends to create a sinking effect that can cause serious hazard. During the landing phase of ight, an aircraft
an unwary pilot to land short of the intended landing spot.
[Figure 11-14]

11-8
 Return flow

Warm

Cool
Sea breeze

Return flow
Cool

Warm
Land breeze

Figure 11-13. Sea breeze and land breeze wind circulation patterns.

Cool
sinking
air

Warm
rising
air

Inte
nde
d Fl
ight
path

Figure 11-14. Currents generated by varying surface conditions.

11-9
 WI N
D

Figure 11-15. Turbulence caused by manmade obstructions.

may drop in due to the turbulent air and be too low to clear the side of a mountain. The stronger the wind, the greater the
obstacles during the approach. downward pressure and turbulence become.

This same condition is even more noticeable when ying in Due to the effect terrain has on the wind in valleys or canyons,
mountainous regions. [Figure 11-16] While the wind ows downdrafts can be severe. Before conducting a ight in or
smoothly up the windward side of the mountain and the near mountainous terrain, it is helpful for a pilot unfamiliar
upward currents help to carry an aircraft over the peak of with a mountainous area to get a checkout with a mountain
the mountain, the wind on the leeward side does not act in qualied ight instructor.
a similar manner. As the air ows down the leeward side of
the mountain, the air follows the contour of the terrain and
is increasingly turbulent. This tends to push an aircraft into

Figure 11-16. Turbulence in mountainous regions.

11-10
Low-Level Wind Shear hazardous wind direction change of 45 degrees or more, in
Wind shear is a sudden, drastic change in wind speed and/or a matter of seconds.
direction over a very small area. Wind shear can subject an
aircraft to violent updrafts and downdrafts, as well as abrupt When encountered close to the ground, these excessive
changes to the horizontal movement of the aircraft. While downdrafts and rapid changes in wind direction can
wind shear can occur at any altitude, low-level wind shear is produce a situation in which it is difcult to control the
especially hazardous due to the proximity of an aircraft to the aircraft. [Figure 11-17] During an inadvertent takeoff into
ground. Directional wind changes of 180 and speed changes a microburst, the plane rst experiences a performance-
of 50 knots or more are associated with low-level wind shear. increasing headwind (1), followed by performance-decreasing
Low-level wind shear is commonly associated with passing downdrafts (2). Then, the wind rapidly shears to a tailwind
frontal systems, thunderstorms, and temperature inversions (3), and can result in terrain impact or ight dangerously
with strong upper level winds (greater than 25 knots). close to the ground (4).

Wind shear is dangerous to an aircraft for several reasons. The Microbursts are often difcult to detect because they occur
rapid changes in wind direction and velocity change the winds in relatively conned areas. In an effort to warn pilots of
relation to the aircraft disrupting the normal ight attitude and low-level wind shear, alert systems have been installed at
performance of the aircraft. During a wind shear situation, several airports around the country. A series of anemometers,
the effects can be subtle or very dramatic depending on wind placed around the airport, form a net to detect changes in
speed and direction of change. For example, a tailwind that wind speeds. When wind speeds differ by more than 15 knots,
quickly changes to a headwind causes an increase in airspeed a warning for wind shear is given to pilots. This system is
and performance. Conversely, when a headwind changes known as the low-level wind shear alert system (LLWAS).
to a tailwind, the airspeed rapidly decreases and there is a
corresponding decrease in performance. In either case, a It is important to remember that wind shear can affect any
pilot must be prepared to react immediately to the changes ight and any pilot at any altitude. While wind shear may be
to maintain control of the aircraft. reported, it often remains undetected and is a silent danger
to aviation. Always be alert to the possibility of wind shear,
In general, the most severe type of low-level wind shear especially when ying in and around thunderstorms and
is associated with convective precipitation or rain from frontal systems.
thunderstorms. One critical type of shear associated with
convective precipitation is known as a microburst. A typical Wind and Pressure Representation on Surface
microburst occurs in a space of less than one mile horizontally Weather Maps
and within 1,000 feet vertically. The lifespan of a microburst Surface weather maps provide information about fronts, areas
is about 15 minutes during which it can produce downdrafts of high and low pressure, and surface winds and pressures
of up to 6,000 feet per minute (fpm). It can also produce a for each station. This type of weather map allows pilots to
Strong downdraft

ath
nded P
Inte

nd
ilwi
Inc Increasing ta
rea
sing
headwind 2 Outflow

Outflow 4
1 3

Figure 11-17. Effects of a microburst wind.

11-11
see the locations of fronts and pressure systems, but more
importantly, it depicts the wind and pressure at the surface
for each location. For more information on surface analysis 1020 p
tee
and weather depiction charts, see Chapter 12, Weather n a s ds.
e a win
s rs m ng
Aviation Services. Isobar soba d stro
1024 d i an
ce nt
s pa adie
r
Wind conditions are reported by an arrow attached to the ely re g
os
station location circle. [Figure 11-18] The station circle Cl ssu
s e
Isobar pr
represents the head of the arrow, with the arrow pointing 1020
in the direction from which the wind is blowing. Winds
are described by the direction from which they blow, thus
a northwest wind means that the wind is blowing from the
1016 rs
northwest toward the southeast. The speed of the wind is oba re
aced is ressu
depicted by barbs or pennants placed on the wind line. Each sp p
Widely hallow tively
a s ela
barb represents a speed of ten knots, while half a barb is equal me a n
and
r
ient
to ve knots, and a pennant is equal to 50 knots. grad nds.

L
w i
light
1012
Calm NW/ 5 kts SW / 20 kts
1008

Figure 11-19. Isobars reveal the pressure gradient of an area of

high- or low-pressure areas.
E /35 kts N/ 50 kts W / 105 kts 3,000 feet above the surface, however, the speed is greater
and the direction becomes more parallel to the isobars.
Therefore, the surface winds are shown on the weather map,
as well as the winds at a slightly higher altitude.

Figure 11-18. Depiction of winds on a surface weather chart. Generally, the wind 2,000 feet above ground level (AGL) is
20 to 40 to the right of surface winds, and the wind speed
is greater. The change of wind direction is greatest over rough
The pressure for each station is recorded on the weather chart
terrain and least over at surfaces, such as open water. In the
and is shown in mb. Isobars are lines drawn on the chart to
absence of winds aloft information, this rule of thumb allows
depict areas of equal pressure. These lines result in a pattern
for a rough estimate of the wind conditions a few thousand
that reveals the pressure gradient or change in pressure over
feet above the surface.
distance. [Figure 11-19] Isobars are similar to contour lines
on a topographic map that indicate terrain altitudes and
Atmospheric Stability
slope steepness. For example, isobars that are closely spaced
indicate a steep wind gradient and strong winds prevail. The stability of the atmosphere depends on its ability to
Shallow gradients, on the other hand, are represented by resist vertical motion. A stable atmosphere makes vertical
isobars that are spaced far apart, and are indicative of light movement difcult, and small vertical disturbances dampen
winds. Isobars help identify low and high pressure systems out and disappear. In an unstable atmosphere, small vertical
as well as the location of ridges, troughs, and cut-off lows air movements tend to become larger, resulting in turbulent
(cols). A high is an area of high pressure surrounded by airflow and convective activity. Instability can lead to
lower pressure; a low is an area of low pressure surrounded signicant turbulence, extensive vertical clouds, and severe
by higher pressure. A ridge is an elongated area of high weather.
pressure, and a trough is an elongated area of low pressure.
A col is the intersection between a ridge and a trough, or an Rising air expands and cools due to the decrease in air
area of neutrality between two highs or two lows. pressure as altitude increases. The opposite is true of
descending air; as atmospheric pressure increases, the
Isobars furnish valuable information about winds in the rst temperature of descending air increases as it is compressed.
few thousand feet above the surface. Close to the ground, Adiabatic heating and adiabatic cooling are terms used to
wind direction is modied by the surface and wind speed describe this temperature change.
decreases due to friction with the surface. At levels 2,000 to

11-12
The adiabatic process takes place in all upward and Moisture and Temperature
downward moving air. When air rises into an area of lower The atmosphere, by nature, contains moisture in the form
pressure, it expands to a larger volume. As the molecules of water vapor. The amount of moisture present in the
of air expand, the temperature of the air lowers. As a result, atmosphere is dependent upon the temperature of the air.
when a parcel of air rises, pressure decreases, volume Every 20 F increase in temperature doubles the amount of
increases, and temperature decreases. When air descends, moisture the air can hold. Conversely, a decrease of 20 F
the opposite is true. The rate at which temperature decreases cuts the capacity in half.
with an increase in altitude is referred to as its lapse rate.
As air ascends through the atmosphere, the average rate of Water is present in the atmosphere in three states: liquid,
temperature change is 2 C (3.5 F) per 1,000 feet. solid, and gaseous. All three forms can readily change to
another, and all are present within the temperature ranges of
Since water vapor is lighter than air, moisture decreases air the atmosphere. As water changes from one state to another,
density, causing it to rise. Conversely, as moisture decreases, an exchange of heat takes place. These changes occur through
air becomes denser and tends to sink. Since moist air cools at a the processes of evaporation, sublimation, condensation,
slower rate, it is generally less stable than dry air since the moist deposition, melting, or freezing. However, water vapor
air must rise higher before its temperature cools to that of the is added into the atmosphere only by the processes of
surrounding air. The dry adiabatic lapse rate (unsaturated air) evaporation and sublimation.
is 3 C (5.4 F) per 1,000 feet. The moist adiabatic lapse rate
varies from 1.1 C to 2.8 C (2 F to 5 F) per 1,000 feet. Evaporation is the changing of liquid water to water vapor.
As water vapor forms, it absorbs heat from the nearest
The combination of moisture and temperature determine the available source. This heat exchange is known as the latent
stability of the air and the resulting weather. Cool, dry air heat of evaporation. A good example is the evaporation of
is very stable and resists vertical movement, which leads to human perspiration. The net effect is a cooling sensation
good and generally clear weather. The greatest instability as heat is extracted from the body. Similarly, sublimation
occurs when the air is moist and warm, as it is in the tropical is the changing of ice directly to water vapor, completely
regions in the summer. Typically, thunderstorms appear on bypassing the liquid stage. Though dry ice is not made of
a daily basis in these regions due to the instability of the water, but rather carbon dioxide, it demonstrates the principle
surrounding air. of sublimation, when a solid turns directly into vapor.

Inversion Relative Humidity

As air rises and expands in the atmosphere, the temperature Humidity refers to the amount of water vapor present in the
decreases. There is an atmospheric anomaly that can occur; atmosphere at a given time. Relative humidity is the actual
however, that changes this typical pattern of atmospheric amount of moisture in the air compared to the total amount of
behavior. When the temperature of the air rises with altitude, a moisture the air could hold at that temperature. For example,
temperature inversion exists. Inversion layers are commonly if the current relative humidity is 65 percent, the air is
shallow layers of smooth, stable air close to the ground. The holding 65 percent of the total amount of moisture that it is
temperature of the air increases with altitude to a certain capable of holding at that temperature and pressure. While
point, which is the top of the inversion. The air at the top much of the western United States rarely sees days of high
of the layer acts as a lid, keeping weather and pollutants humidity, relative humidity readings of 75 to 90 percent are
trapped below. If the relative humidity of the air is high, it not uncommon in the southern United States during warmer
can contribute to the formation of clouds, fog, haze, or smoke, months. [Figure 11-20]
resulting in diminished visibility in the inversion layer.
Temperature/Dew Point Relationship
Surface based temperature inversions occur on clear, cool The relationship between dew point and temperature denes
nights when the air close to the ground is cooled by the the concept of relative humidity. The dew point, given in
lowering temperature of the ground. The air within a few degrees, is the temperature at which the air can hold no
hundred feet of the surface becomes cooler than the air above more moisture. When the temperature of the air is reduced
it. Frontal inversions occur when warm air spreads over a to the dew point, the air is completely saturated and moisture
layer of cooler air, or cooler air is forced under a layer of begins to condense out of the air in the form of fog, dew,
warmer air. frost, clouds, rain, hail, or snow.

11-13
 At sea level pressure, air can hold

9 g H2O/cubic foot of air at 10 C

17 g H2O/cubic foot of air at 20 C
30 g H2O/cubic foot of air at 30 C

If the temperature is lowered to 10 C,

the air can hold only 9 g of water
vapor, and 8 g of water will condense
as water droplets. The relative
humidity will still be at 100%.

If the same cubic foot of air warms

to 30 C, the 17 g of water vapor will
produce a relative humidity of 56%.
(17 g is 56% of the 30 g the air could
hold at this temperature.)

A cubic foot of air with 17 grams (g) of

water vapor at 20 C is at saturation,
or 100% relative humidity. Any further
cooling will cause condensation (fog,
clouds, dew) to form. Thus, 20 C is
the dewpoint for this situation.

Figure 11-20. Relationship between relative humidity, temperature, and dewpoint.

As moist, unstable air rises, clouds often form at the altitude Explanation:
where temperature and dew point reach the same value. When With an outside air temperature (OAT) of 85 F at the surface,
lifted, unsaturated air cools at a rate of 5.4 F per 1,000 feet and dew point at the surface of 71 F, the spread is 14. Divide
and the dew point temperature decreases at a rate of 1 F the temperature dew point spread by the convergence rate of
per 1,000 feet. This results in a convergence of temperature 4.4 F, and multiply by 1,000 to determine the approximate
and dew point at a rate of 4.4 F. Apply the convergence rate height of the cloud base.
to the reported temperature and dew point to determine the
height of the cloud base. Methods by Which Air Reaches the Saturation
Point
Given: If air reaches the saturation point while temperature and dew
Temperature (T) = 85 F point are close together, it is highly likely that fog, low clouds,
and precipitation will form. There are four methods by which
Dew point (DP) = 71 F
air can reach the complete saturation point. First, when warm
Convergence Rate (CR) = 4.4 air moves over a cold surface, the air temperature drops and
T DP = Temperature Dew Point Spread (TDS) reaches the saturation point. Second, the saturation point may
be reached when cold air and warm air mix. Third, when air
TDS CR = X
cools at night through contact with the cooler ground, air
X 1,000 feet = height of cloud base AGL reaches its saturation point. The fourth method occurs when
Example: air is lifted or is forced upward in the atmosphere.

85 F71 F = 14 F As air rises, it uses heat energy to expand. As a result, the rising
14 F 4.4 F = 3.18 air loses heat rapidly. Unsaturated air loses heat at a rate of
3.18 1,000 = 3,180 feet AGL 3.0 C (5.4 F) for every 1,000 feet of altitude gain. No matter
what causes the air to reach its saturation point, saturated air
The height of the cloud base is 3,180 feet AGL. brings clouds, rain, and other critical weather situations.

11-14
Dew and Frost allow the fog to form and intensify; above a speed of 15 knots,
On cool, calm nights, the temperature of the ground and the fog usually lifts and forms low stratus clouds. Advection
objects on the surface can cause temperatures of the fog is common in coastal areas where sea breezes can blow
surrounding air to drop below the dew point. When this the air over cooler landmasses.
occurs, the moisture in the air condenses and deposits itself on
the ground, buildings, and other objects like cars and aircraft. Upslope fog occurs when moist, stable air is forced up sloping
This moisture is known as dew and sometimes can be seen on land features like a mountain range. This type of fog also
grass in the morning. If the temperature is below freezing, the requires wind for formation and continued existence. Upslope
moisture is deposited in the form of frost. While dew poses no and advection fog, unlike radiation fog, may not burn off with
threat to an aircraft, frost poses a denite ight safety hazard. the morning sun, but instead can persist for days. They can
Frost disrupts the ow of air over the wing and can drastically also extend to greater heights than radiation fog.
reduce the production of lift. It also increases drag, which,
when combined with lowered lift production, can adversely Steam fog, or sea smoke, forms when cold, dry air moves over
affect the ability to take off. An aircraft must be thoroughly warm water. As the water evaporates, it rises and resembles
cleaned and free of frost prior to beginning a ight. smoke. This type of fog is common over bodies of water
during the coldest times of the year. Low-level turbulence
Fog and icing are commonly associated with steam fog.
Fog is a cloud that begins within 50 feet of the surface. It
typically occurs when the temperature of air near the ground Ice fog occurs in cold weather when the temperature is
is cooled to the airs dew point. At this point, water vapor in much below freezing and water vapor forms directly into
the air condenses and becomes visible in the form of fog. Fog ice crystals. Conditions favorable for its formation are
is classied according to the manner in which it forms and the same as for radiation fog except for cold temperature,
is dependent upon the current temperature and the amount usually 25 F or colder. It occurs mostly in the arctic
of water vapor in the air. regions, but is not unknown in middle latitudes during the
cold season.
On clear nights, with relatively little to no wind present,
radiation fog may develop. [Figure 11-21] Usually, it forms Clouds
in low-lying areas like mountain valleys. This type of fog Clouds are visible indicators and are often indicative of
occurs when the ground cools rapidly due to terrestrial future weather. For clouds to form, there must be adequate
radiation, and the surrounding air temperature reaches its water vapor and condensation nuclei, as well as a method by
dew point. As the sun rises and the temperature increases, which the air can be cooled. When the air cools and reaches
radiation fog lifts and eventually burns off. Any increase in its saturation point, the invisible water vapor changes into
wind also speeds the dissipation of radiation fog. If radiation a visible state. Through the processes of deposition (also
fog is less than 20 feet thick, it is known as ground fog. referred to as sublimation) and condensation, moisture
condenses or sublimates onto miniscule particles of matter
When a layer of warm, moist air moves over a cold surface, like dust, salt, and smoke known as condensation nuclei. The
advection fog is likely to occur. Unlike radiation fog, wind nuclei are important because they provide a means for the
is required to form advection fog. Winds of up to 15 knots moisture to change from one state to another.

Cloud type is determined by its height, shape, and behavior.

They are classied according to the height of their bases as
low, middle, or high clouds, as well as clouds with vertical
development. [Figure 11-22]

Low clouds are those that form near the Earths surface and
extend up to 6,500 feet AGL. They are made primarily of
water droplets, but can include supercooled water droplets
that induce hazardous aircraft icing. Typical low clouds
are stratus, stratocumulus, and nimbostratus. Fog is also
classied as a type of low cloud formation. Clouds in this
family create low ceilings, hamper visibility, and can change
rapidly. Because of this, they inuence ight planning and
Figure 11-21. Radiation fog.
can make visual ight rules (VFR) ight impossible.

11-15
 Cirrocumulus

High clouds
Cirrostratus

Cumulonimbus
Cirrus
20,000 AGL

Middle clouds
Altostratus Altocumulus Clouds with vertical development

6,500 AGL

Stratocumulus

Low clouds
Stratus Nimbostratus Cumulus

Figure 11-22. Basic cloud types.

Middle clouds form around 6,500 feet AGL and extend up to as lightning, hail, tornadoes, gusty winds, and wind shear.
20,000 feet AGL. They are composed of water, ice crystals, These extensive vertical clouds can be obscured by other
and supercooled water droplets. Typical middle-level clouds cloud formations and are not always visible from the ground
include altostratus and altocumulus. These types of clouds or while in ight. When this happens, these clouds are said to
may be encountered on cross-country flights at higher be embedded, hence the term, embedded thunderstorms.
altitudes. Altostratus clouds can produce turbulence and may
contain moderate icing. Altocumulus clouds, which usually To pilots, the cumulonimbus cloud is perhaps the most
form when altostratus clouds are breaking apart, also may dangerous cloud type. It appears individually or in groups and
contain light turbulence and icing. is known as either an air mass or orographic thunderstorm.
Heating of the air near the Earths surface creates an air mass
High clouds form above 20,000 feet AGL and usually form thunderstorm; the upslope motion of air in the mountainous
only in stable air. They are made up of ice crystals and pose regions causes orographic thunderstorms. Cumulonimbus
no real threat of turbulence or aircraft icing. Typical high level clouds that form in a continuous line are nonfrontal bands
clouds are cirrus, cirrostratus, and cirrocumulus. of thunderstorms or squall lines.

Clouds with extensive vertical development are cumulus Since rising air currents cause cumulonimbus clouds, they
clouds that build vertically into towering cumulus or are extremely turbulent and pose a signicant hazard to ight
cumulonimbus clouds. The bases of these clouds form in safety. For example, if an aircraft enters a thunderstorm, the
the low to middle cloud base region but can extend into high aircraft could experience updrafts and downdrafts that exceed
altitude cloud levels. Towering cumulus clouds indicate areas 3,000 fpm. In addition, thunderstorms can produce large
of instability in the atmosphere, and the air around and inside hailstones, damaging lightning, tornadoes, and large quantities
them is turbulent. These types of clouds often develop into of water, all of which are potentially hazardous to aircraft.
cumulonimbus clouds or thunderstorms. Cumulonimbus
clouds contain large amounts of moisture and unstable air, A thunderstorm makes its way through three distinct stages
and usually produce hazardous weather phenomena, such before dissipating. It begins with the cumulus stage, in

11-16
which lifting action of the air begins. If sufcient moisture outside of the clouds. If ying around a thunderstorm is not
and instability are present, the clouds continue to increase in an option, stay on the ground until it passes.
vertical height. Continuous, strong updrafts prohibit moisture
from falling. The updraft region grows larger than the Cloud classication can be further broken down into specic
individual thermals feeding the storm. Within approximately cloud types according to the outward appearance and cloud
15 minutes, the thunderstorm reaches the mature stage, which composition. Knowing these terms can help a pilot identify
is the most violent time period of the thunderstorms life visible clouds.
cycle. At this point, drops of moisture, whether rain or ice,
are too heavy for the cloud to support and begin falling in the The following is a list of cloud classications:
form of rain or hail. This creates a downward motion of the Cumulusheaped or piled clouds
air. Warm, rising air; cool, precipitation-induced descending
air; and violent turbulence all exist within and near the cloud. Stratusformed in layers
Below the cloud, the down-rushing air increases surface Cirrusringlets, brous clouds, also high level clouds
winds and decreases the temperature. Once the vertical above 20,000 feet
motion near the top of the cloud slows down, the top of the
Castellanuscommon base with separate vertical
cloud spreads out and takes on an anvil-like shape. At this
development, castle-like
point, the storm enters the dissipating stage. This is when
the downdrafts spread out and replace the updrafts needed Lenticularuslens shaped, formed over mountains in
to sustain the storm. [Figure 11-23] strong winds
Nimbusrain-bearing clouds
It is impossible to y over thunderstorms in light aircraft.
Fractoragged or broken
Severe thunderstorms can punch through the tropopause and
reach staggering heights of 50,000 to 60,000 feet depending Altomeaning high, also middle level clouds existing
on latitude. Flying under thunderstorms can subject aircraft at 5,000 to 20,000 feet
to rain, hail, damaging lightning, and violent turbulence.
A good rule of thumb is to circumnavigate thunderstorms Ceiling
identied as severe or giving an intense radar echo by at For aviation purposes, a ceiling is the lowest layer of clouds
least 20 nautical miles (NM) since hail may fall for miles reported as being broken or overcast, or the vertical visibility
into an obscuration like fog or haze. Clouds are reported

Cumulus Stage (3-5 mile height) Mature Stage (5-10 mile height) Dissipating Stage (5-7 mile height)

40,000 ft.

Equilibrium level

30,000 ft.

20,000 ft.

0 C
32 F

10,000 ft.

5,000 ft.

Figure 11-23. Life cycle of a thunderstorm.

11-17
as broken when ve-eighths to seven-eighths of the sky is Precipitation in any form poses a threat to safety of ight.
covered with clouds. Overcast means the entire sky is covered Often, precipitation is accompanied by low ceilings and
with clouds. Current ceiling information is reported by the reduced visibility. Aircraft that have ice, snow, or frost on
aviation routine weather report (METAR) and automated their surfaces must be carefully cleaned prior to beginning
weather stations of various types. a flight because of the possible airflow disruption and
loss of lift. Rain can contribute to water in the fuel tanks.
Visibility Precipitation can create hazards on the runway surface itself,
Closely related to cloud cover and reported ceilings is making takeoffs and landings difcult, if not impossible, due
visibility information. Visibility refers to the greatest to snow, ice, or pooling water and very slick surfaces.
horizontal distance at which prominent objects can be
viewed with the naked eye. Current visibility is also reported Air Masses
in METAR and other aviation weather reports, as well as Air masses are classied according to the regions where
by automated weather systems. Visibility information, as they originate. They are large bodies of air that take on the
predicted by meteorologists, is available for a pilot during a characteristics of the surrounding area, or source region. A
preight weather brieng. source region is typically an area in which the air remains
relatively stagnant for a period of days or longer. During
Precipitation this time of stagnation, the air mass takes on the temperature
Precipitation refers to any type of water particles that form in and moisture characteristics of the source region. Areas of
the atmosphere and fall to the ground. It has a profound impact stagnation can be found in polar regions, tropical oceans, and
on ight safety. Depending on the form of precipitation, it can dry deserts. Air masses are generally identied as polar or
reduce visibility, create icing situations, and affect landing tropical based on temperature characteristics and maritime
and takeoff performance of an aircraft. or continental based on moisture content.

Precipitation occurs because water or ice particles in clouds A continental polar air mass forms over a polar region and
grow in size until the atmosphere can no longer support them. brings cool, dry air with it. Maritime tropical air masses form
It can occur in several forms as it falls toward the Earth, over warm tropical waters like the Caribbean Sea and bring
including drizzle, rain, ice pellets, hail, snow, and ice. warm, moist air. As the air mass moves from its source region
and passes over land or water, the air mass is subjected to the
Drizzle is classied as very small water droplets, smaller varying conditions of the land or water, and these modify the
than 0.02 inches in diameter. Drizzle usually accompanies nature of the air mass. [Figure 11-24]
fog or low stratus clouds. Water droplets of larger size are
referred to as rain. Rain that falls through the atmosphere but An air mass passing over a warmer surface is warmed from
evaporates prior to striking the ground is known as virga. below, and convective currents form, causing the air to rise.
Freezing rain and freezing drizzle occur when the temperature This creates an unstable air mass with good surface visibility.
of the surface is below freezing; the rain freezes on contact Moist, unstable air causes cumulus clouds, showers, and
with the cooler surface. turbulence to form.

If rain falls through a temperature inversion, it may freeze as Conversely, an air mass passing over a colder surface does not
it passes through the underlying cold air and fall to the ground form convective currents, but instead creates a stable air mass
in the form of ice pellets. Ice pellets are an indication of a with poor surface visibility. The poor surface visibility is due
temperature inversion and that freezing rain exists at a higher to the fact that smoke, dust, and other particles cannot rise
altitude. In the case of hail, freezing water droplets are carried out of the air mass and are instead trapped near the surface.
up and down by drafts inside clouds, growing larger in size as A stable air mass can produce low stratus clouds and fog.
they come in contact with more moisture. Once the updrafts
can no longer hold the freezing water, it falls to the Earth in Fronts
the form of hail. Hail can be pea sized, or it can grow as large
As an air mass moves across bodies of water and land, it
as ve inches in diameter, larger than a softball.
eventually comes in contact with another air mass with
different characteristics. The boundary layer between two types
Snow is precipitation in the form of ice crystals that falls
of air masses is known as a front. An approaching front of any
at a steady rate or in snow showers that begin, change in
type always means changes to the weather are imminent.
intensity, and end rapidly. Falling snow also varies in size,
being very small grains or large akes. Snow grains are the
equivalent of drizzle in size.

11-18
 Note standard air mass abbreviations: arctic (A), continental polar
A (cP), maritime polar (mP), continental tropical (cT), and maritime
tropical (mT).
cP

mP

mP

mT

mT
cT
mT

Figure 11-24. North American air mass source regions.

There are four types of fronts, which are named according Warm Front
to the temperature of the advancing air relative to the A warm front occurs when a warm mass of air advances
temperature of the air it is replacing: [Figure 11-25] and replaces a body of colder air. Warm fronts move slowly,
Warm typically 10 to 25 miles per hour (mph). The slope of the
advancing front slides over the top of the cooler air and
Cold gradually pushes it out of the area. Warm fronts contain warm
Stationary air that often have very high humidity. As the warm air is
Occluded lifted, the temperature drops and condensation occurs.

Generally, prior to the passage of a warm front, cirriform

Any discussion of frontal systems must be tempered with
or stratiform clouds, along with fog, can be expected to
the knowledge that no two fronts are the same. However,
form along the frontal boundary. In the summer months,
generalized weather conditions are associated with a specic
cumulonimbus clouds (thunderstorms) are likely to develop.
type of front that helps identify the front.
Light to moderate precipitation is probable, usually in the
Symbols for surface fronts and other significant lines form of rain, sleet, snow, or drizzle, accentuated by poor
shown on the surface analysis chart visibility. The wind blows from the south-southeast, and the
Warm front (red)* outside temperature is cool or cold, with an increasing dew
point. Finally, as the warm front approaches, the barometric
Cold front (blue)* pressure continues to fall until the front passes completely.
Stationary front (red/blue)*
During the passage of a warm front, stratiform clouds are
Occluded front (purple)* visible and drizzle may be falling. The visibility is generally
poor, but improves with variable winds. The temperature
* Note: Fronts may be black and white or color, depending on their
source. Also, fronts shown in color code will not necessarily show rises steadily from the inow of relatively warmer air. For
frontal symbols. the most part, the dew point remains steady and the pressure
levels off.
Figure 11-25. Common chart symbology to depict weather front
location.

11-19
After the passage of a warm front, stratocumulus clouds point the same, fog is likely. At St. Louis, the sky is overcast
predominate and rain showers are possible. The visibility with low clouds and drizzle and the visibility is one mile.
eventually improves, but hazy conditions may exist for a Beyond Indianapolis, the ceiling and visibility would be too
short period after passage. The wind blows from the south- low to continue VFR. Therefore, it would be wise to remain
southwest. With warming temperatures, the dew point in Indianapolis until the warm front had passed, which might
rises and then levels off. There is generally a slight rise in require a day or two.
barometric pressure, followed by a decrease of barometric
pressure. Cold Front
A cold front occurs when a mass of cold, dense, and stable
Flight Toward an Approaching Warm Front air advances and replaces a body of warmer air.
By studying a typical warm front, much can be learned about
the general patterns and atmospheric conditions that exist Cold fronts move more rapidly than warm fronts, progressing
when a warm front is encountered in ight. Figure 11-26 at a rate of 25 to 30 mph. However, extreme cold fronts
depicts a warm front advancing eastward from St. Louis, have been recorded moving at speeds of up to 60 mph.
Missouri, toward Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. A typical cold front moves in a manner opposite that of a
warm front. It is so dense, it stays close to the ground and
At the time of departure from Pittsburgh, the weather is acts like a snowplow, sliding under the warmer air and
good VFR with a scattered layer of cirrus clouds at 15,000 forcing the less dense air aloft. The rapidly ascending air
feet. As the ight progresses westward to Columbus and causes the temperature to decrease suddenly, forcing the
closer to the oncoming warm front, the clouds deepen and creation of clouds. The type of clouds that form depends
become increasingly stratiform in appearance with a ceiling on the stability of the warmer air mass. A cold front in the
of 6,000 feet. The visibility decreases to six miles in haze Northern Hemisphere is normally oriented in a northeast to
with a falling barometric pressure. Approaching Indianapolis, southwest manner and can be several hundred miles long,
the weather deteriorates to broken clouds at 2,000 feet with encompassing a large area of land.
three miles visibility and rain. With the temperature and dew

CIRRUS

CIRROSTRATUS

IR ALTOSTRATUS

MA
WAR
NIMBOSTRATUS
COLD AIR

St. Louis Indianapolis Columbus Pittsburgh

200 miles 400 miles 600 miles

999 1002 1005 1008 1011 1014

METAR KSTL 1950Z 21018KT 1SM RA

1017
0VC010 18/18 A2960
999
59 068
65 020 3 40
56 125 53 166 METAR KIND 1950Z 16012KT 3SM RA
1 59 26 10 18
65 10 20 6
50 60 34 BKN020 15/15 A2973
10 St. Louis

1002 Columbus Pittsburgh

Indianapolis METAR KCMH 1950Z 13018KT 6SM HZ
0VC060 14/10 A2990

METAR KPIT 1950Z 13012KT 10SM

1005
SCT150 12/01 A3002
1008 1011 1014 1017

Figure 11-26. Warm front cross-section with surface weather chart depiction and associated METAR.

11-20
Prior to the passage of a typical cold front, cirriform or Fast-Moving Cold Front
towering cumulus clouds are present, and cumulonimbus Fast-moving cold fronts are pushed by intense pressure
clouds are possible. Rain showers and haze are possible due systems far behind the actual front. The friction between
to the rapid development of clouds. The wind from the south- the ground and the cold front retards the movement of the
southwest helps to replace the warm temperatures with the front and creates a steeper frontal surface. This results in a
relative colder air. A high dew point and falling barometric very narrow band of weather, concentrated along the leading
pressure are indicative of imminent cold front passage. edge of the front. If the warm air being overtaken by the
cold front is relatively stable, overcast skies and rain may
As the cold front passes, towering cumulus or cumulonimbus occur for some distance ahead of the front. If the warm air
clouds continue to dominate the sky. Depending on the is unstable, scattered thunderstorms and rain showers may
intensity of the cold front, heavy rain showers form and form. A continuous line of thunderstorms, or squall line,
might be accompanied by lightning, thunder, and/or hail. may form along or ahead of the front. Squall lines present
More severe cold fronts can also produce tornadoes. During a serious hazard to pilots as squall type thunderstorms are
cold front passage, the visibility is poor, with winds variable intense and move quickly. Behind a fast-moving cold front,
and gusty, and the temperature and dew point drop rapidly. the skies usually clear rapidly and the front leaves behind
A quickly falling barometric pressure bottoms out during gusty, turbulent winds and colder temperatures.
frontal passage, then begins a gradual increase.
Flight Toward an Approaching Cold Front
After frontal passage, the towering cumulus and cumulonimbus
Like warm fronts, not all cold fronts are the same. Examining
clouds begin to dissipate to cumulus clouds with a corresponding
a ight toward an approaching cold front, pilots can get a
decrease in the precipitation. Good visibility eventually
better understanding of the type of conditions that can be
prevails with the winds from the west-northwest. Temperatures
encountered in ight. Figure 11-27 shows a ight from
remain cooler and the barometric pressure continues to rise.
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, toward St. Louis, Missouri.

CO
LD
A WARM AIR
I
R

CUMULONIMBUS

St. Louis Indianapolis Columbus Pittsburgh

200 miles 400 miles 600 miles

1008 1005 1005 1008

1011
METAR KSTL 1950Z 30018KT 10SM
SCT010 08/02 A2979
74 071
3
1011 46 066 71 4 77 102
75 122
METAR KIND 1950Z 20024KT 3SM +TSRA
10 42 6 8
33 10 73 3
70
12 OVC010 24/23 A2974
25
10 35
Indianapolis Columbus Pittsburgh
St. Louis METAR KCMH 1950Z 20012KT 6SM HZ
1014
BKN025 25/24 A2983

METAR KPIT 1950Z 20012KT 3SM FU

SCT035 24/22 A2989
1011 1011 1014

Figure 11-27. Cold front cross-section with surface weather chart depiction and associated METAR.

11-21
At the time of departure from Pittsburgh, the weather is VFR Stationary Front
with three miles visibility in smoke and a scattered layer of When the forces of two air masses are relatively equal, the
clouds at 3,500 feet. As the ight progresses westward to boundary or front that separates them remains stationary and
Columbus and closer to the oncoming cold front, the clouds inuences the local weather for days. This front is called a
show signs of vertical development with a broken layer at stationary front. The weather associated with a stationary
2,500 feet. The visibility is six miles in haze with a falling front is typically a mixture that can be found in both warm
barometric pressure. Approaching Indianapolis, the weather and cold fronts.
has deteriorated to overcast clouds at 1,000 feet, and three
miles visibility with thunderstorms and heavy rain showers. Occluded Front
At St. Louis, the weather gets better with scattered clouds at An occluded front occurs when a fast-moving cold front
1,000 feet and a ten mile visibility. catches up with a slow-moving warm front. As the occluded
front approaches, warm front weather prevails, but is
A pilot using sound judgment based on the knowledge of immediately followed by cold front weather. There are two
frontal conditions would most likely remain in Indianapolis types of occluded fronts that can occur, and the temperatures
until the front had passed. Trying to y below a line of of the colliding frontal systems play a large part in dening
thunderstorms or a squall line is hazardous, and ight over the type of front and the resulting weather. A cold front
the top of or around the storm is not an option. Thunderstorms occlusion occurs when a fast moving cold front is colder
can extend up to well over the capability of small airplanes than the air ahead of the slow moving warm front. When
and can extend in a line for 300 to 500 miles. this occurs, the cold air replaces the cool air and forces the
warm front aloft into the atmosphere. Typically, the cold
Comparison of Cold and Warm Fronts front occlusion creates a mixture of weather found in both
Warm fronts and cold fronts are very different in nature as warm and cold fronts, providing the air is relatively stable.
are the hazards associated with each front. They vary in A warm front occlusion occurs when the air ahead of the
speed, composition, weather phenomenon, and prediction. warm front is colder than the air of the cold front. When this
Cold fronts, which move at 20 to 35 mph, move very quickly is the case, the cold front rides up and over the warm front. If
in comparison to warm fronts, which move at only 10 to the air forced aloft by the warm front occlusion is unstable,
25 mph. Cold fronts also possess a steeper frontal slope. the weather is more severe than the weather found in a cold
Violent weather activity is associated with cold fronts, and front occlusion. Embedded thunderstorms, rain, and fog are
the weather usually occurs along the frontal boundary, not in likely to occur.
advance. However, squall lines can form during the summer
months as far as 200 miles in advance of a severe cold front. Figure 11-28 depicts a cross-section of a typical cold front
Whereas warm fronts bring low ceilings, poor visibility, occlusion. The warm front slopes over the prevailing cooler
and rain, cold fronts bring sudden storms, gusty winds, air and produces the warm front type weather. Prior to the
turbulence, and sometimes hail or tornadoes. passage of the typical occluded front, cirriform and stratiform
clouds prevail, light to heavy precipitation is falling, visibility
Cold fronts are fast approaching with little or no warning, and is poor, dew point is steady, and barometric pressure is
they make a complete weather change in just a few hours. falling. During the passage of the front, nimbostratus and
The weather clears rapidly after passage and drier air with cumulonimbus clouds predominate, and towering cumulus
unlimited visibilities prevail. Warm fronts, on the other hand, may also be possible. Light to heavy precipitation is falling,
provide advance warning of their approach and can take days visibility is poor, winds are variable, and the barometric
to pass through a region. pressure is leveling off. After the passage of the front,
nimbostratus and altostratus clouds are visible, precipitation
Wind Shifts is decreasing and clearing, and visibility is improving.
Wind around a high pressure system rotates in a clockwise
fashion, while low pressure winds rotate in a counter- Thunderstorms
clockwise manner. When two pressure systems are adjacent, For a thunderstorm to form, the air must have sufcient water
the winds are almost in direct opposition to each other at vapor, an unstable lapse rate, and an initial lifting action to
the point of contact. Fronts are the boundaries between two start the storm process. Some storms occur at random in
areas of pressure, and therefore, wind shifts are continually unstable air, last for only an hour or two, and produce only
occurring within a front. Shifting wind direction is most moderate wind gusts and rainfall. These are known as air
pronounced in conjunction with cold fronts.

11-22
 CIRRUS
WARM AIR CIRROSTRATUS
CUMULONIMBUS

ALTOSTRATUS

NIMBOSTRATUS
COL
DA COLD AIR
IR

St. Louis Indianapolis Columbus Pittsburgh

200 miles 400 miles 600 miles

1006 1005 1002 999 999 1002 1005 1006 1011 1014 1017 1020

METAR KSTL 1950Z 31023G40KT 8SM

SCT035 05/M03 A2976

METAR KIND 1950Z 29028G45KT 1/2SM TSRAGR

1023
058 142
VV005 18/16 A2970
42 076 8 52 47 200
66
1 2 34 7 20
8 32 2 51 40
26 62
2 METAR KCMH 1950Z 16017KT 2SM BR
St. Louis Indianapolis OVC080 11/10 A2970
Columbus Pittsburgh

METAR KPIT 1950Z 13012KT 75SM

BKN130 08/04 A3012
1011 1014 1017 1020 1023

Figure 11-28. Occluded front cross-section with a weather chart depiction and associated METAR.

mass thunderstorms and are generally a result of surface maximum intensity during the late afternoon and the rst few
heating. Steady-state thunderstorms are associated with hours of darkness.
weather systems. Fronts, converging winds, and troughs aloft
force upward motion spawning these storms which often Tornadoes
form into squall lines. In the mature stage, updrafts become The most violent thunderstorms draw air into their cloud bases
stronger and last much longer than in air mass storms, hence with great vigor. If the incoming air has any initial rotating
the name steady state. [Figure 11-29] motion, it often forms an extremely concentrated vortex from
the surface well into the cloud. Meteorologists have estimated
Knowledge of thunderstorms and the hazards associated with that wind in such a vortex can exceed 200 knots with pressure
them is critical to the safety of ight. inside the vortex quite low. The strong winds gather dust
and debris and the low pressure generates a funnel-shaped
Hazards cloud extending downward from the cumulonimbus base. If
Weather can pose serious hazards to ight and a thunderstorm the cloud does not reach the surface, it is a funnel cloud; if
packs just about every weather hazard known to aviation into it touches a land surface, it is a tornado.
one vicious bundle. These hazards occur individually or in
combinations and most can be found in a squall line. Tornadoes occur with both isolated and squall line
thunderstorms. Reports for forecasts of tornadoes indicate that
Squall Line atmospheric conditions are favorable for violent turbulence.
A squall line is a narrow band of active thunderstorms. Often An aircraft entering a tornado vortex is almost certain to
it develops on or ahead of a cold front in moist, unstable suffer structural damage. Since the vortex extends well into
air, but it may develop in unstable air far removed from the cloud, any pilot inadvertently caught on instruments in a
any front. The line may be too long to detour easily and too severe thunderstorm could encounter a hidden vortex.
wide and severe to penetrate. It often contains steady-state
thunderstorms and presents the single most intense weather Families of tornadoes have been observed as appendages of
hazard to aircraft. It usually forms rapidly, generally reaching the main cloud extending several miles outward from the area

11-23
 Anvil

Hail

MOVEMENT OF STORM

Figure 11-29. Movement and turbulence of a maturing thunderstorm.

of lightning and precipitation. Thus, any cloud connected to much of the remaining water vapor sublimates as ice crystals.
a severe thunderstorm carries a threat of violence. Above this level, at lower temperatures, the amount of
supercooled water decreases.
Turbulence
Potentially hazardous turbulence is present in all Supercooled water freezes on impact with an aircraft. Clear
thunderstorms, and a severe thunderstorm can destroy an icing can occur at any altitude above the freezing level, but at
aircraft. Strongest turbulence within the cloud occurs with high levels, icing from smaller droplets may be rime or mixed
shear between updrafts and downdrafts. Outside the cloud, rime and clear ice. The abundance of large, supercooled
shear turbulence has been encountered several thousand feet water droplets makes clear icing very rapid between 0 C and
above and 20 miles laterally from a severe storm. A low-level 15 C and encounters can be frequent in a cluster of cells.
turbulent area is the shear zone associated with the gust front. Thunderstorm icing can be extremely hazardous.
Often, a roll cloud on the leading edge of a storm marks the
top of the eddies in this shear and it signies an extremely Thunderstorms are not the only area where pilots could
turbulent zone. Gust fronts often move far ahead (up to 15 encounter icing conditions. Pilots should be alert for icing
miles) of associated precipitation. The gust front causes a anytime the temperature approaches 0 C and visible moisture
rapid and sometimes drastic change in surface wind ahead of is present.
an approaching storm. Advisory Circular (AC) 00-50A, Low
Level Wind Shear, explains in detail the hazards associated Hail
with gust fronts. Figure 1 in the AC shows a schematic truss Hail competes with turbulence as the greatest thunderstorm
section of a thunderstorm with areas outside the cloud where hazard to aircraft. Supercooled drops above the freezing level
turbulence may be encountered. begin to freeze. Once a drop has frozen, other drops latch on
and freeze to it, so the hailstone growssometimes into a
Icing huge ice ball. Large hail occurs with severe thunderstorms
Updrafts in a thunderstorm support abundant liquid water with strong updrafts that have built to great heights.
with relatively large droplet sizes. When carried above Eventually, the hailstones fall, possibly some distance from
the freezing level, the water becomes supercooled. When the storm core. Hail may be encountered in clear air several
temperature in the upward current cools to about 15 C, miles from thunderstorm clouds.

11-24
As hailstones fall through air whose temperature is above Engine Water Ingestion
0 C, they begin to melt and precipitation may reach the Turbine engines have a limit on the amount of water they
ground as either hail or rain. Rain at the surface does not can ingest. Updrafts are present in many thunderstorms,
mean the absence of hail aloft. Possible hail should be particularly those in the developing stages. If the updraft
anticipated with any thunderstorm, especially beneath the velocity in the thunderstorm approaches or exceeds the
anvil of a large cumulonimbus. Hailstones larger than one- terminal velocity of the falling raindrops, very high
half inch in diameter can signicantly damage an aircraft concentrations of water may occur. It is possible that these
in a few seconds. concentrations can be in excess of the quantity of water
turbine engines are designed to ingest. Therefore, severe
Ceiling and Visibility thunderstorms may contain areas of high water concentration
Generally, visibility is near zero within a thunderstorm which could result in ameout and/or structural failure of
cloud. Ceiling and visibility also may be restricted in one or more engines.
precipitation and dust between the cloud base and the ground.
The restrictions create the same problem as all ceiling and Chapter Summary
visibility restrictions; but the hazards are multiplied when Knowledge of the atmosphere and the forces acting within
associated with the other thunderstorm hazards of turbulence, it to create weather is essential to understand how weather
hail, and lightning. affects a ight. By understanding basic weather theories, a
pilot can make sound decisions during ight planning after
Effect on Altimeters receiving weather briengs. For additional information on
Pressure usually falls rapidly with the approach of a the topics discussed in this chapter, see AC 00-6, Aviation
thunderstorm, rises sharply with the onset of the rst gust Weather For Pilots and Flight Operations Personnel;
and arrival of the cold downdraft and heavy rain showers, AC 00-24, Thunderstorms; AC 00-45, Aviation Weather
and then falls back to normal as the storm moves on. This Services; AC 91-74, Pilot Guide Flight in Icing Conditions;
cycle of pressure change may occur in 15 minutes. If the pilot and chapter 7, section 2 of the Aeronautical Information
does not receive a corrected altimeter setting, the altimeter Manual (AIM).
may be more than 100 feet in error.

Lightning
A lightning strike can puncture the skin of an aircraft
and damage communications and electronic navigational
equipment. Although lightning has been suspected of igniting
fuel vapors and causing an explosion, serious accidents due
to lightning strikes are rare. Nearby lightning can blind the
pilot, rendering him or her momentarily unable to navigate
either by instrument or by visual reference. Nearby lightning
can also induce permanent errors in the magnetic compass.
Lightning discharges, even distant ones, can disrupt radio
communications on low and medium frequencies. Though
lightning intensity and frequency have no simple relationship
to other storm parameters, severe storms, as a rule, have a
high frequency of lightning.

11-25
11-26
Chapter 12

Aviation Weather Services

Introduction
In aviation, weather service is a combined effort of the
National Weather Service (NWS), Federal Aviation
Administration (FAA), Department of Defense (DOD), other
aviation groups, and individuals. Because of the increasing
need for worldwide weather services, foreign weather
organizations also provide vital input.

While weather forecasts are not 100 percent accurate,

meteorologists, through careful scientic study and computer
modeling, have the ability to predict weather patterns, trends,
and characteristics with increasing accuracy. Through a
complex system of weather services, government agencies,
and independent weather observers, pilots and other aviation
professionals receive the benet of this vast knowledge base
in the form of up-to-date weather reports and forecasts.
These reports and forecasts enable pilots to make informed
decisions regarding weather and ight safety before and
during a ight.

12-1
Observations by which upper air weather phenomena can be observed:
radiosonde observations and pilot weather reports (PIREPs).
The data gathered from surface and upper altitude
A radiosonde is a small cubic instrumentation package
observations form the basis of all weather forecasts,
which is suspended below a six foot hydrogen or helium
advisories, and briengs. There are four types of weather
lled balloon. Once released, the balloon rises at a rate of
observations: surface, upper air, radar, and satellite.
approximately 1,000 feet per minute (fpm). As it ascends,
Surface Aviation Weather Observations the instrumentation gathers various pieces of data such as
air temperature and pressure, as well as wind speed and
Surface aviation weather observations (METARs) are a
direction. Once the information is gathered, it is relayed to
compilation of elements of the current weather at individual
ground stations via a 300 milliwatt radio transmitter.
ground stations across the United States. The network is
made up of government and privately contracted facilities
The balloon ight can last as long as 2 hours or more and
that provide continuous up-to-date weather information.
can ascend to altitudes as high as 115,000 feet and drift as
Automated weather sources, such as the Automated Weather
far as 125 miles. The temperatures and pressures experienced
Observing Systems (AWOS), Automated Surface Observing
during the ight can be as low as -130 F and pressures as low
Systems (ASOS), Air Route Trafc Control Center (ARTCC)
as a few thousandths of what is experienced at sea level.
facilities, as well as other automated facilities, also play a
major role in the gathering of surface observations.
Since the pressure decreases as the balloon rises in the
atmosphere, the balloon expands until it reaches the limits
Surface observations provide local weather conditions and
of its elasticity. This point is reached when the diameter has
other relevant information for a radius of ve miles of a
increased to over 20 feet. At this point, the balloon pops and
specic airport. This information includes the type of report,
the radiosonde falls back to Earth. The descent is slowed by
station identier, date and time, modier (as required), wind,
means of a parachute. The parachute aids in protecting people
visibility, runway visual range (RVR), weather phenomena,
and objects on the ground. Each year over 75,000 balloons
sky condition, temperature/dew point, altimeter reading, and
are launched. Of that number, 20 percent are recovered and
applicable remarks. The information gathered for the surface
returned for reconditioning. Return instructions are printed
observation may be from a person, an automated station, or
on the side of each radiosonde.
an automated station that is updated or enhanced by a weather
observer. In any form, the surface observation provides
Pilots also provide vital information regarding upper air
valuable information about individual airports around the
weather observations and remain the only real-time source
country. Although the reports cover only a small radius, the
of information regarding turbulence, icing, and cloud heights.
pilot can generate a good picture of the weather over a wide
This information is gathered and led by pilots in ight.
area when many reporting stations are looked at together.
Together, PIREPs and radiosonde observations provide
information on upper air conditions important for ight
Air Route Trafc Control Center (ARTCC)
planning. Many domestic and international airlines have
The ARTCC facilities are responsible for maintaining equipped their aircraft with instrumentation that automatically
separation between ights conducted under instrument ight transmits inight weather observations through the DataLink
rules (IFR) in the en route structure. Center radars (Air Route system to the airline dispatcher who disseminates the data to
Surveillance Radar (ARSR)) acquire and track transponder appropriate weather forecasting authorities.
returns using the same basic technology as terminal radars.
Earlier center radars displayed weather as an area of slashes Radar Observations
(light precipitation) and Hs (moderate rainfall). Because the Weather observers use four types of radar to provide
controller could not detect higher levels of precipitation, pilots information about precipitation, wind, and weather systems.
had to be wary of areas showing moderate rainfall. Newer radar
displays show weather as three shades of blue. Controllers can 1. The WSR-88D NEXRAD radar, commonly called
select the level of weather to be displayed. Weather displays Doppler radar, provides in-depth observations that
of higher levels of intensity make it difcult for controllers to inform surrounding communities of impending
see aircraft data blocks, so pilots should not expect air trafc weather. Doppler radar has two operational modes:
control (ATC) to keep weather displayed continuously. clear air and precipitation. In clear air mode, the radar
is in its most sensitive operational mode because a
Upper Air Observations slow antenna rotation allows the radar to sample the
Observations of upper air weather are more challenging atmosphere longer. Images are updated about every
than surface observations. There are only two methods 10 minutes in this mode.

12-2
 Precipitation targets provide stronger return signals Reflectivity (dBZ) Ranges Weather Radar Echo Intensity
therefore the radar is operated in the Precipitation <30 dBZ Light
mode when precipitation is present. A faster antenna 3040 dBZ Moderate
rotation in this mode allows images to update at >4050 Heavy
a faster rate, approximately every 4 to 6 minutes. 50+ dBZ Extreme
Intensity values in both modes are measured in dBZ
Figure 12-3. WSR-88D Weather Radar Precipitation Intensity
(decibels of Z) and depicted in color on the radar Terminology.
image. [Figure 12-1] Intensities are correlated to
intensity terminology (phraseology) for air trafc 3. The third type of radar commonly used in the detection
control purposes. [Figure 12-2 and 12-3] of precipitation is the FAA airport surveillance radar.
This radar is used primarily to detect aircraft, but it
also detects the location and intensity of precipitation
which is used to route aircraft trafc around severe
weather in an airport environment.
4. Airborne radar is equipment carried by aircraft to
locate weather disturbances. The airborne radars
generally operate in the C or X bands (around 6
GHz or around 10 GHz, respectively) permitting
both penetration of heavy precipitation, required for
determining the extent of thunderstorms, and sufcient
reection from less intense precipitation.

Satellite
Advancement in satellite technologies has recently allowed for
Figure 12-1. Example of a weather radar scope. commercial use to include weather uplinks. Through the use
of satellite subscription services, individuals are now able to
receive satellite transmitted signals that provide near real-time
weather information for the North American continent.

Satellite Weather
Recently private enterprise and satellite technology have
expanded the realm of weather services. Pilots now have
the capability of receiving continuously updated weather
across the entire country at any altitude. No longer are pilots
restricted by radio range or geographic isolations such as
mountains or valleys.

In addition, pilots no longer have to request specific

information from weather brieng personnel directly. When
the weather becomes questionable, radio congestion often
increases, delaying the timely exchange of valuable inight
weather updates for a pilots specic route of ight. Flight
Service Station (FSS) personnel can communicate with only
Figure 12-2. WSR-88D Weather Radar Echo Intensity Legend.
one pilot at a time, which leaves other pilots waiting and
ying in uncertain weather conditions. Satellite weather
2. FAA terminal doppler weather radar (TDWR), installed provides the pilot with a powerful resource for enhanced
at some major airports around the country, also aids in situational awareness at any time. Due to continuous satellite
providing severe weather alerts and warnings to ATC. broadcasts, pilots can obtain a weather brieng by looking at
Terminal radar ensures pilots are aware of wind shear, a display screen. Pilots have a choice between FAA-certied
gust fronts, and heavy precipitation, all of which are devices or portable receivers as a source of weather data.
dangerous to arriving and departing aircraft.

12-3
Satellite Weather Products Service Outlets
Signicant Meteorological Information (SIGMET) Service outlets are government or private facilities that
SIGMETs are weather advisories issued concerning weather provide aviation weather services. Several different
signicant to the safety of all aircraft. SIGMET advisories government agencies, including the FAA, National Oceanic
can cover an area of at least 3,000 square miles and provide and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), and the NWS
data regarding severe and extreme turbulence, severe icing, work in conjunction with private aviation companies to
and widespread dust or sandstorms that reduce visibility to provide different means of accessing weather information.
less than three miles. [Figure 12-4]
Automated Flight Service Station (AFSS)
The AFSS is the primary source for preflight weather
information. A preight weather brieng from an AFSS can
be obtained 24 hours a day by calling 1-800-WX BRIEF from
almost anywhere in the United States. In areas not served by
an AFSS, NWS facilities may provide pilot weather briengs.
Telephone numbers for NWS facilities and additional
numbers for AFSS can be found in the Airport/Facility
Directory (A/FD) or in the United States Government section
of the telephone book.

The AFSS also provides inight weather brieng services, as

well as scheduled and unscheduled weather broadcasts. An
AFSS may also furnish weather advisories to ights within
Figure 12-4. Satellite SIGMET. the AFSS region of authority.

Airmens Meteorological Information (AIRMET) Transcribed Information Brieng Service (TIBS)

AIRMETs are weather advisories issued only to amend The Transcribed Information Brieng Service (TIBS) is
the area forecast concerning weather phenomena which a service prepared and disseminated by selected AFSS. It
are of operational interest to all aircraft and potentially provides continuous telephone recordings of meteorological
hazardous to aircraft having limited capability because of and aeronautical information. Specically, TIBS provides
lack of equipment, instrumentation, or pilot qualications. area and route briengs, airspace procedures, and special
AIRMETs concern weather of less severity than that covered announcements. It is designed to be a preliminary brieng
by SIGMETs or convective SIGMETs. AIRMETs cover tool and is not intended to replace a standard brieng from
moderate icing, moderate turbulence, sustained winds of 30 a FSS specialist. The TIBS service is available 24 hours a
knots or more at the surface, widespread areas of ceilings day and is updated when conditions change, but it can only
less than 1,000 feet and/or visibility less than three miles, be accessed by a touchtone phone. The phone numbers for
and extensive mountain obscurement. [Figure 12-5] the TIBS service are listed in the A/FD.

Direct User Access Terminal Service (DUATS)

The Direct User Access Terminal Service (DUATS), which is
funded by the FAA, allows any pilot with a current medical
certicate to access weather information and le a ight
plan via computer. Two methods of access are available to
connect with DUATS. The rst is via the Internet at http://
www.duats.com. The second method requires a modem and a
communications program supplied by a DUATS provider. To
access the weather information and le a ight plan by this
method, pilots use a toll free telephone number to connect the
users computer directly to the DUATS computer. The current
vendors of DUATS service and the associated phone numbers
are listed in Chapter 7, Safety of Flight, of the Aeronautical
Figure 12-5. Satellite AIRMET. Information Manual (AIM).

12-4
En Route Flight Advisory Service (EFAS) Generally, the broadcast contains a summary of adverse
A service specically designed to provide timely en route conditions, surface weather observations, PIREPS, and a
weather information upon pilot request is known as the en density altitude statement (if applicable). At the discretion of
route ight advisory service (EFAS), or Flight Watch. EFAS the broadcast facility, recordings may also include a synopsis,
provides a pilot with weather advisories tailored to the type winds aloft forecast, en route and terminal forecast data, and
of ight, route, and cruising altitude. EFAS can be one of radar reports. At selected locations, telephone access to the
the best sources for current weather information along the TWEB has been provided (TEL-TWEB). Telephone numbers
route of ight. for this service are found in the Supplement Alaska A/FD.
These broadcasts are made available primarily for preight
A pilot can usually contact an EFAS specialist from 6 a.m. to 10 and inight planning, and as such, should not be considered
p.m. anywhere in the conterminous United States and Puerto as a substitute for specialist-provided preight briengs.
Rico. The common EFAS frequency, 122.0 MHz, is established
for pilots of aircraft ying between 5,000 feet above ground Weather Briengs
level (AGL) and 17,500 feet mean sea level (MSL). Prior to every ight, pilots should gather all information vital
to the nature of the ight. This includes an appropriate weather
Hazardous Inight Weather Advisory (HIWAS) brieng obtained from a specialist at a FSS, AFSS, or NWS.
Hazardous Inight Weather Advisory (HIWAS) is a national
program for broadcasting hazardous weather information For weather specialists to provide an appropriate weather
continuously over selected navigation aids (NAVAIDs). The brieng, they need to know which of the three types of
broadcasts include advisories such as AIRMETS, SIGMETS, briengs is neededstandard, abbreviated, or outlook. Other
convective SIGMETS, and urgent PIREPs. These broadcasts helpful information is whether the ight is visual ight rules
are only a summary of the information, and pilots should (VFR) or IFR, aircraft identication and type, departure
contact a FSS or EFAS for detailed information. NAVAIDs point, estimated time of departure (ETD), ight altitude, route
that have HIWAS capability are depicted on sectional charts of ight, destination, and estimated time en route (ETE).
with an H in the upper right corner of the identication
box. [Figure 12-6] This information is recorded in the ight plan system and a
note is made regarding the type of weather brieng provided.
If necessary, it can be referenced later to le or amend a
ight plan. It is also used when an aircraft is overdue or is
reported missing.

Standard Brieng
A standard brieng is the most complete report and provides
the overall weather picture. This type of brieng should be
obtained prior to the departure of any ight and should be
used during ight planning. A standard brieng provides the
following information in sequential order if it is applicable
to the route of ight.
1. Adverse conditionsthis includes information about
Symbol indicates HIWAS
adverse conditions that may inuence a decision to
cancel or alter the route of ight. Adverse conditions
Figure 12-6. HIWAS availability is shown on sectional chart. include signicant weather, such as thunderstorms or
aircraft icing, or other important items such as airport
Transcribed Weather Broadcast (TWEB) (Alaska closings.
Only)
Equipment is provided in Alaska by which meteorological 2. VFR ight not recommendedif the weather for
and aeronautical data are recorded on tapes and broadcast the route of ight is below VFR minimums, or if
continuously over selected low or medium frequency (L/MF) it is doubtful the ight could be made under VFR
and very high frequency (VHF) omnidirectional radio range conditions due to the forecast weather, the briefer may
navigation system (VOR) facilities. Broadcasts are made state that VFR is not recommended. It is the pilots
from a series of individual tape recordings, and changes, as decision whether or not to continue the ight under
they occur, are transcribed onto the tapes. The information VFR, but this advisory should be weighed carefully.
provided varies depending on the type equipment available.

12-5
 3. Synopsisan overview of the larger weather picture. Aviation Weather Reports
Fronts and major weather systems that affect the
Aviation weather reports are designed to give accurate
general area are provided.
depictions of current weather conditions. Each report
4. Current conditionsthis portion of the brieng contains provides current information that is updated at different
the current ceilings, visibility, winds, and temperatures. times. Some typical reports are METAR, PIREPs, and radar
If the departure time is more than 2 hours away, current weather reports (SDs).
conditions are not included in the brieng.
5. En route forecasta summary of the weather forecast Aviation Routine Weather Report (METAR)
for the proposed route of ight. A METAR is an observation of current surface weather
reported in a standard international format. While the
6. Destination forecasta summary of the expected METAR code has been adopted worldwide, each country is
weather for the destination airport at the estimated allowed to make modications to the code. Normally, these
time of arrival (ETA). differences are minor but necessary to accommodate local
7. Winds and temperatures alofta report of the winds procedures or particular units of measure. This discussion of
at specific altitudes for the route of flight. The METAR will cover elements used in the United States.
temperature information is provided only on request.
8. Notices to Airmen (NOTAM)information pertinent Metars are issued hourly unless signicant weather changes
to the route of ight which has not been published have occurred. A special METAR (SPECI) can be issued at
in the NOTAM publication. Published NOTAM any interval between routine METAR reports.
information is provided during the brieng only when
requested. Example:
METAR KGGG 161753Z AUTO 14021G26 3/4SM
9. ATC delaysan advisory of any known ATC delays +TSRA BR BKN008 OVC012CB 18/17 A2970 RMK
that may affect the ight. PRESFR
10. Other informationat the end of the standard brieng,
the FSS specialist provides the radio frequencies A typical METAR report contains the following information
needed to open a ight plan and to contact EFAS. Any in sequential order:
additional information requested is also provided at 1. Type of reportthere are two types of METAR
this time. reports. The rst is the routine METAR report that
is transmitted every hour. The second is the aviation
Abbreviated Brieng selected SPECI. This is a special report that can be
An abbreviated brieng is a shortened version of the standard given at any time to update the METAR for rapidly
brieng. It should be requested when a departure has been changing weather conditions, aircraft mishaps, or
delayed or when weather information is needed to update the other critical information.
previous brieng. When this is the case, the weather specialist
needs to know the time and source of the previous brieng 2. Station identiera four-letter code as established
so the necessary weather information will not be omitted by the International Civil Aviation Organization
inadvertently. It is always a good idea to update weather (ICAO). In the 48 contiguous states, a unique three-
whenever a pilot has additional time. letter identier is preceded by the letter K. For
example, Gregg County Airport in Longview, Texas, is
Outlook Brieng identied by the letters KGGG, K being the country
designation and GGG being the airport identier.
An outlook brieng should be requested when a planned
In other regions of the world, including Alaska and
departure is 6 hours or more away. It provides initial forecast
Hawaii, the rst two letters of the four-letter ICAO
information that is limited in scope due to the timeframe of
identier indicate the region, country, or state. Alaska
the planned ight. This type of brieng is a good source
identiers always begin with the letters PA and
of ight planning information that can inuence decisions
Hawaii identiers always begin with the letters PH.
regarding route of ight, altitude, and ultimately the go/no-go
A list of station identiers can be found at an FSS or
decision. A prudent pilot requests a follow-up brieng prior
NWS ofce.
to departure since an outlook brieng generally only contains
information based on weather trends and existing weather in
geographical areas at or near the departure airport. A standard
brieng near the time of departure ensures that the pilot has
the latest information available prior to their ight.

12-6
 3. Date and time of reportdepicted in a six-digit group prevailing visibility. RVR is the distance a pilot can
(161753Z). The rst two digits are the date. The last see down the runway in a moving aircraft. When RVR
four digits are the time of the METAR, which is always is reported, it is shown with an R, then the runway
given in coordinated universal time (UTC). A Z is number followed by a slant, then the visual range
appended to the end of the time to denote the time is in feet. For example, when the RVR is reported as
given in Zulu time (UTC) as opposed to local time. R17L/1400FT, it translates to a visual range of 1,400
4. Modierdenotes that the METAR came from an feet on runway 17 left.
automated source or that the report was corrected. 7. Weathercan be broken down into two different
If the notation AUTO is listed in the METAR, the categories: qualifiers and weather phenomenon
report came from an automated source. It also lists (+TSRA BR). First, the qualifiers of intensity,
AO1 or AO2 in the remarks section to indicate proximity, and the descriptor of the weather will
the type of precipitation sensors employed at the be given. The intensity may be light (-), moderate
automated station. ( ), or heavy (+). Proximity only depicts weather
When the modier COR is used, it identies a phenomena that are in the airport vicinity. The notation
corrected report sent out to replace an earlier report VC indicates a specic weather phenomenon is
in the vicinity of ve to ten miles from the airport.
that contained an error (for example: METAR KGGG
Descriptors are used to describe certain types of
161753Z COR).
precipitation and obscurations. Weather phenomena
5. Windreported with ve digits (14021) unless the may be reported as being precipitation, obscurations,
speed is greater than 99 knots, in which case the and other phenomena such as squalls or funnel clouds.
wind is reported with six digits. The rst three digits Descriptions of weather phenomena as they begin or
indicate the direction the true wind is blowing in end, and hailstone size are also listed in the remarks
tens of degrees. If the wind is variable, it is reported sections of the report. [Figure 12-8]
as VRB. The last two digits indicate the speed of
8. Sky conditionalways reported in the sequence
the wind in knots unless the wind is greater than 99
of amount, height, and type or indenite ceiling/
knots, in which case it is indicated by three digits.
height (vertical visibility) (BKN008 OVC012CB).
If the winds are gusting, the letter G follows the
The heights of the cloud bases are reported with a
wind speed (G26). After the letter G, the peak gust
three-digit number in hundreds of feet AGL. Clouds
recorded is provided. If the wind varies more than 60
above 12,000 feet are not detected or reported by an
and the wind speed is greater than six knots, a separate
automated station. The types of clouds, specically
group of numbers, separated by a V, will indicate the
towering cumulus (TCU) or cumulonimbus (CB)
extremes of the wind directions. Figure 12-7 shows
clouds, are reported with their height. Contractions
how the TDWR/Weather System Processor (WSP)
are used to describe the amount of cloud coverage and
determines the true wind, as well as gust front/wind
obscuring phenomena. The amount of sky coverage is
shear location.
reported in eighths of the sky from horizon to horizon.
[Figure 12-9]
9. Temperature and dew pointthe air temperature and
dew point are always given in degrees Celsius (C) or
(C 18/17). Temperatures below 0 C are preceded by
2MD 1MD 9 RWY 27 1MF 2MF 3MF the letter M to indicate minus.
10. Altimeter settingreported as inches of mercury
("Hg) in a four-digit number group (A2970). It is
27A WSA 20K+ RWY 250 20 always preceded by the letter A. Rising or falling
27D WSA 20K+ RWY 250 20
pressure may also be denoted in the remarks sections
as PRESRR or PRESFR respectively.
Figure 12-7. Example of what the controller sees on the ribbon 11. Zulu timea term used in aviation for UTC which
display in the tower cab. places the entire world on one time standard.

6. Visibilitythe prevailing visibility ( SM) is reported

in statute miles as denoted by the letters SM. It is
reported in both miles and fractions of miles. At times,
runway visual range (RVR) is reported following the

12-7
 Qualifier Weather Phenomena

Intensity or Proximity 1 Descriptor 2 Precipitation 3 Obscuration 4 Other 5

Light MI Shallow DZ Drizzle BR Mist PO Dust/sand whirls

Moderate (no qualifier) BC Patches RA Rain FG Fog SQ Squalls

+ Heavy DR Low drifting SN Snow FU Smoke FC Funnel cloud

VC in the vicinity BL Blowing SG Snow grains DU Dust +FC Tornado or waterspout

SH Showers IC Ice crystals (diamond dust) SA Sand SS Sandstorm

TS Thunderstorms PL Ice pellets HZ Haze DS Dust storm

FZ Freezing GR Hail PY Spray

PR Partial GS Small hail or snow pellets VA Volcanic ash

UP *Unknown precipitation
The weather groups are constructed by considering columns 15 in this table in sequence:
intensity, followed by descriptor, followed by weather phenomena (e.g., heavy rain showers(s) is coded as +SHRA).
* Automated stations only

Figure 12-8. Descriptors and weather phenomena used in a typical METAR.

Sky Cover Contraction

140 at 21 knots gusting to 26. Visibility is statute mile.
Thunderstorms with heavy rain and mist. Ceiling is broken
Less than (Clear) SKC, CLR, FEW
(Few) FEW at 800 feet, overcast at 1,200 feet with cumulonimbus clouds.
(Scattered) SCT Temperature 18 C and dew point 17 C. Barometric pressure
(Broken) BKN is 29.70 "Hg and falling rapidly.
or (Overcast) OVC
Pilot Weather Reports (PIREPs)
Figure 12-9. Reportable contractions for sky condition.
PIREPs provide valuable information regarding the conditions
12. Remarksthe remarks section always begins with the as they actually exist in the air, which cannot be gathered from
letters RMK. Comments may or may not appear in any other source. Pilots can conrm the height of bases and
this section of the METAR. The information contained tops of clouds, locations of wind shear and turbulence, and
in this section may include wind data, variable visibility, the location of inight icing. If the ceiling is below 5,000
beginning and ending times of particular phenomenon, feet, or visibility is at or below ve miles, ATC facilities
pressure information, and various other information are required to solicit PIREPs from pilots in the area. When
deemed necessary. An example of a remark regarding unexpected weather conditions are encountered, pilots are
weather phenomenon that does not t in any other encouraged to make a report to a FSS or ATC. When a pilot
category would be: OCNL LTGICCG. This translates weather report is led, the ATC facility or FSS will add it
as occasional lightning in the clouds and from cloud to the distribution system to brief other pilots and provide
to ground. Automated stations also use the remarks inight advisories.
section to indicate the equipment needs maintenance.
PIREPs are easy to le and a standard reporting form outlines
Example: the manner in which they should be led. Figure 12-10 shows
METAR KGGG 161753Z AUTO 14021G26 3/4SM the elements of a PIREP form. Item numbers 1 through 5 are
+TSRA BR BKN008 OVC012CB 18/17 A2970 RMK required information when making a report, as well as at least
PRESFR one weather phenomenon encountered. A PIREP is normally
transmitted as an individual report, but may be appended to
Explanation: a surface report. Pilot reports are easily decoded and most
Routine METAR for Gregg County Airport for the 16th contractions used in the reports are self-explanatory.
day of the month at 1753Z automated source. Winds are

12-8
 Encoding Pilot Weather Reports (PIREPS)
1 XXX 3-letter station identifier Nearest weather reporting location to the reported phenomenon
2 UA Routine PIREP, UUA-Urgent PIREP.
3 /OV Location Use 3-letter NAVAID idents only.
a. Fix: /OV ABC, /OV ABC 090025.
b. Fix: /OV ABC 045020-DEF, /OV ABC-DEF-GHI
4 /TM Time 4 digits in UTC: /TM 0915.
5 /FL Altitude/Flight level 3 digits for hundreds of feet. If not known, use UNKN: /FL095, /FL310, /FLUNKN.
6 /TP Type Aircraft 4 digits maximum. If not known, use UNKN: /TP L329, /TP B727, /TP UNKN.
7 /SK Sky cover/Cloud layers Describe as follows:
a. Height of cloud base in hundreds of feet. If unknown, use UNKN.
b. Cloud cover symbol.
c. Height of cloud tops in hundreds of feet.
8 /WX Weather Flight visibility reported first:
Use standard weather symbols; intensity is not reported:
/WX FV02 R H, /WX FV01 TRW.
9 /TA Air temperature in Celsius (C) If below zero, prefix with a hyphen: /TA 15, /TA -06.
10 /WV Wind Direction in degrees magnetic north and speed in six digits:
/WV 270045, WV 280110.
11 /TB Turbulence Use standard contractions for intensity and type (use CAT or CHOP when
appropriate). Include altitude only if different from /FL, /TB EXTREME, /TB
LGT-MDT BLO 090.
12 /IC Icing Describe using standard intensity and type contractions. Include altitude only if
different than /FL: /IC LGT-MDT RIME, /IC SVR CLR 028-045.
13 /RM Remarks Use free from to clarify the report and type hazardous elements first:
/RM LLWS -15KT SFC-030 DURC RNWY 22 JFK.

Figure 12-10. PIREP encoding and decoding.

Example: RAREPs provide information on the type, intensity, and

UA/OV GGG 090025/TM 1450/FL 060/TP C182/SK location of the echo top of the precipitation. [Figure 12-11]
080 OVC/WX FV 04R/TA 05/WV 270030/TB LGT/RM These reports may also include direction and speed of
HVY RAIN the area of precipitation, as well as the height and base of
the precipitation in hundreds of feet MSL. RAREPs are
Explanation: especially valuable for preight planning to help avoid
Type: .................................Routine pilot report areas of severe weather. However, radar only detects objects
Location: .......................... 25 NM out on the 090 radial,
Gregg County VOR Symbol Meaning
Time: ................................ 1450 Zulu R Rain
Altitude or Flight Level: 6,000 feet RW Rain Shower
Aircraft Type: ................... Cessna 182 S Snow
SW Snow Shower
Sky Cover: ........................8,000 overcast
T Thunderstorm
Visibility/Weather: ........... 4 miles in rain
Temperature: .....................5 Celsius Symbol Intensity
Wind: ................................ 270 at 30 knots - Light
Turbulence: .......................Light (none) Moderate
+ Heavy
Icing: ................................ None reported
++ Very Heavy
Remarks: .......................... Rain is heavy x Intense
xx Extreme
Radar Weather Reports (RAREP)
Contraction Operational Status
Areas of precipitation and thunderstorms are observed by radar
PPINE Radar is operating normally but there are no
on a routine basis. Radar weather reports (RAREPs) or storm echoes being detected.
detections (SDs) are issued by radar stations at 35 minutes PPINA Radar observation is not available.
past the hour, with special reports issued as needed. PPIOM Radar is inoperative or out of service.
AUTO Automated radar report from WSR-88D.

Figure 12-11. Radar weather report codes.

12-9
in the atmosphere that are large enough to be considered Explanation:
precipitation. Cloud bases and tops, ceilings, and visibility The radar report gives the following information: The report
are not detected by radar. is automated from Oklahoma City and was made at 1935
UTC. The echo pattern for this radar report indicates a line of
A typical RAREP will include: echos covering of the area. Thunderstorms and very heavy
rain showers are indicated. The next set of numbers indicates
Location identier and time of radar observation
the azimuth that denes the echo (86 at 40 NM and 199 at
Echo pattern 115 NM). The dimension of this echo is given as 20 NM wide
1. Line (LN)a line of precipitation echoes at least (10 NM on either side of the line dened by the azimuth and
30 miles long, at least four times as long as it is range). The cells within the line are moving from 240 at 25
wide, and at least 25 percent coverage within the knots. The maximum top of the precipitation, as determined
line. by radar and satellite, is 57,000 feet and it is located on the
159 radial, 65 NM out. The last line indicates the intensity
2. Area (AREA)a group of echoes of similar type
of the precipitation, for example in grid QM the intensity is
and not classied as a line.
3, or heavy precipitation. (1 is light and 6 is extreme.)
3. Single cell (CELL)a single isolated convective
echo such as a rain shower. Aviation Forecasts
Area coverage in tenths Observed weather condition reports are often used in the
Type and intensity of weather creation of forecasts for the same area. A variety of different
forecast products are produced and designed to be used in
Azimuth, referenced to true north and range, in the preight planning stage. The printed forecasts that pilots
nautical miles from the radar site of points dening need to be familiar with are the terminal aerodrome forecast
the echo pattern. For lines and areas, there will be two (TAF), aviation area forecast (FA), inight weather advisories
azimuth and range sets that dene the pattern. For (SIGMET, AIRMET), and the winds and temperatures aloft
cells, there will be only one azimuth and range set. forecast (FD).
Dimension of echo patterngiven when the azimuth
and range dene only the center line of the pattern. Terminal Aerodrome Forecasts (TAF)
Cell movementmovement is coded only for cells; A TAF is a report established for the ve statute mile radius
it will not be coded for lines or areas. around an airport. TAF reports are usually given for larger
airports. Each TAF is valid for a 30-hour time period, and is
Maximum top of precipitation and location updated four times a day at 0000Z, 0600Z, 1200Z, and 1800Z.
maximum tops may be coded with the symbols MT The TAF utilizes the same descriptors and abbreviations as
or MTS. If it is coded with MTS, it means that used in the METAR report. The TAF includes the following
satellite data, as well as radar information was used information in sequential order:
to measure the top of the precipitation.
1. Type of reporta TAF can be either a routine forecast
If the contraction AUTO appears in the report, it (TAF) or an amended forecast (TAF AMD).
means the report is automated from WSR-88D weather
radar data. 2. ICAO station identierthe station identier is the
same as that used in a METAR.
The last section is primarily used to prepare radar
summary charts, but can be used during preight 3. Date and time of origintime and date of TAF
to determine the maximum precipitation intensity origination is given in the six-number code with the
within a specic grid box. The higher the number, the rst two being the date, the last four being the time.
greater the intensity. Two or more numbers appearing Time is always given in UTC as denoted by the Z
after a grid box reference, such as PM34, indicates following the number group.
precipitation in consecutive grid boxes. 4. Valid period date and timethe valid forecast time
period is given by a six-digit number group. The rst
Example: two numbers indicate the date, followed by the two-
TLX 1935 LN 8 TRW++ 86/40 199/115 digit beginning time for the valid period, and the last
20W C2425 MTS 570 AT 159/65 AUTO two digits are the ending time.
^MO1 NO2 ON3 PM34 QM3 RL2=

12-10
 5. Forecast windthe wind direction and speed forecast feettemporarily, between 1200Z and 1400Z, visibility 5 sm
are given in a ve-digit number group. The rst three in mistfrom 1500Z winds from 160 at 15 knots, gusting
indicate the direction of the wind in reference to true to 25 knots visibility greater than 6 smclouds scattered
north. The last two digits state the windspeed in knots at 4,000 feet and broken at 25,000 feetfrom 0000Z wind
as denoted by the letters KT. Like the METAR, from 140 at 12 knotsvisibility greater than 6 smclouds
winds greater than 99 knots are given in three digits. broken at 8,000 feet, overcast at 15,000 feetbetween 0000Z
6. Forecast visibilitygiven in statute miles and may and 0400Z, there is 40 percent probability of visibility 3
be in whole numbers or fractions. If the forecast is smthunderstorm with moderate rain showersclouds
greater than six miles, it will be coded as P6SM. broken at 3,000 feet with cumulonimbus cloudsfrom
0400Zwinds from 140 at 8 knotsvisibility greater
7. Forecast signicant weatherweather phenomena are than 6 milesclouds at 4,000 scattered and overcast at
coded in the TAF reports in the same format as the 8,000temporarily between 0400Z and 0800Zvisibility 3
METAR. If no signicant weather is expected during milesthunderstorms with moderate rain showersclouds
the forecast time period, the denotation NSW is overcast at 3,000 feet with cumulonimbus cloudsbecoming
included in the becoming or temporary weather between 0800Z and 1000Zwind from 320 at 7 knotsend
groups. of report (=).
8. Forecast sky conditiongiven in the same manner
as the METAR. Only cumulonimbus (CB) clouds are Area Forecasts (FA)
forecast in this portion of the TAF report as opposed The FA gives a picture of clouds, general weather conditions,
to CBs and towering cumulus in the METAR. and visual meteorological conditions (VMC) expected over
9. Forecast change groupfor any signicant weather a large area encompassing several states. There are six areas
change forecast to occur during the TAF time period, for which area forecasts are published in the contiguous 48
the expected conditions and time period are included states. Area forecasts are issued three times a day and are
in this group. This information may be shown as from valid for 18 hours. This type of forecast gives information
(FM), becoming (BECMG), and temporary (TEMPO). vital to en route operations, as well as forecast information
FM is used when a rapid and signicant change, for smaller airports that do not have terminal forecasts.
usually within an hour, is expected. BECMG is used
when a gradual change in the weather is expected over Area forecasts are typically disseminated in four sections and
a period of no more than 2 hours. TEMPO is used include the following information:
for temporary uctuations of weather, expected to last 1. Headergives the location identier of the source of
less than one hour. the FA, the date and time of issuance, the valid forecast
10. Probability forecasta given percentage that describes time, and the area of coverage.
the probability of thunderstorms and precipitation
occurring in the coming hours. This forecast is not Example:
used for the rst 6 hours of the 24-hour forecast. DFWC FA 120945
SYNOPSIS AND VFR CLDS/WX
Example: SYNOPSIS VALID UNTIL 130400
TAF CLDS/WX VALID UNTIL 122200OTLK VALID
KPIR 111130Z 111212 15012KT P6SM BKN090 122200-130400
TEMPO 1214 5SM BR OK TX AR LA MS AL AND CSTL WTRS
FM1500 16015G25KT P6SM SCT040 BKN250
FM0000 14012KT P6SM BKN080 OVC150 PROB40 0004 Explanation:
3SM TSRA BKN030CB The area forecast shows information given by Dallas Fort
FM0400 1408KT P6SM SCT040 OVC080 Worth, for the region of Oklahoma, Texas, Arkansas,
TEMPO 0408 3SM TSRA OVC030CB Louisiana, Mississippi, and Alabama, as well as a portion of the
BECMG 0810 32007KT= Gulf coastal waters. It was issued on the 12th day of the month
at 0945. The synopsis is valid from the time of issuance until
Explanation: 0400 hours on the 13th. VFR clouds and weather information
Routine TAF for Pierre, South Dakotaon the 11th day on this area forecast are valid until 2200 hours on the 12th and
of the month, at 1130Zvalid for 24 hours from 1200Z the outlook is valid until 0400 hours on the 13th.
on the 11th to 1200Z on the 12thwind from 150 at 12
knotsvisibility greater than 6 smbroken clouds at 9,000

12-11
 2. Precautionary statementsIFR conditions, mountain OK
obscurations, and thunderstorm hazards are described PNDLAND NWAGL SCT030 SCT-BKN100.
in this section. Statements made here regarding height TOPS FL200.
are given in MSL, and if given otherwise, AGL or 15Z AGL SCT040 SCT100. AFT 20Z SCT TSRA DVLPG..
ceiling (CIG) will be noted. FEW POSS SEV. CB TOPS FL450.
Example: OTLKVFR
SEE AIRMET SIERRA FOR IFR CONDS AND MTN
OBSCN. Explanation:
TS IMPLY SEV OR GTR TURB SEV ICE LLWS AND In south central and southeastern Texas, there is a scattered
IFR CONDS. to broken layer of clouds from 1,000 feet AGL with tops at
NON MSL HGTS DENOTED BYAGL OR CIG. 3,000 feet, visibility is 3 to 5 sm in mist. Between 1400Z and
1600Z, the cloud bases are expected to increase to 3,000 feet
Explanation: AGL. After 1900Z, the cloud bases are expected to continue
The area forecast covers VFR clouds and weather, so the to increase to 5,000 feet AGL and the outlook is VFR.
precautionary statement warns that AIRMET Sierra should
be referenced for IFR conditions and mountain obscuration. In northwestern Oklahoma and panhandle, the clouds are
The code TS indicates the possibility of thunderstorms scattered at 3,000 feet with another scattered to broken layer
and implies there may be occurrences of severe or greater at 10,000 feet AGL, with the tops at 20,000 feet. At 1500
turbulence, severe icing, low-level wind shear, and IFR Z, the lowest cloud base is expected to increase to 4,000
conditions. The nal line of the precautionary statement alerts feet AGL with a scattered layer at 10,000 feet AGL. After
the user that heights, for the most part, are MSL. Those that 2000Z, the forecast calls for scattered thunderstorms with
are not MSL will be AGL or CIG. rain developing and a few becoming severe; the CB clouds
will have tops at ight level 450 or 45,000 feet MSL.
3. Synopsisgives a brief summary identifying the
It should be noted that when information is given in the area
location and movement of pressure systems, fronts,
forecast, locations may be given by states, regions, or specic
and circulation patterns.
geological features such as mountain ranges. Figure 12-12
shows an area forecast chart with six regions of forecast,
Example:
states, regional areas, and common geographical features.
SYNOPSISLOW PRES TROF 10Z OK/TX PNHDL
AREA FCST MOV EWD INTO CNTRL-SWRN OK BY
Inight Weather Advisories
04Z. WRMFNT 10Z CNTRL OK-SRN AR-NRN MS FCST
LIFT NWD INTO NERN OK-NRN AR EXTRM NRN MS Inight weather advisories, which are provided to en route
BY 04Z. aircraft, are forecasts that detail potentially hazardous
weather. These advisories are also available to pilots prior to
Explanation: departure for ight planning purposes. An inight weather
As of 1000Z, there is a low pressure trough over the advisory is issued in the form of either an AIRMET, SIGMET,
Oklahoma and Texas panhandle area, which is forecast or convective SIGMET.
to move eastward into central southwestern Oklahoma
by 0400Z. A warm front located over central Oklahoma, AIRMET
southern Arkansas, and northern Mississippi at 1000Z is AIRMETs (WAs) are examples of inight weather advisories
forecast to lift northwestward into northeastern Oklahoma, that are issued every 6 hours with intermediate updates
northern Arkansas, and extreme northern Mississippi by issued as needed for a particular area forecast region. The
0400Z. information contained in an AIRMET is of operational
interest to all aircraft, but the weather section concerns
4. VFR Clouds and WeatherThis section lists expected
phenomena considered potentially hazardous to light aircraft
sky conditions, visibility, and weather for the next 12
and aircraft with limited operational capabilities.
hours and an outlook for the following 6 hours.
An AIRMET includes forecast of moderate icing, moderate
Example:
turbulence, sustained surface winds of 30 knots or greater,
S CNTRL AND SERN TX
widespread areas of ceilings less than 1,000 feet and/or
AGL SCT-BKN010. TOPS 030. VIS 3-5SM BR. 14-16Z
visibilities less than three miles, and extensive mountain
BECMG AGL SCT030. 19Z AGL SCT050.
obscurement.
OTLKVFR

12-12
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Wasatch
Lake Tahoe SW W
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S tr
Lower Upper
Coastal flight information
Dallas/Fort Worth Keys

f
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Plain

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region border
Lower Keys Florida Straits

Figure 12-12. Area forecast region map.

Each AIRMET bulletin has a xed alphanumeric designator, to Childress, Texas, to Oklahoma City that will experience
numbered sequentially for easy identication, beginning with occasional moderate turbulence below 6,000 feet due to
the rst issuance of the day. Sierra is the AIRMET code used strong and gusty low-level winds. It also notes that these
to denote IFR and mountain obscuration; Tango is used to conditions are forecast to continue beyond 2000Z.
denote turbulence, strong surface winds, and low-level wind
shear; and Zulu is used to denote icing and freezing levels. SIGMET
SIGMETs (WSs) are inight advisories concerning non-
Example: convective weather that is potentially hazardous to all
DFWTWA 241650 aircraft. They report weather forecasts that include severe
AIRMET TANGO UPDT 3 FOR TURBC STG icing not associated with thunderstorms, severe or extreme
SFC WINDS AND LLWS VALID UNTIL 242000 turbulence or clear air turbulence (CAT) not associated with
AIRMET TURBC OK TXUPDT thunderstorms, dust storms or sandstorms that lower surface
FROM OKC TO DFW TO SAT TO MAF TO CDS or inight visibilities to below three miles, and volcanic
TO OKC OCNL MDT TURBC BLO 60 DUE TO ash. SIGMETs are unscheduled forecasts that are valid for
STG AND GUSTY LOW LVL WINDS. CONDS 4 hours, but if the SIGMET relates to hurricanes, it is valid
CONTG BYD 2000Z for 6 hours.

Explanation: A SIGMET is issued under an alphabetic identier, from

This AIRMET was issued by DallasFort Worth on the November through Yankee, excluding Sierra and Tango.
24th day of the month, at 1650Z time. On this third update, The rst issuance of a SIGMET is designated as an Urgent
the AIRMET Tango is issued for turbulence, strong surface Weather SIGMET (UWS). Reissued SIGMETs for the same
winds, and low-level wind shear until 2000Z on the same weather phenomenon are sequentially numbered until the
day. The turbulence section of the AIRMET is an update weather phenomenon ends.
for Oklahoma and Texas. It denes an area from Oklahoma
City to Dallas, Texas, to San Antonio, to Midland, Texas,

12-13
Example:
SFOR WS 100130 Explanation:
SIGMET ROME02 VALID UNTIL 100530 The WST indicates this report is a convective SIGMET. The
OR WA current date is the 22nd of the month and it was issued at
FROM SEA TO PDT TO EUG TO SEA 1855Z. It is convective SIGMET number 21C, indicating that
OCNL MOGR CAT BTN 280 AND 350 EXPCD it is the 21st consecutive report issued for the central United
DUE TO JTSTR. States. This report is valid for 2 hours until 2055Z time. The
CONDS BGNG AFT 0200Z CONTG BYD 0530Z . convective SIGMET is for an area from Kansas to Oklahoma
to Texas, in the vicinity of a line from Goodland, Kansas,
Explanation: to Childress, Texas. No signicant thunderstorms are being
This is SIGMET Romeo 2, the second issuance for this reported, but a line of thunderstorms will develop by 1955
weather phenomenon. It is valid until the 10th day of the Zulu time and will move eastward at a rate of 3035 knots
month at 0530Z time. This SIGMET is for Oregon and through 2055Z. Hail up to 2 inches in size is possible with
Washington, for a dened area from Seattle to Portland to the developing thunderstorms.
Eugene to Seattle. It calls for occasional moderate or greater
clear air turbulence between 28,000 and 35,000 feet due to the Winds and Temperature Aloft Forecast (FD)
location of the jet stream. These conditions will be beginning Winds and temperatures aloft forecasts (FD) provide wind
after 0200Z and will continue beyond the forecast scope of and temperature forecasts for specific locations in the
this SIGMET of 0530Z. contiguous United States, including network locations in
Hawaii and Alaska. The forecasts are made twice a day
Convective Signicant Meteorological Information based on the radiosonde upper air observations taken at
(WST) 0000Z and 1200Z.
A convective SIGMET (WST) is an inight weather advisory
issued for hazardous convective weather that affects the safety Through 12,000 feet are true altitudes and above 18,000 feet
of every ight. Convective SIGMETs are issued for severe are pressure altitudes. Wind direction is always in reference to
thunderstorms with surface winds greater than 50 knots, hail true north and wind speed is given in knots. The temperature
at the surface greater than or equal to inch in diameter, or is given in degrees Celsius. No winds are forecast when
tornadoes. They are also issued to advise pilots of embedded a given level is within 1,500 feet of the station elevation.
thunderstorms, lines of thunderstorms, or thunderstorms with Similarly, temperatures are not forecast for any station within
heavy or greater precipitation that affect 40 percent or more 2,500 feet of the station elevation.
of a 3,000 square foot or greater region.
If the wind speed is forecast to be greater than 100 knots but
Convective SIGMETs are issued for each area of the less than 199 knots, the computer adds 50 to the direction
contiguous 48 states but not Alaska or Hawaii. Convective and subtracts 100 from the speed. To decode this type of data
SIGMETs are issued for the eastern (E), western (W), and group, the reverse must be accomplished. For example, when
central (C) United States. Each report is issued at 55 minutes the data appears as 731960, subtract 50 from the 73 and
past the hour, but special reports can be issued during the add 100 to the 19, and the wind would be 230 at 119 knots
interim for any reason. Each forecast is valid for 2 hours. They with a temperature of 60 C. If the wind speed is forecast to
are numbered sequentially each day from 199, beginning be 200 knots or greater, the wind group is coded as 99 knots.
at 00Z time. If no hazardous weather exists, the convective For example, when the data appears as 7799, subtract 50
SIGMET is still issued; however, it states CONVECTIVE from 77 and add 100 to 99, and the wind is 270 at 199 knots
SIGMETNONE. or greater. When the forecast wind speed is calm or less than
5 knots, the data group is coded 9900, which means light
Example: and variable. [Figure 12-13]
MKCC WST 221855
CONVECTIVE SIGMET 21C FD KWBC 151640
BASED ON 151200Z DATA
VALID UNTIL 2055 VALID 151800Z FOR USE 1700-2100Z
KS OK TX TEMPS NEGATIVE ABV 24000
VCNTY GLD-CDS LINE FD 3000 6000 9000 12000 18000 24000 30000
AMA 2714 2725+00 2625-04 2531-15 2542-27 265842
NO SGFNT TSTMS RPRTD
DEN 2321-04 2532-08 2434-19 2441-31 235347
LINE TSTMS DVLPG BY 1955Z WILL MOV EWD
30-35 KT THRU 2055Z Figure 12-13. Winds and temperature aloft report.
HAIL TO 2 IN PSBL

12-14
Explanation of Figure 12-13: current weather information. Signicant weather prognostic
The heading indicates that this FD was transmitted on the 15th charts provide an overall forecast weather picture.
of the month at 1640Z and is based on the 1200Z radiosonde.
The valid time is 1800Z on the same day and should be Surface Analysis Chart
used for the period between 1700Z and 2100Z. The heading The surface analysis chart depicts an analysis of the current
also indicates that the temperatures above 24,000 feet MSL surface weather. [Figure 12-14] This chart is a computer
are negative. Since the temperatures above 24,000 feet are prepared report that is transmitted every 3 hours and covers
negative, the minus sign is omitted. the contiguous 48 states and adjacent areas. A surface analysis
chart shows the areas of high and low pressure, fronts,
A four-digit data group shows the wind direction in reference temperatures, dew points, wind directions and speeds, local
to true north and the wind speed in knots. The elevation at weather, and visual obstructions.
Amarillo, Texas (AMA) is 3,605 feet, so the lowest reportable
altitude is 6,000 feet for the forecast winds. In this case, Surface weather observations for reporting points across
2714 means the wind is forecast to be from 270 at a speed the United States are also depicted on this chart. Each of
of 14 knots. these reporting points is illustrated by a station model.
[Figure 12-15] A station model includes:
A six-digit group includes the forecast temperature aloft.
Type of observationa round model indicates an
The elevation at Denver (DEN) is 5,431 feet, so the lowest
ofcial weather observer made the observation. A
reportable altitude is 9,000 feet for the winds and temperature
square model indicates the observation is from an
forecast. In this case, 2321-04 indicates the wind is forecast
automated station. Stations located offshore give data
to be from 230 at a speed of 21 knots with a temperature
from ships, buoys, or offshore platforms.
of 4 C.
Sky coverthe station model depicts total sky cover
Weather Charts and is shown as clear, scattered, broken, overcast, or
obscured/partially obscured.
Weather charts are graphic charts that depict current or
forecast weather. They provide an overall picture of the Cloudsrepresented by specic symbols. Low cloud
United States and should be used in the beginning stages of symbols are placed beneath the station model, while
ight planning. Typically, weather charts show the movement middle and high cloud symbols are placed directly
of major weather systems and fronts. Surface analysis, above the station model. Typically, only one type of
weather depiction, and radar summary charts are sources of cloud will be depicted with the station model.

Figure 12-14. Surface analysis chart.

12-15
 Wind speed Total sky cover High cloud type

Wind direction Middle cloud type

Temperature Sea level pressure

Present weather Pressure change in past 3 hours

34 147

Dew point **
32
28 / Pressure tendency

Low cloud type .45 6 Hour precipitation

1. Total sky cover: Overcast

2. Temperature/Dew point: 34 F/32 F
3. Wind: From the northwest at 20 knots (relative to true north)
Examples of Wind Speed and Direction Plots
Calm NE/ 5 kts SW/ 10 kts N/ 15 kts N / 50 kts S / 60 kts

4. Present weather: Continuous light snow

5. Predominant low, middle, high cloud reported: Strato fractus or cumulus, fractus of bad weather, altocumulus in patches
and dense cirrus
6. Sea level pressure: 1014.7 millibars (mb)
Note: Pressure is always shown in 3 digits to the nearest tenth of a millibar.
For 1,000 mb or greater, prefix a 10 to the 3 digits
For less than 1,000 mb, prefix a 9 to the 3 digits
7. Pressure change in past 3 hours: Increased steadily or unsteadily by 2.8 mb
8. 6-hour precipitation: 45 hundredths of an inch. The amount is given to the nearest hundredth of an inch.

Figure 12-15. Sample station model and weather chart symbols.

Sea level pressuregiven in three digits to the nearest Weather Depiction Chart
tenth of a millibar (mb). For 1,000 mbs or greater, A weather depiction chart details surface conditions as
prex a 10 to the three digits. For less than 1,000 mbs, derived from METAR and other surface observations. The
prex a 9 to the three digits. weather depiction chart is prepared and transmitted by
Pressure change/tendencypressure change in tenths computer every 3 hours beginning at 0100Z time, and is valid
of mb over the past 3 hours. This is depicted directly at the time of the plotted data. It is designed to be used for
below the sea level pressure. ight planning by giving an overall picture of the weather
across the United States. [Figure 12-16]
Precipitationa record of the precipitation that has
fallen over the last 6 hours to the nearest hundredth This type of chart typically displays major fronts or areas
of an inch. of high and low pressure. The weather depiction chart
Dew pointgiven in degrees Fahrenheit. also provides a graphic display of IFR, VFR, and MVFR
Present weatherover 100 different weather symbols (marginal VFR) weather. Areas of IFR conditions (ceilings
are used to describe the current weather. less than 1,000 feet and visibility less than three miles) are
shown by a hatched area outlined by a smooth line. MVFR
Temperaturegiven in degrees Fahrenheit. regions (ceilings 1,000 to 3,000 feet, visibility 3 to 5 miles)
Windtrue direction of wind is given by the wind are shown by a nonhatched area outlined by a smooth line.
pointer line, indicating the direction from which the Areas of VFR (no ceiling or ceiling greater than 3,000 feet
wind is coming. A short barb is equal to 5 knots of and visibility greater than ve miles) are not outlined.
wind, a long barb is equal to 10 knots of wind, and a
pennant is equal to 50 knots.

12-16


Figure 12-16. Weather depiction chart.

Weather depiction charts show a modied station model that

Movement of cellsindividual cell movement is
provides sky conditions in the form of total sky cover, cloud
indicated by an arrow pointing in the direction of
height or ceiling, weather, and obstructions to visibility, but
movement. The speed of movement in knots is the
does not include winds or pressure readings like the surface
number at the top of the arrow head. LM indicates
analysis chart. A bracket ( ] ) symbol to the right of the station
little movement.
indicates the observation was made by an automated station.
A detailed explanation of a station model is depicted in the Type of precipitationthe type of precipitation is
previous discussion of surface analysis charts. marked on the chart using specic symbols. These
symbols are not the same as used on the METAR
Radar Summary Chart charts.
A radar summary chart is a graphically depicted collection Echo congurationechoes are shown as being areas,
of radar weather reports (SDs). [Figure 12-17] The chart cells, or lines.
is published hourly at 35 minutes past the hour. It displays
Weather watchessevere weather watch areas for
areas of precipitation, as well as information regarding the
tornadoes and severe thunderstorms are depicted by
characteristics of the precipitation. [Figure 12-18] A radar
boxes outlined with heavy dashed lines.
summary chart includes:
No informationif information is not reported, the The radar summary chart is a valuable tool for preight
chart will say NA. If no echoes are detected, the planning. It does, however, contain several limitations
chart will say NE. for the usage of the chart. This chart depicts only areas of
Precipitation intensity contoursintensity can be precipitation. It will not show areas of clouds and fog with
described as one of six levels and is shown on the no appreciable precipitation, or the height of the tops and
chart by three contour intervals. bases of the clouds. Radar summary charts are a depiction
of current precipitation and should be used in conjunction
Height of topsthe heights of the echo tops are given
with current METAR and weather forecasts.
in hundreds of feet MSL.

12-17
Figure 12-17. Radar summary chart.

Symbol Meaning feet). The primary concern of this discussion is the low-level
R Rain
signicant weather prognostic chart.
RW Rain shower
The low-level chart comes in two forms: the 12 and 24hour
S Snow forecast chart, and the 36- and 48-hour surface forecast chart.
SW Snow shower The rst chart is a four-panel chart that includes 12 and 24
T Thunderstorm hour forecasts for signicant weather and surface weather.
Charts are issued four times a day at 0000Z, 0600Z, 1200Z,
NA Not available
and 1800Z. The valid time for the chart is printed on the
NE No echoes lower left corner of each panel.
OM Out for maintenance
35 Cell movement to the northeast at 35 knots The upper two panels show forecast signicant weather,
which may include nonconvective turbulence, freezing levels,
LM Little movement
and IFR or MVFR weather. Areas of moderate or greater
WS999 Severe thunderstorm watch number 999 turbulence are enclosed in dashed lines. Numbers within these
WT210 Tornado watch number 210 areas give the height of the turbulence in hundreds of feet
SLD 8/10 or greater coverage in a line MSL. Figures below the line show the anticipated base, while
gures above the line show the top of the zone of turbulence.
Line of echoes
Also shown on this panel are areas of VFR, IFR, and MVFR.
Figure 12-18. Intensity levels, contours, and precipitation type
IFR areas are enclosed by solid lines, MVFR areas are
symbols. enclosed by scalloped lines, and the remaining, unenclosed
area is designated VFR. Zigzag lines and the letters SFC
Signicant Weather Prognostic Charts indicate freezing levels in that area are at the surface. Freezing
Signicant weather prognostic charts are available for low- level height contours for the highest freezing level are drawn
level signicant weather from the surface to FL 240 (24,000 at 4,000-foot intervals with dashed lines.
feet), also referred to as the 400 mb level, and high-level
signicant weather from FL 250 to FL 600 (25,000 to 60,000

12-18
The lower two panels show the forecast surface weather and ATC Radar Weather Displays
depicts the forecast locations and characteristics of pressure
Although ATC systems cannot always detect the presence
systems, fronts, and precipitation. Standard symbols are used
or absence of clouds, they can often determine the intensity
to show fronts and pressure centers. Direction of movement
of a precipitation area, but the specic character of that area
of the pressure center is depicted by an arrow. The speed
(snow, rain, hail, VIRGA, etc.) cannot be determined. For
in knots is shown next to the arrow. In addition, areas of
this reason, ATC refers to all weather areas displayed on ATC
forecast precipitation and thunderstorms are outlined. Areas of
radar scopes as precipitation.
precipitation that are shaded indicate at least one-half of the area
is being affected by the precipitation. Unique symbols indicate
ARTCC facilities normally use a Weather and Radar
the type of precipitation and the manner in which it occurs.
Processor (WARP) to display a mosaic of data obtained
from multiple NEXRAD sites. There is a time delay between
Figure 12-19 depicts a typical signicant weather prognostic
actual conditions and those displayed to the controller. The
chart as well as the symbols typically used to depict
precipitation data on the ARTCC controllers display could
precipitation. Prognostic charts are an excellent source of
be up to 6 minutes old. The WARP processor is only used
information for preight planning; however, this chart should
in ARTCC facilities. All ATC facilities using radar weather
be viewed in light of current conditions and specic local
processors with the ability to determine precipitation
area forecasts.
intensity, describe the intensity to pilots as:
The 36- and 48-hour signicant weather prognostic chart Light,
is an extension of the 12- and 24-hour forecast. It provides Moderate,
information regarding surface weather forecasts and includes
Heavy, or
a discussion of the forecast. This chart is issued twice a day.
It typically contains forecast positions and characteristics Extreme.
of pressure patterns, fronts, and precipitation. An example
of a 36- and 48-hour surface prognostic chart is shown in
Figure 12-20.

Figure 12-19. Significant weather prognostic chart and legend (inset).

12-19
Figure 12-20. 36- (top) and 48-hour (bottom) surface prognostic chart.

12-20
When the WARP is not available, a second system, the acknowledging the advisory and requesting an alternative
narrowband Air Route Surveillance Radar (ARSR) can course of action as follows:
display two distinct levels of precipitation intensity that will Request to deviate off course by stating the number of
be described to pilots as MODERATE and HEAVY TO miles and the direction of the requested deviation.
EXTREME.
Request a new route to avoid the affected area.
ATC facilities that cannot display the intensity levels of Request a change of altitude.
precipitation due to equipment limitations will describe the
Request radar vectors around the affected areas.
location of the precipitation area by geographic position,
or position relative to the aircraft. Since the intensity level
It should be remembered that the controllers primary
is not available, the controller will state INTENSITY
function is to provide safe separation between aircraft. Any
UNKNOWN.
additional service, such as weather avoidance assistance, can
only be provided to the extent that it does not detract from the
ATC radar is not able to detect turbulence. Generally, turbulence
primary function. Its also worth noting that the separation
can be expected to occur as the rate of rainfall or intensity of
workload is generally greater than normal when weather
precipitation increases. Turbulence associated with greater rates
disrupts the usual ow of trafc. ATC radar limitations and
of rainfall/precipitation will normally be more severe than any
frequency congestion may also be a factor in limiting the
associated with lesser rates of rainfall/precipitation. Turbulence
controllers capability to provide additional service.
should be expected to occur near convective activity, even in
clear air. Thunderstorms are a form of convective activity that
Electronic Flight Displays (EFD) /Multi-
imply severe or greater turbulence. Operation within 20 miles
Function Display (MFD) Weather
of thunderstorms should be approached with great caution,
as the severity of turbulence can be much greater than the Many aircraft manufacturers now include satellite weather
precipitation intensity might indicate. services with new electronic ight display (EFD) systems.
EFDs give a pilot access to many of the satellite weather
Weather Avoidance Assistance services available.
To the extent possible, controllers will issue pertinent
information on weather and assist pilots in avoiding such Products available to a pilot on the display pictured in
areas when requested. Pilots should respond to a weather Figure 12-21 are listed as follows. The letters in parentheses
advisory by either acknowledging the advisory or by indicate the soft key to press in order to access the data.

Figure 12-21. Information page.

12-21
 Graphical NEXRAD data (NEXRAD)
Graphical METAR data (METAR)
Textual METAR data
NORTH UP
Textual terminal aerodrome forecasts (TAF)
NEXRAD
City forecast data
Graphical wind data (WIND) RAIN
Graphical echo tops (ECHO TOPS) L H
Graphical cloud tops (CLD TOPS) I E
G MIX A
Graphical lightning strikes (LTNG)
Graphical storm cell movement (CELL MOV) H V
NEXRAD radar coverage (information displayed with T SNOW Y
the NEXRAD data)
SIGMETs/AIRMETs (SIG/AIR)
Surface analysis to include city forecasts (SFC) SIGMET
County warnings (COUNTY) __/__ __:__
Freezing levels (FRZ LVL)
Hurricane track (CYCLONE)
AIRMET
Temporary ight restrictions (TFR) __/__ __:__
Pilots must be familiar with any EFD or MFD used and the Figure 12-22. List of weather products and the expiration times
of each.
satellite weather products available on the display.
NEXRAD radar produces two levels of products: level II
Weather Products Age and Expiration and level III.
The information displayed using a satellite weather link is near
real time but should not be thought of as instantaneous up- Level II Data Products
to-date information. Each type of weather display is stamped All NEXRAD level-II data products are available through the
with the age information on the MFD. The time is referenced National Climatic Data Center (NCDC). Level II data consists
from Zulu when the information was assembled at the ground of the three meteorological base data quantities: reectivity,
station. The age should not be assumed to be the time when mean radial velocity, and spectrum width.
the FIS received the information from the satellite.
Level III Data Products
Two types of weather are displayed on the screen: current
There are 41 products routinely available through the
weather and forecast data. Current information is displayed
NCDC. Level III graphic products are available as digital
by an age while the forecast data has a data stamp in the form
images, color hard copy, gray scale hard copy, or acetate
of __ / __ __ : __. [Figure 12-22]
overlay copies. This information is then encoded and
disseminated through the satellite weather system as well
The Next Generation Weather Radar System
as other sources.
(NEXRAD)
The NEXRAD system is comprised of a series of 159 Weather
NEXRAD level III data for up to a 2,000 mile range can be
Surveillance Radar1988 Doppler (WSR-88D) sites situated
displayed. It is important to realize that the radar image is not
throughout the United States as well as selected oversees sites.
real time and can be up to 5 minutes old. At no time should
The NEXRAD system is a joint venture between the United
the images be used as storm penetrating radar nor to navigate
States Department of Commerce (DOC), the United States
through a line of storms. The images display should only be
Department of Defense, (DOD) as well as the United States
used as a reference.
Department of Transportation (DOT). The individual agencies
that have control over the system are the NWS, Air Force
Weather Agency (AFWA) and the FAA. [Figure 12-23]

12-22
Figure 12-23. NEXRAD radar display.

NEXRAD radar is mutually exclusive of Topographic Interference from buildings or mountains, which may
(TOPO), TERRAIN and STORMSCOPE. When cause shadows
NEXRAD is turned on, TOPO, TERRAIN, and Military aircraft which deploy metallic dust and may
STORMSCOPE are turned off because the colors used to reect the radar signature
display intensities are very similar.
NEXRAD Limitations
Lightning information is available to assist when NEXRAD
In addition to the abnormalities listed, the NEXRAD system
is enabled. This presents a more vivid picture of the weather
does have some specic limitations.
in the surrounding area.
Base Reectivity
In addition to utilizing the soft keys to activate the NEXRAD
display, the pilot also has the option of setting the desired The NEXRAD base reectivity does not provide adequate
range. It is possible to zoom in on a specic area of the information from which to determine cloud layers or type
display in order to gain a more detailed picture of the radar of precipitation with respect to hail versus rain. Therefore, a
display. [Figure 12-24] pilot may mistake rain for hail.

NEXRAD Abnormalities In addition, the base reectivity is sampled at the minimum

antenna elevation angle. With this minimum angle, an
Although NEXRAD is a compilation of stations across
individual site cannot depict high altitude storms directly
the country, there can be abnormalities associated with the
over the station. This will leave an area of null coverage if
system. Some of the abnormalities are listed below.
an adjacent site does not also cover the affected area.
Ground clutter
Strobes and spurious radar data
Sun strobes, when the radar antenna points directly at
the sun

12-23
Figure 12-24. NEXRAD radar display (500 mile range). The individual color gradients can be easily discerned and interpreted via the
legend in the upper right corner of the screen. Additional information can be gained by pressing the LEGEND soft key, which displays
the legend page.

Resolution Display Graphical METARs

The resolution of the displayed data will pose additional METARs can be displayed on the multi-function display.
concerns when the range is decreased. The minimum Each reporting station that has a METAR/TAF available
resolution for NEXRAD returns is two kilometers. This means is depicted by a ag from the center of the airport symbol.
that when the display range is zoomed in to approximately Each ag is color coded to depict the type of weather that
ten miles, the individual square return boxes will be more is currently reported at that station. A legend is available to
prevalent. Each square will indicate the strongest display assist users in determining what each ag color represents.
return within that two kilometer square area. [Figure 12-27]

AIRMET/SIGMET Display The graphical METAR display shows all available reporting
AIRMET/SIGMET information is available for the displayed stations within the set viewing range. By setting the range
viewing range on the MFD. Some displays are capable of knob up to a 2,000 mile range, pilots can pan around the
displaying weather information for a 2,000 mile range. display map to check the current conditions of various
AIRMETS/SIGMETS are displayed by dashed lines on the airports along the route of ight.
map. [Figure 12-25]
By understanding what each colored ag indicates, a pilot can
The legend box denotes the various colors used to depict the quickly determine where weather patterns display marginal
AIRMETs such as icing, turbulence, IFR weather, mountain weather, IFR, or areas of VFR. These ags make it easy to
obscuration as well as surface winds. [Figure 12-26] The great determine weather at a specic airport should the need arise
advantage of the graphically displayed AIRMET/SIGMET to divert from the intended airport of landing.
boundary box is the pilot can see the extent of the area that
the report covers. The pilot does not need to manually plot the
points to determine the full extent of the coverage area.

12-24
Figure 12-25. The AIRMET information box instructs the pilot to press the enter button to gain additional information on the selected area
of weather. Once the enter soft key (ENT) is depressed, the specic textual information is displayed on the right side of the screen.

Figure 12-26. SIGMET/AIRMET legend display.

12-25
Figure 12-27. Graphical METAR legend display.

Chapter Summary
While no weather forecast is guaranteed to be 100 percent
accurate, pilots have access to a myriad of weather
information on which to base ight decisions. Weather
products available for preflight planning to en route
information received over the radio or via satellite link
provide the pilot with the most accurate and up-to-date
information available. Each report provides a piece of the
weather puzzle. Pilots must use several reports to get an
overall picture and gain an understanding of the weather that
will affect the safe completion of a ight.

12-26
Chapter 13

Airport
Operations
Introduction
Each time a pilot operates an aircraft, the ight normally
begins and ends at an airport. An airport may be a small sod
eld or a large complex utilized by air carriers. This chapter
examines airport operations, identies features of an airport
complex, and provides information on operating on or in the
vicinity of an airport.

Types of Airports
There are two types of airportstowered and nontowered.
These types can be further subdivided to:
Civil Airportsairports that are open to the general
public.
Military/Federal Government airportsairports
operated by the military, National Aeronautics and
Space Administration (NASA), or other agencies of
the Federal Government.
Private airportsairports designated for private or
restricted use only, not open to the general public.

13-1
Towered Airport operating control tower. The CTAF may be a Universal
A towered airport has an operating control tower. Air trafc Integrated Community (UNICOM), MULTICOM, Flight
control (ATC) is responsible for providing the safe, orderly, Service Station (FSS), or tower frequency and is identied
and expeditious ow of air trafc at airports where the in appropriate aeronautical publications. UNICOM is a
type of operations and/or volume of trafc requires such a nongovernment air/ground radio communication station
service. Pilots operating from a towered airport are required which may provide airport information at public use airports
to maintain two-way radio communication with air trafc where there is no tower or FSS. On pilot request, UNICOM
controllers, and to acknowledge and comply with their stations may provide pilots with weather information, wind
instructions. Pilots must advise ATC if they cannot comply direction, the recommended runway, or other necessary
with the instructions issued and request amended instructions. information. If the UNICOM frequency is designated as
A pilot may deviate from an air trafc instruction in an the CTAF, it will be identied in appropriate aeronautical
emergency, but must advise ATC of the deviation as soon publications. Figure 13-1 lists recommended communication
as possible. procedures. More information on radio communications is
discussed later in this chapter.
Nontowered Airport
An nontowered airport does not have an operating control Sources for Airport Data
tower. Two-way radio communications are not required, When a pilot ies into a different airport, it is important to
although it is a good operating practice for pilots to transmit review the current data for that airport. This data provides the
their intentions on the specied frequency for the benet pilot with information, such as communication frequencies,
of other trafc in the area. The key to communicating at services available, closed runways, or airport construction.
an airport without an operating control tower is selection Three common sources of information are:
of the correct common frequency. The acronym CTAF,
Aeronautical Charts
which stands for Common Trafc Advisory Frequency,
is synonymous with this program. A CTAF is a frequency Airport/Facility Directory (A/FD)
designated for the purpose of carrying out airport advisory Notices to Airmen (NOTAMs)
practices while operating to or from an airport without an

Cummunication/Broadcast Procedures
Facility at Airport Frequency Use
Practice Instrument
Outbound Inbound Approach
UNICOM Communicate with UNICOM Before taxiing and 10 miles out.
(no tower or FSS) station on published CTAF before taxiing on the Entering downwind,
frequency (122.7, 122.8, 122.725, runway for departure. base, and final.
122.975, or 123.0). If unable to Leaving the runway.
contact UNICOM station, use self-
announce procedures on CTAF.

No tower, FSS, Self-announce on MULTICOM Before taxiing and 10 miles out. Departing final
or UNICOM frequency 122.9. before taxiing on the Entering downwind, approach fix (name)
runway for departure. base, and final. or on final approach
Leaving the runway. segment inbound.

No tower in Communicate with FSS on CTAF Before taxiing and 10 miles out. Approach
operation, FSS open frequency. before taxiing on the Entering downwind, completed/terminated.
runway for departure. base, and final.
Leaving the runway.

FSS closed Self-announce on CTAF. Before taxiing and 10 miles out.

(no tower) before taxiing on the Entering downwind,
runway for departure. base, and final.
Leaving the runway.

Tower or FSS Self-announce on CTAF. Before taxiing and 10 miles out.

not in operation before taxiing on the Entering downwind,
runway for departure. base, and final.
Leaving the runway.

Figure 13-1. Recommended communication procedures.

13-2
Aeronautical Charts routing, visual ight rules (VFR) waypoints, a listing of very
Aeronautical charts provide specic information on airports. high frequency (VHF) omnidirectional range (VOR) receiver
Chapter 15, Navigation, contains an excerpt from an checkpoints, aeronautical chart bulletins, land and hold short
aeronautical chart and an aeronautical chart legend, which operations (LAHSO) for selected airports, airport diagrams
provides guidance on interpreting the information on the for selected towered airports, en route flight advisory
chart. service (EFAS) outlets, parachute jumping areas, and facility
telephone numbers. It would be helpful to review an A/FD to
Airport/Facility Directory (A/FD) become familiar with the information it contains.
The A/FD provides the most comprehensive information on
a given airport. It contains information on airports, heliports, Notices to Airmen (NOTAMs)
and seaplane bases that are open to the public. The A/FD is NOTAMs provide the most current information available.
published in seven books, which are organized by regions and They provide time-critical information on airports and
are revised every 56 days. The A/FD is also available digitally changes that affect the national airspace system (NAS) and
at www.naco.faa.gov. Figure 13-2 contains an excerpt from are of concern to IFR operations. NOTAM information is
a directory. For a complete listing of information provided classied into three categories. These are NOTAM-D or
in an A/FD and how the information may be decoded, refer distant, NOTAM-L or local, and ight data center (FDC)
to the Directory Legend Sample located in the front of NOTAMs. NOTAM-Ds are attached to hourly weather
each A/FD. reports and are available at automated ight service stations
(AFSS) or FSS.
In addition to airport information, each A/FD contains
information such as special notices, Federal Aviation FDC NOTAMs are issued by the National Flight Data Center
Administration (FAA) and National Weather Service (NWS) and contain regulatory information, such as temporary
telephone numbers, preferred instrument ight rules (IFR) ight restrictions or an amendment to instrument approach

Figure 13-2. Airport/Facility Directory excerpt.

13-3
procedures. The NOTAM-Ds and FDC NOTAMs are Airport Markings and Signs
contained in the NOTAM publication, which is issued every
There are markings and signs used at airports, which provide
28 days. Prior to any ight, pilots should check for any
directions and assist pilots in airport operations. Some of the
NOTAMs that could affect their intended ight.
most common markings and signs are discussed. Additional
information may be found in Chapter 2, Aeronautical
NOTAM-D information includes such data as taxiway
Lighting and Other Airport Visual Aids, in the Aeronautical
closures, personnel and equipment near or crossing runways,
Information Manual (AIM).
and airport lighting aids that do not affect instrument
approach criteria, such as visual approach slope indicator
Runway Markings
(VASI). NOTAM-D information is distributed locally only
Runway markings vary depending on the type of operations
and is not attached to the hourly weather reports. A separate
conducted at the airport. Figure 13-3 shows a runway that
le of local NOTAMs is maintained at each FSS for facilities
is approved as a precision instrument approach runway and
in their area only. NOTAM-D information for other FSS areas
some other common runway markings. A basic VFR runway
must be specically requested directly from the FSS that has
may only have centerline markings and runway numbers.
responsibility for the airport concerned.

LEGEND

Surface Painted In-Pavement Runway Guard Lights

Runway Marking
Elevated Runway Guard Lights

Stop Bar

Centerline/Lead-On Lights
Clearance Bar Lights
19

4 Position Marking

Stop Bar/ILS Hold Vehicle Lanes

(Zipper Style)

Terminal

Non-Movement Area
A

A
Taxiway Edge Marking (Do Not Cross)
Hold Marking for
Land and Hold 4 Taxiway/Taxiway Hold Marking
Short Operations

Figure 13-3. Selected airport markings and surface lighting.

13-4
Since aircraft are affected by the wind during takeoffs intended to be used by an aircraft. If it is a dashed marking,
and landings, runways are laid out according to the local an aircraft may use that portion of the pavement. Where a
prevailing winds. Runway numbers are in reference to taxiway approaches a runway, there may be a holding position
magnetic north. Certain airports have two or even three marker. These consist of four yellow lines (two solid and two
runways laid out in the same direction. These are referred to dashed). The solid lines are where the aircraft is to hold. At
as parallel runways and are distinguished by a letter added some towered airports, holding position markings may be
to the runway number (e.g., runway 36L (left), 36C (center), found on a runway. They are used when there are intersecting
and 36R (right)). runways, and ATC issues instructions such as cleared to
landhold short of runway 30.
Another feature of some runways is a displaced threshold. A
threshold may be displaced because of an obstruction near Other Markings
the end of the runway. Although this portion of the runway Some other markings found on the airport include vehicle
is not to be used for landing, it may be available for taxiing, roadway markings, VOR receiver checkpoint markings, and
takeoff, or landing rollout. Some airports may have a blast non-movement area boundary markings.
pad/stopway area. The blast pad is an area where a propeller
or jet blast can dissipate without creating a hazard. The Vehicle roadway markings are used when necessary to dene
stopway area is paved in order to provide space for an aircraft a pathway for vehicle crossing areas that are also intended
to decelerate and stop in the event of an aborted takeoff. These for aircraft. These markings usually consist of a solid white
areas cannot be used for takeoff or landing. line to delineate each edge of the roadway and a dashed line
to separate lanes within the edges of the roadway. In lieu of
Taxiway Markings the solid lines, zipper markings may be used to delineate the
Aircraft use taxiways to transition from parking areas to the edges of the vehicle roadway. [Figure 13-4]
runway. Taxiways are identied by a continuous yellow
centerline stripe and may include edge markings to dene the A VOR receiver checkpoint marking consists of a painted
edge of the taxiway. This is usually done when the taxiway circle with an arrow in the middle. The arrow is aligned in
edge does not correspond with the edge of the pavement. If an the direction of the checkpoint azimuth. This allows pilots to
edge marking is a continuous line, the paved shoulder is not check aircraft instruments with navigational aid signals.

Roadway edge stripes, Roadway lane line

white, continuous 6" white 6" (15 cm)
(15 cm) wide wide dashes 15'
(4.5 m) long with
spaces between
dashes 25' (7.5 m)
long

Roadway stop line,

white, 2' (0.67 m) wide,
across the approach
lane (see text for
additional requirements)

Taxiway centerline marking Roadway edge

stripes (see text)
Not to scale Taxiway edge marking (dashed) white, zipper style

Figure 13-4. Vehicle roadway markings.

13-5
A non-movement area boundary marking delineates a runways, terminals, cargo areas, and civil aviation
movement area under ATC. These markings are yellow and areas.
located on the boundary between the movement and non- Information signsyellow background with black
movement area. They normally consist of two yellow lines inscription. These signs are used to provide the pilot
(one solid and one dashed). with information on such things as areas that cannot
be seen from the control tower, applicable radio
Airport Signs frequencies, and noise abatement procedures. The
There are six types of signs that may be found at airports. The airport operator determines the need, size, and location
more complex the layout of an airport, the more important of these signs.
the signs become to pilots. Figure 13-5 shows examples of
signs, their purpose, and appropriate pilot action. The six Runway distance remaining signsblack background
types of signs are: with white numbers. The numbers indicate the distance
of the remaining runway in thousands of feet.
Mandatory instruction signsred background with
white inscription. These signs denote an entrance to a Airport Lighting
runway, critical area, or prohibited area.
The majority of airports have some type of lighting for night
Location signsblack with yellow inscription and a operations. The variety and type of lighting systems depends
yellow border, no arrows. They are used to identify a on the volume and complexity of operations at a given airport.
taxiway or runway location, to identify the boundary Airport lighting is standardized so that airports use the same
of the runway, or identify an instrument landing light colors for runways and taxiways.
system (ILS) critical area.
Direction signsyellow background with black Airport Beacon
inscription. The inscription identies the designation Airport beacons help a pilot identify an airport at night.
of the intersecting taxiway(s) leading out of an The beacons are operated from dusk till dawn. Sometimes
intersection. they are turned on if the ceiling is less than 1,000 feet and/
or the ground visibility is less than 3 statute miles (VFR
Destination signsyellow background with black
minimums). However, there is no requirement for this, so
inscription and also contain arrows. These signs
a pilot has the responsibility of determining if the weather
provide information on locating things, such as
meets VFR requirements. The beacon has a vertical light

Type of Sign Action or Purpose Type of Sign Action or Purpose

Runway Safety Area/Obstacle Free

4-22 Taxiway/Runway Hold Position:
Hold short of runway on taxiway
Zone Boundary:
Exit boundary of runway protected areas

26-8 Runway/Runway Hold Position:

Hold short of intersecting runway
ILS Critical Area Boundary:
Exit boundary of ILS critical area

Taxiway Direction:
8-APCH Runway Approach Hold Position:
Hold short of aircraft on approach J Defines direction & designation of
intersecting taxiway(s)
Runway Exit:
ILS ILS Critical Area Hold Position:
Hold short of ILS approach critical area L Defines direction & designation of exit
taxiway from runway
No Entry:
Identifies paved areas where aircraft entry is
prohibited
22 Outbound Destination:
Defines directions to takeoff runways

Taxiway Location: Inbound Destination:

B Identifies taxiway on which aircraft is located MIL Defines directions for arriving aircraft

Runway Location: Taxiway Ending Marker:

22 Identifies runway on which aircraft is located Indicates taxiway does not continue

Runway Distance Remaining: Direction Sign Array:

4 Provides remaining runway length in 1,000
feet increments
A G L Identifies location in conjunction with
multiple intersecting taxiways

Figure 13-5. Airport signs.

13-6
distribution to make it most effective from 110 above the The VASI consists of light units arranged in bars. There are
horizon, although it can be seen well above or below this 2-bar and 3-bar VASIs. The 2-bar VASI has near and far
spread. The beacon may be an omnidirectional capacitor- light bars and the 3-bar VASI has near, middle, and far light
discharge device, or it may rotate at a constant speed, which bars. Two-bar VASI installations provide one visual glidepath
produces the visual effect of ashes at regular intervals. The which is normally set at 3. The 3-bar system provides two
combination of light colors from an airport beacon indicates glidepaths, the lower glidepath normally set at 3 and the
the type of airport. [Figure 13-6] Some of the most common upper glidepath degree above the lower glidepath.
beacons are:
Flashing white and green for civilian land airports; The basic principle of the VASI is that of color differentiation
between red and white. Each light unit projects a beam of
Flashing white and yellow for a water airport; light, a white segment in the upper part of the beam and a
Flashing white, yellow, and green for a heliport; and red segment in the lower part of the beam. The lights are
arranged so the pilot sees the combination of lights shown in
Two quick white ashes alternating with a green ash
identifying a military airport. Figure 13-7 to indicate below, on, or above the glidepath.

Below Glidepath On Glidepath Above Glidepath

White Green White Yellow

Far Bar Far Bar Far Bar

Near Bar Near Bar Near Bar

Figure 13-6. Airport rotating beacons. Figure 13-7. Two-bar VASI system.

Approach Light Systems Other Glidepath Systems

Approach light systems are primarily intended to provide a A precision approach path indicator (PAPI) uses lights similar
means to transition from instrument ight to visual ight for to the VASI system except they are installed in a single row,
landing. The system conguration depends on whether the normally on the left side of the runway. [Figure 13-8]
runway is a precision or nonprecision instrument runway.
Some systems include sequenced ashing lights, which A tri-color system consists of a single light unit projecting
appear to the pilot as a ball of light traveling toward the a three-color visual approach path. Below the glidepath is
runway at high speed. Approach lights can also aid pilots indicated by red, on the glidepath is indicated by green, and
operating under VFR at night. above the glidepath is indicated by amber. When descending
below the glidepath, there is a small area of dark amber. Pilots
Visual Glideslope Indicators should not mistake this area for an above the glidepath
Visual glideslope indicators provide the pilot with glidepath indication. [Figure 13-9]
information that can be used for day or night approaches. By
maintaining the proper glidepath as provided by the system, Pulsating visual approach slope indicators normally consist of
a pilot should have adequate obstacle clearance and should a single light unit projecting a two-color visual approach path
touch down within a specied portion of the runway. into the nal approach area of the runway upon which the
indicator is installed. The on glidepath indication is a steady
Visual Approach Slope Indicator (VASI) white light. The slightly below glidepath indication is a steady
red light. If the aircraft descends further below the glidepath,
VASI installations are the most common visual glidepath
the red light starts to pulsate. The above glidepath indication
systems in use. The VASI provides obstruction clearance
is a pulsating white light. The pulsating rate increases as the
within 10 of the runway extended runway centerline, and to
aircraft gets further above or below the desired glideslope.
four nautical miles (NM) from the runway threshold.

13-7
 High Slightly High On Glidepath Slightly Low Low
more than 3.5 3.2 3 2.8 less than 2.5

Figure 13-8. Precision approach path indicator.

r
be
Above glidepath Am n
ee
Gr
Amber
On glidepath
d
Below glidepath
Re

Figure 13-9. Tri-color visual approach slope indicator.

The useful range of the system is about four miles during the of a pair of synchronized ashing lights located laterally
day and up to ten miles at night. [Figure 13-10] on each side of the runway threshold. REILs may be either
omnidirectional or unidirectional facing the approach area.
Runway Lighting
There are various lights that identify parts of the runway Runway Edge Lights
complex. These assist a pilot in safely making a takeoff or Runway edge lights are used to outline the edges of runways
landing during night operations. at night or during low visibility conditions. These lights
are classied according to the intensity they are capable of
Runway End Identier Lights (REIL) producing: high intensity runway lights (HIRL), medium
Runway end identier lights (REIL) are installed at many intensity runway lights (MIRL), and low intensity runway
airelds to provide rapid and positive identication of the lights (LIRL). The HIRL and MIRL have variable intensity
approach end of a particular runway. The system consists settings. These lights are white, except on instrument runways

ting
lu saite
Above glidepath P wh
y
ad
Steite d
wh g re
atin d
On glidepath
uP ls dy re
Slightly below glidepath a
Below glidepath
Ste

Threshold

Figure 13-10. Pulsating visual approach slope indicator.

13-8
where amber lights are used on the last 2,000 feet or half the Control of Airport Lighting
length of the runway, whichever is less. The lights marking Airport lighting is controlled by air trafc controllers at
the end of the runway are red. towered airports. At nontowered airports, the lights may
be on a timer, or where an FSS is located at an airport, the
In-Runway Lighting FSS personnel may control the lighting. A pilot may request
Runway centerline lighting system (RCLS)installed on various light systems be turned on or off and also request a
some precision approach runways to facilitate landing under specied intensity, if available, from ATC or FSS personnel.
adverse visibility conditions. They are located along the At selected nontowered airports, the pilot may control the
runway centerline and are spaced at 50-foot intervals. When lighting by using the radio. This is done by selecting a
viewed from the landing threshold, the runway centerline specied frequency and clicking the radio microphone. For
lights are white until the last 3,000 feet of the runway. The information on pilot controlled lighting at various airports,
white lights begin to alternate with red for the next 2,000 feet. refer to the A/FD. [Figure 13-11]
For the remaining 1,000 feet of the runway, all centerline
lights are red. Key Mike Function

7 times within 5 seconds Highest intensity available

Touchdown zone lights (TDZL)installed on some precision
Medium or lower intensity
approach runways to indicate the touchdown zone when 5 times within 5 seconds (Lower REIL or REIL off)
landing under adverse visibility conditions. They consist of Lowest intensity available
3 times within 5 seconds (Lower REIL or REIL off)
two rows of transverse light bars disposed symmetrically
about the runway centerline. The system consists of steady-
Figure 13-11. Radio controlled runway lighting.
burning white lights which start 100 feet beyond the landing
threshold and extend to 3,000 feet beyond the landing
Taxiway Lights
threshold or to the midpoint of the runway, whichever is
Omnidirectional taxiway lights outline the edges of the
less.
taxiway and are blue in color. At many airports, these edge
lights may have variable intensity settings that may be
Taxiway centerline lead-off lightsprovide visual guidance
adjusted by an air trafc controller when deemed necessary
to persons exiting the runway. They are color-coded to warn
or when requested by the pilot. Some airports also have
pilots and vehicle drivers that they are within the runway
taxiway centerline lights that are green in color.
environment or ILS/MLS critical area, whichever is more
restrictive. Alternate green and yellow lights are installed,
Obstruction Lights
beginning with green, from the runway centerline to one
Obstructions are marked or lighted to warn pilots of
centerline light position beyond the runway holding position
their presence during daytime and nighttime conditions.
or ILS/MLS critical area holding position.
Obstruction lighting can be found both on and off an airport
to identify obstructions. They may be marked or lighted in
Taxiway centerline lead-on lightsprovide visual guidance
any of the following conditions.
to persons entering the runway. These lead-on lights
are also color-coded with the same color pattern as lead- Red obstruction lightsash or emit a steady red color
off lights to warn pilots and vehicle drivers that they are during nighttime operations, and the obstructions are
within the runway environment or instrument landing painted orange and white for daytime operations.
system/microwave landing system (ILS/MLS) critical area, High intensity white obstruction lightsash high
whichever is more conservative. The xtures used for lead-on intensity white lights during the daytime with the
lights are bidirectional (i.e., one side emits light for the lead- intensity reduced for nighttime.
on function while the other side emits light for the lead-off
function). Any xture that emits yellow light for the lead-off Dual lightinga combination of ashing red beacons
function also emits yellow light for the lead-on function. and steady red lights for nighttime operation, and high
intensity white lights for daytime operations.
Land and hold short lightsused to indicate the hold short
point on certain runways which are approved for LAHSO.
Land and hold short lights consist of a row of pulsing white
lights installed across the runway at the hold short point.
Where installed, the lights are on anytime LAHSO is in effect.
These lights are off when LAHSO is not in effect.

13-9
Wind Direction Indicators Trafc Patterns
It is important for a pilot to know the direction of the wind. At those airports without an operating control tower, a
At facilities with an operating control tower, this information segmented circle visual indicator system [Figure 13-13], if
is provided by ATC. Information may also be provided by installed, is designed to provide trafc pattern information.
FSS personnel located at a particular airport or by requesting Usually located in a position affording maximum visibility
information on a CTAF at airports that have the capacity to to pilots in the air and on the ground and providing a
receive and broadcast on this frequency. centralized location for other elements of the system, the
segmented circle consists of the following components: wind
When none of these services is available, it is possible to direction indicators, landing direction indicators, landing strip
determine wind direction and runway in use by visual wind indicators, and trafc pattern indicators.
indicators. A pilot should check these wind indicators even
when information is provided on the CTAF at a given airport A tetrahedron is installed to indicate the direction of landings
because there is no assurance that the information provided and takeoffs when conditions at the airport warrant its use.
is accurate. It may be located at the center of a segmented circle and
may be lighted for night operations. The small end of the
The wind direction indicator can be a wind cone, wind sock, tetrahedron points in the direction of landing. Pilots are
tetrahedron, or wind tee. These are usually located in a central cautioned against using a tetrahedron for any purpose other
location near the runway and may be placed in the center than as an indicator of landing direction. At airports with
of a segmented circle, which identies the trafc pattern control towers, the tetrahedron should only be referenced
direction, if it is other than the standard left-hand pattern. when the control tower is not in operation. Tower instructions
[Figures 13-12 and 13-13] supersede tetrahedron indications.

The wind sock is a good source of information since it not Landing strip indicators are installed in pairs as shown in
only indicates wind direction, but allows the pilot to estimate Figure 13-13 and are used to show the alignment of landing
the wind velocity and gusts or factor. The wind sock extends strips. Trafc pattern indicators are arranged in pairs in
out straighter in strong winds and tends to move back and conjunction with landing strip indicators and used to indicate
forth when the wind is gusty. Wind tees and tetrahedrons can the direction of turns when there is a variation from the
swing freely, and align themselves with the wind direction. normal left trafc pattern. (If there is no segmented circle
The wind tee and tetrahedron can also be manually set to installed at the airport, trafc pattern indicators may be
align with the runway in use; therefore, a pilot should also installed on or near the end of the runway.)
look at the wind sock, if available.

Tetrahedron

WIND

Wind Tee

Wind Sock or Cone

Figure 13-12. Wind direction indicators.

13-10
 5. If remaining in the trafc pattern, commence turn to
Traffic Pattern crosswind leg beyond the departure end of the runway
Indicators within 300 feet of pattern altitude.
6. If departing the trafc pattern, continue straight out,
Landing Direction or exit with a 45 turn (to the left when in a left-hand
Indicator
trafc pattern; to the right when in a right-hand trafc
pattern) beyond the departure end of the runway, after
reaching pattern altitude. [Figure 13-14]

Example: Key to Trafc Pattern Operations

Parallel Runways
1. Enter pattern in level ight, abeam the midpoint
of the runway, at pattern altitude. (1,000' AGL is
recommended pattern altitude unless established
Landing Runway Wind Cone otherwise.)
or Landing Strip 2. Maintain pattern altitude until abeam approach end of
Indicators
the landing runway on downwind leg.
3. Complete turn to final at least mile from the
Figure 13-13. Segmented circle. runway.
At most airports and military air bases, trafc pattern altitudes 4. Continue straight ahead until beyond departure end
for propeller-driven aircraft generally extend from 600 feet of runway.
to as high as 1,500 feet above ground level (AGL). Pilots can
5. If remaining in the trafc pattern, commence turn to
obtain the trafc pattern altitude for an airport from the A/FD.
crosswind leg beyond the departure end of the runway
Also, trafc pattern altitudes for military turbojet aircraft
within 300 feet of pattern altitude.
sometimes extend up to 2,500 feet AGL. Therefore, pilots
of en route aircraft should be constantly on the alert for other 6. If departing the trafc pattern, continue straight out,
aircraft in trafc patterns and avoid these areas whenever or exit with a 45 turn (to the left when in a left-hand
possible. When operating at an airport, traffic pattern trafc pattern; to the right when in a right-hand trafc
altitudes should be maintained unless otherwise required pattern) beyond the departure end of the runway, after
by the applicable distance from cloud criteria in Title 14 of reaching pattern altitude.
the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) section 91.155. 7. Do not overshoot nal or continue on a track which
Additional information on airport trafc pattern operations penetrates the nal approach of the parallel runway.
can be found in Chapter 4, Air Trafc Control, of the AIM.
8. Do not continue on a track which penetrates the departure
Pilots can nd trafc pattern information and restrictions
path of the parallel runway. [Figure 13-15]
such as noise abatement in the A/FD.
Radio Communications
Example: Key to Trafc Pattern Operations
Single Runway Operating in and out of a towered airport, as well as in a
good portion of the airspace system, requires that an aircraft
1. Enter pattern in level ight, abeam the midpoint
have two-way radio communication capability. For this
of the runway, at pattern altitude. (1,000' AGL) is
reason, a pilot should be knowledgeable of radio station
recommended pattern altitude unless established
license requirements and radio communications equipment
otherwise.)
and procedures.
2. Maintain pattern altitude until abeam approach end of
the landing runway on downwind leg. Radio License
3. Complete turn to final at least mile from the There is no license requirement for a pilot operating in the
runway. United States; however, a pilot who operates internationally
is required to hold a restricted radiotelephone permit issued
4. Continue straight ahead until beyond departure end by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC). There
of runway.

13-11
 Application of Traffic
LEGEND
Pattern Indicators
y
tr Recommended Standard Left-Hand Traffic
En
pattern (depicted)
(Standard right-hand traffic pattern would be mirror image)

Downwind

re
Segmented Circle tu

Crosswind
r
e pa
Base

Final Departure Departure

RUNWAY
Hazard or Populated Area
Traffic Pattern Indicators

Landing Direction Indicator

Wind Cone

Landing Runway
(or Landing Strip Indicators)

Figure 13-14. Traffic pattern operationssingle runway.

is also no station license requirement for most general the capability of transmitting and receiving on the 8.33 kHz
aviation aircraft operating in the United States. A station spaced channels.
license is required however for an aircraft which is operating
internationally, which uses other than a VHF radio, and which Using proper radio phraseology and procedures contribute to
meets other criteria. a pilots ability to operate safely and efciently in the airspace
system. A review of the Pilot/Controller Glossary contained
Radio Equipment in the AIM assists a pilot in the use and understanding of
In general aviation, the most common types of radios are standard terminology. The AIM also contains many examples
VHF. A VHF radio operates on frequencies between 118.0 of radio communications.
and 136.975 and is classied as 720 or 760 depending
on the number of channels it can accommodate. The 720 ICAO has adopted a phonetic alphabet, which should be
and 760 use .025 spacing (118.025, 118.050) with the 720 used in radio communications. When communicating with
having a frequency range up to 135.975 and the 760 going ATC, pilots should use this alphabet to identify their aircraft.
up to 136.975. VHF radios are limited to line of sight [Figure 13-16]
transmissions; therefore, aircraft at higher altitudes are able
to transmit and receive at greater distances. Lost Communication Procedures
It is possible that a pilot might experience a malfunction of
In March of 1997, the International Civil Aviation the radio. This might cause the transmitter, receiver, or both
Organization (ICAO) amended its International Standards to become inoperative. If a receiver becomes inoperative and
and Recommended Practices to incorporate a channel plan a pilot needs to land at a towered airport, it is advisable to
specifying 8.33 kHz channel spacings in the Aeronautical remain outside or above Class D airspace until the direction
Mobile Service. The 8.33 kHz channel plan was adopted to and ow of trafc is determined. A pilot should then advise
alleviate the shortage of VHF ATC channels experienced in the tower of the aircraft type, position, altitude, and intention
western Europe and in the United Kingdom. Seven western to land. The pilot should continue, enter the pattern, report a
European countries and the United Kingdom implemented position as appropriate, and watch for light signals from the
the 8.33 kHz channel plan on January 1, 1999. Accordingly, tower. Light signal colors and their meanings are contained
aircraft operating in the airspace of these countries must have in Figure 13-17.

13-12
 LEGEND

Standard Left-Hand
Traffic Pattern (depicted)

Right-HandTraffic
Pattern (depicted)

Crosswind
Base

Final Departure

No Transgression Zone Segmented Circle No Transgression Zone

Final Departure

Traffic Pattern
Indicators

Crosswind
Base

Landing Direction
Indicator
Downwind
En
tr
y

Landing Runway
(or Landing Strip Indicators) Wind Cone

Figure 13-15. Traffic pattern operationparallel runways.

If the transmitter becomes inoperative, a pilot should Air Trafc Control (ATC) Services
follow the previously stated procedures and also monitor
Besides the services provided by an FSS as discussed in
the appropriate ATC frequency. During daylight hours ATC
Chapter 12, Aviation Weather Services, numerous other
transmissions may be acknowledged by rocking the wings,
services are provided by ATC. In many instances a pilot
and at night by blinking the landing light.
is required to have contact with ATC, but even when not
required, a pilot nds it helpful to request their services.
When both receiver and transmitter are inoperative, the pilot
should remain outside of Class D airspace until the ow of Primary Radar
trafc has been determined and then enter the pattern and
Radar is a device which provides information on range,
watch for light signals.
azimuth, and/or elevation of objects in the path of the
transmitted pulses. It measures the time interval between
If a radio malfunctions prior to departure, it is advisable to
transmission and reception of radio pulses and correlates the
have it repaired, if possible. If this is not possible, a call should
angular orientation of the radiated antenna beam or beams in
be made to ATC and the pilot should request authorization
azimuth and/or elevation. Range is determined by measuring
to depart without two-way radio communications. If
the time it takes for the radio wave to go out to the object
authorization is given to depart, the pilot is advised to monitor
and then return to the receiving antenna. The direction of a
the appropriate frequency and/or watch for light signals as
detected object from a radar site is determined by the position
appropriate.

13-13
 services and prevent a controller from issuing advisories
Character Morse Code Telephony Phonic Pronunciation concerning aircraft which are not under his or her control
A and cannot be seen on radar.
B
The characteristics of radio waves are such that they normally
C travel in a continuous straight line unless they are bent by
D atmospheric phenomena such as temperature inversions,
E reected or attenuated by dense objects such as heavy clouds
F and precipitation, or screened by high terrain features.
G
ATC Radar Beacon System (ATCRBS)
H The ATC radar beacon system (ATCRBS) is often referred
I to as secondary surveillance radar. This system consists
J of three components and helps in alleviating some of
K the limitations associated with primary radar. The three
L components are an interrogator, transponder, and radarscope.
The advantages of ATCRBS are the reinforcement of radar
M targets, rapid target identication, and a unique display of
N selected codes.
O
P Transponder
Q The transponder is the airborne portion of the secondary
surveillance radar system and a system with which a
R pilot should be familiar. The ATCRBS cannot display the
S secondary information unless an aircraft is equipped with
T a transponder. A transponder is also required to operate
U in certain controlled airspace as discussed in Chapter 14,
V Airspace.
W A transponder code consists of four numbers from 0 to 7
X (4,096 possible codes). There are some standard codes, or
Y ATC may issue a four-digit code to an aircraft. When a
Z controller requests a code or function on the transponder, the
1 word squawk may be used. Figure 13-18 lists some standard
transponder phraseology. Additional information concerning
2 transponder operation can be found in the AIM, chapter 4.
3
4 Radar Trafc Advisories
5 Radar equipped ATC facilities provide radar assistance to
6 aircraft on instrument ight plans and VFR aircraft provided
the aircraft can communicate with the facility and are within
7 radar coverage. This basic service includes safety alerts, trafc
8 advisories, limited vectoring when requested, and sequencing
9 at locations where this procedure has been established. ATC
0 issues trafc advisories based on observed radar targets. The
trafc is referenced by azimuth from the aircraft in terms of
Figure 13-16. Phonetic alphabet. the 12-hour clock. Also, distance in nautical miles, direction
in which the target is moving, and type and altitude of the
of the rotating antenna when the reected portion of the radio
aircraft, if known, are given. An example would be: Trafc
wave is received.
10 oclock 5 miles east bound, Cessna 152, 3,000 feet. The
pilot should note that trafc position is based on the aircraft
Modern radar is very reliable and there are seldom outages.
track, and that wind correction can affect the clock position
This is due to reliable maintenance and improved equipment.
There are, however, some limitations which may affect ATC

13-14
 Movement of Vehicles,
Color and Type of Signal Aircraft on the Ground Aircraft in Flight
Equipment and Personnel
Steady green Cleared to cross,
proceed or go Cleared for takeoff Cleared to land

Flashing green Not applicable Return for landing (to be followed

Cleared for taxi by steady green at the proper time)

Steady red Give way to other aircraft and

Stop Stop continue circling

Flashing red Clear the taxiway/runway Taxi clear of the runway Airport unsafe, do not land
in use
Flashing white Return to starting point Return to starting point Not applicable
on airport on airport

Alternating red and green

Exercise extreme caution!!!! Exercise extreme caution!!!! Exercise extreme caution!!!!

Figure 13-17. Light gun signals.

at which a pilot locates trafc. This service is not intended to sequencing of VFR aircraft to the primary airport. Class B
relieve the pilot of the responsibility to see and avoid other service provides approved separation of aircraft based on
aircraft. [Figure 13-19] IFR, VFR, and/or weight, and sequencing of VFR arrivals
to the primary airport(s).
In addition to basic radar service, terminal radar service area
(TRSA) has been implemented at certain terminal locations. Wake Turbulence
TRSAs are depicted on sectional aeronautical charts and All aircraft generate wake turbulence while in ight. This
listed in the A/FD. The purpose of this service is to provide disturbance is caused by a pair of counter-rotating vortices
separation between all participating VFR aircraft and all IFR trailing from the wingtips. The vortices from larger aircraft
aircraft operating within the TRSA. Class C service provides pose problems to encountering aircraft. The wake of these
approved separation between IFR and VFR aircraft, and aircraft can impose rolling moments exceeding the roll-

Radar Beacon Phraseology

SQUAWK (number) Operate radar beacon transponder on designated code in MODE A/3.

IDENT Engage the IDENT feature (military I/P) of the transponder.

SQUAWK (number) and IDENT Operate transponder on specified code in MODE A/3 and engage the IDENT
(military I/P) feature.

SQUAWK Standby Switch transponder to standby position.

SQUAWK Low/Normal Operate transponder on low or normal sensitivity as specified. Transponder is

operated in NORMAL position unless ATC specifies LOW (ON is used instead of
NORMAL as a master control label on some types of transponders).

SQUAWK Altitude Activate MODE C with automatic altitude reporting.

STOP Altitude SQUAWK Turn off altitude reporting switch and continue transmitting MODE C framing pulses.
If your equipment does not have this capability, turn off MODE C.

STOP SQUAWK (mode in use) Switch off specified mode. (Used for military aircraft when the controller is unaware of
military service requirements for the aircraft to continue operation on another MODE.)

STOP SQUAWK Switch off transponder.

SQUAWK Mayday Operate transponder in the emergency position (MODE A Code 7700 for civil
transponder, MODE 3 Code 7700 and emergency feature for military transponder).

SQUAWK VFR Operate radar beacon transponder on Code 1200 in MODE A/3, or other
appropriate VFR code.

Figure 13-18. Transponder phraseology.

13-15
 wing surface, and the highest pressure under the wing. This
pressure differential triggers the rollup of the airow aft of
the wing resulting in swirling air masses trailing downstream
Wind
of the wingtips. After the rollup is completed, the wake
consists of two counter rotating cylindrical vortices. Most of
TRACK TRACK the energy is within a few feet of the center of each vortex,
but pilots should avoid a region within about 100 feet of the
vortex core. [Figure 13-20]

Vortex Strength
Trafc information would be issued to the pilot of aircraft A The strength of the vortex is governed by the weight, speed,
as 12 oclock. The actual position of the trafc as seen by and shape of the wing of the generating aircraft. The vortex
the pilot of aircraft A would be 1 oclock. Trafc information
issued to aircraft B would also be given as 12 oclock, but
characteristics of any given aircraft can also be changed by the
in this case the pilot of B would see trafc at 10 oclock. extension of aps or other wing conguration devices as well
as by a change in speed. The greatest vortex strength occurs
Figure 13-19. Traffic advisories. when the generating aircraft is heavy, clean, and slow.

control authority of the encountering aircraft. Also, the Vortex Behavior

turbulence generated within the vortices can damage aircraft Trailing vortices have certain behavioral characteristics
components and equipment if encountered at close range. For that can help a pilot visualize the wake location and take
this reason, a pilot must envision the location of the vortex avoidance precautions.
wake and adjust the ightpath accordingly.
Vortices are generated from the moment an aircraft leaves the
During ground operations and during takeoff, jet engine ground (until it touches down), since trailing vortices are the
blast (thrust stream turbulence) can cause damage and upset byproduct of wing lift. [Figure 13-21] The vortex circulation
smaller aircraft at close range. For this reason, pilots of small is outward, upward, and around the wingtips when viewed
aircraft should consider the effects of jet-engine blast and from either ahead or behind the aircraft. Tests have shown
maintain adequate separation. Also, pilots of larger aircraft that vortices remain spaced a bit less than a wingspan apart,
should consider the effects of their aircrafts jet-engine blast drifting with the wind, at altitudes greater than a wingspan from
on other aircraft and equipment on the ground. the ground. Tests have also shown that the vortices sink at a
rate of several hundred feet per minute, slowing their descent
Vortex Generation
and diminishing in strength with time and distance behind the
Lift is generated by the creation of a pressure differential over generating aircraft.
the wing surface. The lowest pressure occurs over the upper

Figure 13-20. Vortex generation.

13-16
 Wake ends

25
Wake begins

Rotation Touchdown

Figure 13-21. Vortex behavior.

When the vortices of larger aircraft sink close to the ground If departing or landing after a large aircraft executing
(within 100 to 200 feet), they tend to move laterally over a low approach, missed approach, or touch and go
the ground at a speed of 23 knots. A crosswind decreases landing (since vortices settle and move laterally
the lateral movement of the upwind vortex and increases the near the ground, the vortex hazard may exist along
movement of the downwind vortex. A tailwind condition can the runway and in the ightpath, particularly in a
move the vortices of the preceding aircraft forward into the quartering tailwind), it is prudent to wait at least 2
touchdown zone. minutes prior to a takeoff or landing.
En route it is advisable to avoid a path below and
Vortex Avoidance Procedures
behind a large aircraft, and if a large aircraft is
Landing behind a larger aircraft on the same runway observed above on the same track, change the aircraft
stay at or above the larger aircrafts approach position laterally and preferably upwind.
ightpath and land beyond its touchdown point.
Landing behind a larger aircraft on a parallel runway
Collision Avoidance
closer than 2,500 feetconsider the possibility of drift 14 CFR part 91 has established right-of-way rules, minimum
and stay at or above the larger aircrafts nal approach safe altitudes, and VFR cruising altitudes to enhance ight
ightpath and note its touch down point. safety. The pilot can contribute to collision avoidance by
being alert and scanning for other aircraft. This is particularly
Landing behind a larger aircraft on crossing runway
important in the vicinity of an airport.
cross above the larger aircrafts ightpath.
Landing behind a departing aircraft on the same Effective scanning is accomplished with a series of short,
runwayland prior to the departing aircrafts rotating regularly spaced eye movements that bring successive areas
point. of the sky into the central visual eld. Each movement
Landing behind a larger aircraft on a crossing should not exceed 10, and each should be observed for at
runwaynote the aircrafts rotation point and, if that least 1 second to enable detection. Although back and forth
point is past the intersection, continue and land prior eye movements seem preferred by most pilots, each pilot
to the intersection. If the larger aircraft rotates prior should develop a scanning pattern that is most comfortable
to the intersection, avoid ight below its ightpath. and then adhere to it to assure optimum scanning. Even if
Abandon the approach unless a landing is ensured entitled to the right-of-way, a pilot should yield if another
well before reaching the intersection. aircraft seems too close.
Departing behind a large aircraftrotate prior to the
large aircrafts rotation point and climb above its climb
path until turning clear of the wake.
For intersection takeoffs on the same runwaybe
alert to adjacent larger aircraft operations, particularly
upwind of the runway of intended use. If an intersection
takeoff clearance is received, avoid headings that cross
below the larger aircrafts path.

13-17
Clearing Procedures to write down taxi instructions. The following are some
The following procedures and considerations should assist a practices to help prevent a runway incursion:
pilot in collision avoidance under various situations. Read back all runway crossing and/or hold
instructions.
Before takeoffprior to taxiing onto a runway or Review airport layouts as part of preight planning,
landing area in preparation for takeoff, pilots should before descending to land and while taxiing, as
scan the approach area for possible landing trafc, needed.
executing appropriate maneuvers to provide a clear
view of the approach areas. Know airport signage.

Climbs and descentsduring climbs and descents Review NOTAM for information on runway/taxiway
in ight conditions which permit visual detection of closures and construction areas.
other trafc, pilots should execute gentle banks left Request progressive taxi instructions from ATC when
and right at a frequency which permits continuous unsure of the taxi route.
visual scanning of the airspace. Check for trafc before crossing any runway hold line
Straight and levelduring sustained periods of straight- and before entering a taxiway.
and-level ight, a pilot should execute appropriate Turn on aircraft lights and the rotating beacon or strobe
clearing procedures at periodic intervals. lights while taxing.
Trafc patternsentries into trafc patterns while When landing, clear the active runway as soon as
descending should be avoided. possible, then wait for taxi instructions before further
Traffic at VOR sitesdue to converging traffic, movement.
sustained vigilance should be maintained in the Study and use proper phraseology in order to understand
vicinity of VORs and intersections. and respond to ground control instructions.
Training operationsvigilance should be maintained Write down complex taxi instructions at unfamiliar
and clearing turns should be made prior to a practice airports.
maneuver. During instruction, the pilot should be
asked to verbalize the clearing procedures (call out For more detailed information, contact the FAAs Ofce
clear left, right, above, and below). of Runway Safety and Operational Services web site at
http://www.faa.gov/runwaysafety/ or visit http://www.aopa.
High-wing and low-wing aircraft have their respective blind org/asf/accident_data/incursions.html to access a learning
spots. The pilot of a high-wing aircraft should momentarily tool developed by the FAA and the Aircraft Owners and
raise the wing in the direction of the intended turn and look Pilots Association (AOPA) to help pilots and maintenance
for trafc prior to commencing the turn. The pilot of a low- technicians avoid runway incursions involving taxiing
wing aircraft should momentarily lower the wing and look aircraft. Additional information can also be found in Advisory
for trafc prior to commencing the turn. Circular (AC) 91-73, Part 91, Pilot and Flightcrew Procedures
During Taxi Operations, and Part 135, Single-Pilot Procedures
Runway Incursion Avoidance During Taxi Operations.
A runway incursion is any occurrence in the airport runway
environment involving an aircraft, vehicle, person, or object Chapter Summary
on the ground that creates a collision hazard or results in a loss
This chapter focused on airport operations both in the air and
of required separation with an aircraft taking off, intending
on the surface. For specic information about an unfamiliar
to take off, landing, or intending to land. It is important
airport, consult the A/FD and NOTAMS before ying. For
to give the same attention to operating on the surface as in
further information regarding procedures discussed in this
other phases of ights. Proper planning can prevent runway
chapter, refer to 14 CFR part 91 and the AIM. By adhering
incursions and the possibility of a ground collision. A pilot
to established procedures, both airport operations and safety
should be aware of the aircrafts position on the surface at all
are enhanced.
times and be aware of other aircraft and vehicle operations
on the airport. At times towered airports can be busy and taxi
instructions complex. In this situation it may be advisable

13-18
Chapter 14

Airspace
Introduction
The two categories of airspace are: regulatory and
nonregulatory. Within these two categories there are four
types: controlled, uncontrolled, special use, and other
airspace. Figure 14-1 presents a prole view of the dimensions
of various classes of airspace. Also, there are excerpts from
sectional charts which are discussed in Chapter 15, Navigation,
that are used to illustrate how airspace is depicted.

14-1
 FL 600

Class A
18,000' MSL

Class B
14,500' MSL Class E
1,200' 1,200' Class C 1,200'
AGL AGL AGL Nontowered
Class G Nontowered 700' 700' 700' airport with
airport with
instrument
AGL AGL AGL Class D no instrument
approach
approach Class G Class G Class G

Figure 14-1. Airspace profile.

Controlled Airspace
Class C Airspace
Controlled airspace is a generic term that covers the
different classications of airspace and dened dimensions Class C airspace is generally airspace from the surface
within which air trafc control (ATC) service is provided to 4,000 feet above the airport elevation (charted in
in accordance with the airspace classication. Controlled MSL) surrounding those airports that have an operational
airspace consists of: control tower, are serviced by a radar approach control,
and have a certain number of IFR operations or passenger
Class A enplanements. Although the conguration of each Class C
Class B area is individually tailored, the airspace usually consists of
a surface area with a ve NM radius, an outer circle with
Class C
a ten NM radius that extends from 1,200 feet to 4,000 feet
Class D above the airport elevation, and an outer area. Each aircraft
Class E must establish two-way radio communications with the
ATC facility providing air trafc services prior to entering
Class A Airspace the airspace and thereafter maintain those communications
Class A airspace is generally the airspace from 18,000 feet while within the airspace.
mean sea level (MSL) up to and including ight level (FL)
600, including the airspace overlying the waters within 12 Class D Airspace
nautical miles (NM) of the coast of the 48 contiguous states Class D airspace is generally airspace from the surface to
and Alaska. Unless otherwise authorized, all operation in 2,500 feet above the airport elevation (charted in MSL)
Class A airspace is conducted under instrument ight rules surrounding those airports that have an operational control
(IFR). tower. The conguration of each Class D airspace area is
individually tailored and when instrument procedures are
Class B Airspace published, the airspace is normally designed to contain the
Class B airspace is generally airspace from the surface to procedures. Arrival extensions for instrument approach
10,000 feet MSL surrounding the nations busiest airports in procedures (IAPs) may be Class D or Class E airspace. Unless
terms of airport operations or passenger enplanements. The otherwise authorized, each aircraft must establish two-way
conguration of each Class B airspace area is individually radio communications with the ATC facility providing air
tailored, consists of a surface area and two or more layers trafc services prior to entering the airspace and thereafter
(some Class B airspace areas resemble upside-down wedding maintain those communications while in the airspace.
cakes), and is designed to contain all published instrument
procedures once an aircraft enters the airspace. An ATC Class E Airspace
clearance is required for all aircraft to operate in the area, If the airspace is not Class A, B, C, or D, and is controlled
and all aircraft that are so cleared receive separation services airspace, then it is Class E airspace. Class E airspace extends
within the airspace. upward from either the surface or a designated altitude to the

14-2
overlying or adjacent controlled airspace. When designated charted as a P followed by a number (e.g., P-49). Examples
as a surface area, the airspace is congured to contain all of prohibited areas include Camp David and the National
instrument procedures. Also in this class are federal airways, Mall in Washington, D.C., where the White House and the
airspace beginning at either 700 or 1,200 feet above ground Congressional buildings are located. [Figure 14-2]
level (AGL) used to transition to and from the terminal or
en route environment, and en route domestic and offshore
airspace areas designated below 18,000 feet MSL. Unless
designated at a lower altitude, Class E airspace begins at
14,500 MSL over the United States, including that airspace
overlying the waters within 12 NM of the coast of the 48
contiguous states and Alaska, up to but not including 18,000
feet MSL, and the airspace above FL 600.

Uncontrolled Airspace
Class G Airspace
Uncontrolled airspace or Class G airspace is the portion of
the airspace that has not been designated as Class A, B, C,
D, or E. It is therefore designated uncontrolled airspace. Figure 14-2. An example of a prohibited area is Crawford, Texas.
Class G airspace extends from the surface to the base of the
overlying Class E airspace. Although ATC has no authority Restricted Areas
or responsibility to control air trafc, pilots should remember Restricted areas are areas where operations are hazardous to
there are visual ight rules (VFR) minimums which apply nonparticipating aircraft and contain airspace within which
to Class G airspace. the ight of aircraft, while not wholly prohibited, is subject
to restrictions. Activities within these areas must be conned
Special Use Airspace because of their nature, or limitations may be imposed upon
Special use airspace or special area of operation (SAO) aircraft operations that are not a part of those activities, or
is the designation for airspace in which certain activities both. Restricted areas denote the existence of unusual, often
must be conned, or where limitations may be imposed invisible, hazards to aircraft (e.g., artillery ring, aerial
on aircraft operations that are not part of those activities. gunnery, or guided missiles). IFR ights may be authorized
Certain special use airspace areas can create limitations on to transit the airspace and are routed accordingly. Penetration
the mixed use of airspace. The special use airspace depicted of restricted areas without authorization from the using
on instrument charts includes the area name or number, or controlling agency may be extremely hazardous to the
effective altitude, time and weather conditions of operation, aircraft and its occupants. ATC facilities apply the following
the controlling agency, and the chart panel location. On procedures when aircraft are operating on an IFR clearance
National Aeronautical Charting Group (NACG) en route (including those cleared by ATC to maintain VFR on top) via
charts, this information is available on one of the end panels. a route which lies within joint-use restricted airspace:
Special use airspace usually consists of: 1. If the restricted area is not active and has been released
Prohibited areas to the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), the
ATC facility allows the aircraft to operate in the
Restricted areas
restricted airspace without issuing specic clearance
Warning areas for it to do so.
Military operation areas (MOAs) 2. If the restricted area is active and has not been released
Alert areas to the FAA, the ATC facility issues a clearance which
ensures the aircraft avoids the restricted airspace.
Controlled ring areas (CFAs)

Prohibited Areas
Prohibited areas contain airspace of dened dimensions
within which the ight of aircraft is prohibited. Such areas
are established for security or other reasons associated with
the national welfare. These areas are published in the Federal
Register and are depicted on aeronautical charts. The area is

14-3
Restricted areas are charted with an R followed by a military training activities from IFR trafc. Whenever an
number (e.g., R-4401) and are depicted on the en route MOA is being used, nonparticipating IFR trafc may be
chart appropriate for use at the altitude or FL being own. cleared through an MOA if IFR separation can be provided by
[Figure 14-3] Restricted area information can be obtained ATC. Otherwise, ATC reroutes or restricts nonparticipating
on the back of the chart. IFR trafc. MOAs are depicted on sectional, VFR terminal
area, and en route low altitude charts and are not numbered
(e.g., Camden Ridge MOA). [Figure 14-5] However, the
MOA is also further dened on the back of the sectional
charts with times of operation, altitudes affected, and the
controlling agency.

Alert Areas
Alert areas are depicted on aeronautical charts with an A
followed by a number (e.g., A-211) to inform nonparticipating
pilots of areas that may contain a high volume of pilot training
or an unusual type of aerial activity. Pilots should exercise
caution in alert areas. All activity within an alert area shall
be conducted in accordance with regulations, without waiver,
and pilots of participating aircraft, as well as pilots transiting
the area, shall be equally responsible for collision avoidance.
[Figure 14-6]

Figure 14-3. Restricted areas on a sectional chart. Controlled Firing Areas (CFAs)
CFAs contain activities, which, if not conducted in a controlled
Warning Areas environment, could be hazardous to nonparticipating aircraft.
Warning areas are similar in nature to restricted areas; The difference between CFAs and other special use airspace
however, the United States government does not have sole is that activities must be suspended when a spotter aircraft,
jurisdiction over the airspace. A warning area is airspace of radar, or ground lookout position indicates an aircraft might
dened dimensions, extending from 12 NM outward from be approaching the area. There is no need to chart CFAs
the coast of the United States, containing activity that may since they do not cause a nonparticipating aircraft to change
be hazardous to nonparticipating aircraft. The purpose of its ightpath.
such areas is to warn nonparticipating pilots of the potential
danger. A warning area may be located over domestic or Other Airspace Areas
international waters or both. The airspace is designated with Other airspace areas is a general term referring to the
a W followed by a number (e.g., W-237). [Figure 14-4] majority of the remaining airspace. It includes:
Local airport advisory
Military Operation Areas (MOAs)
MOAs consist of airspace with dened vertical and lateral Military training route (MTR)
limits established for the purpose of separating certain Temporary ight restriction (TFR)
Parachute jump aircraft operations
Published VFR routes
Terminal radar service area (TRSA)
National security area (NSA)

Local Airport Advisory (LAA)

A service provided by facilities, which are located on the
landing airport, have a discrete ground-to-air communication
frequency or the tower frequency when the tower is closed,
automated weather reporting with voice broadcasting, and
a continuous ASOS/AWOS data display, other continuous
direct reading instruments, or manual observations available
Figure 14-4. Requirements for airspace operations.
to the specialist.

14-4
Figure 14-5. Camden Ridge MOA is an example of a military operations area.

Figure 14-6. Alert area (A-211).

14-5
Military Training Routes (MTRs) Protect declared national disasters for humanitarian
MTRs are routes used by military aircraft to maintain reasons in the State of Hawaii.
proficiency in tactical flying. These routes are usually Protect the President, Vice President, or other public
established below 10,000 feet MSL for operations at speeds gures.
in excess of 250 knots. Some route segments may be dened
at higher altitudes for purposes of route continuity. Routes are Provide a safe environment for space agency
identied as IFR (IR), and VFR (VR), followed by a number. operations.
[Figure 14-7] MTRs with no segment above 1,500 feet
AGL are identied by four number characters (e.g., IR1206, Since the events of September 11, 2001, the use of TFRs has
VR1207). MTRs that include one or more segments above become much more common. There have been a number
1,500 feet AGL are identied by three number characters of incidents of aircraft incursions into TFRs, which have
(e.g., IR206, VR207). IFR low altitude en route charts resulted in pilots undergoing security investigations and
depict all IR routes and all VR routes that accommodate certicate suspensions. It is a pilots responsibility to be
operations above 1,500 feet AGL. IR routes are conducted aware of TFRs in their proposed area of ight. One way to
in accordance with IFR regardless of weather conditions. check is to visit the FAA website, www.tfr.faa.gov, and verify
VFR sectional charts depict military training activities such that there is not a TFR in the area.
as IR, VR, MOA, restricted area, warning area, and alert
area information. Parachute Jump Aircraft Operations
Parachute jump aircraft operations are published in the
Airport/Facility Directory (A/FD). Sites that are used
frequently are depicted on sectional charts.

Published VFR Routes

Published VFR routes are for transitioning around, under, or
through some complex airspace. Terms such as VFR yway,
VFR corridor, Class B airspace VFR transition route, and
terminal area VFR route have been applied to such routes.
These routes are generally found on VFR terminal area
planning charts.

Terminal Radar Service Areas (TRSAs)

TRSAs are areas where participating pilots can receive
Figure 14-7. Military training route (MTR) chart symbols.
additional radar services. The purpose of the service is
to provide separation between all IFR operations and
Temporary Flight Restrictions (TFR) participating VFR aircraft.
A ight data center (FDC) Notice to Airmen (NOTAM)
is issued to designate a TFR. The NOTAM begins with The primary airport(s) within the TRSA become(s) Class D
the phrase FLIGHT RESTRICTIONS followed by the airspace. The remaining portion of the TRSA overlies other
location of the temporary restriction, effective time period, controlled airspace, which is normally Class E airspace
area dened in statute miles, and altitudes affected. The beginning at 700 or 1,200 feet and established to transition to/
NOTAM also contains the FAA coordination facility and from the en route/terminal environment. TRSAs are depicted
telephone number, the reason for the restriction, and any other on VFR sectional charts and terminal area charts with a solid
information deemed appropriate. The pilot should check the black line and altitudes for each segment. The Class D portion
NOTAMs as part of ight planning. is charted with a blue segmented line. Participation in TRSA
services is voluntary; however, pilots operating under VFR
Some of the purposes for establishing a TFR are: are encouraged to contact the radar approach control and take
Protect persons and property in the air or on the surface advantage of TRSA service.
from an existing or imminent hazard.
National Security Areas (NSAs)
Provide a safe environment for the operation of
disaster relief aircraft. NSAs consist of airspace of dened vertical and lateral
dimensions established at locations where there is a
Prevent an unsafe congestion of sightseeing aircraft requirement for increased security and safety of ground
above an incident or event, which may generate a high facilities. Flight in NSAs may be temporarily prohibited by
degree of public interest.

14-6
regulation under the provisions of Title 14 of the Code of 1. The controller within whose area of jurisdiction the
Federal Regulations (14 CFR) part 99, and prohibitions are control instructions are issued.
disseminated via NOTAM. Pilots are requested to voluntarily 2. The controller receiving the transfer of control.
avoid ying through these depicted areas.
3. Any intervening controller(s) through whose area of
Air Trafc Control and the National jurisdiction the aircraft will pass.
Airspace System
If ATC issues control instructions to an aircraft through a
The primary purpose of the ATC system is to prevent a
source other than another controller (e.g., Aeronautical Radio,
collision between aircraft operating in the system and to
Incorporated (ARINC), Automated Flight Service Station/
organize and expedite the ow of trafc. In addition to
Flight Service Station (AFSS/FSS), another pilot) they ensure
its primary function, the ATC system has the capability to
that the necessary coordination has been accomplished with
provide (with certain limitations) additional services. The
any controllers listed above, whose area of jurisdiction is
ability to provide additional services is limited by many
affected by those instructions unless otherwise specied by
factors, such as the volume of trafc, frequency congestion,
a letter of agreement or a facility directive.
quality of radar, controller workload, higher priority duties,
and the pure physical inability to scan and detect those
Operating in the Various Types of Airspace
situations that fall in this category. It is recognized that these
It is important that pilots be familiar with the operational
services cannot be provided in cases in which the provision
requirements for each of the various types or classes of
of services is precluded by the above factors.
airspace. Subsequent sections cover each class in sufcient
detail to facilitate understanding with regard to weather, type
Consistent with the aforementioned conditions, controllers
of pilot certicate held, as well as equipment required.
shall provide additional service procedures to the extent
permitted by higher priority duties and other circumstances.
Basic VFR Weather Minimums
The provision of additional services is not optional on the
part of the controller, but rather is required when the work No pilot may operate an aircraft under basic VFR when the
situation permits. Provide ATC service in accordance with ight visibility is less, or at a distance from clouds that is
the procedures and minima in this order except when: less, than that prescribed for the corresponding altitude and
class of airspace. [Figure 14-9] Except as provided in 14
1. A deviation is necessary to conform with ICAO CFR Section 91.157, Special VFR Weather Minimums, no
Documents, National Rules of the Air, or special person may operate an aircraft beneath the ceiling under
agreements where the United States provides ATC VFR within the lateral boundaries of controlled airspace
service in airspace outside the country and its designated to the surface for an airport when the ceiling is
possessions or: less than 1,000 feet. Additional information can be found in
2. Other procedures/minima are prescribed in a letter of 14 CFR section 91.155(c).
agreement, FAA directive, or a military document,
or: Operating Rules and Pilot/Equipment Requirements
3. A deviation is necessary to assist an aircraft when an The safety of ight is a top priority of all pilots and the
emergency has been declared. responsibilities associated with operating an aircraft
should always be taken seriously. The air trafc system
Coordinating the Use of Airspace maintains a high degree of safety and efciency with strict
ATC is responsible for ensuring that the necessary regulatory oversight of the FAA. Pilots y in accordance
coordination has been accomplished before allowing an with regulations that have served the United States well, as
aircraft under their control to enter another controllers area evidenced by the fact that the country has the safest aviation
of jurisdiction. system in the world.

Before issuing control instructions directly or relaying All aircraft operating in todays National Airspace System
through another source to an aircraft which is within (NAS) has complied with the CFR governing its certication
another controllers area of jurisdiction that will change that and maintenance; all pilots operating today have completed
aircrafts heading, route, speed, or altitude, ATC ensures rigorous pilot certication training and testing. Of equal
that coordination has been accomplished with each of the importance is the proper execution of preight planning,
controllers listed below whose area of jurisdiction is affected aeronautical decision-making (ADM) and risk management.
by those instructions unless otherwise specied by a letter ADM involves a systematic approach to risk assessment
of agreement or a facility directive: and stress management in aviation, illustrates how personal

14-7
attitudes can inuence decision-making, and how those received prior to entering the airspace. Unless otherwise
attitudes can be modied to enhance safety in the ight authorized by ATC, each aircraft operating in Class A
deck. More detailed information regarding ADM and airspace must be equipped with a two-way radio capable of
risk mitigation can be found in Chapter 17, Aeronautical communicating with ATC on a frequency assigned by ATC.
Decision-Making. Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, all aircraft within Class
A airspace must be equipped with the appropriate transponder
Pilots also comply with very strict FAA general operating equipment meeting all applicable specications found in 14
and ight rules as outlined in the CFR, including the FAAs CFR section 91.215.
important see and avoid mandate. These regulations
provide the historical foundation of the FAA regulations Class B
governing the aviation system and the individual classes of All pilots operating an aircraft within a Class B airspace area
airspace. Figure 14-10 lists the operational and equipment must receive an ATC clearance from the ATC facility having
requirements for these various classes of airspace. It will jurisdiction for that area. The pilot in command (PIC) may
be helpful to refer to this gure as the specic classes are not take off or land an aircraft at an airport within a Class
discussed in greater detail. B airspace unless he or she has met one of the following
requirements:
Class A
1. A private pilot certicate.
Pilots operating an aircraft in Class A airspace must conduct
that operation under IFR and only under an ATC clearance 2. A recreational pilot certicate and all requirements
contained within 14 CFR section 61.101(d), or the

Airspace Flight Visibility Distance from Clouds

Class A Not applicable Not applicable

Class B 3 statute miles Clear of clouds

Class C 3 statute miles 1,000 feet above

500 feet below
2,000 feet horizontal

Class D 3 statute miles 1,000 feet above

500 feet below
2,000 feet horizontal

Class E 5 statute miles 1,000 feet above

At or above
1,000 feet below
10,000 feet MSL
1 statute mile horizontal

Less than 3 statute miles 1,000 feet above

10,000 feet MSL 500 feet below
2,000 feet horizontal

Class G Day, except as provided in section 91.155(b) 1 statute mile Clear of clouds
1,200 feet or less
above the surface
Night, except as provided in section 91.155(b) 3 statute miles 1,000 feet above
(regardless of
500 feet below
MSL altitude).
2,000 feet horizontal

Day 1 statute mile 1,000 feet above

More than 1,200 500 feet below
feet above the 2,000 feet horizontal
surface but less
than 10,000 feet Night 3 statute miles 1,000 feet above
MSL. 500 feet below
2,000 feet horizontal

More than 1,200 feet 5 statute miles 1,000 feet above

above the surface 1,000 feet below
and at or above 1 statute mile horizontal
10,000 feet MSL.

Figure 14-9. Visual flight rule weather minimums.

14-8
 requirements for a student pilot seeking a recreational and maintain two-way radio communications with the ATC
pilot certicate in 14 CFR section 61.94. facility having jurisdiction over the Class C airspace area as
3. A sport pilot certicate and all requirements contained soon as practicable after departing.
within 14 CFR section 61.325, or the requirements for
a student pilot seeking a recreational pilot certicate Unless otherwise authorized by the ATC having jurisdiction
in 14 CFR section 61.94, or the aircraft is operated over the Class C airspace area, all aircraft within Class C
by a student pilot who has met the requirements of 14 airspace must be equipped with the appropriate transponder
CFR sections 61.94 and 61.95, as applicable. equipment meeting all applicable specications found in 14
CFR section 91.215.
Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, all aircraft within Class
B airspace must be equipped with the applicable operating Class D
transponder and automatic altitude reporting equipment No pilot may take off or land an aircraft at a satellite airport
specified in 14 CFR section 91.215(a) and an operable within a Class D airspace area except in compliance with
two-way radio capable of communications with ATC on FAA arrival and departure trafc patterns. A pilot departing
appropriate frequencies for that Class B airspace area. from the primary airport or satellite airport with an operating
control tower must establish and maintain two-way radio
Class C communications with the control tower, and thereafter as
For the purpose of this section, the primary airport is the instructed by ATC while operating in the Class D airspace
airport for which the Class C airspace area is designated. A area. If departing from a satellite airport without an operating
satellite airport is any other airport within the Class C airspace control tower, the pilot must establish and maintain two-
area. No pilot may take off or land an aircraft at a satellite way radio communications with the ATC facility having
airport within a Class C airspace area except in compliance jurisdiction over the Class D airspace area as soon as
with FAA arrival and departure trafc patterns. practicable after departing.

Two-way radio communications must be established and Two-way radio communications must be established and
maintained with the ATC facility providing air trafc services maintained with the ATC facility providing air trafc services
prior to entering the airspace and thereafter maintained while prior to entering the airspace and thereafter maintained while
within the airspace. within the airspace.

A pilot departing from the primary airport or satellite airport If the aircraft radio fails in flight under IFR, the pilot
with an operating control tower must establish and maintain should continue the ight by the route assigned in the last
two-way radio communications with the control tower, ATC clearance received; or, if being radar vectored, by the
and thereafter as instructed by ATC while operating in the direct route from the point of radio failure to the x, route,
Class C airspace area. If departing from a satellite airport or airway specied in the vector clearance. In the absence
without an operating control tower, the pilot must establish of an assigned route, the pilot should continue by the route

Class
Airspace Entry Requirements Equipment Minimum Pilot Certificate

A ATC clearance IFR equipped Instrument rating

B ATC clearance Two-way radio, transponder Private(However, a student or

with altitude reporting capability recreational pilot may operate at
other than the primary airport if
seeking private pilot certication and
if regulatory requirements are met.)

C Two-way radio communications Two-way radio, transponder No specific requirement

prior to entry with altitude reporting capability

D Two-way radio communications Two-way radio No specific requirement

prior to entry

E None for VFR No specific requirement No specific requirement

G None No specific requirement No specific requirement

Figure 14-10. Requirements for airspace operations.

14-9
that ATC advised may be expected in a further clearance; Unless otherwise authorized or required by ATC, no person
or, if a route had not been advised, by the route led in the may operate an aircraft to, from, through, or on an airport
ight plan. having an operational control tower unless two-way radio
communications are maintained between that aircraft and the
If the aircraft radio fails in ight under VFR, the PIC may control tower. Communications must be established prior to
operate that aircraft and land if weather conditions are at or four nautical miles from the airport, up to and including 2,500
above basic VFR weather minimums, visual contact with the feet AGL. However, if the aircraft radio fails in ight, the
tower is maintained, and a clearance to land is received. pilot in command may operate that aircraft and land if weather
conditions are at or above basic VFR weather minimums,
Class E visual contact with the tower is maintained, and a clearance
Unless otherwise required by 14 CFR part 93 or unless to land is received.
otherwise authorized or required by the ATC facility having
jurisdiction over the Class E airspace area, each pilot If the aircraft radio fails in flight under IFR, the pilot
operating an aircraft on or in the vicinity of an airport in a should continue the ight by the route assigned in the last
Class E airspace area must comply with the requirements of ATC clearance received; or, if being radar vectored, by the
Class G airspace. Each pilot must also comply with any trafc direct route from the point of radio failure to the x, route,
patterns established for that airport in 14 CFR part 93. or airway specied in the vector clearance. In the absence
of an assigned route, the pilot should continue by the route
Unless otherwise authorized or required by ATC, no person that ATC advised may be expected in a further clearance;
may operate an aircraft to, from, through, or on an airport or, if a route had not been advised, by the route led in the
having an operational control tower unless two-way radio ight plan.
communications are maintained between that aircraft and
the control tower. Communications must be established prior Ultralight Vehicles
to four nautical miles from the airport, up to and including No person may operate an ultralight vehicle within Class A,
2,500 feet AGL. However, if the aircraft radio fails in Class B, Class C, or Class D airspace or within the lateral
ight, the PIC may operate that aircraft and land if weather boundaries of the surface area of Class E airspace designated
conditions are at or above basic VFR weather minimums, for an airport unless that person has prior authorization from
visual contact with the tower is maintained, and a clearance the ATC facility having jurisdiction over that airspace. (See
to land is received. 14 CFR part 103.)

If the aircraft radio fails in flight under IFR, the pilot Unmanned Free Balloons
should continue the ight by the route assigned in the last Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, no person may operate
ATC clearance received; or, if being radar vectored, by the an unmanned free balloon below 2,000 feet above the surface
direct route from the point of radio failure to the x, route, within the lateral boundaries of Class B, Class C, Class D,
or airway specied in the vector clearance. In the absence or Class E airspace designated for an airport. (See 14 CFR
of an assigned route, the pilot should continue by the route part 101.)
that ATC advised may be expected in a further clearance;
or, if a route had not been advised, by the route led in the Parachute Jumps
ight plan.
No person may make a parachute jump, and no PIC may
allow a parachute jump to be made from that aircraft, in or
Class G
into Class A, Class B, Class C, or Class D airspace without,
When approaching to land at an airport without an operating or in violation of, the terms of an ATC authorization issued
control tower in Class G airspace: by the ATC facility having jurisdiction over the airspace.
1. Each pilot of an airplane must make all turns of that (See 14 CFR part 105.)
airplane to the left unless the airport displays approved
light signals or visual markings indicating that turns Chapter Summary
should be made to the right, in which case the pilot
This chapter introduces the various classications of airspace
must make all turns to the right.
and provides information on the requirements to operate in
2. Each pilot of a helicopter or a powered parachute must such airspace. For further information, consult the AIM and
avoid the ow of xed-wing aircraft. 14 CFR parts 71, 73, and 91.

14-10
Chapter 15

Navigation
Introduction
This chapter provides an introduction to cross-country
ying under visual ight rules (VFR). It contains practical
information for planning and executing cross-country ights
for the beginning pilot.

Air navigation is the process of piloting an aircraft from

one geographic position to another while monitoring ones
position as the ight progresses. It introduces the need for
planning, which includes plotting the course on an aeronautical
chart, selecting checkpoints, measuring distances, obtaining
pertinent weather information, and computing ight time,
headings, and fuel requirements. The methods used in this
chapter include pilotagenavigating by reference to visible
landmarks, dead reckoningcomputations of direction and
distance from a known position, and radio navigationby
use of radio aids.

15-1
Aeronautical Charts The charts provide an abundance of information, including
airport data, navigational aids, airspace, and topography.
An aeronautical chart is the road map for a pilot ying under
Figure 15-1 is an excerpt from the legend of a sectional
VFR. The chart provides information which allows pilots
chart. By referring to the chart legend, a pilot can interpret
to track their position and provides available information
most of the information on the chart. A pilot should also
which enhances safety. The three aeronautical charts used
check the chart for other legend information, which includes
by VFR pilots are:
air trafc control (ATC) frequencies and information on
Sectional airspace. These charts are revised semiannually except for
VFR Terminal Area some areas outside the conterminous United States where
they are revised annually.
World Aeronautical
VFR Terminal Area Charts
A free catalog listing aeronautical charts and related
VFR terminal area charts are helpful when ying in or near
publications including prices and instructions for ordering
Class B airspace. They have a scale of 1:250,000 (1 inch
is available at the National Aeronautical Charting Group
= 3.43 NM or approximately 4 SM). These charts provide
(NACG) web site: www.naco.faa.gov.
a more detailed display of topographical information and
are revised semiannually, except for several Alaskan and
Sectional Charts
Caribbean charts. [Figure 15-2]
Sectional charts are the most common charts used by pilots
today. The charts have a scale of 1:500,000 (1 inch = 6.86
World Aeronautical Charts
nautical miles (NM) or approximately 8 statute miles (SM))
World aeronautical charts are designed to provide a standard
which allows for more detailed information to be included
series of aeronautical charts, covering land areas of the
on the chart.

Figure 15-1. Sectional chart and legend.

15-2
Figure 15-2. VFR terminal area chart and legend.

world, at a size and scale convenient for navigation by Meridians of longitude are drawn from the North Pole to the
moderate speed aircraft. They are produced at a scale of South Pole and are at right angles to the Equator. The Prime
1:1,000,000 (1 inch = 13.7 NM or approximately 16 SM). Meridian which passes through Greenwich, England, is
These charts are similar to sectional charts and the symbols used as the zero line from which measurements are made in
are the same except there is less detail due to the smaller degrees east (E) and west (W) to 180. The 48 conterminous
scale. [Figure 15-3] states of the United States are between 67 and 125 W
longitude. The arrows in Figure 15-4 labeled Longitude
These charts are revised annually except several Alaskan point to lines of longitude.
charts and the Mexican/Caribbean charts which are revised
every 2 years. Any specic geographical point can be located by reference
to its longitude and latitude. Washington, D.C., for example,
Lattitude and Longitude (Meridians and is approximately 39 N latitude, 77 W longitude. Chicago
Parallels) is approximately 42 N latitude, 88 W longitude.
The equator is an imaginary circle equidistant from the poles
Time Zones
of the Earth. Circles parallel to the equator (lines running east
and west) are parallels of latitude. They are used to measure The meridians are also useful for designating time zones. A
degrees of latitude north (N) or south (S) of the equator. The day is dened as the time required for the Earth to make one
angular distance from the equator to the pole is one-fourth complete rotation of 360. Since the day is divided into 24
of a circle or 90. The 48 conterminous states of the United hours, the Earth revolves at the rate of 15 an hour. Noon is
States are located between 25 and 49 N latitude. The arrows the time when the sun is directly above a meridian; to the west
in Figure 15-4 labeled Latitude point to lines of latitude. of that meridian is morning, to the east is afternoon.

15-3
Figure 15-3. World aeronautical chart.

90N
The standard practice is to establish a time zone for each
75N
15 of longitude. This makes a difference of exactly 1 hour
between each zone. In the United States, there are four time
60N
zones. The time zones are Eastern (75), Central (90),
Mountain (105), and Pacic (120). The dividing lines are
P
Lati

45N
rim

somewhat irregular because communities near the boundaries

e

often nd it more convenient to use time designations of

tude

me

30N
neighboring communities or trade centers.
ridia
1
1550

135

1
15
0W

5
120W

30 W
W

15N
n

105W

W
45W

Figure 15-5 shows the time zones in the United States.

W
90W

75W

60W
W

When the sun is directly above the 90th meridian, it is noon

Equator Central Standard Time. At the same time, it is 1 p.m. Eastern
Lo
ng i
tude Standard Time, 11 a.m. Mountain Standard Time, and 10
15S
a.m. Pacic Standard Time. When Daylight Saving Time is
30S
in effect, generally between the second Sunday in March and
the rst Sunday in November, the sun is directly above the
45S
75th meridian at noon, Central Daylight Time.
60S

Figure 15-4. Meridians and parallelsthe basis of measuring time,

distance, and direction.

15-4
 Pacific Standard Time Mountain Standard Time Central Standard Time Eastern Standard Time

75

120

105
90

Figure 15-5. Time zones.

These time zone differences must be taken into account the world are based on this reference. To convert to this time,
during long ights eastwardespecially if the ight must a pilot should do the following:
be completed before dark. Remember, an hour is lost when Eastern Standard Time..........Add 5 hours
ying eastward from one time zone to another, or perhaps
even when ying from the western edge to the eastern edge Central Standard Time..........Add 6 hours
of the same time zone. Determine the time of sunset at the Mountain Standard Time...... Add 7 hours
destination by consulting the ight service stations (AFSS/ Pacic Standard Time.......... Add 8 hours
FSS) or National Weather Service (NWS) and take this into
account when planning an eastbound ight. For Daylight Saving Time, 1 hour should be subtracted from
the calculated times.
In most aviation operations, time is expressed in terms of
the 24-hour clock. ATC instructions, weather reports and Measurement of Direction
broadcasts, and estimated times of arrival are all based on
By using the meridians, direction from one point to another
this system. For example: 9 a.m. is expressed as 0900, 1 p.m.
can be measured in degrees, in a clockwise direction from
is 1300, and 10 p.m. is 2200.
true north. To indicate a course to be followed in ight, draw a
line on the chart from the point of departure to the destination
Because a pilot may cross several time zones during a ight, a
and measure the angle which this line forms with a meridian.
standard time system has been adopted. It is called Universal
Direction is expressed in degrees, as shown by the compass
Coordinated Time (UTC) and is often referred to as Zulu
rose in Figure 15-6.
time. UTC is the time at the 0 line of longitude which passes
through Greenwich, England. All of the time zones around

15-5
 the true course. This is discussed more fully in subsequent
36
sections in this chapter. For the purpose of this discussion,
33 assume a no-wind condition exists under which heading and
N NN
3
course would coincide. Thus, for a true course of 065, the
W
N
N E
N
true heading would be 065. To use the compass accurately,
W however, corrections must be made for magnetic variation
3

6
0

and compass deviation.

W

N
N

E
N
W

Variation

15
27

Variation is the angle between true north and magnetic north.

E
It is expressed as east variation or west variation depending
W

ES
upon whether magnetic north (MN) is to the east or west of
S

E
W

true north (TN).

24

2
W

1
E
S
W E
S
S The north magnetic pole is located close to 71 N latitude, 96
SS
2
S
W longitude and is about 1,300 miles from the geographic
1
15 or true north pole, as indicated in Figure 15-8. If the Earth
18
were uniformly magnetized, the compass needle would point
toward the magnetic pole, in which case the variation between
true north (as shown by the geographical meridians) and
Figure 15-6. Compass rose.
magnetic north (as shown by the magnetic meridians) could
Because meridians converge toward the poles, course be measured at any intersection of the meridians.
measurement should be taken at a meridian near the midpoint
of the course rather than at the point of departure. The course
measured on the chart is known as the true course (TC). This
is the direction measured by reference to a meridian or true
north. It is the direction of intended ight as measured in
degrees clockwise from true north.

As shown in Figure 15-7, the direction from A to B would

be a true course of 065, whereas the return trip (called the
reciprocal) would be a true course of 245. TN

Course A to B 065 MN
0 65
B
24 5

A Course B to A 245 Figure 15-8. Magnetic meridians are in red while the lines of
longitude and latitude are in blue. From these lines of variation
Figure 15-7. Courses are determined by reference to meridians on (magnetic meridians), one can determine the effect of local magnetic
aeronautical charts. variations on a magnetic compass.

The true heading (TH) is the direction in which the nose of Actually, the Earth is not uniformly magnetized. In the United
the aircraft points during a ight when measured in degrees States, the needle usually points in the general direction of
clockwise from true north. Usually, it is necessary to head the magnetic pole, but it may vary in certain geographical
the aircraft in a direction slightly different from the true localities by many degrees. Consequently, the exact amount
course to offset the effect of wind. Consequently, numerical of variation at thousands of selected locations in the United
value of the true heading may not correspond with that of States has been carefully determined. The amount and the

15-6
direction of variation, which change slightly from time west of the Great Lakes, south through Wisconsin, Illinois,
to time, are shown on most aeronautical charts as broken western Tennessee, and along the border of Mississippi and
magenta lines, called isogonic lines, which connect points Alabama. [Compare Figures 15-9 and 15-10.]
of equal magnetic variation. (The line connecting points at
which there is no variation between true north and magnetic Because courses are measured in reference to geographical
north is the agonic line.) An isogonic chart is shown in meridians which point toward true north, and these courses are
Figure 15-9. Minor bends and turns in the isogonic and agonic maintained by reference to the compass which points along a
lines are caused by unusual geological conditions affecting magnetic meridian in the general direction of magnetic north,
magnetic forces in these areas. the true direction must be converted into magnetic direction
for the purpose of ight. This conversion is made by adding
or subtracting the variation which is indicated by the nearest
Easterly Variation Westerly Variation isogonic line on the chart.

For example, a line drawn between two points on a chart

is called a true course as it is measured from true north.
However, ying this course off the magnetic compass would
not provide an accurate course between the two points due to
three elements that must be considered. The rst is magnetic
variation, the second is compass deviation, and the third is
wind correction. All three must be considered for accurate
navigation.

Magnetic Variation
As mentioned in the paragraph discussing variation, the
appropriate variation for the geographical location of
Agonic Line
the ight must be considered and added or subtracted as
appropriate. If ying across an area where the variation
changes, then the values must be applied along the route of
Figure 15-9. Note the agonic line where magnetic variation is ight appropriately. Once applied, this new course is called
zero. the magnetic course.

On the west coast of the United States, the compass needle Magnetic Deviation
points to the east of true north; on the east coast, the compass
Because each aircraft has its own internal effect upon the
needle points to the west of true north.
onboard compass systems from its own localized magnetic
inuencers, the pilot must add or subtract these inuencers
Zero degree variation exists on the agonic line, where
based upon the direction he or she is ying. The application of
magnetic north and true north coincide. This line runs roughly

NP NP NP

E
varia es
tio t MP MP t
esiatio
n
n
MP W ar
v

Zero
variation

N N N
33 33 33
3 3 3
3

3
6

6
0

0
W

W
E

E
24

24

24
2

2
1

2 2 2
1 1 1
15 15 15
S S S

SP SP SP

Figure 15-10. Effect of variation on the compass.

15-7
deviation (taken from a compass deviation card) compensates
the magnetic course unique to that aircrafts compass system Magnetic
ic North
(as affected by localized magnetic inuencers) and it now
becomes the compass course. Therefore, the compass course
when followed (in a no wind condition) takes the aircraft from Magnetic
ic North Magnetic
ic North
point A to point B even though the aircraft heading may not
N

match the original course line drawn on the chart. 33

3

6
0
W

E
If the variation is shown as 9 E, this means that magnetic

24

2
1
N N
33 33
3 2 3
1
15
S

north is 9 east of true north. If a true course of 360 is to be

3
6

6
0

0
W

W
E
own, 9 must be subtracted from 360, which results in a

E
24

24
2

2
1

1
magnetic heading of 351. To y east, a magnetic course of 2
1
S
15
2
1
S
15

081 (090 9) would be own. To y south, the magnetic

course would be 171 (180 9). To y west, it would be
261 (270 9). To y a true heading of 060, a magnetic
course of 051 (060 9) would be own.

Remember, if variation is west, add; if east, subtract. One

method for remembering whether to add or subtract variation Figure 15-11. Magnetized portions of the airplane cause the
is the phrase east is least (subtract) and west is best (add). compass to deviate from its normal indications.

Deviation are turned on. Tailwheel-type aircaft should be jacked up

into ying position. The aircraft is aligned with magnetic
Determining the magnetic heading is an intermediate step
north indicated on the compass rose and the reading shown
necessary to obtain the correct compass heading for the ight.
on the compass is recorded on a deviation card. The aircraft
To determine compass heading, a correction for deviation
is then aligned at 30 intervals and each reading is recorded.
must be made. Because of magnetic influences within
If the aircraft is to be own at night, the lights are turned on
an aircraft such as electrical circuits, radio, lights, tools,
and any signicant changes in the readings are noted. If so,
engine, and magnetized metal parts, the compass needle is
additional entries are made for use at night.
frequently deected from its normal reading. This deection
is deviation. The deviation is different for each aircraft, and it
The accuracy of the compass can also be checked by
also may vary for different headings in the same aircraft. For
comparing the compass reading with the known runway
instance, if magnetism in the engine attracts the north end of
headings.
the compass, there would be no effect when the plane is on a
heading of magnetic north. On easterly or westerly headings,
A deviation card, similar to Figure 15-12, is mounted near
however, the compass indications would be in error, as shown
the compass, showing the addition or subtraction required to
in Figure 15-11. Magnetic attraction can come from many
correct for deviation on various headings, usually at intervals
other parts of the aircraft; the assumption of attraction in the
of 30. For intermediate readings, the pilot should be able to
engine is merely used for the purpose of illustration.
interpolate mentally with sufcient accuracy. For example,
if the pilot needed the correction for 195 and noted the
Some adjustment of the compass, referred to as compensation,
correction for 180 to be 0 and for 210 to be +2, it could
can be made to reduce this error, but the remaining correction
be assumed that the correction for 195 would be +1. The
must be applied by the pilot.
magnetic heading, when corrected for deviation, is known
as compass heading.
Proper compensation of the compass is best performed by
a competent technician. Since the magnetic forces within For (Magnetic) N 30 60 E 120 150
the aircraft change, because of landing shocks, vibration, Steer (Compass) 0 28 57 86 117 148
mechanical work, or changes in equipment, the pilot should For (Magnetic S 210 240 W 300 330
occasionally have the deviation of the compass checked. The Steer (Compass) 180 212 243 274 303 332
procedure used to check the deviation (called swinging the
Figure 15-12. Compass deviation card.
compass) is briey outlined.

The aircraft is placed on a magnetic compass rose, the engine

started, and electrical devices normally used (such as radio)

15-8
Effect of Wind
WINDS ARE CALM
The preceding discussion explained how to measure a true
course on the aeronautical chart and how to make corrections
for variation and deviation, but one important factor has not
090
been consideredwind. As discussed in the study of the
atmosphere, wind is a mass of air moving over the surface of
the Earth in a denite direction. When the wind is blowing
from the north at 25 knots, it simply means that air is moving
southward over the Earths surface at the rate of 25 NM in Groundspeed 120 knots
1 hour.
WINDS 270 AT 20 KNOTS 090
Under these conditions, any inert object free from contact
with the Earth is carried 25 NM southward in 1 hour. This
effect becomes apparent when such things as clouds, dust,
and toy balloons are observed being blown along by the wind.
Obviously, an aircraft ying within the moving mass of air
is similarly affected. Even though the aircraft does not oat
freely with the wind, it moves through the air at the same time
the air is moving over the ground, thus is affected by wind. Groundspeed 140 knots
Consequently, at the end of 1 hour of ight, the aircraft is in
a position which results from a combination of the following WINDS 090 AT 20 KNOTS
two motions:
Movement of the air mass in reference to the ground
090
Forward movement of the aircraft through the air
mass

Actually, these two motions are independent. It makes no

difference whether the mass of air through which the aircraft Groundspeed 100 knots
is ying is moving or is stationary. A pilot ying in a 70-
knot gale would be totally unaware of any wind (except for
Figure 15-13. Motion of the air affects the speed with which aircraft
possible turbulence) unless the ground were observed. In
move over the Earths surface. Airspeed, the rate at which an
reference to the ground, however, the aircraft would appear
aircraft moves through the air, is not affected by air motion.
to y faster with a tailwind or slower with a headwind, or to
drift right or left with a crosswind. the movement of the aircraft with that of the air mass. GS can
be measured as the distance from the point of departure to
As shown in Figure 15-13, an aircraft ying eastward at an the position of the aircraft at the end of 1 hour. The GS can
airspeed of 120 knots in still air has a groundspeed (GS) be computed by the time required to y between two points a
exactly the same120 knots. If the mass of air is moving known distance apart. It also can be determined before ight
eastward at 20 knots, the airspeed of the aircraft is not by constructing a wind triangle, which is explained later in
affected, but the progress of the aircraft over the ground is this chapter. [Figure 15-14]
120 plus 20, or a GS of 140 knots. On the other hand, if the
mass of air is moving westward at 20 knots, the airspeed of The direction in which the aircraft is pointing as it ies
the aircraft remains the same, but GS becomes 120 minus is heading. Its actual path over the ground, which is a
20, or 100 knots. combination of the motion of the aircraft and the motion of
the air, is its track. The angle between the heading and the
Assuming no correction is made for wind effect, if an aircraft track is drift angle. If the aircraft heading coincides with the
is heading eastward at 120 knots, and the air mass moving true course and the wind is blowing from the left, the track
southward at 20 knots, the aircraft at the end of 1 hour is does not coincide with the true course. The wind causes the
almost 120 miles east of its point of departure because of its aircraft to drift to the right, so the track falls to the right of
progress through the air. It is 20 miles south because of the the desired course or true course. [Figure 15-15]
motion of the air. Under these circumstances, the airspeed
remains 120 knots, but the GS is determined by combining

15-9
 Airspeed effect (1 hour)

20 knots
Dista
nce
cove
red o
ver g
round
(1 ho
ur)

Figure 15-14. Aircraft flightpath resulting from its airspeed and direction, and the wind speed and direction.

Wind
Heading

Desired course
Drift angle

Trac
k

Figure 15-15. Effects of wind drift on maintaining desired course.

The following method is used by many pilots to determine TN MN CN

compass heading: after the TC is measured, and wind

DEV 4

correction applied resulting in a TH, the sequence TH

CH
variation (V) = magnetic heading (MH) deviation (D) -0
74
= compass heading (CH) is followed to arrive at compass MH

heading. [Figure 15-16] -0

7
VAR 10 E

TH
-0
By determining the amount of drift, the pilot can counteract
88

the effect of the wind and make the track of the aircraft
coincide with the desired course. If the mass of air is moving
across the course from the left, the aircraft drifts to the
right, and a correction must be made by heading the aircraft
sufciently to the left to offset this drift. To state in another Heading
way, if the wind is from the left, the correction is made by
pointing the aircraft to the left a certain number of degrees,
therefore correcting for wind drift. This is the wind correction
angle (WCA) and is expressed in terms of degrees right or
left of the true course. [Figure 15-17] Figure 15-16. Relationship between true, magnetic, and compass
headings for a particular instance.

15-10

075

Wind
ding
Hea

Wind
correction
angle
090
Track Desired course

Figure 15-17. Establishing a wind correction angle that will counteract wind drift and maintain the desired course.

To summarize: 140, or 1.5 hours. (The 0.5 hour multiplied by 60 minutes

Courseintended path of an aircraft over the ground equals 30 minutes.) Answer: 1:30.
or the direction of a line drawn on a chart representing
the intended aircraft path, expressed as the angle Distance D = GS X T
measured from a specic reference datum clockwise To nd the distance own in a given time, multiply GS by
from 0 through 360 to the line. time. The distance own in 1 hour 45 minutes at a GS of 120
Headingdirection in which the nose of the aircraft knots is 120 x 1.75, or 210 NM.
points during ight.
GS GS = D/T
Trackactual path made over the ground in ight. (If
proper correction has been made for the wind, track To nd the GS, divide the distance own by the time required.
and course are identical.) If an aircraft ies 270 NM in 3 hours, the GS is 270 3 =
90 knots.
Drift angleangle between heading and track.
WCAcorrection applied to the course to establish Converting Knots to Miles Per Hour
a heading so that track coincides with course. Another conversion is that of changing knots to miles per hour
Airspeedrate of the aircrafts progress through the (mph). The aviation industry is using knots more frequently
air. than mph, but it might be well to discuss the conversion for
those that use mph when working with speed problems. The
GSrate of the aircrafts inight progress over the NWS reports both surface winds and winds aloft in knots.
ground. However, airspeed indicators in some aircraft are calibrated
in mph (although many are now calibrated in both miles per
Basic Calculations hour and knots). Pilots, therefore, should learn to convert
Before a cross-country ight, a pilot should make common wind speeds that are reported in knots to mph.
calculations for time, speed, and distance, and the amount
of fuel required. A knot is 1 nautical mile per hour (NMPH). Because there are
6,076.1 feet in 1 NM and 5,280 feet in 1 SM, the conversion
Converting Minutes to Equivalent Hours factor is 1.15. To convert knots to miles per hour, multiply
Frequently, it is necessary to convert minutes into equivalent speed in knots by 1.15. For example: a wind speed of 20
hours when solving speed, time, and distance problems. To knots is equivalent to 23 mph.
convert minutes to hours, divide by 60 (60 minutes = 1 hour).
Thus, 30 minutes is 30/60 = 0.5 hour. To convert hours to Most flight computers or electronic calculators have a
minutes, multiply by 60. Thus, 0.75 hour equals 0.75 x 60 means of making this conversion. Another quick method of
= 45 minutes. conversion is to use the scales of NM and SM at the bottom
of aeronautical charts.
Time T = D/GS
To nd the time (T) in ight, divide the distance (D) by the
GS. The time to y 210 NM at a GS of 140 knots is 210

15-11
Fuel Consumption ample checkpoints. If one is missed, look for the next one
Aircraft fuel consumption is computed in gallons per hour. while maintaining the heading. When determining position
Consequently, to determine the fuel required for a given from checkpoints, remember that the scale of a sectional chart
ight, the time required for the ight must be known. Time is 1 inch = 8 SM or 6.86 NM. For example, if a checkpoint
in ight multiplied by rate of consumption gives the quantity selected was approximately one-half inch from the course
of fuel required. For example, a ight of 400 NM at a GS of line on the chart, it is 4 SM or 3.43 NM from the course on
100 knots requires 4 hours. If an aircraft consumes 5 gallons the ground. In the more congested areas, some of the smaller
an hour, the total consumption is 4 x 5, or 20 gallons. features are not included on the chart. If confused, hold the
heading. If a turn is made away from the heading, it is easy
The rate of fuel consumption depends on many factors: to become lost.
condition of the engine, propeller/rotor pitch, propeller/rotor
revolutions per minute (rpm), richness of the mixture, and Roads shown on the chart are primarily the well-traveled
particularly the percentage of horsepower used for ight roads or those most apparent when viewed from the air.
at cruising speed. The pilot should know the approximate New roads and structures are constantly being built, and
consumption rate from cruise performance charts, or from may not be shown on the chart until the next chart is issued.
experience. In addition to the amount of fuel required for the Some structures, such as antennas may be difcult to see.
ight, there should be sufcient fuel for reserve. Sometimes TV antennas are grouped together in an area near
a town. They are supported by almost invisible guy wires.
Flight Computers Never approach an area of antennas less than 500 feet above
Up to this point, only mathematical formulas have been the tallest one. Most of the taller structures are marked with
used to determine such items as time, distance, speed, and strobe lights to make them more visible to a pilot. However,
fuel consumption. In reality, most pilots use a mechanical some weather conditions or background lighting may make
or electronic ight computer. These devices can compute them difcult to see. Aeronautical charts display the best
numerous problems associated with ight planning and information available at the time of printing, but a pilot should
navigation. The mechanical or electronic computer has an be cautious for new structures or changes that have occurred
instruction book that probably includes sample problems so since the chart was printed.
the pilot can become familiar with its functions and operation.
[Figure 15-18] Dead Reckoning
Dead reckoning is navigation solely by means of computations
Plotter based on time, airspeed, distance, and direction. The products
Another aid in flight planning is a plotter, which is a derived from these variables, when adjusted by wind speed
protractor and ruler. The pilot can use this when determining and velocity, are heading and GS. The predicted heading takes
true course and measuring distance. Most plotters have a ruler the aircraft along the intended path and the GS establishes the
which measures in both NM and SM and has a scale for a time to arrive at each checkpoint and the destination. Except
sectional chart on one side and a world aeronautical chart on for ights over water, dead reckoning is usually used with
the other. [Figure 15-18] pilotage for cross-country ying. The heading and GS as
calculated is constantly monitored and corrected by pilotage
Pilotage as observed from checkpoints.
Pilotage is navigation by reference to landmarks or
checkpoints. It is a method of navigation that can be used The Wind Triangle or Vector Analysis
on any course that has adequate checkpoints, but it is more If there is no wind, the aircrafts ground track is the same as
commonly used in conjunction with dead reckoning and the heading and the GS is the same as the true airspeed. This
VFR radio navigation. condition rarely exists. A wind triangle, the pilots version
of vector analysis, is the basis of dead reckoning.
The checkpoints selected should be prominent features
common to the area of the ight. Choose checkpoints that can The wind triangle is a graphic explanation of the effect of
be readily identied by other features such as roads, rivers, wind upon ight. GS, heading, and time for any ight can be
railroad tracks, lakes, and power lines. If possible, select determined by using the wind triangle. It can be applied to
features that make useful boundaries or brackets on each the simplest kind of cross-country ight as well as the most
side of the course, such as highways, rivers, railroads, and complicated instrument ight. The experienced pilot becomes
mountains. A pilot can keep from drifting too far off course so familiar with the fundamental principles that estimates can
by referring to and not crossing the selected brackets. Never be made which are adequate for visual ight without actually
place complete reliance on any single checkpoint. Choose drawing the diagrams. The beginning student, however, needs

15-12
 100 90 80
110 70
0 60
12 280 270 260
290 250 50
130 0 190 180 170
160 24
30 200 0
0 15 23
21 0
10 0

40
0
3

14
10 0 350 3
20 40
33

22
0
30 0

32

0
0

30
15

21
0
33

0
DEGREES

160

20
200
340
A Plotter

170

10
190
350
NAUTICAL 5 MILES 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 NAUTICAL 85 MILES
INSTRUCTIONS FOR USE
1. Place hole over intersection of true course and true north line.
SECTIONAL CHART SIDE - 1:500,000 2.
3.
Without changing position rotate plotter until edge is over true course line.
From hole follow true north line to curved scale with arrow pointing in direction of flight.
NAVIGATIONAL FLIGHT PLOTTER
4. Read true course in degrees, on proper scale, over true north line. read scales counter-clockwise.

0 STATUTE 5 MILES 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100

TSD Alt: As Wind Wt. Bal Timer

Conv: Dist Vol Wt Wx

C
M
P

Mode On/Off Clr

Dist Vol Wt Wx

: 7 8 9 x

Sto 4 5 6

Rcl 1 2 3 +

Bksp 0 . +/- =

C Electronic Flight Computer

B Mechanical Flight Computer

Figure 15-18. A plotter (A), the computational and wind side of a mechanical flight computer (B), and an electronic flight computer
(C).
to develop skill in constructing these diagrams as an aid to the yellow line shows the direction of the track or the path of the
complete understanding of wind effect. Either consciously or aircraft as measured over the earth, and its length represents
unconsciously, every good pilot thinks of the ight in terms the distance traveled in 1 hour, or the GS.
of wind triangle.
In actual practice, the triangle illustrated in Figure 15-19 is
If ight is to be made on a course to the east, with a wind not drawn; instead, construct a similar triangle as shown by
blowing from the northeast, the aircraft must be headed the blue, yellow, and black lines in Figure 15-20, which is
somewhat to the north of east to counteract drift. This can explained in the following example.
be represented by a diagram as shown in Figure 15-19. Each
line represents direction and speed. The long blue and white Suppose a ight is to be own from E to P. Draw a line on
hashed line shows the direction the aircraft is heading, and the aeronautical chart connecting these two points; measure
its length represents the distance the airspeed for 1 hour. The its direction with a protractor, or plotter, in reference to a
short blue arrow at the right shows the wind direction, and meridian. This is the true course, which in this example is
its length represents the wind velocity for 1 hour. The solid assumed to be 090 (east). From the NWS, it is learned that

15-13
 N
eed
ts airsp
and 1 20 kno
eading
080 h Wind at 20
33
N
3
direction and
35 knots velocity

10
Drift Angle
3

6
0
W

E
090 course and 110 knots groundspeed
24

2
2
1 1
15
S

8 left correction
S

Figure 15-19. Principle of the wind triangle.

N
Wind direction and velocity

N
33
3
3

6
0
W

E P
E

Course and groundspeed

24

2
1

2
1
15
S

ed
airspe
and
ding
Hea
W
S

Figure 15-20. The wind triangle as is drawn in navigation practice.

the wind at the altitude of the intended ight is 40 knots from Step 3
the northeast (045). Since the NWS reports the wind speed in Next, align the ruler with E and the dot at 45, and draw the
knots, if the true airspeed of the aircraft is 120 knots, there is wind arrow from E, not toward 045, but downwind in the
no need to convert speeds from knots to mph or vice versa. direction the wind is blowing, making it 40 units long, to
correspond with the wind velocity of 40 knots. Identify this
Now, on a plain sheet of paper draw a vertical line line as the wind line by placing the letter W at the end to
representing north to south. (The various steps are shown show the wind direction.
in Figure 15-21.)
Step 4
Step 1 Finally, measure 120 units on the ruler to represent the
Place the protractor with the base resting on the vertical line airspeed, making a dot on the ruler at this point. The units
and the curved edge facing east. At the center point of the used may be of any convenient scale or value (such as inch
base, make a dot labeled E (point of departure), and at the = 10 knots), but once selected, the same scale must be used
curved edge, make a dot at 90 (indicating the direction of the for each of the linear movements involved. Then place the
true course) and another at 45 (indicating wind direction). ruler so that the end is on the arrowhead (W) and the 120-
knot dot intercepts the true course line. Draw the line and
Step 2 label it AS 120. The point P placed at the intersection
With the ruler, draw the true course line from E, extending represents the position of the aircraft at the end of 1 hour.
it somewhat beyond the dot by 90, and labeling it TC The diagram is now complete.
090.

15-14
 STEP 1 N N STEP 2 and 3
45
40
10

50
20
30

Mid Point 40

50
90

60

0
70
TC 090

80
E

90
90
100

10
110
12
d

0
in

13
0
14

W
0
15
0
160
170

W
S
N
33
3
3

6
0

TC 090 GS 88
W

E P
E
24

ts
1

2
0 kno
ed 12
1
15
S
e
Airsp

W
S STEP 4

Figure 15-21. Steps in drawing the wind triangle.

The distance own in 1 hour (GS) is measured as the numbers By placing the straight side of the protractor along
of units on the true course line (88 NMPH, or 88 knots). the true course line, with its center at P, read the angle
The true heading necessary to offset drift is indicated by the between the true course and the airspeed line. This is
direction of the airspeed line, which can be determined in the WCA, which must be applied to the true course
one of two ways: to obtain the true heading. If the wind blows from the
By placing the straight side of the protractor along the right of true course, the angle is added; if from the
north-south line, with its center point at the intersection left, it is subtracted. In the example given, the WCA
of the airspeed line and north-south line, read the true is 14 and the wind is from the left; therefore, subtract
heading directly in degrees (076). [Figure 15-22] 14 from true course of 090, making the true heading
076. [Figure 15-23]

TC 090 GS 88
E P
10
20

76
30

120
40

6 AS
70
50

7
TH 0
60
70

80
80 90
100
110
12
0

W
13
0

14
0
15
0
160
170

Figure 15-22. Finding true heading by the wind correction angle.

15-15
 N

TC 090 GS 88
E
WCA =14 L P

170

10
10

160

20
0

30
15
20

40
14
0 50
13
60

S 120
0

14
12
110 70

76 A
100 90 80

TH 0

Figure 15-23. Finding true heading by direct measurement.

After obtaining the true heading, apply the correction for Compass headingreading on the compass (found by
magnetic variation to obtain magnetic heading, and the applying deviation to MH) which is followed to make
correction for compass deviation to obtain a compass good the desired course.
heading. The compass heading can be used to y to the Total distanceobtained by measuring the length of
destination by dead reckoning. the TC line on the chart (using the scale at the bottom
of the chart).
To determine the time and fuel required for the ight, rst
nd the distance to destination by measuring the length of GSobtained by measuring the length of the TC line
the course line drawn on the aeronautical chart (using the on the wind triangle (using the scale employed for
appropriate scale at the bottom of the chart). If the distance drawing the diagram).
measures 220 NM, divide by the GS of 88 knots, which gives Estimated time en route (ETE)total distance divided
2.5 hours, or 2:30, as the time required. If fuel consumption by GS.
is 8 gallons an hour, 8 x 2.5 or about 20 gallons is used.
Fuel ratepredetermined gallons per hour used at
Briey summarized, the steps in obtaining ight information
cruising speed.
are as follows:
TCdirection of the line connecting two desired NOTE: Additional fuel for adequate reserve should be added
points, drawn on the chart and measured clockwise as a safety measure.
in degrees from true north on the mid-meridian.
WCAdetermined from the wind triangle. (Added Flight Planning
to TC if the wind is from the right; subtracted if wind Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) part
is from the left). 91 states, in part, that before beginning a ight, the pilot in
THdirection measured in degrees clockwise from command (PIC) of an aircraft shall become familiar with all
true north, in which the nose of the plane should point available information concerning that ight. For ights not
to make good the desired course. in the vicinity of an airport, this must include information
on available current weather reports and forecasts, fuel
Variationobtained from the isogonic line on the chart requirements, alternatives available if the planned ight
(added to TH if west; subtracted if east). cannot be completed, and any known trafc delays of which
MHan intermediate step in the conversion (obtained the pilot in command has been advised by ATC.
by applying variation to true heading).
Assembling Necessary Material
Deviationobtained from the deviation card on
the aircraft (added to MH or subtracted from, as The pilot should collect the necessary material well before the
indicated). ight. An appropriate current sectional chart and charts for

15-16
areas adjoining the ight route should be among this material The sectional chart bulletin subsection should be checked for
if the route of ight is near the border of a chart. major changes that have occurred since the last publication
date of each sectional chart being used. Remember, the
Additional equipment should include a ight computer or chart may be up to 6 months old. The effective date of the
electronic calculator, plotter, and any other item appropriate chart appears at the top of the front of the chart. The A/FD
to the particular ight. For example, if a night ight is to generally has the latest information pertaining to such matters
be undertaken, carry a ashlight; if a ight is over desert and should be used in preference to the information on the
country, carry a supply of water and other necessities. back of the chart, if there are differences.

Weather Check Airplane Flight Manual or Pilots Operating

It is wise to check the weather before continuing with other Handbook (AFM/POH)
aspects of ight planning to see, rst of all, if the ight is The Aircraft Flight Manual or Pilots Operating Handbook
feasible and, if it is, which route is best. Chapter 12, Aviation (AFM/POH) should be checked to determine the proper
Weather Services, discusses obtaining a weather brieng. loading of the aircraft (weight and balance data). The weight
of the usable fuel and drainable oil aboard must be known.
Use of Airport/Facility Directory (A/FD) Also, check the weight of the passengers, the weight of all
Study available information about each airport at which a baggage to be carried, and the empty weight of the aircraft to
landing is intended. This should include a study of the Notices be sure that the total weight does not exceed the maximum
to Airmen (NOTAMs) and the A/FD. [Figure 15-24] This allowable. The distribution of the load must be known to tell
includes location, elevation, runway and lighting facilities, if the resulting center of gravity (CG) is within limits. Be
available services, availability of aeronautical advisory sure to use the latest weight and balance information in the
station frequency (UNICOM), types of fuel available (use FAA-approved AFM or other permanent aircraft records, as
to decide on refueling stops), AFSS/FSS located on the appropriate, to obtain empty weight and empty weight CG
airport, control tower and ground control frequencies, trafc information.
information, remarks, and other pertinent information. The
NOTAMs, issued every 28 days, should be checked for Determine the takeoff and landing distances from the
additional information on hazardous conditions or changes appropriate charts, based on the calculated load, elevation
that have been made since issuance of the A/FD. of the airport, and temperature; then compare these distances
with the amount of runway available. Remember, the
heavier the load and the higher the elevation, temperature,
or humidity, the longer the takeoff roll and landing roll and
the lower the rate of climb.

Check the fuel consumption charts to determine the rate of

fuel consumption at the estimated ight altitude and power
settings. Calculate the rate of fuel consumption, and then
compare it with the estimated time for the ight so that
refueling points along the route can be included in the plan.

Charting the Course

Once the weather has been checked and some preliminary
planning done, it is time to chart the course and determine the
data needed to accomplish the ight. The following sections
provide a logical sequence to follow in charting the course,
lling out a ight log, and ling a ight plan. In the following
example, a trip is planned based on the following data and
the sectional chart excerpt in Figure 15-25.

Figure 15-24. Airport/Facility Directory.

15-17
 F

4 Checkpoint R
Highest elevation E

D Tallest obstruction

3 Checkpoint

C Class D Airspace

2 Checkpoint

B Class C Airspace

1 Checkpoint

Course line

A Route of flight: Chickasha Airport direct to Guthrie Airport

True airspeed (TAS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 knots
Winds aloft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360 at 10 knots
Usable fuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 gallons
Fuel rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8 GPH
Deviation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . +2

Figure 15-25. Sectional chart excerpt.

15-18
Route of flight: Chickasha Airport direct to Guthrie the center of the airport of departure and end at the center of
Airport the destination airport. If the route is direct, the course line
True airspeed (TAS)........................................115 knots consists of a single straight line. If the route is not direct, it
consists of two or more straight line segments. For example,
Winds aloft...........................................360 at 10 knots a VOR station which is off the direct route, but which
Usable fuel.....................................................38 gallons makes navigating easier, may be chosen (radio navigation
is discussed later in this chapter).
Fuel rate...............................................................8 GPH
Deviation..................................................................+2 Appropriate checkpoints should be selected along the route
and noted in some way. These should be easy-to-locate points
Steps in Charting the Course such as large towns, large lakes and rivers, or combinations of
The following is a suggested sequence for arriving at recognizable points such as towns with an airport, towns with
the pertinent information for the trip. As information is a network of highways, and railroads entering and departing.
determined, it may be noted as illustrated in the example of Normally, choose only towns indicated by splashes of yellow
a ight log in Figure 15-26. Where calculations are required, on the chart. Do not choose towns represented by a small
the pilot may use a mathematical formula or a manual or circlethese may turn out to be only a half-dozen houses. (In
electronic ight computer. If unfamiliar with the use of a isolated areas, however, towns represented by a small circle
manual or electronic computer, it would be advantageous to can be prominent checkpoints.) For this trip, four checkpoints
read the operation manual and work several practice problems have been selected. Checkpoint 1 consists of a tower located
at this point. east of the course and can be further identied by the highway
and railroad track, which almost parallels the course at this
First draw a line from Chickasha Airport (point A) directly point. Checkpoint 2 is the obstruction just to the west of the
to Guthrie Airport (point F). The course line should begin at course and can be further identied by Will Rogers World

PILOTS PLANNING SHEET

PLANE IDENTIFICATION N123DB DATE

Wind WCA WCA MH DEV CH TOTAL TOTAL FUEL TOTAL

COURSE TC TH GS
Knots From R+ L- R+ L- MILES TIME RATE FUEL
From Chickasha
031 10 360 3 L 28 7 E 21 +2 23 53 106 kts 35 min 8 GPH 38 gal
To Guthrie
From
To

VISUAL FLIGHT LOG

TIME OF NAVIGATION
DEPARTURE AIDS COURSE DISTANCE ELAPSED TIME GS CH REMARKS
POINT OF NAVAID NT TED ED ED
TO POI E IMA AT AL AT AL WEATHER
DEPARTURE TO TIV UAL
IDENT. NT ULA EST ACT TIM TU TIM TU
Chickasha Airport FREQ.
FROM POI CU M S
E A C S
E A C AIRSPACE ETC.
106 kts 023
CHECKPOINT 11 NM 6 min
#1 +5

106 kts 023

CHECKPOINT 10 NM 6 min
#2 21 NM
106 kts 023
CHECKPOINT 10.5 NM 6 min
#3 31.5 NM
106 kts 023
CHECKPOINT 13 NM 7 min
#4 44.5 NM

DESTINATION 8.5 NM 5 min

Guthrie Airport 53 NM

Figure 15-26. Pilots planning sheet and visual flight log.

15-19
Airport which is directly to the east. Checkpoint 3 is Wiley This is done by following the formula given earlier in this
Post Airport, which the aircraft should y directly over. chapter. The formula is:
Checkpoint 4 is a private, non-surfaced airport to the west of
the course and can be further identied by the railroad track TC WCA = TH V = MH D = CH
and highway to the east of the course.
The WCA can be determined by using a manual or electronic
The course and areas on either side of the planned route ight computer. Using a wind of 360 at 10 knots, it is
should be checked to determine if there is any type of airspace determined the WCA is 3 left. This is subtracted from the
with which the pilot should be concerned or which has TC making the TH 28. Next, the pilot should locate the
special operational requirements. For this trip, it should be isogonic line closest to the route of the ight to determine
noted that the course passes through a segment of the Class variation. Figure 15-25 shows the variation to be 6.30 E
C airspace surrounding Will Rogers World Airport where the (rounded to 7 E), which means it should be subtracted from
oor of the airspace is 2,500 feet mean sea level (MSL) and the TH, giving an MH of 21. Next, add 2 to the MH for
the ceiling is 5,300 feet MSL (point B). Also, there is Class the deviation correction. This gives the pilot the compass
D airspace from the surface to 3,800 feet MSL surrounding heading which is 23.
Wiley Post Airport (point C) during the time the control
tower is in operation. Now, the GS can be determined. This is done using a manual
or electronic calculator. The GS is determined to be 106
Study the terrain and obstructions along the route. This is knots. Based on this information, the total trip time, as well
necessary to determine the highest and lowest elevations as time between checkpoints, and the fuel burned can be
as well as the highest obstruction to be encountered so that determined. These calculations can be done mathematically
an appropriate altitude which conforms to 14 CFR part 91 or by using a manual or electronic calculator.
regulations can be selected. If the ight is to be own at an
altitude more than 3,000 feet above the terrain, conformance For this trip, the GS is 106 knots and the total time is 35
to the cruising altitude appropriate to the direction of ight minutes (30 minutes plus 5 minutes for climb) with a fuel
is required. Check the route for particularly rugged terrain so burn of 4.7 gallons. Refer to the ight log in Figure 15-26
it can be avoided. Areas where a takeoff or landing is made for the time between checkpoints.
should be carefully checked for tall obstructions. Television
transmitting towers may extend to altitudes over 1,500 feet As the trip progresses, the pilot can note headings and time
above the surrounding terrain. It is essential that pilots be and make adjustments in heading, GS, and time.
aware of their presence and location. For this trip, it should
be noted that the tallest obstruction is part of a series of Filing a VFR Flight Plan
antennas with a height of 2,749 feet MSL (point D). The Filing a ight plan is not required by regulations; however, it
highest elevation should be located in the northeast quadrant is a good operating practice, since the information contained
and is 2,900 feet MSL (point E). in the ight plan can be used in search and rescue in the event
of an emergency.
Since the wind is no factor and it is desirable and within the
aircrafts capability to y above the Class C and D airspace Flight plans can be led in the air by radio, but it is best to
to be encountered, an altitude of 5,500 feet MSL is chosen. le a ight plan by phone just before departing. After takeoff,
This altitude also gives adequate clearance of all obstructions contact the AFSS by radio and give them the takeoff time so
as well as conforms to the 14 CFR part 91 requirement to the ight plan can be activated.
y at an altitude of odd thousand plus 500 feet when on a
magnetic course between 0 and 179. When a VFR ight plan is led, it is held by the AFSS until
1 hour after the proposed departure time and then canceled
Next, the pilot should measure the total distance of the unless: the actual departure time is received; a revised
course as well as the distance between checkpoints. The total proposed departure time is received; or at the time of ling,
distance is 53 NM and the distance between checkpoints is the AFSS is informed that the proposed departure time is
as noted on the ight log in Figure 15-26. met, but actual time cannot be given because of inadequate
communication. The FSS specialist who accepts the ight
After determining the distance, the true course should be plan does not inform the pilot of this procedure, however.
measured. If using a plotter, follow the directions on the
plotter. The true course is 031. Once the true heading is
established, the pilot can determine the compass heading.

15-20
Figure 15-27 shows the ight plan form a pilot les with the Item 10 is the estimated time en route. In the sample
AFSS. When ling a ight plan by telephone or radio, give ight plan, 5 minutes was added to the total time to
the information in the order of the numbered spaces. This allow for the climb.
enables the AFSS specialist to copy the information more Item 12 is the fuel on board in hours and minutes. This
efciently. Most of the elds are either self-explanatory or is determined by dividing the total usable fuel aboard
non-applicable to the VFR ight plan (such as item 13). in gallons by the estimated rate of fuel consumption
However, some elds may need explanation. in gallons.
Item 3 is the aircraft type and special equipment. An
example would be C-150/X, which means the aircraft Remember, there is every advantage in ling a ight plan;
has no transponder. A listing of special equipment but do not forget to close the ight plan on arrival. Do this
codes is found in the Aeronautical Information Manual by telephone to avoid radio congestion.
(AIM).
Item 6 is the proposed departure time in UTC Radio Navigation
(indicated by the Z). Advances in navigational radio receivers installed in aircraft,
the development of aeronautical charts which show the exact
Item 7 is the cruising altitude. Normally, VFR can be
location of ground transmitting stations and their frequencies,
entered in this block, since the pilot chooses a cruising
along with refined flight deck instrumentation make it
altitude to conform to FAA regulations.
possible for pilots to navigate with precision to almost any
Item 8 is the route of ight. If the ight is to be direct, point desired. Although precision in navigation is obtainable
enter the word direct; if not, enter the actual route through the proper use of this equipment, beginning pilots
to be followed such as via certain towns or navigation should use this equipment to supplement navigation by visual
aids. reference to the ground (pilotage). This method provides the

X
N123DB C150/X 115 CHK, CHICKASHA
AIRPORT 1400 5500

Chickasha direct Guthrie

GOK, Guthrie Airport

Guthrie, OK 35

Jane Smith
Aero Air, Oklahoma City, OK (405) 555-4149
4 45 1

Red/White

McAlester

Figure 15-27. Flight plan form.

15-21
pilot with an effective safeguard against disorientation in the A and B Signal
event of radio malfunction. Received

There are four radio navigation systems available for use for
Only A Signal Received Only B Signal Received
VFR navigation. These are:
VHF Omnidirectional Range (VOR)
Nondirectional Radio Beacon (NDB) Neither A nor B
Long Range Navigation (LORAN-C) Signal Received

Global Positioning System (GPS)

Very High Frequency (VHF) Omnidirectional

Range (VOR)
The VOR system is present in three slightly different
navigation aids (NAVAIDs): VOR, VOR/DME, and
VORTAC. By itself it is known as a VOR, and it provides
magnetic bearing information to and from the station. When
VOR VOR
DME is also installed with a VOR, the NAVAID is referred Station Station
to as a VOR/DME. When military tactical air navigation A B

(TACAN) equipment is installed with a VOR, the NAVAID

is known as a VORTAC. DME is always an integral part of a Figure 15-28. VHF transmissions follow a line-of-sight course.
VORTAC. Regardless of the type of NAVAID utilized (VOR,
VOR/DME or VORTAC), the VOR indicator behaves the VORs and VORTACs are classed according to operational
same. Unless otherwise noted, in this section, VOR, VOR/ use. There are three classes:
DME and VORTAC NAVAIDs are all referred to hereafter
T (Terminal)
as VORs.
L (Low altitude)
The prex omni- means all, and an omnidirectional range H (High altitude)
is a VHF radio transmitting ground station that projects
straight line courses (radials) from the station in all directions. The normal useful range for the various classes is shown in
From a top view, it can be visualized as being similar to the following table:
the spokes from the hub of a wheel. The distance VOR
radials are projected depends upon the power output of the VOR/VORTAC NAVAIDS
transmitter. Normal Usable Altitudes and Radius Distances

The course or radials projected from the station are referenced Distance
to magnetic north. Therefore, a radial is dened as a line of Class Altitudes (Miles)
magnetic bearing extending outward from the VOR station. T 12,000' and below 25
Radials are identified by numbers beginning with 001, L Below 18,000' 40
which is 1 east of magnetic north, and progress in sequence H Below 14,500' 40
through all the degrees of a circle until reaching 360. To aid H Within the conterminous 48 states
in orientation, a compass rose reference to magnetic north is only, between 14,500 and 17,999' 100
superimposed on aeronautical charts at the station location. H 18,000'FL 450 130
H 60,000'FL 450 100
VOR ground stations transmit within a VHF frequency band
of 108.0117.95 MHz. Because the equipment is VHF, the The useful range of certain facilities may be less than 50 miles.
signals transmitted are subject to line-of-sight restrictions. For further information concerning these restrictions, refer to
Therefore, its range varies in direct proportion to the altitude the Communication/NAVAID Remarks in the A/FD.
of receiving equipment. Generally, the reception range of
the signals at an altitude of 1,000 feet above ground level
(AGL) is about 40 to 45 miles. This distance increases with
altitude. [Figure 15-28]

15-22
The accuracy of course alignment of VOR radials is receiving equipment. The ground transmitter is located at a
considered to be excellent. It is generally within plus or specic position on the ground and transmits on an assigned
minus 1. However, certain parts of the VOR receiver frequency. The aircraft equipment includes a receiver with
equipment deteriorate, and this affects its accuracy. This is a tuning device and a VOR or omninavigation instrument.
particularly true at great distances from the VOR station. The The navigation instrument could be a course deviation
best assurance of maintaining an accurate VOR receiver is indicator (CDI), horizontal situation indicator (HSI), or a
periodic checks and calibrations. VOR accuracy checks are radio magnetic indicator (RMI). Each of these instruments
not a regulatory requirement for VFR ight. However, to indicates the course to the tuned VOR.
assure accuracy of the equipment, these checks should be
accomplished quite frequently and a complete calibration Course Deviation Indicator (CDI)
each year. The following means are provided for pilots to The CDI is found in most training aircraft. It consists of
check VOR accuracy: (1) omnibearing selector (OBS) sometimes referred to as
FAA VOR test facility (VOT) the course selector, (2) a CDI needle (Left-Right Needle),
and (3) a TO/FROM indicator.
Certied airborne checkpoints
Certified ground checkpoints located on airport The course selector is an azimuth dial that can be rotated to
surfaces select a desired radial or to determine the radial over which
the aircraft is ying. In addition, the magnetic course TO
If an aircraft has two VOR receivers installed, a dual VOR or FROM the station can be determined.
receiver check can be made. To accomplish the dual receiver
check, a pilot tunes both VOR receivers to the same VOR When the course selector is rotated, it moves the CDI or
ground facility. The maximum permissible variation between needle to indicate the position of the radial relative to the
the two indicated bearings is 4 degrees. A list of the airborne aircraft. If the course selector is rotated until the deviation
and ground checkpoints is published in the A/FD. needle is centered, the radial (magnetic course FROM the
station) or its reciprocal (magnetic course TO the station)
Basically, these checks consist of verifying that the VOR can be determined. The course deviation needle also moves
radials the aircraft equipment receives are aligned with the to the right or left if the aircraft is own or drifting away
radials the station transmits. There are not specic tolerances from the radial which is set in the course selector.
in VOR checks required for VFR ight. But as a guide to
assure acceptable accuracy, the required IFR tolerances can By centering the needle, the course selector indicates either
be used4 for ground checks and 6 for airborne checks. the course FROM the station or the course TO the station.
These checks can be performed by the pilot. If the ag displays a TO, the course shown on the course
selector must be own to the station. [Figure 15-29] If
The VOR transmitting station can be positively identied
by its Morse code identication or by a recorded voice Course index
identication which states the name of the station followed
N 3
by VOR. Many FSS transmit voice messages on the same
frequency that the VOR operates. Voice transmissions should
33 Unreliable signal flag
not be relied upon to identify stations, because many FSS N
6

TO
30

A
remotely transmit over several omniranges, which have V
names different from that of the transmitting FSS. If the VOR CDI needle

is out of service for maintenance, the coded identication is

W

removed and not transmitted. This serves to alert pilots that

this station should not be used for navigation. VOR receivers TO/FROM indicator
Approximately 2 degrees
are designed with an alarm ag to indicate when signal in the VOR mode
12
24

strength is inadequate to operate the navigational equipment.

This happens if the aircraft is too far from the VOR or the 15
aircraft is too low and, therefore, is out of the line of sight 21 S
OBS
of the transmitting signals.

Using the VOR OBS knob

In review, for VOR radio navigation, there are two Figure 15-29. VOR indicator.
components required: ground transmitter and aircraft

15-23
FROM is displayed and the course shown is followed, the in the same manner, the angular movement of a conventional
aircraft is own away from the station. VOR/LOC needle indicates deviation from course.

Horizontal Situation Indicator The desired course is selected by rotating the course select
The HSI is a direction indicator that uses the output pointer, in relation to the compass card, by means of the
from a flux valve to drive the compass card. The HSI course select knob. The HSI has a xed aircraft symbol
[Figure 15-30] combines the magnetic compass with and the course deviation bar displays the aircrafts position
navigation signals and a glideslope. The HSI gives the pilot relative to the selected course. The TO/FROM indicator is a
an indication of the location of the aircraft with relationship triangular pointer. When the indicator points to the head of
to the chosen course or radial. the course select pointer, the arrow shows the course selected.
If properly intercepted and own, the course will take the
In Figure 15-30, the aircraft magnetic heading displayed aircraft to the chosen facility. When the indicator points to the
on the compass card under the lubber line is 184. The tail of the course, the arrow shows that the course selected, if
course select pointer shown is set to 295; the tail of the properly intercepted and own, will take the aircraft directly
pointer indicates the reciprocal, 115. The course deviation away from the chosen facility.
bar operates with a VOR/Localizer (VOR/LOC) or GPS
navigation receiver to indicate left or right deviations from When the NAV warning ag appears it indicates no reliable
the course selected with the course select pointer; operating signal is being received. The appearance of the HDG ag
indicates the compass card is not functioning properly.
Glideslope deviation scale
The glideslope pointer indicates the relation of the aircraft to
To/From indicator Course deviation scale
the glideslope. When the pointer is below the center position,
the aircraft is above the glideslope and an increased rate
Compass card Compass warning flag
of descent is required. In some installations, the azimuth
card is a remote indicating compass; however, in others the
NAV warning flag Lubber line heading must be checked occasionally against the magnetic
compass and reset.

DC Radio Magnetic Indicator (RMI)

The RMI [Figure 15-31] is a navigational aid providing
2I aircraft magnetic or directional gyro heading and very high
GS
I5 GS frequency omnidirectional range (VOR), GPS, and automatic
NAV HDG
24

direction nder (ADF) bearing information. Remote indicating

I2

30
6

33 S 21
3 HDG 15
24
12

W
E

A A
Course select knob D D
30

F F
6

Symbolic aircraft Course deviation bar 33

3 N
Heading select bug Course select pointer

NAV NAV
Dual glideslope pointers Heading select knob

Figure 15-31. Radio magnetic indicator.

Figure 15-30. Horizontal situation indicator.

15-24
compasses were developed to compensate for errors in and
limitations of older types of heading indicators. 7 33 N 3
33 3

30

30
6

6
W

E
The remote compass transmitter is a separate unit usually

24

I2
24
FROM
2I I5

12
21
mounted in a wingtip to eliminate the possibility of magnetic S 15
33 3 OBS

30

6
interference. The RMI consists of a compass card, a heading

24

I2
index, two bearing pointers, and pointer function switches. 2I I5
8
The two pointers are driven by any two combinations of a
33 N
GPS, an ADF, and/or a VOR. The pilot has the ability to 3

30
3 6

6
select the navigation aid to be indicated. The pointer indicates

W
6

30 33

I2 I5
E
24
course to selected NAVAID or waypoint. In Figure 15-31 FROM

12
21 S 15 2I 24
OBS
the green pointer is indicating the station tuned on the ADF.
The yellow pointer is indicating the course to a VOR of 0 N
3 6

E
GPS waypoint. Note that there is no requirement for a pilot

27

33
33

6
3

12
30

30
6
to select course with the RMI, but only the NAVAID is to

15
18 FROM

W
24
S

I2
be indicated. 2I I5 OBS
24 21

33 N
Tracking With VOR 3

30
TO

6
The following describes a step-by-step procedure to use when 5

E
24
tracking to and from a VOR station using a CDI. Figure 15-32

12
21 S 15

illustrates the procedure.

OBS

33 N
First, tune the VOR receiver to the frequency of the selected 3
33 3

30
TO

30

6
VOR station. For example, 115.0 to receive Bravo VOR. Next, W WIND

E
4

I2
24
check the identiers to verify that the desired VOR is being
24

I5

12
2I
21 S 15

received. As soon as the VOR is properly tuned, the course OBS

deviation needle deects either left or right. Then, rotate the

azimuth dial to the course selector until the course deviation 33 N 3
33 3
needle centers and the TO-FROM indicator indicates TO.
30

TO
6

30

6
W

If the needle centers with a FROM indication, the azimuth

E

I2
24
24

I5
12

2I
should be rotated 180 because, in this case, it is desired to 21 S 15

y TO the station. Now, turn the aircraft to the heading

OBS

3
indicated on the VOR azimuth dial or course selector, 350 3
6
in this example.
3
30 3

I2
I5

4
2I 2
If a heading of 350 is maintained with a wind from the right BRAVO
BRA 115.0
as shown, the aircraft drifts to the left of the intended track. 33 N 3
2
30

TO

As the aircraft drifts off course, the VOR course deviation

6
W

needle gradually moves to the right of center or indicates the

E
24

12

direction of the desired radial or track. OBS

21 S 15

To return to the desired radial, the aircraft heading must be 33 N 3

33 3
1
30

TO

altered to the right. As the aircraft returns to the desired track,

30
6

6
W

the deviation needle slowly returns to center. When centered,

E

24
24

I2

2I
12

I5
the aircraft is on the desired radial and a left turn must be OBS
21 S 15

made toward, but not to the original heading of 350 because

a wind drift correction must be established. The amount of Figure 15-32. Tracking a radial in a crosswind.
correction depends upon the strength of the wind. If the wind
velocity is unknown, a trial-and-error method can be used
to nd the correct heading. Assume, for this example, a 10
correction for a heading of 360 is maintained.

15-25
While maintaining a heading of 360, assume that the course deviation needle is reversed. To further explain this
deviation begins to move to the left. This means that the wind reverse action, if the aircraft is own toward a station
correction of 10 is too great and the aircraft is ying to the with a FROM indication or away from a station
right of course. A slight turn to the left should be made to with a TO indication, the course deviation needle
permit the aircraft to return to the desired radial. indicates in an direction opposite to that which it
should indicate. For example, if the aircraft drifts to
When the deviation needle centers, a small wind drift the right of a radial being own, the needle moves to
correction of 5 or a heading correction of 355 should be the right or points away from the radial. If the aircraft
own. If this correction is adequate, the aircraft remains drifts to the left of the radial being own, the needle
on the radial. If not, small variations in heading should be moves left or in the direction opposite to the radial.
made to keep the needle centered, and consequently keep the When navigating using the VOR it is important to y
aircraft on the radial. headings that maintain or re-intercept the course. Just
turning toward the needle will cause overshooting
As the VOR station is passed, the course deviation needle the radial and ying an S turn to the left and right of
fluctuates, then settles down, and the TO indication course.
changes to FROM. If the aircraft passes to one side of the
station, the needle deects in the direction of the station as Time and Distance Check From a Station
the indicator changes to FROM.
To compute time and distance from a station, rst turn the
aircraft to place the bearing pointer on the nearest 90 index.
Generally, the same techniques apply when tracking
Note time and maintain heading. When the bearing pointer
outbound as those used for tracking inbound. If the intent is
has moved 10, note the elapsed time in seconds and apply
to y over the station and track outbound on the reciprocal of
the formulas in the following example to determine time and
the inbound radial, the course selector should not be changed.
distance. [Figure 15-33]
Corrections are made in the same manner to keep the needle
centered. The only difference is that the omnidirectional Time-Distance Check Example
range indicator indicates FROM.
Time in seconds between bearings
= Minutes to station
If tracking outbound on a course other than the reciprocal of Degrees of bearing change
the inbound radial, this new course or radial must be set in
the course selector and a turn made to intercept this course. For example, if 2 minutes (120 seconds) is required to fly a
bearing change of 10 degrees, the aircraft is
After this course is reached, tracking procedures are the same
as previously discussed. 120
= 12 minutes to the station
10
Tips on Using the VOR
Positively identify the station by its code or voice Figure 15-33. Time-distance check example.
identication.
Keep in mind that VOR signals are line-of-sight. A The time from station may also be calculated by using a short
weak signal or no signal at all is received if the aircraft method based on the above formula, if a 10 bearing change
is too low or too far from the station. is own. If the elapsed time for the bearing change is noted
in seconds and a 10 bearing change is made, the time from
When navigating to a station, determine the inbound the station in minutes is determined by counting off one
radial and use this radial. Fly a heading that will decimal point. Thus, if 75 seconds are required to y a 10
maintain the course. If the aircraft drifts, y a heading bearing change, the aircraft is 7.5 minutes from the station.
to re-intercept the course then apply a correction to When the bearing pointer is moving rapidly or when several
compensate for wind drift. corrections are required to place the pointer on the wingtip
If minor needle uctuations occur, avoid changing position, the aircraft is at station passage.
headings immediately. Wait momentarily to see if the
needle recenters; if it does not, then correct. The distance from the station is computed by multiplying TAS
or GS (in miles per minute) by the previously determined time
When ying TO a station, always y the selected
in minutes. For example, if the aircraft is 7.5 minutes from
course with a TO indication. When ying FROM a
station, ying at a TAS of 120 knots or 2 NM per minute, the
station, always y the selected course with a FROM
distance from station is 15 NM (7.5 x 2 = 15).
indication. If this is not done, the action of the course

15-26
The preceding are methods of computing approximate time referred to as a VORTAC). Although DME equipment is very
and distance. The accuracy of time and distance checks is popular, not all aircraft are DME equipped.
governed by existing wind, degree of bearing change, and
accuracy of timing. The number of variables involved causes To utilize DME, the pilot should select, tune, and identify
the result to be only an approximation. However, by ying an a VORTAC, as previously described. The DME receiver,
accurate heading and checking the time and bearing closely, utilizing what is called a paired frequency concept,
the pilot can make a reasonable estimate of time and distance automatically selects and tunes the UHF DME frequency
from the station. associated with the VHF VORTAC frequency selected by
the pilot. This process is entirely transparent to the pilot.
Course Intercept After a brief pause, the DME display shows the slant range
Course interceptions are performed in most phases of distance to or from the VORTAC. Slant range distance is the
instrument navigation. The equipment used varies, but an direct distance between the aircraft and the VORTAC, and
intercept heading must be own that results in an angle or is therefore affected by aircraft altitude. (Station passage
rate of intercept sufcient to solve a particular problem. directly over a VORTAC from an altitude of 6,076 feet above
ground level (AGL) would show approximately 1.0 NM on
Rate of Intercept the DME.) DME is a very useful adjunct to VOR navigation.
Rate of intercept, seen by the aviator as bearing pointer or A VOR radial alone merely gives line of position information.
HSI movement, is a result of the following factors: With DME, a pilot may precisely locate the aircraft on that
line (radial).
The angle at which the aircraft is own toward a
desired course (angle of intercept) Most DME receivers also provide GS and time-to-station
True airspeed and wind (GS) modes of operation. The GS is displayed in knots (NMPH).
Distance from the station The time-to-station mode displays the minutes remaining to
VORTAC station passage, predicated upon the present GS.
Angle of Intercept GS and time-to-station information is only accurate when
tracking directly to or from a VORTAC. DME receivers
The angle of intercept is the angle between the heading of the
typically need a minute or two of stabilized ight directly to
aircraft (intercept heading) and desired course. Controlling
or from a VORTAC before displaying accurate GS or time-
this angle by selection/adjustment of the intercept heading
to-station information.
is the easiest and most effective way to control course
interceptions. Angle of intercept must be greater than the
Some DME installations have a hold feature that permits
degrees from course, but should not exceed 90. Within this
a DME signal to be retained from one VORTAC while the
limit, adjust to achieve the most desirable rate of intercept.
course indicator displays course deviation information from
an ILS or another VORTAC.
When selecting an intercept heading, the key factor is the
relationship between distance from the station and degrees
VOR/DME RNAV
from the course. Each degree, or radial, is 1 NM wide at
Area navigation (RNAV) permits electronic course guidance
a distance of 60 NM from the station. Width increases or
on any direct route between points established by the pilot.
decreases in proportion to the 60 NM distance. For example,
While RNAV is a generic term that applies to a variety of
1 degree is 2 NM wide at 120 NMand NM wide at 30
navigational aids, such as LORAN-C, GPS, and others, this
NM. For a given GS and angle of intercept, the resultant rate
section deals with VOR/DME-based RNAV. VOR/DME
of intercept varies according to the distance from the station.
RNAV is not a separate ground-based NAVAID, but a
When selecting an intercept heading to form an angle of
method of navigation using VOR/DME and VORTAC
intercept, consider the following factors:
signals specially processed by the aircrafts RNAV computer.
Degrees from course [Figure 15-34]
Distance from the station
NOTE: In this section, the term VORTAC also includes
True airspeed and wind (GS)
VOR/DME NAVAIDs.
Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)
In its simplest form, VOR/DME RNAV allows the pilot to
Distance measuring equipment (DME) consists of an ultra electronically move VORTACs around to more convenient
high frequency (UHF) navigational aid with VOR/DMEs and locations. Once electronically relocated, they are referred
VORTACs. It measures, in NM, the slant range distance of to as waypoints. These waypoints are described as a
an aircraft from a VOR/DME or VORTAC (both hereafter

15-27
 a course. To operate in any RNAV mode, the unit needs
both radial and distance signals; therefore, a VORTAC (or
VOR/DME) needs to be selected as a NAVAID. To establish
a waypoint, a point somewhere within the service range of
a VORTAC is dened on the basis of radial and distance.
Once the waypoint is entered into the unit and the RNAV en
route mode is selected, the CDI displays course guidance to
Area Navigation Direct Route the waypoint, not the original VORTAC. DME also displays
distance to the waypoint. Many units have the capability to
store several waypoints, allowing them to be programmed
Figure 15-34. Flying an RNAV course.
prior to ight, if desired, and called up in ight.
combination of a selected radial and distance within the
service volume of the VORTAC to be used. These waypoints RNAV waypoints are entered into the unit in magnetic
allow a straight course to be own between almost any bearings (radials) of degrees and tenths (i.e., 275.5) and
origin and destination, without regard to the orientation of distances in NM and tenths (i.e., 25.2 NM). When plotting
VORTACs or the existence of airways. RNAV waypoints on an aeronautical chart, pilots nd it
difcult to measure to that level of accuracy, and in practical
While the capabilities and methods of operation of VOR/ application, it is rarely necessary. A number of ight planning
DME RNAV units differ, there are basic principles of publications publish airport coordinates and waypoints with
operation that are common to all. Pilots are urged to study this precision and the unit accepts those gures. There is a
the manufacturers operating guide and receive instruction subtle, but important difference in CDI operation and display
prior to the use of VOR/DME RNAV or any unfamiliar in the RNAV modes.
navigational system. Operational information and limitations
should also be sought from placards and the supplement In the RNAV modes, course deviation is displayed in terms
section of the AFM/POH. of linear deviation. In the RNAV en route mode, maximum
deection of the CDI typically represents 5 NM on either side
VOR/DME-based RNAV units operate in at least three of the selected course, without regard to distance from the
modes: VOR, en route, and approach. A fourth mode, VOR waypoint. In the RNAV approach mode, maximum deection
Parallel, may also be found on some models. The units need of the CDI typically represents 1 NM on either side of the
both VOR and DME signals to operate in any RNAV mode. selected course. There is no increase in CDI sensitivity as the
If the NAVAID selected is a VOR without DME, RNAV aircraft approaches a waypoint in RNAV mode.
mode will not function.
The RNAV approach mode is used for instrument approaches.
In the VOR (or non-RNAV) mode, the unit simply functions Its narrow scale width ( of the en route mode) permits very
as a VOR receiver with DME capability. [Figure 15-35] The precise tracking to or from the selected waypoint. In visual
units display on the VOR indicator is conventional in all ight rules (VFR) cross-country navigation, tracking a course
respects. For operation on established airways or any other in the approach mode is not desirable because it requires a
ordinary VOR navigation, the VOR mode is used. great deal of attention and soon becomes tedious.

A fourth, lesser-used mode on some units is the VOR Parallel

OFFSET EN ROUTE mode. This permits the CDI to display linear (not angular)
3 3 deviation as the aircraft tracks to and from VORTACs.
It derives its name from permitting the pilot to offset (or
R
N
BEARING LOAD DISTANCE parallel) a selected course or airway at a xed distance of
A
V the pilots choosing, if desired. The VOR parallel mode
4 4
3 3 4 8 8 2 7 9 has the same effect as placing a waypoint directly over an
12 12 existing VORTAC. Some pilots select the VOR parallel
mode when utilizing the navigation (NAV) tracking function
of their autopilot for smoother course following near the
Figure 15-35. RNAV controls. VORTAC.

To utilize the units RNAV capability, the pilot selects and Confusion is possible when navigating an aircraft with VOR/
establishes a waypoint or a series of waypoints to dene DME-based RNAV, and it is essential that the pilot become

15-28
familiar with the equipment installed. It is not unknown for One of the disadvantages that should be considered when
pilots to operate inadvertently in one of the RNAV modes using low frequency (LF) for navigation is that low frequency
when the operation was not intended by overlooking switch signals are very susceptible to electrical disturbances, such as
positions or annunciators. The reverse has also occurred with lightning. These disturbances create excessive static, needle
a pilot neglecting to place the unit into one of the RNAV deviations, and signal fades. There may be interference from
modes by overlooking switch positions or annunciators. distant stations. Pilots should know the conditions under
As always, the prudent pilot is not only familiar with the which these disturbances can occur so they can be more alert
equipment used, but never places complete reliance in just to possible interference when using the ADF.
one method of navigation when others are available for
cross-check. Basically, the ADF aircraft equipment consists of a tuner,
which is used to set the desired station frequency, and the
Automatic Direction Finder (ADF) navigational display.
Many general aviation-type aircraft are equipped with ADF
radio receiving equipment. To navigate using the ADF, the The navigational display consists of a dial upon which the
pilot tunes the receiving equipment to a ground station known azimuth is printed, and a needle which rotates around the dial
as a nondirectional radio beacon (NDB). The NDB stations and points to the station to which the receiver is tuned.
normally operate in a low or medium frequency band of
200 to 415 kHz. The frequencies are readily available on Some of the ADF dials can be rotated to align the
aeronautical charts or in the A/FD. azimuth with the aircraft heading; others are xed with 0
representing the nose of the aircraft, and 180 representing
All radio beacons except compass locators transmit a the tail. Only the xed azimuth dial is discussed in this
continuous three-letter identication in code except during handbook. [Figure 15-36]
voice transmissions. A compass locator, which is associated
with an instrument landing system, transmits a two-letter
identication.

Standard broadcast stations can also be used in conjunction

with ADF. Positive identication of all radio stations is
extremely important and this is particularly true when using
standard broadcast stations for navigation.
3 6
E-W
E
NDBs have one advantage over the VOR. This advantage is N
N-S

that low or medium frequencies are not affected by line-of-

12
33

sight. The signals follow the curvature of the Earth; therefore,

15
30

if the aircraft is within the range of the station, the signals W S

21
can be received regardless of altitude. 24

The following table gives the class of NDB stations, their

power, and usable range:

NONDIRECTIONAL RADIOBEACON (NDB)

(Usable Radius Distances for All Altitudes) Figure 15-36. ADF with fixed azimuth and magnetic compass.

Power Distance Figure 15-37 illustrates terms that are used with the ADF
Class (Watts) (Miles) and should be understood by the pilot.
Compass Locator Under 25 15
MH Under 50 25 To determine the magnetic bearing FROM the station,
H 501999 *50 180 is added to or subtracted from the magnetic bearing to
HH 2000 or more 75 the station. This is the reciprocal bearing and is used when
plotting position xes.
*Service range of individual facilities may be less than 50
miles.

15-29
 Magnetic North

33
0
Ma
gn

ing
e

tic
ea
3
N 6

be
ch

33

E
ari
Re
eti

12
30
gn

ng
lat
Ma

ive

15
W
to sta
24 S
21

bearing
33
30 N

tion
24

6
21

E
S 12
15

N-S

E-W

Radio station

33
0
Figure 15-37. ADF terms.
3

Keep in mind that the needle of xed azimuth points to the N 6

33

E
station in relation to the nose of the aircraft. If the needle is

12
30

15
W
deected 30 to the left for a relative bearing of 330, this 24 21
S

means that the station is located 30 left. If the aircraft is

turned left 30, the needle moves to the right 30 and indicates
a relative bearing of 0, or the aircraft is pointing toward

340
be
the station. If the pilot continues ight toward the station

arin
keeping the needle on 0, the procedure is called homing to

g to
the station. If a crosswind exists, the ADF needle continues to
drift away from zero. To keep the needle on zero, the aircraft

sta
tion
must be turned slightly resulting in a curved ightpath to the
station. Homing to the station is a common procedure, but
results in drifting downwind, thus lengthening the distance
to the station. Figure 15-38. ADF tracking.

Tracking to the station requires correcting for wind drift and Although the ADF is not as popular as the VOR for radio
results in maintaining ight along a straight track or bearing navigation, with proper precautions and intelligent use, the
to the station. When the wind drift correction is established, ADF can be a valuable aid to navigation.
the ADF needle indicates the amount of correction to the
right or left. For instance, if the magnetic bearing to the Loran-C Navigation
station is 340, a correction for a left crosswind would Long range navigation, version C (LORAN-C) is another
result in a magnetic heading of 330, and the ADF needle form of RNAV, but one that operates from chains of
would indicate 10 to the right or a relative bearing of 010. transmitters broadcasting signals in the LF spectrum. World
[Figure 15-38] Aeronautical Chart (WAC), sectional charts, and VFR
terminal area charts do not show the presence of LORAN-
When tracking away from the station, wind corrections are C transmitters. Selection of a transmitter chain is either
made similar to tracking to the station, but the ADF needle made automatically by the unit, or manually by the pilot
points toward the tail of the aircraft or the 180 position on using guidance information provided by the manufacturer.
the azimuth dial. Attempting to keep the ADF needle on LORAN-C is a highly accurate, supplemental form of
the 180 position during winds results in the aircraft ying navigation typically installed as an adjunct to VOR and
a curved ight leading further and further from the desired ADF equipment. Databases of airports, NAVAIDs, and ATC
track. To correct for wind when tracking outbound, correction facilities are frequently features of LORAN-C receivers.
should be made in the direction opposite of that in which the
needle is pointing.

15-30
LORAN-C is an outgrowth of the original LORAN-A during the process, such as verication or acknowledgment
developed for navigation during World War II. The LORAN-C of the information displayed.
system is used extensively in maritime applications. It
experienced a dramatic growth in popularity with pilots with Most units contain databases of navigational information.
the advent of the small, panel-mounted LORAN-C receivers Frequently, such databases contain not only airport and
available at relatively low cost. These units are frequently NAVAID locations, but also extensive airport, airspace, and
very sophisticated and capable, with a wide variety of ATC information. While the unit can operate with an expired
navigational functions. database, the information should be current or veried to be
correct prior to use. The pilot can update some databases,
With high levels of LORAN-C sophistication and capability, while others require removal from the aircraft and the services
a certain complexity in operation is an unfortunate necessity. of an avionics technician.
Pilots are urged to read the operating handbooks and to
consult the supplements section of the AFM/POH prior to VFR navigation with LORAN-C can be as simple as telling
utilizing LORAN-C for navigation. Many units offer so many the unit where the pilot wishes to go. The course guidance
features that the manufacturers often publish two different provided is a great circle (shortest distance) route to the
sets of instructions: (1) a brief operating guide and (2) in- destination. Older units may need a destination entered in
depth operating manual. terms of latitude and longitude, but recent designs need only
the identier of the airport or NAVAID. The unit also permits
While coverage is not global, LORAN-C signals are suitable database storage and retrieval of pilot dened waypoints.
for navigation in all of the conterminous United States, and LORAN-C signals follow the curvature of the Earth and are
parts of Canada and Alaska. Several foreign countries also generally usable hundreds of miles from their transmitters.
operate their own LORAN-C systems. In the United States,
the U.S. Coast Guard operates the LORAN-C system. The LORAN-C signal is subject to degradation from a
LORAN-C system status is available from: USCG Navigation variety of atmospheric disturbances. It is also susceptible to
Center, Alexandria, Virginia at (703) 313-5900. interference from static electricity buildup on the airframe
and electrically noisy airframe equipment. Flight in
LORAN-C absolute accuracy is excellentposition errors precipitation or even dust clouds can cause occasional
are typically less than .25 NM. Repeatable accuracy, or interference with navigational guidance from LORAN-C
the ability to return to a waypoint previously visited, is signals. To minimize these effects, static wicks and bonding
even better. While LORAN-C is a form of RNAV, it differs straps should be installed and properly maintained.
signicantly from VOR/DME-based RNAV. It operates in a
90110 kHz frequency range and is based upon measurement LORAN-C navigation information is presented to the pilot in
of the difference in arrival times of pulses of radio frequency a variety of ways. All units have self-contained displays, and
(RF) energy emitted by a chain of transmitters hundreds of some elaborate units feature built-in moving map displays.
miles apart. Some installations can also drive an external moving map
display, a conventional VOR indicator, or a horizontal
Within any given chain of transmitters, there is a master situation indicator (HSI). Course deviation information is
station, and from three to ve secondary stations. LORAN- presented as a linear deviation from coursethere is no
C units must be able to receive at least a master and two increase in tracking sensitivity as the aircraft approaches
secondary stations to provide navigational information. the waypoint or destination. Pilots must carefully observe
Unlike VOR/DME-based RNAV, where the pilot must select placards, selector switch positions, and annunciator
the appropriate VOR/DME or VORTAC frequency, there is indications when utilizing LORAN-C because aircraft
not a frequency selection in LORAN-C. The most advanced installations can vary widely. The pilots familiarity with
units automatically select the optimum chain for navigation. unit operation through AFM/POH supplements and operating
Other units rely upon the pilot to select the appropriate chain guides cannot be overemphasized.
with a manual entry.
LORAN-C Notices to Airmen (NOTAMs) should be
After the LORAN-C receiver has been turned on, the unit reviewed prior to relying on LORAN-C for navigation.
must be initialized before it can be used for navigation. While LORAN-C NOTAMs are issued to announce outages for
this can be accomplished in ight, it is preferable to perform specic chains and transmitters. Pilots may obtain LORAN-C
this task, which can take several minutes, on the ground. NOTAMs from FSS briefers only upon request.
The methods for initialization are as varied as the number
of different models of receivers. Some require pilot input

15-31
The prudent pilot never relies solely on one means of satellites and a barometric altimeter (baro-aiding) to detect an
navigation when others are available for backup and cross- integrity anomaly. For receivers capable of doing so, RAIM
check. Pilots should never become so dependent upon the needs six satellites in view (or ve satellites with baro-aiding)
extensive capabilities of LORAN-C that other methods of to isolate the corrupt satellite signal and remove it from the
navigation are neglected. navigation solution. Baro-aiding is a method of augmenting
the GPS integrity solution by using a nonsatellite input
Global Positioning System source. GPS derived altitude should not be relied upon to
The GPS is a satellite-based radio navigation system. Its determine aircraft altitude since the vertical error can be quite
RNAV guidance is worldwide in scope. There are no symbols large and no integrity is provided. To ensure that baro-aiding
for GPS on aeronautical charts as it is a space-based system is available, the current altimeter setting must be entered into
with global coverage. Development of the system is underway the receiver as described in the operating manual.
so that GPS is capable of providing the primary means of
electronic navigation. Portable and yoke mounted units are RAIM messages vary somewhat between receivers; however,
proving to be very popular in addition to those permanently generally there are two types. One type indicates that there
installed in the aircraft. Extensive navigation databases are are not enough satellites available to provide RAIM integrity
common features in aircraft GPS receivers. monitoring and another type indicates that the RAIM integrity
monitor has detected a potential error that exceeds the limit
The GPS is a satellite radio navigation and time dissemination for the current phase of ight. Without RAIM capability, the
system developed and operated by the U.S. Department of pilot has no assurance of the accuracy of the GPS position.
Defense (DOD). Civilian interface and GPS system status
is available from the U.S. Coast Guard. Selective Availability
Selective Availability (SA) is a method by which the accuracy
It is not necessary to understand the technical aspects of of GPS is intentionally degraded. This feature is designed
GPS operation to use it in VFR/instrument ight rules (IFR) to deny hostile use of precise GPS positioning data. SA was
navigation. It does differ signicantly from conventional, discontinued on May 1, 2000, but many GPS receivers are
ground-based electronic navigation, and awareness of those designed to assume that SA is still active.
differences is important. Awareness of equipment approvals
and limitations is critical to the safety of ight. The GPS constellation of 24 satellites is designed so that a
minimum of ve satellites are always observable by a user
The GPS navigation system broadcasts a signal that is used anywhere on earth. The receiver uses data from a minimum of
by receivers to determine precise position anywhere in the four satellites above the mask angle (the lowest angle above
world. The receiver tracks multiple satellites and determines the horizon at which a receiver can use a satellite).
a pseudorange measurement to determine the user location.
A minimum of four satellites is necessary to establish an VFR Use of GPS
accurate three-dimensional position. The Department of GPS navigation has become a great asset to VFR pilots,
Defense (DOD) is responsible for operating the GPS satellite providing increased navigation capability and enhanced
constellation and monitors the GPS satellites to ensure proper situational awareness, while reducing operating costs due
operation. to greater ease in ying direct routes. While GPS has many
benets to the VFR pilot, care must be exercised to ensure
The status of a GPS satellite is broadcast as part of the data that system capabilities are not exceeded.
message transmitted by the satellite. GPS status information
is also available by means of the U.S. Coast Guard navigation Types of receivers used for GPS navigation under VFR are
information service at (703) 313-5907 or online at http:// varied, from a full IFR installation being used to support a
www.navcen.uscg.gov/. Additionally, satellite status is VFR ight, to a VFR only installation (in either a VFR or IFR
available through the Notice to Airmen (NOTAM) system. capable aircraft) to a hand-held receiver. The limitations of
each type of receiver installation or use must be understood
The GPS receiver veries the integrity (usability) of the by the pilot to avoid misusing navigation information. In all
signals received from the GPS constellation through receiver cases, VFR pilots should never rely solely on one system
autonomous integrity monitoring (RAIM) to determine if of navigation. GPS navigation must be integrated with
a satellite is providing corrupted information. At least one other forms of electronic navigation as well as pilotage
satellite, in addition to those required for navigation, must be and dead reckoning. Only through the integration of these
in view for the receiver to perform the RAIM function; thus, techniques can the VFR pilot ensure accuracy in navigation.
RAIM needs a minimum of ve satellites in view, or four

15-32
Some critical concerns in VFR use of GPS include RAIM in certain situations of aircraft-satellite geometry, causing a
capability, database currency and antenna location. loss of navigation signal. These losses, coupled with a lack
of RAIM capability, could present erroneous position and
RAIM Capability navigation information with no warning to the pilot.
Many VFR GPS receivers and all hand-held units have no
RAIM alerting capability. Loss of the required number of While the use of a hand-held GPS for VFR operations is not
satellites in view, or the detection of a position error, cannot limited by regulation, modication of the aircraft, such as
be displayed to the pilot by such receivers. In receivers installing a panel- or yoke-mounted holder, is governed by 14
with no RAIM capability, no alert would be provided to the CFR part 43. Pilots should consult with a mechanic to ensure
pilot that the navigation solution had deteriorated, and an compliance with the regulation and a safe installation.
undetected navigation error could occur. A systematic cross-
check with other navigation techniques would identify this Tips for Using GPS for VFR Operations
failure, and prevent a serious deviation. Always check to see if the unit has RAIM capability. If no
RAIM capability exists, be suspicious of a GPS displayed
In many receivers, an up-datable database is used for position when any disagreement exists with the position
navigation fixes, airports, and instrument procedures. derived from other radio navigation systems, pilotage, or
These databases must be maintained to the current update dead reckoning.
for IFR operation, but no such requirement exists for VFR
use. However, in many cases, the database drives a moving Check the currency of the database, if any. If expired, update
map display which indicates Special Use Airspace and the the database using the current revision. If an update of an
various classes of airspace, in addition to other operational expired database is not possible, disregard any moving map
information. Without a current database the moving map display of airspace for critical navigation decisions. Be aware
display may be outdated and offer erroneous information to that named waypoints may no longer exist or may have
VFR pilots wishing to y around critical airspace areas, such been relocated since the database expired. At a minimum,
as a Restricted Area or a Class B airspace segment. Numerous the waypoints planned to be used should be checked against
pilots have ventured into airspace they were trying to avoid a current ofcial source, such as the A/FD, or a Sectional
by using an outdated database. If there is not a current data Aeronautical Chart.
base in the receiver, disregard the moving map display when
making critical navigation decisions. While a hand-held GPS receiver can provide excellent
navigation capability to VFR pilots, be prepared for
In addition, waypoints are added, removed, relocated, or re- intermittent loss of navigation signal, possibly with no RAIM
named as required to meet operational needs. When using warning to the pilot. If mounting the receiver in the aircraft,
GPS to navigate relative to a named x, a current database be sure to comply with 14 CFR part 43.
must be used to properly locate a named waypoint. Without
the update, it is the pilots responsibility to verify the Plan ights carefully before taking off. If navigating to user-
waypoint location referencing to an ofcial current source, dened waypoints, enter them before ight, not on the y.
such as the A/FD, sectional chart, or en route chart. Verify the planned ight against a current source, such as a
current sectional chart. There have been cases in which one
In many VFR installations of GPS receivers, antenna location pilot used waypoints created by another pilot that were not
is more a matter of convenience than performance. In IFR where the pilot ying was expecting. This generally resulted
installations, care is exercised to ensure that an adequate in a navigation error. Minimize head-down time in the aircraft
clear view is provided for the antenna to see satellites. If an and keep a sharp lookout for trafc, terrain, and obstacles.
alternate location is used, some portion of the aircraft may Just a few minutes of preparation and planning on the ground
block the view of the antenna, causing a greater opportunity makes a great difference in the air.
to lose navigation signal.
Another way to minimize head-down time is to become very
This is especially true in the case of hand-helds. The use of familiar with the receivers operation. Most receivers are not
hand-held receivers for VFR operations is a growing trend, intuitive. The pilot must take the time to learn the various
especially among rental pilots. Typically, suction cups are keystrokes, knob functions, and displays that are used in
used to place the GPS antennas on the inside of aircraft the operation of the receiver. Some manufacturers provide
windows. While this method has great utility, the antenna computer-based tutorials or simulations of their receivers.
location is limited by aircraft structure for optimal reception Take the time to learn about the particular unit before using
of available satellites. Consequently, signal losses may occur it in ight.

15-33
In summary, be careful not to rely on GPS to solve all VFR Pilots should be especially vigilant for other trafc while
navigational problems. Unless an IFR receiver is installed in operating near VFR waypoints. The same effort to see
accordance with IFR requirements, no standard of accuracy and avoid other aircraft near VFR waypoints is necessary,
or integrity has been assured. While the practicality of as is the case when operating near VORs and NDBs. In
GPS is compelling, the fact remains that only the pilot can fact, the increased accuracy of navigation through the use
navigate the aircraft, and GPS is just one of the pilots tools of GPS demands even greater vigilance, as off-course
to do the job. deviations among different pilots and receivers is less.
When operating near a VFR waypoint, use whatever ATC
VFR Waypoints services are available, even if outside a class of airspace
VFR waypoints provide VFR pilots with a supplementary where communications are required. Regardless of the class
tool to assist with position awareness while navigating of airspace, monitor the available ATC frequency closely for
visually in aircraft equipped with area navigation receivers. information on other aircraft operating in the vicinity. It is
VFR waypoints should be used as a tool to supplement current also a good idea to turn on landing light(s) when operating
navigation procedures. The uses of VFR waypoints include near a VFR waypoint to make the aircraft more conspicuous
providing navigational aids for pilots unfamiliar with an area, to other pilots, especially when visibility is reduced.
waypoint denition of existing reporting points, enhanced
navigation in and around Class B and Class C airspace, and Lost Procedures
enhanced navigation around Special Use Airspace. VFR Getting lost in an aircraft is a potentially dangerous situation
pilots should rely on appropriate and current aeronautical especially when low on fuel. If a pilot becomes lost, there
charts published specifically for visual navigation. If are some good common sense procedures to follow. If a
operating in a terminal area, pilots should take advantage of town or city cannot be seen, the rst thing to do is climb,
the Terminal Area Chart available for that area, if published. being mindful of trafc and weather conditions. An increase
The use of VFR waypoints does not relieve the pilot of any in altitude increases radio and navigation reception range,
responsibility to comply with the operational requirements and also increases radar coverage. If ying near a town or
of 14 CFR part 91. city, it might be possible to read the name of the town on a
water tower.
VFR waypoint names (for computer entry and ight plans)
consist of five letters beginning with the letters VP If the aircraft has a navigational radio, such as a VOR or ADF
and are retrievable from navigation databases. The VFR receiver, it can be possible to determine position by plotting
waypoint names are not intended to be pronounceable, an azimuth from two or more navigational facilities. If GPS
and they are not for use in ATC communications. On VFR is installed, or a pilot has a portable aviation GPS on board,
charts, a stand-alone VFR waypoint is portrayed using the it can be used to determine the position and the location of
same four-point star symbol used for IFR waypoints. VFR the nearest airport.
waypoint collocated with a visual checkpoint on the chart is
identied by a small magenta ag symbol. A VFR waypoint Communicate with any available facility using frequencies
collocated with a visual checkpoint is pronounceable based shown on the sectional chart. If contact is made with a
on the name of the visual checkpoint and may be used for controller, radar vectors may be offered. Other facilities may
ATC communications. Each VFR waypoint name appears in offer direction nding (DF) assistance. To use this procedure,
parentheses adjacent to the geographic location on the chart. the controller requests the pilot to hold down the transmit
Latitude/longitude data for all established VFR waypoints button for a few seconds and then release it. The controller
may be found in the appropriate regional A/FD. may ask the pilot to change directions a few times and repeat
the transmit procedure. This gives the controller enough
When ling VFR ight plans, use the ve-letter identier as information to plot the aircraft position and then give vectors
a waypoint in the route of ight section if there is an intended to a suitable landing site. If the situation becomes threatening,
course change at that point or if used to describe the planned transmit the situation on the emergency frequency 121.5 MHz
route of ight. This VFR ling would be similar to VOR use and set the transponder to 7700. Most facilities, and even
in a route of ight. Pilots must use the VFR waypoints only airliners, monitor the emergency frequency.
when operating under VFR conditions.
Flight Diversion
Any VFR waypoints intended for use during a ight should
There probably comes a time when a pilot is not able to
be loaded into the receiver while on the ground and prior to
make it to the planned destination. This can be the result of
departure. Once airborne, pilots should avoid programming
unpredicted weather conditions, a system malfunction, or
routes or VFR waypoint chains into their receivers.

15-34
poor preight planning. In any case, the pilot needs to be After selecting the most appropriate alternate, approximate
able to safely and efciently divert to an alternate destination. the magnetic course to the alternate using a compass rose
Before any cross-country ight, check the charts for airports or airway on the sectional chart. If time permits, try to start
or suitable landing areas along or near the route of ight. the diversion over a prominent ground feature. However,
Also, check for navigational aids that can be used during a in an emergency, divert promptly toward your alternate.
diversion. Attempting to complete all plotting, measuring, and
computations involved before diverting to the alternate may
Computing course, time, speed, and distance information in only aggravate an actual emergency.
ight requires the same computations used during preight
planning. However, because of the limited ight deck space, Once established on course, note the time, and then use the
and because attention must be divided between ying the winds aloft nearest to your diversion point to calculate a
aircraft, making calculations, and scanning for other aircraft, heading and GS. Once a GS has been calculated, determine
take advantage of all possible shortcuts and rule-of-thumb a new arrival time and fuel consumption. Give priority to
computations. ying the aircraft while dividing attention between navigation
and planning. When determining an altitude to use while
When in ight, it is rarely practical to actually plot a course diverting, consider cloud heights, winds, terrain, and radio
on a sectional chart and mark checkpoints and distances. reception.
Furthermore, because an alternate airport is usually not
very far from your original course, actual plotting is seldom Chapter Summary
necessary. This chapter has discussed the fundamentals of VFR
navigation. Beginning with an introduction to the charts that
A course to an alternate can be measured accurately with a can be used for navigation to the more technically advanced
protractor or plotter, but can also be measured with reasonable concept of GPS, there is one aspect of navigation that remains
accuracy using a straightedge and the compass rose depicted the same. The pilot is responsible for proper planning and the
around VOR stations. This approximation can be made on the execution of that planning to ensure a safe ight.
basis of a radial from a nearby VOR or an airway that closely
parallels the course to your alternate. However, remember
that the magnetic heading associated with a VOR radial
or printed airway is outbound from the station. To nd the
course TO the station, it may be necessary to determine the
reciprocal of that heading. It is typically easier to navigate
to an alternate airport that has a VOR or NDB facility on
the eld.

15-35
15-36
Chapter 16

Aeromedical
Factors
Introduction
It is important for a pilot to be aware of the mental and
physical standards required for the type of ying done. This
chapter provides information on medical certication and on
a variety of aeromedical factors related to ight activities.

16-1
Obtaining a Medical Certicate Health and Physiological Factors
Most pilots must have a valid medical certicate to exercise Affecting Pilot Performance
the privileges of their airman certicates. Glider and free A number of health factors and physiological effects can be
balloon pilots are not required to hold a medical certicate. linked to ying. Some are minor, while others are important
Sport pilots may hold either a medical certicate or a valid enough to require special attention to ensure safety of ight.
state drivers license. In some cases, physiological factors can lead to inight
emergencies. Some important medical factors that a pilot
Acquisition of a medical certicate requires an examination should be aware of include hypoxia, hyperventilation,
by an aviation medical examiner (AME), a physician middle ear and sinus problems, spatial disorientation, motion
with training in aviation medicine designated by the Civil sickness, carbon monoxide (CO) poisoning, stress and
Aerospace Medical Institute (CAMI). There are three classes fatigue, dehydration, and heatstroke. Other subjects include
of medical certificates. The class of certificate needed the effects of alcohol and drugs, anxiety, and excess nitrogen
depends on the type of ying the pilot plans to do. in the blood after scuba diving.

A third-class medical certicate is required for a private or Hypoxia

recreational pilot certicate. It is valid for 3 years for those Hypoxia means reduced oxygen or not enough oxygen.
individuals who have not reached the age of 40; otherwise it Although any tissue will die if deprived of oxygen long
is valid for 2 years. A commercial pilot certicate requires at enough, usually the most concern is with getting enough
least a second-class medical certicate, which is valid for 1 oxygen to the brain, since it is particularly vulnerable to
year. First-class medical certicates are required for airline oxygen deprivation. Any reduction in mental function while
transport pilots, and are valid for 6 months. ying can result in life-threatening errors. Hypoxia can be
caused by several factors, including an insufcient supply of
The standards are more rigorous for the higher classes of oxygen, inadequate transportation of oxygen, or the inability
certicates. A pilot with a higher class medical certicate of the body tissues to use oxygen. The forms of hypoxia are
has met the requirements for the lower classes as well. Since based on their causes: hypoxic hypoxia, hypemic hypoxia,
the required medical class applies only when exercising the stagnant hypoxia, and histotoxic hypoxia.
privileges of the pilot certicate for which it is required, a rst-
class medical certicate would be valid for 1 year if exercising Hypoxic Hypoxia
the privileges of a commercial certicate, and 2 or 3 years, Hypoxic hypoxia is a result of insufcient oxygen available
as appropriate, for exercising the privileges of a private or to the body as a whole. A blocked airway and drowning are
recreational certicate. The same applies for a second-class obvious examples of how the lungs can be deprived of oxygen,
medical certicate. The standards for medical certication but the reduction in partial pressure of oxygen at high altitude
are contained in Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations is an appropriate example for pilots. Although the percentage
(14 CFR) part 67 and the requirements for obtaining medical of oxygen in the atmosphere is constant, its partial pressure
certicates can be found in 14 CFR part 61. decreases proportionately as atmospheric pressure decreases.
As the airplane ascends during ight, the percentage of
Students who have physical limitations, such as impaired each gas in the atmosphere remains the same, but there are
vision, loss of a limb, or hearing impairment may be issued fewer molecules available at the pressure required for them
a medical certificate valid for student pilot privileges to pass between the membranes in the respiratory system.
only while learning to y. Pilots with disabilities may This decrease in number of oxygen molecules at sufcient
require special equipment installed in the aircraft, such as pressure can lead to hypoxic hypoxia.
hand controls for pilots with paraplegia. Some disabilities
necessitate a limitation on the individuals certicate; for Hypemic Hypoxia
example, impaired hearing would require the limitation
Hypemic hypoxia occurs when the blood is not able to take
not valid for ight requiring the use of radio. When all the
up and transport a sufcient amount of oxygen to the cells
knowledge, experience, and prociency requirements have
in the body. Hypemic means not enough blood. This type
been met and a student can demonstrate the ability to operate
of hypoxia is a result of oxygen deciency in the blood,
the aircraft with the normal level of safety, a statement of
rather than a lack of inhaled oxygen, and can be caused by
demonstrated ability (SODA) can be issued. This waiver,
a variety of factors. It may be due to reduced blood volume
or SODA, is valid as long as the physical impairment does
(due to severe bleeding), or it may result from certain blood
not worsen. Contact the local Flight Standards District Ofce
diseases, such as anemia. More often hypemic hypoxia
(FSDO) for more information on this subject.

16-2
occurs because hemoglobin, the actual blood molecule that Lightheaded or dizzy sensation
transports oxygen, is chemically unable to bind oxygen Tingling in ngers and toes
molecules. The most common form of hypemic hypoxia is
CO poisoning. This is explained in greater detail on page Numbness
16-11. Hypemic hypoxia can also be caused by the loss
of blood due to blood donation. Blood can require several As hypoxia worsens, the eld of vision begins to narrow, and
weeks to return to normal following a donation. Although instrument interpretation can become difcult. Even with all
the effects of the blood loss are slight at ground level, there these symptoms, the effects of hypoxia can cause a pilot to
are risks when ying during this time. have a false sense of security and be deceived into believing
everything is normal. The treatment for hypoxia includes
Stagnant Hypoxia ying at lower altitudes and/or using supplemental oxygen.
Stagnant means not owing, and stagnant hypoxia, or
All pilots are susceptible to the effects of oxygen starvation,
ischemia, results when the oxygen-rich blood in the lungs
regardless of physical endurance or acclimatization. When
is not moving, for one reason or another, to the tissues that
ying at high altitudes, it is paramount that oxygen be used
need it. An arm or leg going to sleep because the blood
to avoid the effects of hypoxia. The term time of useful
ow has accidentally been shut off is one form of stagnant
consciousness describes the maximum time the pilot has
hypoxia. This kind of hypoxia can also result from shock,
to make rational, life-saving decisions and carry them out at
the heart failing to pump blood effectively, or a constricted
a given altitude without supplemental oxygen. As altitude
artery. During flight, stagnant hypoxia can occur with
increases above 10,000 feet, the symptoms of hypoxia
excessive acceleration of gravity (Gs). Cold temperatures
increase in severity, and the time of useful consciousness
also can reduce circulation and decrease the blood supplied
rapidly decreases. [Figure 16-1]
to extremities.

Histotoxic Hypoxia Altitude Time of Useful Consciousness

The inability of the cells to effectively use oxygen is dened 45,000 feet MSL 9 to 15 seconds
as histotoxic hypoxia. Histo refers to tissues or cells, and 40,000 feet MSL 15 to 20 seconds
toxic means poisonous. In this case, enough oxygen is 35,000 feet MSL 30 to 60 seconds
being transported to the cells that need it, but they are unable 30,000 feet MSL 1 to 2 minutes
to make use of it. This impairment of cellular respiration 28,000 feet MSL 2 to 3 minutes
can be caused by alcohol and other drugs, such as narcotics 25,000 feet MSL 3 to 5 minutes
and poisons. Research has shown that drinking one ounce 22,000 feet MSL 5 to 10 minutes
of alcohol can equate to about an additional 2,000 feet of 20,000 feet MSL 30 minutes or more
physiological altitude.
Figure 16-1. Time of useful consciousness.
Symptoms of Hypoxia
High-altitude ying can place a pilot in danger of becoming Since symptoms of hypoxia can be different for each individual,
hypoxic. Oxygen starvation causes the brain and other vital the ability to recognize hypoxia can be greatly improved by
organs to become impaired. One noteworthy attribute of experiencing and witnessing the effects of it during an altitude
the onset of hypoxia is that the rst symptoms are euphoria chamber flight. The Federal Aviation Administration
and a carefree feeling. With increased oxygen starvation, (FAA) provides this opportunity through aviation physiology
the extremities become less responsive and ying becomes training, which is conducted at the FAA CAMI and at many
less coordinated. The symptoms of hypoxia vary with the military facilities across the United States. For information
individual, but common symptoms include: about the FAAs one-day physiological training course with
Cyanosis (blue ngernails and lips) altitude chamber and vertigo demonstrations, visit the FAA
web site: www.faa.gov/pilots/training/airman_education/
Headache
aerospace_physiology/index.cfm.
Decreased reaction time
Impaired judgment Hyperventilation
Hyperventilation is the excessive rate and depth of respiration
Euphoria
leading to abnormal loss of carbon dioxide from the blood.
Visual impairment This condition occurs more often among pilots than is
Drowsiness generally recognized. It seldom incapacitates completely, but

16-3
it causes disturbing symptoms that can alarm the uninformed
pilot. In such cases, increased breathing rate and anxiety Middle Ear Eustachian Tube
further aggravate the problem. Hyperventilation can lead to
unconsciousness due to the respiratory systems overriding
Eardrum
mechanism to regain control of breathing.

Pilots encountering an unexpected stressful situation may

subconsciously increase their breathing rate. If ying at
higher altitudes, either with or without oxygen, a pilot may
have a tendency to breathe more rapidly than normal, which
often leads to hyperventilation.
Auditory Canal

Since many of the symptoms of hyperventilation are similar Outer Ear Opening to Throat
to those of hypoxia, it is important to correctly diagnose and
treat the proper condition. If using supplemental oxygen,
check the equipment and ow rate to ensure the symptoms are Figure 16-2. The Eustachian tube allows air pressure to equalize
not hypoxia related. Common symptoms of hyperventilation in the middle ear.
include:
During a climb, middle ear air pressure may exceed the
Visual impairment pressure of the air in the external ear canal, causing the
Unconsciousness eardrum to bulge outward. Pilots become aware of this
pressure change when they experience alternate sensations
Lightheaded or dizzy sensation
of fullness and clearing. During descent, the reverse
Tingling sensations happens. While the pressure of the air in the external ear
Hot and cold sensations canal increases, the middle ear cavity, which equalized with
the lower pressure at altitude, is at lower pressure than the
Muscle spasms
external ear canal. This results in the higher outside pressure,
causing the eardrum to bulge inward.
The treatment for hyperventilation involves restoring
the proper carbon dioxide level in the body. Breathing
This condition can be more difcult to relieve due to the
normally is both the best prevention and the best cure for
fact that the partial vacuum tends to constrict the walls of
hyperventilation. In addition to slowing the breathing rate,
the Eustachian tube. To remedy this often painful condition,
breathing into a paper bag or talking aloud helps to overcome
which also causes a temporary reduction in hearing
hyperventilation. Recovery is usually rapid once the breathing
sensitivity, pinch the nostrils shut, close the mouth and lips,
rate is returned to normal.
and blow slowly and gently in the mouth and nose.
Middle Ear and Sinus Problems
This procedure forces air through the Eustachian tube into the
During climbs and descents, the free gas formerly present in middle ear. It may not be possible to equalize the pressure in
various body cavities expands due to a difference between the ears if a pilot has a cold, an ear infection, or sore throat.
the pressure of the air outside the body and that of the air A ight in this condition can be extremely painful, as well as
inside the body. If the escape of the expanded gas is impeded, damaging to the eardrums. If experiencing minor congestion,
pressure builds up within the cavity and pain is experienced. nose drops or nasal sprays may reduce the risk of a painful
Trapped gas expansion accounts for ear pain and sinus pain, ear blockage. Before using any medication, check with an
as well as a temporary reduction in the ability to hear. AME to ensure that it will not affect the ability to y.

The middle ear is a small cavity located in the bone of the In a similar way, air pressure in the sinuses equalizes with
skull. It is closed off from the external ear canal by the the pressure in the flight deck through small openings
eardrum. Normally, pressure differences between the middle that connect the sinuses to the nasal passages. An upper
ear and the outside world are equalized by a tube leading from respiratory infection, such as a cold or sinusitis, or a nasal
inside each ear to the back of the throat on each side, called allergic condition can produce enough congestion around an
the Eustachian tube. These tubes are usually closed, but open opening to slow equalization. As the difference in pressure
during chewing, yawning, or swallowing to equalize pressure. between the sinuses and the ight deck increases, congestion
Even a slight difference between external pressure and middle may plug the opening. This sinus block occurs most
ear pressure can cause discomfort. [Figure 16-2]

16-4
frequently during descent. Slow descent rates can reduce can sometimes cause these systems to supply conicting
the associated pain. A sinus block can occur in the frontal information to the brain, which can lead to disorientation.
sinuses, located above each eyebrow, or in the maxillary During ight in visual meteorological conditions (VMC),
sinuses, located in each upper cheek. It will usually produce the eyes are the major orientation source and usually prevail
excruciating pain over the sinus area. A maxillary sinus over false sensations from other sensory systems. When
block can also make the upper teeth ache. Bloody mucus these visual cues are removed, as they are in instrument
may discharge from the nasal passages. meteorological conditions (IMC), false sensations can cause
a pilot to quickly become disoriented.
Sinus block can be avoided by not ying with an upper
respiratory infection or nasal allergic condition. Adequate The vestibular system in the inner ear allows the pilot to
protection is usually not provided by decongestant sprays sense movement and determine orientation in the surrounding
or drops to reduce congestion around the sinus openings. environment. In both the left and right inner ear, three
Oral decongestants have side effects that can impair pilot semicircular canals are positioned at approximate right angles
performance. If a sinus block does not clear shortly after to each other. [Figure 16-3] Each canal is lled with uid
landing, a physician should be consulted. and has a section full of ne hairs. Acceleration of the inner
ear in any direction causes the tiny hairs to deect, which
Spatial Disorientation and Illusions in turn stimulates nerve impulses, sending messages to the
Spatial disorientation specifically refers to the lack of brain. The vestibular nerve transmits the impulses from
orientation with regard to the position, attitude, or movement the utricle, saccule, and semicircular canals to the brain to
of the airplane in space. The body uses three integrated interpret motion.
systems working together to ascertain orientation and
movement in space. The somatosensory system sends signals from the skin, joints,
Vestibular systemorgans found in the inner ear that and muscles to the brain that are interpreted in relation to the
sense position by the way we are balanced. Earths gravitational pull. These signals determine posture.
Inputs from each movement update the bodys position to the
Somatosensory systemnerves in the skin, muscles, brain on a constant basis. Seat of the pants ying is largely
and joints, which, along with hearing, sense position dependent upon these signals. Used in conjunction with visual
based on gravity, feeling, and sound. and vestibular clues, these sensations can be fairly reliable.
Visual systemeyes, which sense position based on However, the body cannot distinguish between acceleration
what is seen. forces due to gravity and those resulting from maneuvering
the aircraft, which can lead to sensory illusions and false
All this information comes together in the brain and, most impressions of an aircrafts orientation and movement.
of the time, the three streams of information agree, giving
a clear idea of where and how the body is moving. Flying

Ampulla of Semicircular Canal

YAW
Semicircular Canals

Otolith Organ
ROLL
PITC
H

PITC
ROLL H

YAW
Endolymph Fluid
The semicircular tubes are arranged Cupola
at approximately right angles to each
other in the roll, pitch, and yaw axes. Vestibular Nerve
Hair Cells

Figure 16-3. The semicircular canals lie in three planes and sense motions of roll, pitch, and yaw.

16-5
Figure 16-4. Human sensation of angular acceleration.

Under normal flight conditions, when there is a visual For this reason, it is important that pilots develop an instrument
reference to the horizon and ground, the sensory system in the cross-check or scan that involves minimal head movement.
inner ear helps to identify the pitch, roll, and yaw movements Take care when retrieving charts and other objects in the ight
of the aircraft. When visual contact with the horizon is lost, deckif something is dropped, retrieve it with minimal head
the vestibular system becomes unreliable. Without visual movement and be alert for the coriolis illusion.
references outside the aircraft, there are many situations in
which combinations of normal motions and forces create Graveyard Spiral
convincing illusions that are difcult to overcome. As in other illusions, a pilot in a prolonged coordinated,
constant-rate turn, will have the illusion of not turning.
Prevention is usually the best remedy for spatial disorientation. During the recovery to level ight, the pilot will experience
Unless a pilot has many hours of training in instrument ight, the sensation of turning in the opposite direction. The
ight should be avoided in reduced visibility or at night when disoriented pilot may return the aircraft to its original turn.
the horizon is not visible. A pilot can reduce susceptibility Because an aircraft tends to lose altitude in turns unless the
to disorienting illusions through training and awareness, and pilot compensates for the loss in lift, the pilot may notice
learning to rely totally on ight instruments. a loss of altitude. The absence of any sensation of turning
creates the illusion of being in a level descent. The pilot may
Vestibular Illusions pull back on the controls in an attempt to climb or stop the
The Leans descent. This action tightens the spiral and increases the loss
A condition called the leans can result when a banked of altitude; this illusion is referred to as a graveyard spiral.
attitude, to the left for example, may be entered too slowly [Figure 16-5] At some point, this could lead to a loss of
to set in motion the uid in the roll semicircular tubes. aircraft control.
[Figure 16-4] An abrupt correction of this attitude sets the
uid in motion, creating the illusion of a banked attitude to the
right. The disoriented pilot may make the error of rolling the
aircraft into the original left banked attitude, or if level ight
is maintained, will feel compelled to lean in the perceived
vertical plane until this illusion subsides.

Coriolis Illusion
The coriolis illusion occurs when a pilot has been in a turn
long enough for the uid in the ear canal to move at the same
speed as the canal. A movement of the head in a different
plane, such as looking at something in a different part of the
ight deck, may set the uid moving and create the illusion
of turning or accelerating on an entirely different axis.
This action causes the pilot to think the aircraft is doing a
maneuver that it is not. The disoriented pilot may maneuver
the aircraft into a dangerous attitude in an attempt to correct Figure 16-5. Graveyard spiral.
the aircrafts perceived attitude.

16-6
Somatogravic Illusion to spatial disorientation, false horizon and autokinesis, are
A rapid acceleration, such as experienced during takeoff, concerned with only the visual system.
stimulates the otolith organs in the same way as tilting the
head backwards. This action creates the somatogravic illusion False Horizon
of being in a nose-up attitude, especially in situations without A sloping cloud formation, an obscured horizon, an aurora
good visual references. The disoriented pilot may push the borealis, a dark scene spread with ground lights and stars,
aircraft into a nose-low or dive attitude. A rapid deceleration and certain geometric patterns of ground lights can provide
by quick reduction of the throttle(s) can have the opposite inaccurate visual information, or false horizon, for aligning
effect, with the disoriented pilot pulling the aircraft into a the aircraft correctly with the actual horizon. The disoriented
nose-up or stall attitude. pilot may place the aircraft in a dangerous attitude.

Inversion Illusion Autokinesis

An abrupt change from climb to straight-and-level ight can In the dark, a stationary light will appear to move about when
stimulate the otolith organs enough to create the illusion of stared at for many seconds. The disoriented pilot could lose
tumbling backwards, or inversion illusion. The disoriented control of the aircraft in attempting to align it with the false
pilot may push the aircraft abruptly into a nose-low attitude, movements of this light, called autokinesis.
possibly intensifying this illusion.
Postural Considerations
Elevator Illusion The postural system sends signals from the skin, joints, and
An abrupt upward vertical acceleration, as can occur in muscles to the brain that are interpreted in relation to the
an updraft, can stimulate the otolith organs to create the Earths gravitational pull. These signals determine posture.
illusion of being in a climb. This is called elevator illusion. Inputs from each movement update the bodys position to
The disoriented pilot may push the aircraft into a nose-low the brain on a constant basis. Seat of the pants ying is
attitude. An abrupt downward vertical acceleration, usually largely dependent upon these signals. Used in conjunction
in a downdraft, has the opposite effect, with the disoriented with visual and vestibular clues, these sensations can be
pilot pulling the aircraft into a nose-up attitude. fairly reliable. However, because of the forces acting upon
the body in certain ight situations, many false sensations
can occur due to acceleration forces overpowering gravity.
Visual Illusions
[Figure 16-6] These situations include uncoordinated turns,
Visual illusions are especially hazardous because pilots rely
climbing turns, and turbulence.
on their eyes for correct information. Two illusions that lead

Level Coordinated turn Pull out

Level skid Forward slip Uncoordinated turn

Skid, slip, and uncoordinated turns feel similar.

Pilots feel they are being forced sideways in their seat.

Figure 16-6. Sensations from centrifugal force.

16-7
Demonstration of Spatial Disorientation Tilting to Right or Left
There are a number of controlled aircraft maneuvers a pilot While in a straight-and-level attitude, with the pilots eyes
can perform to experiment with spatial disorientation. While closed, the instructor pilot executes a moderate or slight skid
each maneuver will normally create a specic illusion, any to the left with wings level. This creates the illusion of the
false sensation is an effective demonstration of disorientation. body being tilted to the right.
Thus, even if there is no sensation during any of these
maneuvers, the absence of sensation is still an effective Reversal of Motion
demonstration because it illustrates the inability to detect This illusion can be demonstrated in any of the three planes
bank or roll. There are several objectives in demonstrating of motion. While straight and level, with the pilots eyes
these various maneuvers. closed, the instructor pilot smoothly and positively rolls the
1. They teach pilots to understand the susceptibility of aircraft to approximately 45 bank attitude while maintaining
the human system to spatial disorientation. heading and pitch attitude. This creates the illusion of a strong
2. They demonstrate that judgments of aircraft attitude sense of rotation in the opposite direction. After this illusion
based on bodily sensations are frequently false. is noted, the pilot should open his or her eyes and observe
that the aircraft is in a banked attitude.
3. They help decrease the occurrence and degree of
disorientation through a better understanding of the Diving or Rolling Beyond the Vertical Plane
relationship between aircraft motion, head movements,
This maneuver may produce extreme disorientation. While
and resulting disorientation.
in straight-and-level ight, the pilot should sit normally,
4. They help instill a greater condence in relying on either with eyes closed or gaze lowered to the oor. The
ight instruments for assessing true aircraft attitude. instructor pilot starts a positive, coordinated roll toward a
30 or 40 angle of bank. As this is in progress, the pilot
A pilot should not attempt any of these maneuvers at low tilts his or her head forward, looks to the right or left, then
altitudes, or in the absence of an instructor pilot or an immediately returns his or her head to an upright position.
appropriate safety pilot. The instructor pilot should time the maneuver so the roll is
stopped as the pilot returns his or her head upright. An intense
Climbing While Accelerating disorientation is usually produced by this maneuver, and the
With the pilots eyes closed, the instructor pilot maintains pilot experiences the sensation of falling downward into the
approach airspeed in a straight-and-level attitude for several direction of the roll.
seconds, then accelerates while maintaining straight-and-
level attitude. The usual illusion during this maneuver, In the descriptions of these maneuvers, the instructor pilot is
without visual references, is that the aircraft is climbing. doing the ying, but having the pilot do the ying can also
be a very effective demonstration. The pilot should close his
Climbing While Turning or her eyes and tilt the head to one side. The instructor pilot
With the pilots eyes still closed and the aircraft in a straight- tells the pilot what control inputs to perform. The pilot then
and-level attitude, the instructor pilot now executes, with a attempts to establish the correct attitude or control input with
relatively slow entry, a well coordinated turn of about 1.5 eyes closed and head tilted. While it is clear the pilot has no
positive G (approximately 50 bank) for 90. While in the idea of the actual attitude, he or she will react to what the
turn, without outside visual references and under the effect of senses are saying. After a short time, the pilot will become
the slight positive G, the usual illusion produced is that of a disoriented and the instructor pilot then tells the pilot to look
climb. Upon sensing the climb, the pilot should immediately up and recover. The benet of this exercise is that the pilot
open the eyes to see that a slowly established, coordinated experiences the disorientation while ying the aircraft.
turn produces the same sensation as a climb.
Coping with Spatial Disorientation
Diving While Turning To prevent illusions and their potentially disastrous
Repeating the previous procedure, except the pilots eyes consequences, pilots can:
should be kept closed until recovery from the turn is 1. Understand the causes of these illusions and remain
approximately one-half completed, can create the illusion constantly alert for them. Take the opportunity to
of diving while turning. experience spatial disorientation illusions in a device
such as a Barany chair, a Vertigon, or a Virtual Reality
Spatial Disorientation Demonstrator.

16-8
 2. Always obtain and understand preflight weather will y a lower approach, with the risk of striking objects
briengs. along the approach path or landing short. A wider-than-
3. Before ying in marginal visibility (less than 3 miles) usual runway can have the opposite effect, with the risk of
or where a visible horizon is not evident, such as ight the pilot leveling out the aircraft high and landing hard, or
over open water during the night, obtain training and overshooting the runway.
maintain prociency in airplane control by reference
to instruments. Runway and Terrain Slopes Illusion
An upsloping runway, upsloping terrain, or both, can create
4. Do not continue ight into adverse weather conditions
an illusion that the aircraft is at a higher altitude than it
or into dusk or darkness unless procient in the use of
actually is. [Figure 16-7] The pilot who does not recognize
ight instruments. If intending to y at night, maintain
this illusion will y a lower approach. Downsloping runways
night-ight currency and prociency. Include cross-
and downsloping approach terrain can have the opposite
country and local operations at various airelds.
effect.
5. Ensure that when outside visual references are used,
they are reliable, xed points on the Earths surface. Featureless Terrain Illusion
6. Avoid sudden head movement, particularly during An absence of surrounding ground features, as in an
takeoffs, turns, and approaches to landing. overwater approach, over darkened areas, or terrain made
featureless by snow, can create an illusion the aircraft is at
7. Be physically tuned for ight into reduced visibility.
a higher altitude than it actually is. This illusion, sometimes
That is, ensure proper rest, adequate diet, and, if ying
referred to as the black hole approach, causes pilots to y
at night, allow for night adaptation Remember that
a lower approach than is desired.
illness, medication, alcohol, fatigue, sleep loss, and
mild hypoxia are likely to increase susceptibility to
spatial disorientation. Water Refraction
Rain on the windscreen can create an illusion of being at a
8. Most importantly, become procient in the use of
higher altitude due to the horizon appearing lower than it is.
flight instruments and rely upon them. Trust the
This can result in the pilot ying a lower approach.
instruments and disregard your sensory perceptions.
Haze
The sensations that lead to illusions during instrument
ight conditions are normal perceptions experienced by Atmospheric haze can create an illusion of being at a greater
pilots. These undesirable sensations cannot be completely distance and height from the runway. As a result, the pilot
prevented, but through training and awareness, pilots can will have a tendency to be low on the approach. Conversely,
ignore or suppress them by developing absolute reliance extremely clear air (clear bright conditions of a high attitude
on the flight instruments. As pilots gain proficiency in airport) can give the pilot the illusion of being closer than he
instrument ying, they become less susceptible to these or she actually is, resulting in a high approach, which may
illusions and their effects. result in an overshoot or go around. The diffusion of light
due to water particles on the windshield can adversely affect
Optical Illusions depth perception. The lights and terrain features normally
used to gauge height during landing become less effective
Of the senses, vision is the most important for safe ight.
for the pilot.
However, various terrain features and atmospheric conditions
can create optical illusions. These illusions are primarily
associated with landing. Since pilots must transition from Fog
reliance on instruments to visual cues outside the ight deck for Flying into fog can create an illusion of pitching up. Pilots
landing at the end of an instrument approach, it is imperative who do not recognize this illusion will often steepen the
they be aware of the potential problems associated with these approach quite abruptly.
illusions, and take appropriate corrective action. The major
illusions leading to landing errors are described below. Ground Lighting Illusions
Lights along a straight path, such as a road or lights on moving
Runway Width Illusion trains, can be mistaken for runway and approach lights. Bright
A narrower-than-usual runway can create an illusion the runway and approach lighting systems, especially where
aircraft is at a higher altitude than it actually is, especially few lights illuminate the surrounding terrain, may create the
when runway length-to-width relationships are comparable. illusion of less distance to the runway. The pilot who does not
[Figure 16-7] The pilot who does not recognize this illusion recognize this illusion will often y a higher approach.

16-9
 Narrower runway Wider runway Runway width illusion

A narrower-than-usual runway can

create an illusion that the aircraft
is higher than it actually is, leading
to a lower approach.
h
roac A wider-than-usual runway can
App proac
h
mal al Ap
Nor Norm create an illusion that the aircraft is
lower than it actually is, leading to
25

25
a higher approach.

Narrower runway Wider runway

25 25

Downsloping runway Upsloping runway Runway slope illusion

A downsloping runway can create

the illusion that the aircraft is lower
than it actually is, leading to a
higher approach.
ch
roa
App An upsloping runway can create
ormal
N ach
Normal Appro the illusion that the aircraft is higher
25

than it actually is, leading to a lower

25

approach.

Downsloping runway Upsloping runway

Normal approach
Approach due to illusion

Figure 16-7. Runway illusions.

16-10
How To Prevent Landing Errors Due to Optical It is important to remember that experiencing airsickness is
Illusions no reection on ones ability as a pilot. If prone to motion
To prevent these illusions and their potentially hazardous sickness, let the ight instructor know, there are techniques
consequences, pilots can: that can be used to overcome this problem. For example,
1. Anticipate the possibility of visual illusions during avoid lessons in turbulent conditions until becoming more
approaches to unfamiliar airports, particularly at night comfortable in the aircraft, or start with shorter ights and
or in adverse weather conditions. Consult airport graduate to longer instruction periods. If symptoms of motion
diagrams and the Airport/Facility Directory (A/FD) for sickness are experienced during a lesson, opening fresh air
information on runway slope, terrain, and lighting. vents, focusing on objects outside the airplane, and avoiding
unnecessary head movements may help alleviate some of
2. Make frequent reference to the altimeter, especially the discomfort. Although medications like Dramamine can
during all approaches, day and night. prevent airsickness in passengers, they are not recommended
3. If possible, conduct aerial visual inspection of while ying since they can cause drowsiness and other
unfamiliar airports before landing. problems.
4. Use Visual Approach Slope Indicator (VASI) or
Carbon Monoxide (CO) Poisoning
Precision Approach Path Indicator (PAPI) systems
CO is a colorless and odorless gas produced by all internal
for a visual reference, or an electronic glideslope,
combustion engines. Attaching itself to the hemoglobin in
whenever they are available.
the blood about 200 times more easily than oxygen, CO
5. Utilize the visual descent point (VDP) found on many prevents the hemoglobin from carrying oxygen to the cells,
nonprecision instrument approach procedure charts. resulting in hypemic hypoxia. The body requires up to 48
6. Recognize that the chances of being involved in an hours to dispose of CO. If severe enough, the CO poisoning
approach accident increase when some emergency or can result in death. Aircraft heater vents and defrost vents
other activity distracts from usual procedures. may provide CO a passageway into the cabin, particularly
if the engine exhaust system has a leak or is damaged. If a
7. Maintain optimum prociency in landing procedures.
strong odor of exhaust gases is detected, assume that CO is
present. However, CO may be present in dangerous amounts
In addition to the sensory illusions due to misleading inputs
even if no exhaust odor is detected. Disposable, inexpensive
to the vestibular system, a pilot may also encounter various
CO detectors are widely available. In the presence of CO,
visual illusions during flight. Illusions rank among the
these detectors change color to alert the pilot of the presence
most common factors cited as contributing to fatal aviation
of CO. Some effects of CO poisoning are headache, blurred
accidents.
vision, dizziness, drowsiness, and/or loss of muscle power.
Any time a pilot smells exhaust odor, or any time that these
Sloping cloud formations, an obscured horizon, a dark scene
symptoms are experienced, immediate corrective actions
spread with ground lights and stars, and certain geometric
should be taken. These include turning off the heater, opening
patterns of ground light can create illusions of not being
fresh air vents and windows, and using supplemental oxygen,
aligned correctly with the actual horizon. Various surface
if available.
features and atmospheric conditions encountered in landing
can create illusions of being on the wrong approach path.
Tobacco smoke also causes CO poisoning. Smoking at
Landing errors due to these illusions can be prevented by
sea level can raise the CO concentration in the blood and
anticipating them during approaches, inspecting unfamiliar
result in physiological effects similar to ying at 8,000 feet.
airports before landing, using electronic glideslope or VASI
Besides hypoxia, tobacco causes diseases and physiological
systems when available, and maintaining prociency in
debilitation that are medically disqualifying for pilots.
landing procedures.
Stress
Motion Sickness
Stress is the bodys response to physical and psychological
Motion sickness, or airsickness, is caused by the brain
demands placed upon it. The bodys reaction to stress includes
receiving conicting messages about the state of the body. A
releasing chemical hormones (such as adrenaline) into the
pilot may experience motion sickness during initial ights, but
blood, and increasing metabolism to provide more energy
it generally goes away within the rst few lessons. Anxiety
to the muscles. Blood sugar, heart rate, respiration, blood
and stress, which may be experienced at the beginning of
pressure, and perspiration all increase. The term stressor
ight training, can contribute to motion sickness. Symptoms
is used to describe an element that causes an individual to
of motion sickness include general discomfort, nausea,
dizziness, paleness, sweating, and vomiting.

16-11
experience stress. Examples of stressors include physical Acute fatigue has many causes, but the following are among
stress (noise or vibration), physiological stress (fatigue), and the most important for the pilot:
psychological stress (difcult work or personal situations). Mild hypoxia (oxygen deciency)

Stress falls into two broad categories, acute (short term) and Physical stress
chronic (long term). Acute stress involves an immediate Psychological stress and
threat that is perceived as danger. This is the type of stress that
Depletion of physical energy resulting from
triggers a ght or ight response in an individual, whether
psychological stress
the threat is real or imagined. Normally, a healthy person can
cope with acute stress and prevent stress overload. However, Sustained psychological stress
ongoing acute stress can develop into chronic stress.
Sustained psychological stress accelerates the glandular
Chronic stress can be dened as a level of stress that presents secretions that prepare the body for quick reactions during
an intolerable burden, exceeds the ability of an individual an emergency. These secretions make the circulatory and
to cope, and causes individual performance to fall sharply. respiratory systems work harder, and the liver releases energy
Unrelenting psychological pressures, such as loneliness, to provide the extra fuel needed for brain and muscle work.
nancial worries, and relationship or work problems can When this reserve energy supply is depleted, the body lapses
produce a cumulative level of stress that exceeds a persons into generalized and severe fatigue.
ability to cope with the situation. When stress reaches these
levels, performance falls off rapidly. Pilots experiencing Acute fatigue can be prevented by proper diet and adequate
this level of stress are not safe and should not exercise their rest and sleep. A well-balanced diet prevents the body from
airman privileges. Pilots who suspect they are suffering from needing to consume its own tissues as an energy source.
chronic stress should consult a physician. Adequate rest maintains the bodys store of vital energy.

Fatigue Chronic fatigue, extending over a long period of time, usually

Fatigue is frequently associated with pilot error. Some of has psychological roots, although an underlying disease is
the effects of fatigue include degradation of attention and sometimes responsible. Continuous high stress levels produce
concentration, impaired coordination, and decreased ability chronic fatigue. Chronic fatigue is not relieved by proper diet
to communicate. These factors seriously influence the and adequate rest and sleep, and usually requires treatment
ability to make effective decisions. Physical fatigue results by a physician. An individual may experience this condition
from sleep loss, exercise, or physical work. Factors such as in the form of weakness, tiredness, palpitations of the heart,
stress and prolonged performance of cognitive work result breathlessness, headaches, or irritability. Sometimes chronic
in mental fatigue. fatigue even creates stomach or intestinal problems and
generalized aches and pains throughout the body. When the
Like stress, fatigue falls into two broad categories: acute condition becomes serious enough, it leads to emotional
and chronic. Acute fatigue is short term and is a normal illness.
occurrence in everyday living. It is the kind of tiredness
people feel after a period of strenuous effort, excitement, or If suffering from acute fatigue, stay on the ground. If fatigue
lack of sleep. Rest after exertion and 8 hours of sound sleep occurs in the ight deck, no amount of training or experience
ordinarily cures this condition. can overcome the detrimental effects. Getting adequate rest
is the only way to prevent fatigue from occurring. Avoid
A special type of acute fatigue is skill fatigue. This type of ying without a full nights rest, after working excessive
fatigue has two main effects on performance: hours, or after an especially exhausting or stressful day. Pilots
who suspect they are suffering from chronic fatigue should
Timing disruptionAppearing to perform a task as
consult a physician.
usual, but the timing of each component is slightly off.
This makes the pattern of the operation less smooth, Dehydration and Heatstroke
because the pilot performs each component as though it
Dehydration is the term given to a critical loss of water from
were separate, instead of part of an integrated activity.
the body. Causes of dehydration are hot ight decks and
Disruption of the perceptual eldConcentrating ight lines, wind, humidity, and diuretic drinkscoffee, tea,
attention upon movements or objects in the center of alcohol, and caffeinated soft drinks. Some common signs of
vision and neglecting those in the periphery. This is dehydration are headache, fatigue, cramps, sleepiness, and
accompanied by loss of accuracy and smoothness in dizziness.
control movements.

16-12
The rst noticeable effect of dehydration is fatigue, which Alcohol
in turn makes top physical and mental performance difcult, Alcohol impairs the efficiency of the human body.
if not impossible. Flying for long periods in hot summer [Figure 16-8] Studies have proved that drinking and
temperatures or at high altitudes increases the susceptibility performance deterioration are closely linked. Pilots must
to dehydration because these conditions tend to increase the make hundreds of decisions, some of them time-critical,
rate of water loss from the body. during the course of a ight. The safe outcome of any ight
depends on the ability to make the correct decisions and take
To help prevent dehydration, drink two to four quarts of the appropriate actions during routine occurrences, as well
water every 24 hours. Since each person is physiologically as abnormal situations. The inuence of alcohol drastically
different, this is only a guide. Most people are aware of the reduces the chances of completing a ight without incident.
eight-glasses-a-day guide: If each glass of water is eight Even in small amounts, alcohol can impair judgment,
ounces, this equates to 64 ounces, which is two quarts. If decrease sense of responsibility, affect coordination, constrict
this uid is not replaced, fatigue progresses to dizziness, visual eld, diminish memory, reduce reasoning power, and
weakness, nausea, tingling of hands and feet, abdominal lower attention span. As little as one ounce of alcohol can
cramps, and extreme thirst. decrease the speed and strength of muscular reexes, lessen

The key for pilots is to be continually aware of their condition. Type Beverage Typical Serving Pure Alcohol
Most people become thirsty with a 1.5 quart decit, or a loss (oz) Content (oz)
of 2 percent of total body weight. This level of dehydration Table Wine 4.0 .48
Light Beer 12.0 .48
triggers the thirst mechanism. The problem is that the thirst Aperitif Liquor 1.5 .38
mechanism arrives too late and is turned off too easily. A Champagne 4.0 .48
small amount of uid in the mouth will turn this mechanism Vodka 1.0 .50
Whiskey 1.25 .50
off and the replacement of needed body uid is delayed.
0.010.05 average individual appears normal
(1050 mg%)
Other steps to prevent dehydration include:
Carrying a container in order to measure daily water 0.030.12* mild euphoria, talkativeness, decreased
(30120 mg%) inhibitions, decreased attention, impaired
intake. judgment, increased reaction time
Staying aheadnot relying on the thirst sensation as
0.090.25 emotional instability, loss of critical
an alarm. If plain water is offensive, add some sport (90250 mg%) judgment, impairment of memory and
drink avoring to make it more acceptable. comprehension, decreased sensory
response, mild muscular incoordination
Limiting daily intake of caffeine and alcohol (both
are diuretics and stimulate increased production of 0.180.30 confusion, dizziness, exaggerated
urine). (180300 mg%) emotions (anger, fear, grief) impaired
visual perception, decreased pain
sensation, impaired balance, staggering
Heatstroke is a condition caused by any inability of the body gait, slurred speech, moderate muscular
to control its temperature. Onset of this condition may be incoordination
recognized by the symptoms of dehydration, but also has been 0.270.40 apathy, impaired consciousness, stupor,
known to be recognized only by complete collapse. (270400 mg%) significantly decreased response to
stimulation, severe muscular
incoordination, inability to stand or walk,
To prevent these symptoms, it is recommended that an ample vomiting, incontinence of urine and feces
supply of water be carried and used at frequent intervals on
any long ight, whether thirsty or not. The body normally 0.350.50 unconsciousness, depressed or
absorbs water at the rate of 1.2 to 1.5 quarts per hour. (350500 mg%) abolished reflexes, abnormal body
temperature, coma; possible death from
Individuals should drink one quart per hour for severe heat respiratory paralysis (450 mg% or above)
stress conditions or one pint per hour for moderate stress
conditions. If the aircraft has a canopy or roof window, * Legal limit for motor vehicle operation in most states is 0.08
or 0.10% (80100 mg of alcohol per dL of blood).
wearing light-colored, porous clothing and a hat will help
provide protection from the sun. Keeping the ight deck well
ventilated aids in dissipating excess heat. Figure 16-8. Impairement scale with alcohol use.

16-13
the efciency of eye movements while reading, and increase pain relievers, and cough suppressants have primary
the frequency at which errors are committed. Impairments effects that may impair judgment, memory, alertness,
in vision and hearing occur at alcohol blood levels due to as coordination, vision, and the ability to make calculations.
little as one drink. [Figure 16-9] Others, such as antihistamines, blood pressure
drugs, muscle relaxants, and agents to control diarrhea and
The alcohol consumed in beer and mixed drinks is ethyl motion sickness have side effects that may impair the same
alcohol, a central nervous system depressant. From a medical critical functions. Any medication that depresses the nervous
point of view, it acts on the body much like a general system, such as a sedative, tranquilizer, or antihistamine, can
anesthetic. The dose is generally much lower and more make a pilot more susceptible to hypoxia.
slowly consumed in the case of alcohol, but the basic effects
on the human body are similar. Alcohol is easily and quickly Painkillers are grouped into two broad categories: analgesics
absorbed by the digestive tract. The bloodstream absorbs and anesthetics. Analgesics are drugs that reduce pain,
about 80 to 90 percent of the alcohol in a drink within 30 while anesthetics are drugs that deaden pain or cause loss
minutes when ingested on an empty stomach. The body of consciousness.
requires about 3 hours to rid itself of all the alcohol contained
in one mixed drink or one beer. Over-the-counter analgesics, such as acetylsalicylic acid
(aspirin), acetaminophen (Tylenol), and ibuprofen (Advil)
While experiencing a hangover, a pilot is still under the have few side effects when taken in the correct dosage.
inuence of alcohol. Although a pilot may think he or she is Although some people are allergic to certain analgesics or
functioning normally, motor and mental response impairment may suffer from stomach irritation, ying usually is not
is still present. Considerable amounts of alcohol can remain restricted when taking these drugs. However, ying is almost
in the body for over 16 hours, so pilots should be cautious always precluded while using prescription analgesics, such
about ying too soon after drinking. as drugs containing propoxyphene (e.g., Darvon), oxycodone
(e.g., Percodan), meperidine (e.g., Demerol), and codeine
Altitude multiplies the effects of alcohol on the brain. When since these drugs are known to cause side effects such as
combined with altitude, the alcohol from two drinks may have mental confusion, dizziness, headaches, nausea, and vision
the same effect as three or four drinks. Alcohol interferes problems.
with the brains ability to utilize oxygen, producing a form
of histotoxic hypoxia. The effects are rapid because alcohol Anesthetic drugs are commonly used for dental and surgical
passes quickly into the bloodstream. In addition, the brain procedures. Most local anesthetics used for minor dental and
is a highly vascular organ that is immediately sensitive to outpatient procedures wear off within a relatively short period
changes in the bloods composition. For a pilot, the lower of time. The anesthetic itself may not limit ying as much
oxygen availability at altitude and the lower capability of as the actual procedure and subsequent pain.
the brain to use what oxygen is there, add up to a deadly
combination. Stimulants are drugs that excite the central nervous
system and produce an increase in alertness and activity.
Intoxication is determined by the amount of alcohol in the Amphetamines, caffeine, and nicotine are all forms of
bloodstream. This is usually measured as a percentage by stimulants. Common uses of these drugs include appetite
weight in the blood. 14 CFR part 91 requires that blood suppression, fatigue reduction, and mood elevation. Some
alcohol level be less than .04 percent and that 8 hours pass of these drugs may cause a stimulant reaction, even though
between drinking alcohol and piloting an airplane. A pilot this reaction is not their primary function. In some cases,
with a blood alcohol level of .04 percent or greater after stimulants can produce anxiety and mood swings, both of
8 hours cannot y until the blood alcohol falls below that which are dangerous when ying.
amount. Even though blood alcohol may be well below .04
percent, a pilot cannot y sooner than 8 hours after drinking Depressants are drugs that reduce the bodys functioning in
alcohol. Although the regulations are quite specic, it is a many areas. These drugs lower blood pressure, reduce mental
good idea to be more conservative than the regulations. processing, and slow motor and reaction responses. There are
several types of drugs that can cause a depressing effect on the
Drugs body, including tranquilizers, motion sickness medication,
Pilot performance can be seriously degraded by both some types of stomach medication, decongestants, and
prescription and over-the-counter medications, as well antihistamines. The most common depressant is alcohol.
as by the medical conditions for which they are taken.
Many medications, such as tranquilizers, sedatives, strong

16-14
Some drugs that are classied as neither stimulants nor The dangers of illegal drugs also are well documented.
depressants have adverse effects on ying. For example, Certain illegal drugs can have hallucinatory effects that occur
some antibiotics can produce dangerous side effects, such as days or weeks after the drug is taken. Obviously, these drugs
balance disorders, hearing loss, nausea, and vomiting. While have no place in the aviation community.
many antibiotics are safe for use while ying, the infection
requiring the antibiotic may prohibit ying. In addition, 14 CFR prohibits pilots from performing crewmember
unless specically prescribed by a physician, do not take duties while using any medication that affects the body in
more than one drug at a time, and never mix drugs with any way contrary to safety. The safest rule is not to y as a
alcohol, because the effects are often unpredictable. crewmember while taking any medication, unless approved to
do so by the FAA. If there is any doubt regarding the effects
of any medication, consult an AME before ying.

Psychoactive Range of Effects Development Prolonged Use of Withdrawal Symptoms

Drugs From To of Tolerance Large Amounts After Prolonged Use
Beer Relaxation, lowered Loss of body control, Moderate Liver damage, ulcers, Convulsions, shakes,
Wine inhibitions, reduced passing out (also chronic diarrhea, hallucinations, loss of memory,
Hard Liquor intensity of physical causing physical amnesia, vomiting, uncontrolled muscular spasms,
Alcohol

sensations, digestive injuries), susceptibility brain damage, internal psychosis

upsets, body heat loss, to pneumonia, bleeding, debilitation
reduced muscular cessation of breathing
coordination.

Barbiturates: Relaxation, lowered Passing out, loss of Moderate Amnesia, confusion,

Sedative Hypnotics

- Nembutal inhibitions, reduced body control, stupor, drowsiness, personality

- Phenobarbital intensity of physical severe depression of changes
- Seconal sensations, digestive respiration, possible
upsets, body heat loss, death (Effects are
Tranquilizers: reduced muscular exaggerated when
- Valium coordination used in combination
- Librium with alcohol
- Quaaludes synergistic effect.)

Opium Suppression of pain, Clammy skin, High Depressed sexual drive, Watery eyes, runny nose,
Morphine lowered blood pressure convulsions, lethargy, general severe back pains, stomach
Heroin and respiratory rate, coma, respiratory physical debilitation, cramps, sleeplessness,
Opiates

Codeine constipation, disruption depression, possible infections, hepatitis nausea, diarrhea, sweating,
Dilaudid of menstrual cycle, death muscle spasms
Percodan hallucinations, sleep
Darvon
Methadone

Dexedrine Increased blood Paranoid reaction, High Psychosis, insomnia, Severe depression, both
Methamphetamine pressure and pulse temporary psychosis, paranoia, nervous physical and mental (not true
Diet Pills rate, appetite loss, irritability, convulsions, system damage (not for caffeine)
Ritalin increased alertness, palpitations (not generally true for
Stimulants

Cocaine dilated and dried out generally true for caffeine)

Caffeine bronchi, restlessness, caffeine)
insomnia

LSD Distorted perceptions, Psychosis, High Psychosis, continued Occasional flashback

Psychedelics

Mescaline hallucinations, hallucinations, hallucinations, mental phenomena, depression

Psilocybin confusion, vomiting vomiting, anxiety, disruption
PCP panic, stupor.
With PCP: Aggressive
behavior, catatonia,
convulsions, coma,
high blood pressure

Marijuana Sedation, euphoria, Distorted perception, Moderate Amotivation (loss of No true withdrawal symptoms
THC

Hashish increased appetite, anxiety, panic drive) except possible depression

altered mental processes

Figure 16-9. Adverse affects of various drugs.

16-15
Altitude-Induced Decompression Sickness (DCS) If one of the symptoms is joint pain, keep the affected
Decompression sickness (DCS) describes a condition area still; do not try to work pain out by moving the
characterized by a variety of symptoms resulting from joint around.
exposure to low barometric pressures that cause inert gases Upon landing seek medical assistance from an FAA
(mainly nitrogen), normally dissolved in body uids and medical ofcer, AME, military ight surgeon, or
tissues, to come out of physical solution and form bubbles. a hyperbaric medicine specialist. Be aware that a
Nitrogen is an inert gas normally stored throughout the physician not specialized in aviation or hypobaric
human body (tissues and uids) in physical solution. When medicine may not be familiar with this type of medical
the body is exposed to decreased barometric pressures (as in problem.
ying an unpressurized aircraft to altitude, or during a rapid
decompression), the nitrogen dissolved in the body comes out Denitive medical treatment may involve the use of
of solution. If the nitrogen is forced to leave the solution too a hyperbaric chamber operated by specially trained
rapidly, bubbles form in different areas of the body, causing a personnel.
variety of signs and symptoms. The most common symptom is Delayed signs and symptoms of altitude-induced DCS
joint pain, which is known as the bends. [Figure 16-10] can occur after return to ground level regardless of
presence during ight.
What to do when altitude-induced DCS occurs:
Put on oxygen mask immediately and switch the DCS After Scuba Diving
regulator to 100 percent oxygen. Scuba diving subjects the body to increased pressure, which
Begin an emergency descent and land as soon as allows more nitrogen to dissolve in body tissues and uids.
possible. Even if the symptoms disappear during [Figure 16-11] The reduction of atmospheric pressure that
descent, land and seek medical evaluation while accompanies ying can produce physical problems for scuba
continuing to breathe oxygen. divers. A pilot or passenger who intends to y after scuba

DCS Type Bubble Location Signs & Symptoms (Clinical Manifestations)

BENDS Mostly large joints Localized deep pain, ranging from mild (a niggle) to excruciatingsometimes a dull
of the body (elbows, ache, but rarely a sharp pain
shoulders, hip, wrists, Active and passive motion of the joint aggravating the pain
knees, ankles) Pain occurring at altitude, during the descent, or many hours later

NEUROLOGIC Brain Confusion or memory loss

Manifestations Headache
Spots in visual field (scotoma), tunnel vision, double vision (diplopia), or blurry vision
Unexplained extreme fatigue or behavior changes
Seizures, dizziness, vertigo, nausea, vomiting, and unconsciousness

Spinal Cord Abnormal sensations such as burning, stinging, and tingling around the lower chest
and back
Symptoms spreading from the feet up and possibly accompanied by ascending
weakness or paralysis
Girdling abdominal or chest pain

Peripheral Nerves Urinary and rectal incontinence

Abnormal sensations, such as numbness, burning, stinging and tingling (paresthesia)
Muscle weakness or twitching

CHOKES Lungs Burning deep chest pain (under the sternum)

Pain aggravated by breathing
Shortness of breath (dyspnea)
Dry constant cough

SKIN BENDS Skin Itching usually around the ears, face, neck, arms, and upper torso
Sensation of tiny insects crawling over the skin
Mottled or marbled skin usually around the shoulders, upper chest, and abdomen,
accompanied by itching
Swelling of the skin, accompanied by tiny scar-like skin depressions (pitting edema)

Figure 16-10. Signs and symptoms of altitude decompression sickness.

16-16
 feet should be at least 24 hours after any scuba dive. These
recommended altitudes are actual ight altitudes above mean
sea level (AMSL) and not pressurized cabin altitudes. This
takes into consideration the risk of decompression of the
aircraft during ight.

Vision in Flight
Of all the senses, vision is the most important for safe ight.
Most of the things perceived while ying are visual or heavily
supplemented by vision. As remarkable and vital as it is,
vision is subject to limitations, such as illusions and blind
spots. The more a pilot understands about the eyes and how
they function, the easier it is to use vision effectively and
compensate for potential problems.

Figure 16-11. To avoid the bends, scuba divers must not fly for The eye functions much like a camera. Its structure includes
specific time periods following dives. an aperture, a lens, a mechanism for focusing, and a surface
diving should allow the body sufcient time to rid itself of for registering images. Light enters through the cornea at the
excess nitrogen absorbed during diving. If not, DCS due to front of the eyeball, travels through the lens, and falls on the
evolved gas can occur during exposure to low altitude and retina. The retina contains light sensitive cells that convert
create a serious inight emergency. light energy into electrical impulses that travel through nerves
to the brain. The brain interprets the electrical signals to form
The recommended waiting time before going to flight images. There are two kinds of light-sensitive cells in the
altitudes of up to 8,000 feet is at least 12 hours after diving eyes: rods and cones. [Figure 16-12]
that does not require controlled ascent (nondecompression
stop diving), and at least 24 hours after diving that does The cones are responsible for all color vision, from
require controlled ascent (decompression stop diving). The appreciating a glorious sunset to discerning the subtle shades
waiting time before going to ight altitudes above 8,000 in a ne painting. Cones are present throughout the retina, but

The rods and

cones (film) of Rods and
the retina are Cones
the receptors
which record
the image and
transmit it
through the Fovea
optic nerve to (All Cones)
the brain for
interpretation.

Rod Concentration Lens

Iris

Optic Nerve

Retina
PUPIL CORNEA
The pupil (aperture) is the opening at Light passes through the cornea (the
the center of the iris. The size of the transparent window on the front of the
pupil is adjusted to control the amount eye) and then through the lens to
of light entering the eye. focus on the retina.

Figure 16-12. The human eye.

16-17
are concentrated toward the center of the eld of vision at the and focusing on distant light sources, no matter how dim,
back of the retina. There is a small pit called the fovea where helps prevent the onset of empty-eld myopia.
almost all the light sensing cells are cones. This is the area
where most looking occurs (the center of the visual eld Night Vision
where detail, color sensitivity, and resolution are highest). It is estimated that once fully adapted to darkness, the rods are
10,000 times more sensitive to light than the cones, making
While the cones and their associated nerves are well suited them the primary receptors for night vision. Since the cones
to detecting ne detail and color in high light levels, the are concentrated near the fovea, the rods are also responsible
rods are better able to detect movement and provide vision for much of the peripheral vision. The concentration of cones
in dim light. The rods are unable to discern color but are in the fovea can make a night blind spot in the center of the
very sensitive at low light levels. The trouble with rods is eld of vision. To see an object clearly at night, the pilot must
that a large amount of light overwhelms them, and they take expose the rods to the image. This can be done by looking 5
a long time to reset and adapt to the dark again. There are to 10 off center of the object to be seen. This can be tried in
so many cones in the fovea that the very center of the visual a dim light in a darkened room. When looking directly at the
eld hardly has virtually no rods at all. So in low light, the light, it dims or disappears altogether. When looking slightly
middle of the visual eld is not very sensitive, but farther off center, it becomes clearer and brighter.
from the fovea, the rods are more numerous and provide the
major portion of night vision. Refer to Figure 16-14. When looking directly at an object,
the image is focused mainly on the fovea, where detail is
The area where the optic nerve enters the eyeball has no rods best seen. At night, the ability to see an object in the center
or cones, leaving a blind spot in the eld of vision. Normally, of the visual eld is reduced as the cones lose much of their
each eye compensates for the others blind spot. Figure 16-13 sensitivity and the rods become more sensitive. Looking off
provides a dramatic example of the eyes blind spot. Cover center can help compensate for this night blind spot. Along
the right eye and hold this page at arms length. Focus the left with the loss of sharpness (acuity) and color at night, depth
eye on the X on the right side of the windshield and notice perception and judgment of size may be lost.
what happens to the airplane while slowly bringing the page
closer to the eye. While the cones adapt rapidly to changes in light intensities,
the rods take much longer. Walking from bright sunlight into
Empty-Field Myopia a dark movie theater is an example of this dark adaptation
Empty-eld myopia is a condition that usually occurs when period experience. The rods can take approximately 30
ying above the clouds or in a haze layer that provides minutes to fully adapt to darkness. A bright light, however,
nothing specic to focus on outside the aircraft. This causes can completely destroy night adaptation, leaving night
the eyes to relax and seek a comfortable focal distance which vision severely compromised while the adaptation process
may range from 10 to 30 feet. For the pilot, this means is repeated.
looking without seeing, which is dangerous. Searching out

Figure 16-13. The eyes blind spot.

16-18
 Red ight deck lighting also helps preserve night vision, but
red light severely distorts some colors and completely washes
out the color red. This makes reading an aeronautical chart
difcult. A dim white light or a carefully directed ashlight
can enhance night reading ability. While ying at night, keep
the instrument panel and interior lights turned up no higher
than necessary. This helps to see outside references more
easily. If the eyes become blurry, blinking more frequently
often helps.
Cones active
Diet and general physical health have an impact on how well
a pilot can see in the dark. Deciencies in vitamins A and C
have been shown to reduce night acuity. Other factors, such
as CO poisoning, smoking, alcohol, certain drugs, and a lack
of oxygen also can greatly decrease night vision.

Night blind spot Night Vision Illusions

There are many different types of visual illusions that
commonly occur at night. Anticipating and staying aware
of them is usually the best way to avoid them.
Rods active
Autokinesis
Figure 16-14. Night blind spot. Autokinesis is caused by staring at a single point of light
against a dark background for more than a few seconds.
Hypoxia also affects vision. Sharp clear vision, (with the
After a few moments, the light appears to move on its own.
best being equal to 20-20 vision) requires signicant oxygen
To prevent this illusion, focus the eyes on objects at varying
especially at night. As altitude increases, the available oxygen
distances and avoid xating on one target. Be sure to maintain
decreases, degrading night vision. Compounding the problem
a normal scan pattern.
is fatigue, which minimizes physiological well being. Adding
fatigue to high altitude exposure is a recipe for disaster.
False Horizon
In fact, if ying at night at an altitude of 12,000 feet, the
pilot may actually see elements of his or her normal vision A false horizon can occur when the natural horizon is obscured
missing or not in focus. Missing visual elements resemble or not readily apparent. It can be generated by confusing
the missing pixels in a digital image while unfocused vision bright stars and city lights. It can also occur while ying
is dim and washed out. toward the shore of an ocean or a large lake. Because of the
relative darkness of the water, the lights along the shoreline
For the pilot suffering the effects of hypoxic hypoxia, a simple can be mistaken for stars in the sky. [Figure 16-15]
descent to a lower altitude may not be sufcient to reestablish
vision. For example, a climb from 8,000 feet to 12,000 feet for Night Landing Illusions
30 minutes does not mean a descent to 8,000 feet will rectify Landing illusions occur in many forms. Above featureless
the problem. Visual acuity may not be regained for over an terrain at night, there is a natural tendency to y a lower-
hour. Thus, it is important to remember, altitude and fatigue than-normal approach. Elements that cause any type of
have a profound effect on a pilots ability to see. visual obscurities, such as rain, haze, or a dark runway
environment can also cause low approaches. Bright lights,
Several things can be done to keep the eyes adapted to steep surrounding terrain, and a wide runway can produce the
darkness. The rst is obvious: avoid bright lights before and illusion of being too low, with a tendency to y a higher-than-
during ight. For 30 minutes before a night ight, avoid any normal approach. A set of regularly spaced lights along a road
bright light sources, such as headlights, landing lights, strobe or highway can appear to be runway lights. Pilots have even
lights, or ashlights. If a bright light is encountered, close mistaken the lights on moving trains as runway or approach
one eye to keep it light sensitive. This allows the use of that lights. Bright runway or approach lighting systems can create
eye to see again when the light is gone. the illusion that the airplane is closer to the runway, especially
where few lights illuminate the surrounding terrain.

16-19
 izon
or
alh
A ctu Apparent horizon

Figure 16-15. At night, the horizon may be hard to discern due to dark terrain and misleading light patterns on the ground.

Pilots who are ying at night should strongly consider oxygen

supplementation at altitudes and times not required by the
FAA, especially at night, when critical judgement and hand-
eye coordination is necessary (e.g., IFR), or if a smoker or
not perfectly healthy.

Chapter Summary
This chapter provides an introduction to aeromedical factors
relating to ight activities. More detailed information on
the subjects discussed in this chapter is available in the
Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM) and online at www.
faa.gov/pilots/safety/pilotsafetybrochures.

16-20
Chapter 17

Aeronautical
Decision-Making
Introduction
Aeronautical decision-making (ADM) is decision-making
in a unique environmentaviation. It is a systematic
approach to the mental process used by pilots to consistently
determine the best course of action in response to a given set
of circumstances. It is what a pilot intends to do based on the
latest information he or she has.

17-1
The importance of learning and understanding effective History of ADM
ADM skills cannot be overemphasized. While progress is
For over 25 years, the importance of good pilot judgment, or
continually being made in the advancement of pilot training
aeronautical decision-making (ADM), has been recognized
methods, aircraft equipment and systems, and services
as critical to the safe operation of aircraft, as well as accident
for pilots, accidents still occur. Despite all the changes in
avoidance. The airline industry, motivated by the need to
technology to improve ight safety, one factor remains the
reduce accidents caused by human factors, developed the rst
same: the human factor which leads to errors. It is estimated
training programs based on improving ADM. Crew resource
that approximately 80 percent of all aviation accidents are
management (CRM) training for ight crews is focused on
related to human factors and the vast majority of these
the effective use of all available resources: human resources,
accidents occur during landing (24.1 percent) and takeoff
hardware, and information supporting ADM to facilitate crew
(23.4 percent). [Figure 17-1]
cooperation and improve decision-making. The goal of all
ight crews is good ADM and the use of CRM is one way
ADM is a systematic approach to risk assessment and stress
to make good decisions.
management. To understand ADM is to also understand how
personal attitudes can inuence decision-making and how
Research in this area prompted the Federal Aviation
those attitudes can be modied to enhance safety in the ight
Administration (FAA) to produce training directed at
deck. It is important to understand the factors that cause
improving the decision-making of pilots and led to current
humans to make decisions and how the decision-making
FAA regulations that require that decision-making be taught
process not only works, but can be improved.
as part of the pilot training curriculum. ADM research,
development, and testing culminated in 1987 with the
This chapter focuses on helping the pilot improve his or
publication of six manuals oriented to the decision-making
her ADM skills with the goal of mitigating the risk factors
needs of variously rated pilots. These manuals provided
associated with flight. Advisory Circular (AC) 60-22,
multifaceted materials designed to reduce the number
Aeronautical Decision-Making, provides background
of decision related accidents. The effectiveness of these
references, denitions, and other pertinent information about
materials was validated in independent studies where student
ADM training in the general aviation (GA) environment.
pilots received such training in conjunction with the standard
[Figure 17-2]
ying curriculum. When tested, the pilots who had received
ADM training made fewer inight errors than those who had

Percentage of general aviation accidents

Flight Time Flight Time Flight Time

2% 83% 15%

24.1%
23.4%

15.7%
13%

9.7%

4.7%
3.5% 3.3%
2.6%

Preflights/ Takeoff/ Climb Cruise Descent Maneuvering Approach Landing Other

Taxi Initial Climb

Figure 17-1. The percentage of aviation accidents as they relate to the different phases of flight. Note that the greatest percentage of
accidents take place during a minor percentage of the total flight.

17-2
Figure 17-2. Advisory Circular (AC) 60-22, Aeronautical Decision Making, carries a wealth of information for the pilot to learn.

not received ADM training. The differences were statistically 3. Learning how to recognize and cope with stress.
signicant and ranged from about 10 to 50 percent fewer 4. Developing risk assessment skills.
judgment errors. In the operational environment, an operator
ying about 400,000 hours annually demonstrated a 54 5. Using all resources.
percent reduction in accident rate after using these materials 6. Evaluating the effectiveness of ones ADM skills.
for recurrency training.
Risk management is an important component of ADM.
Contrary to popular opinion, good judgment can be taught. When a pilot follows good decision-making practices, the
Tradition held that good judgment was a natural by-product inherent risk in a ight is reduced or even eliminated. The
of experience, but as pilots continued to log accident-free ability to make good decisions is based upon direct or indirect
ight hours, a corresponding increase of good judgment experience and education.
was assumed. Building upon the foundation of conventional
decision-making, ADM enhances the process to decrease Consider automotive seat belt use. In just two decades, seat
the probability of human error and increase the probability belt use has become the norm, placing those who do not
of a safe ight. ADM provides a structured, systematic wear seat belts outside the norm, but this group may learn
approach to analyzing changes that occur during a ight to wear a seat belt by either direct or indirect experience. For
and how these changes might affect a ights safe outcome. example, a driver learns through direct experience about the
The ADM process addresses all aspects of decision-making value of wearing a seat belt when he or she is involved in a car
in the ight deck and identies the steps involved in good accident that leads to a personal injury. An indirect learning
decision-making. experience occurs when a loved one is injured during a car
accident because he or she failed to wear a seat belt.
Steps for good decision-making are:
1. Identifying personal attitudes hazardous to safe While poor decision-making in everyday life does not always
ight. lead to tragedy, the margin for error in aviation is thin. Since
ADM enhances management of an aeronautical environment,
2. Learning behavior modication techniques. all pilots should become familiar with and employ ADM.

17-3
Crew Resource Management (CRM) and props operation and he has been told that damage to a prop
Single-Pilot Resource Management could cause a catastrophic failure. This assessment leads him
to cancel his ight.
While CRM focuses on pilots operating in crew environments,
many of the concepts apply to single-pilot operations. Many
Therefore, elements or factors affecting individuals are
CRM principles have been successfully applied to single-pilot
different and profoundly impact decision-making. These
aircraft, and led to the development of Single-Pilot Resource
are called human factors and can transcend education,
Management (SRM). SRM is dened as the art and science
experience, health, physiological aspects, etc.
of managing all the resources (both on-board the aircraft
and from outside sources) available to a single pilot (prior
Another example of risk assessment was the ight of a
and during ight) to ensure that the successful outcome
Beechcraft King Air equipped with deicing and anti-icing.
of the ight. SRM includes the concepts of ADM, Risk
The pilot deliberately ew into moderate to severe icing
Management (RM), Task Management (TM), Automation
conditions while ducking under cloud cover. A prudent pilot
Management (AM), Controlled Flight Into Terrain (CFIT)
would assess the risk as high and beyond the capabilities of
Awareness, and Situational Awareness (SA). SRM training
the aircraft, yet this pilot did the opposite. Why did the pilot
helps the pilot maintain situational awareness by managing
take this action?
the automation and associated aircraft control and navigation
tasks. This enables the pilot to accurately assess and manage
Past experience prompted the action. The pilot had
risk and make accurate and timely decisions.
successfully own into these conditions repeatedly although
the icing conditions were previously forecast 2,000 feet
SRM is all about helping pilots learn how to gather
above the surface. This time, the conditions were forecast
information, analyze it, and make decisions. Although the
from the surface. Since the pilot was in a hurry and failed
ight is coordinated by a single person and not an onboard
to factor in the difference between the forecast altitudes,
ight crew, the use of available resources such as air trafc
he assigned a low risk to the hazard and took a chance. He
control (ATC) and ight service station (FSS) replicates the
and the passengers died from a poor risk assessment of the
principles of CRM.
situation.
Hazard and Risk
Hazardous Attitudes and Antidotes
Two dening elements of ADM are hazard and risk. Hazard Being t to y depends on more than just a pilots physical
is a real or perceived condition, event, or circumstance that a condition and recent experience. For example, attitude will
pilot encounters. When faced with a hazard, the pilot makes affect the quality of decisions. Attitude is a motivational
an assessment of that hazard based upon various factors. The predisposition to respond to people, situations, or events in a
pilot assigns a value to the potential impact of the hazard, given manner. Studies have identied ve hazardous attitudes
which qualies the pilots assessment of the hazardrisk. that can interfere with the ability to make sound decisions
and exercise authority properly: anti-authority, impulsivity,
Therefore, risk is an assessment of the single or cumulative invulnerability, macho, and resignation. [Figure 17-3]
hazard facing a pilot; however, different pilots see hazards
differently. For example, the pilot arrives to preight and Hazardous attitudes contribute to poor pilot judgment but
discovers a small, blunt type nick in the leading edge at the can be effectively counteracted by redirecting the hazardous
middle of the aircrafts prop. Since the aircraft is parked attitude so that correct action can be taken. Recognition of
on the tarmac, the nick was probably caused by another hazardous thoughts is the rst step toward neutralizing them.
aircrafts prop wash blowing some type of debris into the After recognizing a thought as hazardous, the pilot should
propeller. The nick is the hazard (a present condition). The label it as hazardous, then state the corresponding antidote.
risk is prop fracture if the engine is operated with damage Antidotes should be memorized for each of the hazardous
to a prop blade. attitudes so they automatically come to mind when needed.

The seasoned pilot may see the nick as a low risk. He Risk
realizes this type of nick diffuses stress over a large area, is During each ight, the single pilot makes many decisions
located in the strongest portion of the propeller, and based on under hazardous conditions. To y safely, the pilot needs to
experience, he doesnt expect it to propagate a crack which assess the degree of risk and determine the best course of
can lead to high risk problems. He does not cancel his ight. action to mitigate risk.
The inexperienced pilot may see the nick as a high risk factor
because he is unsure of the affect the nick will have on the

17-4
 The Five Hazardous Attitudes

Anti-Authority: Dont tell me.

This attitude is found in people who do not like anyone telling them what to do. In a sense, they are saying, No one can tell me
what to do. They may be resentful of having someone tell them what to do, or may regard rules, regulations, and procedures as
silly or unnecessary. However, it is always your prerogative to question authority if you feel it is in error.

Impulsivity: Do it quickly.
This is the attitude of people who frequently feel the need to do something, anything, immediately. They do not stop to think about
what they are about to do; they do not select the best alternative, and they do the first thing that comes to mind.

Invulnerability: It wont happen to me.

Many people falsely believe that accidents happen to others, but never to them. They know accidents can happen, and they know
that anyone can be affected. However, they never really feel or believe that they will be personally involved. Pilots who think this way
are more likely to take chances and increase risk.

Macho: I can do it.

Pilots who are always trying to prove that they are better than anyone else think, I can do itI'll show them. Pilots with this
type of attitude will try to prove themselves by taking risks in order to impress others. While this pattern is thought to be a male
characteristic, women are equally susceptible.

Resignation: Whats the use?

Pilots who think, Whats the use? do not see themselves as being able to make a great deal of difference in what happens to them.
When things go well, the pilot is apt to think that it is good luck. When things go badly, the pilot may feel that someone is out to get
me, or attribute it to bad luck. The pilot will leave the action to others, for better or worse. Sometimes, such pilots will even go along
with unreasonable requests just to be a "nice guy."

Figure 17-3. The five hazardous attitudes identified through past and contemporary study.

Assessing Risk Several risk assessment models are available to assist in the
For the single pilot, assessing risk is not as simple as it sounds. process of assessing risk. The models, all taking slightly
For example, the pilot acts as his or her own quality control different approaches, seek a common goal of assessing risk
in making decisions. If a fatigued pilot who has own 16 in an objective manner. Two are illustrated below.
hours is asked if he or she is too tired to continue ying, the
answer may be no. Most pilots are goal oriented and when The most basic tool is the risk matrix. [Figure 17-4] It
asked to accept a ight, there is a tendency to deny personal assesses two items: the likelihood of an event occurring and
limitations while adding weight to issues not germane to the the consequence of that event.
mission. For example, pilots of helicopter emergency services
(EMS) have been known (more than other groups) to make
Risk Assessment Matrix
ight decisions that add signicant weight to the patients
Severity
welfare. These pilots add weight to intangible factors (the
Likelihood Catastrophic Critical Marginal Negligible
patient in this case) and fail to appropriately quantify actual
hazards such as fatigue or weather when making ight Probable High High Serious
decisions. The single pilot who has no other crew member Occasional High Serious
for consultation must wrestle with the intangible factors that
draw one into a hazardous position. Therefore, he or she has Remote Serious Medium Low
a greater vulnerability than a full crew. Improbable

Examining National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB)

reports and other accident research can help a pilot learn to Figure 17-4. This risk matrix can be used for almost any operation
assess risk more effectively. For example, the accident rate by assigning likelihood and consequence. In the case presented,
during night VFR decreases by nearly 50 percent once a the pilot assigned a likelihood of occassional and the severity as
pilot obtains 100 hours, and continues to decrease until the catastrophic. As one can see, this falls in the high risk area.
1,000 hour level. The data suggest that for the rst 500 hours,
pilots ying VFR at night might want to establish higher
personal limitations than are required by the regulations
and, if applicable, apply instrument ying skills in this
environment.

17-5
Likelihood of an Event Mitigating Risk
Likelihood is nothing more than taking a situation and Risk assessment is only part of the equation. After determining
determining the probability of its occurrence. It is rated as the level of risk, the pilot needs to mitigate the risk. For
probable, occasional, remote, or improbable. For example, a example, the pilot ying from point A to point B (50 miles)
pilot is ying from point A to point B (50 miles) in marginal in MVFR conditions has several ways to reduce risk:
visual ight rules (MVFR) conditions. The likelihood of Wait for the weather to improve to good visual ight
encountering potential instrument meteorological conditions rules (VFR) conditions.
(IMC) is the rst question the pilot needs to answer. The
experiences of other pilots coupled with the forecast, might Take a pilot who is certied as an IFR pilot.
cause the pilot to assign occasional to determine the Delay the ight.
probability of encountering IMC.
Cancel the ight.
The following are guidelines for making assignments. Drive.
Probablean event will occur several times.
One of the best ways to single pilots can mitigate risk is to
Occasionalan event will probably occur use the IMSAFE checklist to determine physical and mental
sometime. readiness for ying:
Remotean event is unlikely to occur, but is 1. IllnessAm I sick? Illness is an obvious pilot risk.
possible.
2. MedicationAm I taking any medicines that might
Improbablean event is highly unlikely to occur. affect my judgment or make me drowsy?
3. StressAm I under psychological pressure from the
Severity of an Event job? Do I have money, health, or family problems?
The next element is the severity or consequence of a Stress causes concentration and performance
pilots action(s). It can relate to injury and/or damage. If problems. While the regulations list medical conditions
the individual in the example above is not an instrument that require grounding, stress is not among them.
ight rules (IFR) pilot, what are the consequences of him The pilot should consider the effects of stress on
or her encountering inadvertent IMC conditions? In this performance.
case, because the pilot is not IFR rated, the consequences
4. AlcoholHave I been drinking within 8 hours?
are catastrophic. The following are guidelines for this
Within 24 hours? As little as one ounce of liquor, one
assignment.
bottle of beer, or four ounces of wine can impair ying
Catastrophicresults in fatalities, total loss skills. Alcohol also renders a pilot more susceptible
Criticalsevere injury, major damage to disorientation and hypoxia.
Marginalminor injury, minor damage 5. FatigueAm I tired and not adequately rested?
Fatigue continues to be one of the most insidious
Negligibleless than minor injury, less than minor
hazards to ight safety, as it may not be apparent to
system damage
a pilot until serious errors are made.
Simply connecting the two factors as shown in Figure 17-4 6. EatingHave I eaten enough of the proper foods to
indicates the risk is high and the pilot must either not y, or keep adequately nourished during the entire ight?
y only after nding ways to mitigate, eliminate, or control
the risk. The PAVE Checklist
Another way to mitigate risk is to perceive hazards. By
Although the matrix in Figure 17-4 provides a general incorporating the PAVE checklist into preight planning,
viewpoint of a generic situation, a more comprehensive the pilot divides the risks of ight into four categories: Pilot-
program can be made that is tailored to a pilots ying. in-command (PIC), Aircraft, enVironment, and External
[Figure 17-5] This program includes a wide array of aviation pressures (PAVE) which form part of a pilots decision-
related activities specic to the pilot and assesses health, making process.
fatigue, weather, capabilities, etc. The scores are added and
the overall score falls into various ranges, with the range
representative of actions that a pilot imposes upon himself
or herself.

17-6
 RISK ASSESSMENT

Pilots Name Flight From To

SLEEP HOW IS THE DAY GOING?

1. Did not sleep well or less than 8 hours 2 1. Seems like one thing after another (late,
2. Slept well 0 making errors, out of step) 3
2. Great day 0
HOW DO YOU FEEL?
1. Have a cold or ill 4 IS THE FLIGHT
2. Feel great 0 1. Day? 1
3. Feel a bit off 2 2. Night? 3

WEATHER AT TERMINATION PLANNING

1. Greater than 5 miles visibility and 3,000 feet 1. Rush to get off ground 3
ceilings 1 2. No hurry 1
2. At least 3 miles visibility and 1,000 feet ceilings, 3. Used charts and computer to assist 0
but less than 3,000 feet ceilings and 5 miles 4. Used computer program for all planning Yes 3
visibility 3 No 0
3. IMC conditions 4 5. Did you verify weight and balance? Yes 0
No 3
Column total 6. Did you evaluate performance? Yes 0
No 3
7. Do you brief your passangers on the Yes 0
ground and in flight? No 2

Column total

TOTAL SCORE

Endangerment
Low Risk

0 Not Complex Flight 10 Exercise Caution 20 Area of Concern 30

Figure 17-5. Example of a more comprehensive risk assessment program.

17-7
With the PAVE checklist, pilots have a simple way to Does this aircraft have sufcient fuel capacity, with
remember each category to examine for risk prior to each reserves, for trip legs planned?
ight. Once a pilot identies the risks of a ight, he or she Does the fuel quantity delivered match the fuel
needs to decide whether the risk or combination of risks can quantity ordered?
be managed safely and successfully. If not, make the decision
to cancel the ight. If the pilot decides to continue with the
V = EnVironment
ight, he or she should develop strategies to mitigate the
Weather
risks. One way a pilot can control the risks is to set personal
minimums for items in each risk category. These are limits Weather is an major environmental consideration. Earlier
unique to that individual pilots current level of experience it was suggested pilots set their own personal minimums,
and prociency. especially when it comes to weather. As pilots evaluate
the weather for a particular ight, they should consider the
For example, the aircraft may have a maximum crosswind following:
component of 15 knots listed in the aircraft ight manual What are the current ceiling and visibility? In
(AFM), and the pilot has experience with 10 knots of direct mountainous terrain, consider having higher minimums
crosswind. It could be unsafe to exceed a 10 knots crosswind for ceiling and visibility, particularly if the terrain is
component without additional training. Therefore, the 10 kts unfamiliar.
crosswind experience level is that pilots personal limitation
Consider the possibility that the weather may be
until additional training with a certicated ight instructor
different than forecast. Have alternative plans and
(CFI) provides the pilot with additional experience for ying
be ready and willing to divert, should an unexpected
in crosswinds that exceed 10 knots.
change occur.
One of the most important concepts that safe pilots Consider the winds at the airports being used and the
understand is the difference between what is legal in terms strength of the crosswind component.
of the regulations, and what is smart or safe in terms of If ying in mountainous terrain, consider whether there
pilot experience and prociency. are strong winds aloft. Strong winds in mountainous
terrain can cause severe turbulence and downdrafts
P = Pilot in Command (PIC) and be very hazardous for aircraft even when there is
The pilot is one of the risk factors in a ight. The pilot no other signicant weather.
must ask, Am I ready for this trip? in terms of experience, Are there any thunderstorms present or forecast?
recency, currency, physical and emotional condition. The
IMSAFE checklist provides the answers. If there are clouds, is there any icing, current or
forecast? What is the temperature/dew point spread
A = Aircraft and the current temperature at altitude? Can descent
be made safely all along the route?
What limitations will the aircraft impose upon the trip? Ask
the following questions: If icing conditions are encountered, is the pilot
experienced at operating the aircrafts deicing or
Is this the right aircraft for the ight?
anti-icing equipment? Is this equipment in good
Am I familiar with and current in this aircraft? Aircraft condition and functional? For what icing conditions
performance gures and the AFM are based on a brand is the aircraft rated, if any?
new aircraft own by a professional test pilot. Keep
that in mind while assessing personal and aircraft Terrain
performance. Evaluation of terrain is another important component of
Is this aircraft equipped for the ight? Instruments? analyzing the ight environment.
Lights? Navigation and communication equipment To avoid terrain and obstacles, especially at night or
adequate? in low visibility, determine safe altitudes in advance
Can this aircraft use the runways available for the trip by using the altitudes shown on VFR and IFR charts
with an adequate margin of safety under the conditions during preight planning.
to be own? Use maximum elevation gures (MEFs) and other
Can this aircraft carry the planned load? easily obtainable data to minimize chances of an
inight collision with terrain or obstacles.
Can this aircraft operate at the altitudes needed for the
trip?

17-8
Airport The desire to impress someone. (Probably the two
most dangerous words in aviation are Watch this!)
What lights are available at the destination and
alternate airports? VASI/PAPI or ILS glideslope The desire to satisfy a specic personal goal (get-
guidance? Is the terminal airport equipped with them? home-itis, get-there-itis, and lets-go-itis).
Are they working? Will the pilot need to use the radio The pilots general goal-completion orientation.
to activate the airport lights?
Emotional pressure associated with acknowledging
Check the Notices to Airmen (NOTAMS) for closed that skill and experience levels may be lower than a
runways or airports. Look for runway or beacon lights pilot would like them to be. Pride can be a powerful
out, nearby towers, etc. external factor!
Choose the ight route wisely. An engine failure gives
the nearby airports supreme importance. Managing External Pressures
Are there shorter or obstructed elds at the destination Management of external pressure is the single most important
amd/or alternate airports? key to risk management because it is the one risk factor
category that can cause a pilot to ignore all the other risk
Airspace factors. External pressures put time-related pressure on the
pilot and gure into a majority of accidents.
If the trip is over remote areas, are appropriate
clothing, water, and survival gear onboard in the event The use of personal standard operating procedures (SOPs) is
of a forced landing? one way to manage external pressures. The goal is to supply a
If the trip includes ying over water or unpopulated release for the external pressures of a ight. These procedures
areas with the chance of losing visual reference to the include but are not limited to:
horizon, the pilot must be prepared to y IFR. Allow time on a trip for an extra fuel stop or to make
Check the airspace and any temporary ight restriction an unexpected landing because of weather.
(TFRs) along the route of ight. Have alternate plans for a late arrival or make backup
airline reservations for must-be-there trips.
Nighttime For really important trips, plan to leave early enough
Night ying requires special consideration. so that there would still be time to drive to the
destination.
If the trip includes flying at night over water or
unpopulated areas with the chance of losing visual Advise those who are waiting at the destination that
reference to the horizon, the pilot must be prepared the arrival may be delayed. Know how to notify them
to y IFR. when delays are encountered.
Will the ight conditions allow a safe emergency Manage passengers expectations. Make sure
landing at night? passengers know that they might not arrive on a rm
schedule, and if they must arrive by a certain time,
Preight all aircraft lights, interior and exterior, for
they should make alternative plans.
a night ight. Carry at least two ashlightsone for
exterior preight and a smaller one that can be dimmed Eliminate pressure to return home, even on a casual
and kept nearby. day ight, by carrying a small overnight kit containing
prescriptions, contact lens solutions, toiletries, or other
E = External Pressures necessities on every ight.
External pressures are inuences external to the ight that
create a sense of pressure to complete a ightoften at the The key to managing external pressure is to be ready for
expense of safety. Factors that can be external pressures and accept delays. Remember that people get delayed when
include the following: traveling on airlines, driving a car, or taking a bus. The pilots
goal is to manage risk, not create hazards. [Figure 17-6]
Someone waiting at the airport for the flights
arrival.
A passenger the pilot does not want to disappoint.
The desire to demonstrate pilot qualications.

17-9
 Pilot Aircraft
A pilot must continually make decisions about competency, A pilot will frequently base decisions on the evaluations of the
condition of health, mental and emotional state, level of fatigue, airplane, such as performance, equipment, or airworthiness.
and many other variables. For example, a pilot may be called
early in the morning to make a long flight. If a pilot has had only During a preflight, a pilot noticed a small amount of oil dripping
a few hours of sleep and is concerned that the congestion from the bottom of the cowling. Although the quantity of oil
being experienced could be the onset of a cold, it would be seemed insignificant at the time, the pilot decided to delay the
prudent to consider if the flight could be accomplished safely. takeoff and have a mechanic check the source of the oil.
The pilots good judgment was confirmed when the mechanic
A pilot had only 4 hours of sleep the night before being asked found that one of the oil cooler hose fittings was loose.
by the boss to fly to a meeting in a city 750 miles away. The
reported weather was marginal and not expected to improve.
After assessing fitness as a pilot, it was decided that it would External Pressures
not be wise to make the flight. The boss was initially unhappy, The interaction between the pilot, airplane, and the environment
but later convinced by the pilot that the risks involved were is greatly influenced by the purpose of each flight operation.
unacceptable. The pilot must evaluate the three previous areas to decide on
the desirability of undertaking or continuing the flight as planned.
It is worth asking why the flight is being made, how critical is it to
Environment
maintain the schedule, and is the trip worth the risks?
This encompasses many elements not pilot or airplane related.
It can include such factors as weather, air traffic control, On a ferry flight to deliver an airplane from the factory, in
navigational aids (NAVAIDS), terrain, takeoff and landing marginal weather conditions, the pilot calculated the
areas, and surrounding obstacles. Weather is one element that groundspeed and determined that the airplane would arrive at
can change drastically over time and distance. the destination with only 10 minutes of fuel remaining. The pilot
was determined to keep on schedule by trying to stretch the
A pilot was landing a small airplane just after a heavy jet had fuel supply instead of landing to refuel. After landing with low
departed a parallel runway. The pilot assumed that wake fuel state, the pilot realized that this could have easily resulted
turbulence would not be a problem since landings had been in an emergency landing in deteriorating weather conditions.
performed under similar circumstances. Due to a combination This was a chance that was not worth taking to keep the
of prevailing winds and wake turbulence from the heavy jet planned schedule.
drifting across the landing runway, the airplane made a hard
landing. The pilot made an error when assessing the flight
environment.

Figure 17-6. The PAVE checklist.

Human Behavior Clearly, this is not only an inaccurate inference, it is

impossible. Pilots are drawn from the general population and
Studies of human behavior have tried to determine an
exhibit all types of personality traits. Thus, it is important that
individuals predisposition to taking risks and the level of
good decision-making skills be taught to all pilots.
an individuals involvement in accidents. In 1951, a study
regarding injury-prone children was published by Elizabeth
Historically, the term pilot error has been used to describe
Mechem Fuller and Helen B. Baune, of the University of
an accident in which an action or decision made by the
Minnesota. The study was comprised of two separate groups
pilot was the cause or a contributing factor that led to the
of second grade students. Fifty-ve students were considered
accident. This denition also includes the pilots failure
accident repeaters and 48 students had no accidents. Both
to make a correct decision or take proper action. From a
groups were from the same school of 600 and their family
broader perspective, the phrase human factors related more
demographics were similar.
aptly describes these accidents. A single decision or event
does not lead to an accident, but a series of events and the
The accident-free group showed a superior knowledge
resultant decisions together form a chain of events leading
of safety, were considered industrious and cooperative
to an outcome.
with others, but were not considered physically inclined.
The accident-repeater group had better gymnastic skills,
In his article Accident-Prone Pilots, Dr. Patrick R. Veillette
were considered aggressive and impulsive, demonstrated
uses the history of Captain Everyman to demonstrate how
rebellious behavior when under stress, were poor losers, and
aircraft accidents are caused more by a chain of poor choices
liked to be the center of attention. One interpretation of this
rather than one single poor choice. In the case of Captain
dataan adult predisposition to injury stems from childhood
Everyman, after a gear-up landing accident, he became
behavior and environmentleads to the conclusion that
involved in another accident while taxiing a Beech 58P
any pilot group should be comprised only of pilots who are
Baron out of the ramp. Interrupted by a radio call from the
safety-conscious, industrious, and cooperative.

17-10
dispatcher, Everyman neglected to complete the fuel cross- Are impulsive rather than methodical and disciplined,
feed check before taking off. Everyman, who was ying both in their information gathering and in the speed
solo, left the right-fuel selector in the cross-feed position. and selection of actions to be taken.
Once aloft and cruising, he noticed a right roll tendency A disregard for or under utilization of outside sources
and corrected with aileron trim. He did not realize that both of information, including copilots, ight attendants,
engines were feeding off the left wings tank, making the ight service personnel, ight instructors, and air
wing lighter. trafc controllers.

After two hours of flight, the right engine quit when The Decision-Making Process
Everyman was ying along a deep canyon gorge. While he
was trying to troubleshoot the cause of the right engines An understanding of the decision-making process provides
failure, the left engine quit. Everyman landed the aircraft on the pilot with a foundation for developing ADM and SRM
a river sand bar but it sank into ten feet of water. skills. While some situations, such as engine failure, require
an immediate pilot response using established procedures,
Several years later Everyman ew a de Havilland Twin Otter there is usually time during a ight to analyze any changes
to deliver supplies to a remote location. When he returned to that occur, gather information, and assess risk before reaching
home base and landed, the aircraft veered sharply to the left, a decision.
departed the runway, and ran into a marsh 375 feet from the
runway. The airframe and engines sustained considerable Risk management and risk intervention is much more than
damage. Upon inspecting the wreck, accident investigators the simple denitions of the terms might suggest. Risk
found the nose wheel steering tiller in the fully deected management and risk intervention are decision-making
position. Both the after takeoff and before landing checklists processes designed to systematically identify hazards,
required the tiller to be placed in the neutral position. assess the degree of risk, and determine the best course of
Everyman had overlooked this item. action. These processes involve the identication of hazards,
followed by assessments of the risks, analysis of the controls,
Now, is Everyman accident prone or just unlucky? Skipping making control decisions, using the controls, and monitoring
details on a checklist appears to be a common theme in the the results.
preceding accidents. While most pilots have made similar
mistakes, these errors were probably caught prior to a mishap The steps leading to this decision constitute a decision-
due to extra margin, good warning systems, a sharp copilot, or making process. Three models of a structured framework
just good luck. What makes a pilot less prone to accidents? for problem-solving and decision-making are the 5-P, the 3P,
the 3 with CARE and TEAM, the OODA, and the DECIDE
The successful pilot possesses the ability to concentrate, models. They provide assistance in organizing the decision
manage workloads, monitor and perform several simultaneous process. All these models have been identied as helpful to
tasks. Some of the latest psychological screenings used the single pilot in organizing critical decisions.
in aviation test applicants for their ability to multitask,
measuring both accuracy, as well as the individuals ability SRM and the 5P Check
to focus attention on several subjects simultaneously. The SRM is about how to gather information, analyze it, and make
FAA oversaw an extensive research study on the similarities decisions. Learning how to identify problems, analyze the
and dissimilarities of accident-free pilots and those who were information, and make informed and timely decisions is not
not. The project surveyed over 4,000 pilots, half of whom as straightforward as the training involved in learning specic
had clean records while the other half had been involved maneuvers. Learning how to judge a situation and how to
in an accident. think in the endless variety of situations encountered while
ying out in the real world is more difcult.
Five traits were discovered in pilots prone to having
accidents. These pilots: There is no one right answer in ADM, rather each pilot is
expected to analyze each situation in light of experience
Have disdain toward rules. level, personal minimums, and current physical and mental
Have very high correlation between accidents on their readiness level, and make his or her own decision.
ying records and safety violations on their driving
records. SRM sounds good on paper, but it requires a way for pilots
Frequently fall into the thrill and adventure seeking to understand and use it in their daily ights. One practical
personality category. application is called the Five Ps (5 Ps) [Figure 17-7] The

17-11
 The SRM Five P Check The second easiest point in the ight to make a critical safety
decision is just prior to takeoff. Few pilots have ever had to
The Plan make an emergency takeoff. While the point of the 5P
The Plane check is to help the pilot y, the correct application of the
The Pilot 5P before takeoff is to assist in making a reasoned go no-go
The Passengers decision based on all the information available. That decision
The Programming will usually be to go, with certain restrictions and changes,
but may also be a no-go. The key point is that these two
Figure 17-7. The Five P checklist. points in the process of ying are critical go no-go points on
each and every ight.
5 Ps consist of the Plan, the Plane, the Pilot, the Passengers,
and the Programming. Each of these areas consists of a set of The third place to review the 5 Ps is at the mid point of the
challenges and opportunities that face a single pilot. And each ight. Often, pilots may wait until the Automated Terminal
can substantially increase or decrease the risk of successfully information Service (ATIS) is in range to check weather, yet
completing the ight based on the pilots ability to make at this point in the ight many good options have already
informed and timely decisions. The 5 Ps are used to evaluate passed behind the aircraft and pilot. Additionally, fatigue
the pilots current situation at key decision points during the and low-altitude hypoxia serve to rob the pilot of much of
ight, or when an emergency arises. These decision points his or her energy by the end of a long and tiring ight day.
include, preight, pretakeoff, hourly or at the midpoint of This leads to a transition from a decision-making mode to an
the ight, pre-descent, and just prior to the nal approach acceptance mode on the part of the pilot. If the ight is longer
x or for visual ight rules (VFR) operations, just prior to than 2 hours, the 5P check should be conducted hourly.
entering the trafc pattern.
The last two decision points are just prior to descent into the
The 5 Ps are based on the idea that the pilots have essentially terminal area and just prior to the nal approach x, or if
ve variables that impact his or her environment and that can VFR just prior to entering the trafc pattern, as preparations
cause the pilot to make a single critical decision, or several for landing commence. Most pilots execute approaches with
less critical decisions, that when added together can create the expectation that they will land out of the approach every
a critical outcome. These variables are the Plan, the Plane, time. A healthier approach requires the pilot to assume that
the Pilot, the Passengers, and the Programming. This concept changing conditions (the 5 Ps again) will cause the pilot to
stems from the belief that current decision-making models divert or execute the missed approach on every approach.
tended to be reactionary in nature. A change has to occur and This keeps the pilot alert to all manner of conditions that
be detected to drive a risk management decision by the pilot. may increase risk and threaten the safe conduct of the ight.
For instance, many pilots use risk management sheets that are Diverting from cruise altitude saves fuel, allows unhurried
lled out by the pilot prior to takeoff. These form a catalog use of the autopilot, and is less reactive in nature. Diverting
of risks that may be encountered that day and turn them into from the nal approach x, while more difcult, still allows
numerical values. If the total exceeds a certain level, the ight the pilot to plan and coordinate better, rather than executing
is altered or cancelled. Informal research shows that while a futile missed approach. Lets look at a detailed discussion
these are useful documents for teaching risk factors, they are of each of the Five Ps.
almost never used outside of formal training programs. The
5P concept is an attempt to take the information contained in The Plan
those sheets and in the other available models and use it.
The Plan can also be called the mission or the task. It
contains the basic elements of cross-country planning,
The 5P concept relies on the pilot to adopt a scheduled
weather, route, fuel, publications currency, etc. The Plan
review of the critical variables at points in the ight where
should be reviewed and updated several times during the
decisions are most likely to be effective. For instance, the
course of the ight. A delayed takeoff due to maintenance,
easiest point to cancel a ight due to bad weather is before the
fast moving weather, and a short notice TFR may all radically
pilot and passengers walk out the door and load the aircraft.
alter the plan. The plan is not only about the ight plan,
So the rst decision point is preight in the ight planning
but also all the events that surround the ight and allow the
room, where all the information is readily available to make
pilot to accomplish the mission. The plan is always being
a sound decision, and where communication and Fixed
updated and modied and is especially responsive to changes
Base Operator (FBO) services are readily available to make
in the other four remaining Ps. If for no other reason, the 5P
alternate travel plans.

17-12
check reminds the pilot that the days ight plan is real life highly capable single-engine aircraft has entered into a very
and subject to change at any time. personal relationship with the passengers. In fact, the pilot
and passengers sit within an arms reach all of the time.
Obviously weather is a huge part of any plan. The addition
of datalink weather information give the advanced avionics The desire of the passengers to make airline connections or
pilot a real advantage in inclement weather, but only if important business meetings easily enters into this pilots
the pilot is trained to retrieve, and evaluate the weather in decision-making loop. Done in a healthy and open way, this
real time without sacricing situational awareness. And of can be a positive factor. Consider a ight to Dulles Airport
course, weather information should drive a decision, even and the passengers, both close friends and business partners,
if that decision is to continue on the current plan. Pilots of need to get to Washington, D.C., for an important meeting.
aircraft without datalink weather should get updated weather The weather is VFR all the way to southern Virginia then turns
in ight through a Flight Service Station (FSS) and/or Flight to low IFR as the pilot approaches Dulles. A pilot employing
Watch. the 5P approach might consider reserving a rental car at an
airport in northern North Carolina or southern Virginia to
The Plane coincide with a refueling stop. Thus, the passengers have a
Both the plan and the plane are fairly familiar to most way to get to Washington, and the pilot has an out to avoid
pilots. The plane consists of the usual array of mechanical being pressured into continuing the ight if the conditions
and cosmetic issues that every aircraft pilot, owner, or do not improve.
operator can identify. With the advent of advanced avionics,
the plane has expanded to include database currency, Passengers can also be pilots. If no one is designated as pilot
automation status, and emergency backup systems that were in command (PIC) and unplanned circumstances arise, the
unknown a few years ago. Much has been written about single decision-making styles of several self-condent pilots may
pilot IFR ight both with and without an autopilot. While this come into conict.
is a personal decision, it is just thata decision. Low IFR
in a non-autopilot equipped aircraft may depend on several Pilots also need to understand that non-pilots may not
of the other Ps to be discussed. Pilot prociency, currency, understand the level of risk involved in the ight. There is
and fatigue are among them. an element of risk in every ight. That is why SRM calls it
risk management, not risk elimination. While a pilot may feel
The Pilot comfortable with the risk present in a night IFR ight, the
passengers may not. A pilot employing SRM should ensure
Flying, especially when used for business transportation,
the passengers are involved in the decision-making and given
can expose the pilot to high altitude ying, long distance
tasks and duties to keep them busy and involved. If, upon a
and endurance, and more challenging weather. An advanced
factual description of the risks present, the passengers decide
avionics aircraft, simply due to their advanced capabilities can
to buy an airline ticket or rent a car, then a good decision has
expose a pilot to even more of these stresses. The traditional
generally been made. This discussion also allows the pilot
IMSAFE checklist (see page 17-6) is a good start.
to move past what he or she thinks the passengers want to
do and nd out what they actually want to do. This removes
The combination of late night, pilot fatigue, and the effects
self-induced pressure from the pilot.
of sustained ight above 5,000 feet may cause pilots to
become less discerning, less critical of information, less
decisive and more compliant and accepting. Just as the most The Programming
critical portion of the ight approaches (for instance a night The advanced avionics aircraft adds an entirely new
instrument approach, in the weather, after a 4-hour ight) the dimension to the way GA aircraft are own. The electronic
pilots guard is down the most. The 5P process helps a pilot instrument displays, GPS, and autopilot reduce pilot
recognize the physiological situation at the end of the ight workload and increase pilot situational awareness. While
before takeoff, and continues to update personal conditions programming and operation of these devices are fairly simple
as the ight progresses. Once risks are identied, the pilot is and straightforward, unlike the analog instruments they
in an innitely better place to make alternate plans that lessen replace, they tend to capture the pilots attention and hold it
the effect of these factors and provide a safer solution. for long periods of time. To avoid this phenomenon, the pilot
should plan in advance when and where the programming
The Passengers for approaches, route changes, and airport information
gathering should be accomplished as well as times it should
One of the key differences between CRM and SRM is
not. Pilot familiarity with the equipment, the route, the local
the way passengers interact with the pilot. The pilot of a

17-13
air trafc control environment, and personal capabilities vis- of risk depends on a number of other factors, such as pilot
-vis the automation should drive when, where, and how the training and experience, aircraft equipment and fuel capacity,
automation is programmed and used. and others.

The pilot should also consider what his or her capabilities In the third step, the goal is to perform by taking action to
are in response to last minute changes of the approach (and eliminate hazards or mitigate risk, and then continuously
the reprogramming required) and ability to make large- evaluate the outcome of this action. With the example of low
scale changes (a reroute for instance) while hand ying the ceilings at destination, for instance, the pilot can perform
aircraft. Since formats are not standardized, simply moving good ADM by selecting a suitable alternate, knowing where
from one manufacturers equipment to another should give to nd good weather, and carrying sufcient fuel to reach
the pilot pause and require more conservative planning and it. This course of action would mitigate the risk. The pilot
decisions. also has the option to eliminate it entirely by waiting for
better weather.
The SRM process is simple. At least ve times before and
during the ight, the pilot should review and consider the Plan, Once the pilot has completed the 3P decision process and
the Plane, the Pilot, the Passengers, and the Programming selected a course of action, the process begins anew because
and make the appropriate decision required by the current now the set of circumstances brought about by the course of
situation. It is often said that failure to make a decision is a action requires analysis. The decision-making process is a
decision. Under SRM and the 5 Ps, even the decision to make continuous loop of perceiving, processing and performing.
no changes to the current plan, is made through a careful
consideration of all the risk factors present. With practice and consistent use, running through the 3P
cycle can become a habit that is as smooth, continuous, and
Perceive, Process, Perform (3P) automatic as a well-honed instrument scan. This basic set of
The Perceive, Process, Perform (3P) model for ADM offers practical risk management tools can be used to improve risk
a simple, practical, and systematic approach that can be used management. The 3P model has been expanded to include the
during all phases of ight. To use it, the pilot will: CARE and TEAM models which offers pilots another way
to assess and reduce risks associated with ying.
Perceive the given set of circumstances for a ight.
Perceive, Process, Perform with CARE and TEAM
Process by evaluating their impact on ight safety.
Most ight training activities take place in the time-critical
Perform by implementing the best course of action. timeframe for risk management. Figures 17-8 and 17-9
combine the six steps of risk management into an easy-to-
In the rst step, the goal is to develop situational awareness remember 3P model for practical risk management: Perceive,
by perceiving hazards, which are present events, objects, or Process, Perform with the CARE and TEAM models. Pilots
circumstances that could contribute to an undesired future can help perceive hazards by using the PAVE checklist
event. In this step, the pilot will systematically identify and of: Pilot, Aircraft, enVironment, and External pressures.
list hazards associated with all aspects of the ight: pilot, They can process hazards by using the CARE checklist
aircraft, environment, and external pressures. It is important of: Consequences, Alternatives, Reality, External factors.
to consider how individual hazards might combine. Consider, Finally, pilots can perform risk management by using
for example, the hazard that arises when a new instrument the TEAM choice list of: Transfer, Eliminate, Accept, or
pilot with no experience in actual instrument conditions wants Mitigate. These concepts are relatively new in the GA training
to make a cross-country ight to an airport with low ceilings world, but have been shown to be extraordinarily useful in
in order to attend an important business meeting. lowering accident rates in the world of air carriers.

In the second step, the goal is to process this information

to determine whether the identied hazards constitute risk,
which is dened as the future impact of a hazard that is not
controlled or eliminated. The degree of risk posed by a given
hazard can be measured in terms of exposure (number of
people or resources affected), severity (extent of possible
loss), and probability (the likelihood that a hazard will cause
a loss). If the hazard is low ceilings, for example, the level

17-14
 Pilots can perceive hazards by using the PAVE checklist: EnVironment
Departure and destination airports have long runways.
Weather is the main hazard. Although it is VFR, it is a typical
summer day in the Mid-Atlantic region: hot (near 90 F) hazy
Pilot (visibility 7 miles), and humid with a density altitude of 2,500
Gayle is a healthy and well-rested private pilot with approxi- feet. Weather at the destination airport (located in the
mately 300 hours total flight time. Hazards include her lack of mountains) is still IMC, but forecast to improve to visual
overall and cross-country experience and the fact that she has meteorological conditions (VMC) prior to her arrival. En route
not flown at all in two months. weather is VMC, but there is an AIRMET Sierra for pockets of
IMC over mountain ridges along the proposed route of flight.

Aircraft
Although it does not have a panel-mount GPS or weather External Pressures
avoidance gear, the aircrafta C182 Skylane with long-range Gayle is making the trip to spend a weekend with relatives she
fuel tanksis in good mechanical condition with no inoperative does not see very often. Her family is very excited and has
equipment. The instrument panel is a standard six-pack. made a number of plans for the visit.

Pilots can perform risk management by using the TEAM choice list:

Pilot Aircraft
To manage the risk associated with her inexperience and lack To manage risk associated with any doubts about the aircrafts
of recent flight time, Gayle can: mechanical condition, Gayle can:
Transfer the risk entirely by having another pilot act as PIC. Transfer the risk by using a different airplane.
Eliminate the risk by canceling the trip. Eliminate the risk by canceling the trip.
Accept the risk and fly anyway. Accept the risk.
Mitigate the risk by flying with another pilot. Mitigate the remaining (residual) risk through review of
aircraft performance and careful preflight inspection.
Gayle chooses to mitigate the major risk by hiring a CFI to
accompany her and provide dual cross-country instruction. Since she finds no problems with the aircrafts mechanical
An added benefit is the opportunity to broaden her flying condition, Gayle chooses to mitigate any remaining risk
experience. through careful preflight inspection of the aircraft.

Environment External Pressures

To manage the risk associated with hazy conditions and To mitigate the risk of emotional pressure from family
mountainous terrain, Gayle can: expectations that can drive a get-there mentality, Gayle can:
Transfer the risk of VFR in these conditions by asking an Transfer the risk by having her co-pilot act as PIC and make
instrument-rated pilot to fly the trip under IFR. the continue/divert decision.
Eliminate the risk by canceling the trip. Eliminate the risk by canceling the trip.
Accept the risk. Accept the risk.
Mitigate the risk by careful preflight planning, filing a VFR Mitigate the risk by managing family expectations and
flight plan, requesting VFR flight following, and using making alternative arrangements in the event of diversion to
resources such as Flight Watch. another airport.

Detailed preflight planning must be a vital part of Gayles Gayle and her co-pilot choose to address this risk by agreeing
weather risk mitigation strategy. The most direct route would that each pilot has a veto on continuing the flight, and that they
put her over mountains for most of the trip. Because of the will divert if either becomes uncomfortable with flight conditions.
thick haze and pockets of IMC over mountains, Gayle might Because the destination airport is still IMC at the time of
mitigate the risk by modifying the route to fly over valleys. This departure, Gayle establishes a specific point in the tripan en
change will add 30 minutes to her estimated time of arrival route VORTAC located between the destination airport and the
(ETA), but the extra time is a small price to pay for avoiding two alternatesas the logical place for her final continue/
possible IMC over mountains. Because her destination airport divert decision. Rather than give her family a specific ETA that
is IMC at the time of departure, Gayle needs to establish that might make Gayle feel pressured to meet the schedule, she
VFR conditions exist at other airports within easy driving manages her familys expectations by advising them that she
distance of her original destination. In addition, Gayle should will call when she arrives.
review basic information (e.g., traffic pattern altitude, runway
layout, frequencies) for these alternate airports. To further
mitigate risk and practice good cockpit resource management,
Gayle should file a VFR flight plan, use VFR flight following,
and call Flight Watch to get weather updates en route. Finally,
basic functions on her handheld GPS should also be practiced.

Figure 17-8. A real-world example of how the 3P model guides decisions on a cross-country trip.

17-15
 Pilots can perceive hazards by using the CARE checklist:

Pilot Aircraft
Consequences: Gayles inexperience and lack of recent Consequences: This area presents low risk because the
flight time create some risk of an accident, primarily because aircraft is in excellent mechanical condition and Gayle is
she plans to travel over mountains on a hazy day and land familiar with its avionics.
at an unfamiliar mountain airport that is still in IMC Alternatives: Had there been a problem with her aircraft,
conditions. Gayle might have considered renting another plane from her
Alternatives: Gayle might mitigate the pilot-related risk by flight school. Bear in mind, however, that alternatives
hiring a CFI to accompany her and provide dual cross- sometimes create new hazards. In this instance, there may
country instruction. An added benefit is the opportunity to be hazards associated with flying an unfamiliar aircraft with
broaden her flying experience in safe conditions. different avionics.
Reality: Accepting the reality that limited experience can Reality: It is important to recognize the reality of an aircrafts
create additional risk is a key part of sound risk management mechanical condition. If you find a maintenance discrepancy
and mitigation. and then find yourself saying that it is probably okay to fly
External Factors: Like many pilots, Gayle must contend with with it anyway, you need to revisit the consequences part of
the emotional pressure associated with acknowledging that this checklist.
her skill and experience levels may be lower than she would External Factors: Pilot decision-making can sometimes be
like them to be. Pride can be a powerful external factor! influenced by the external pressure of needing to return the
airplane to the FBO by a certain date and time. Because
Environment Gayle owns the airplane, there was no such pressure in this
case.
Consequences: For a pilot whose experience consists
mostly of local flights in good VMC, launching a long cross-
country flight over mountainous terrain in hazy conditions External Pressures
could lead to pilot disorientation and increase the risk of an Consequences: Any number of factors can create risk of
accident. emotional pressure from a get-there mentality. In Gayles
Alternatives: Options include postponing the trip until the case, the consequences of her strong desire to visit family,
visibility improves, or modifying the route to avoid extended her familys expectations, and personal pride could induce
periods of time over the mountains. her to accept unnecessary risk.
Reality: Hazy conditions and mountainous terrain clearly Alternatives: Gayle clearly needs to develop a mitigating
create risk for an inexperienced VFR-only pilot. strategy for each of the external factors associated with this
External Factors: Few pilots are immune to the pressure of trip.
get-there-itis, which can sometimes induce a decision to Reality: Pilots sometimes tend to discount or ignore the
launch or continue in less than ideal weather conditions. potential impact of these external factors. Gayles open
acknowledgement of these factors (e.g., I might be
pressured into pressing on so my mother wont have to
worry about our late arrival.) is a critical element of effective
risk management.
External Factors: (see above)

Figure 17-9. Additional real-world examples of how the 3P model guides decisions on a cross-country trip.

Forming Good Safety Habits Loop is now used as a standard description of decision-
While the 3P model is similar to other methods, there are making cycles.
two good reasons to use the 3P model. First, the 3P model
gives pilots a structured, efcient, and systematic way to The Loop is an interlaced decision model which provides
identify hazards, assess risk, and implement effective risk immediate feedback throughout the decision-making process.
controls. Second, practicing risk management needs to be as For SRM purposes, an abbreviated version of the concept
automatic in GA ying as basic aircraft control. As is true [Figure 17-10] provides an easily understood tool for the
for other ying skills, risk management thinking habits are pilot.
best developed through repetition and consistent adherence
to specic procedures. The rst node of the Loop, Observe, reects the need for
situational awareness. A pilot must be aware of those things
The OODA Loop around him or her that may impact the ight. Continuous
Colonel John Boyd, United States Air Forces (Retired), monitoring of aircraft controls, weather, etc., provides a
coined the term and developed the concept of the OODA constant reference point by which the pilot knows his or
Loop (Observation, Orientation, Decision, Action). The her starting point on the loop which permits the ability to
ideas, words, and phrases contained in Boyds briengs have immediately move to the next step.
penetrated not only the United States military services, but the
business community and worldwide academia. The OODA

17-16
 First, consider a recent accident involving a Piper Apache (PA-
23). The aircraft was substantially damaged during impact
OBSERVE
with terrain at a local airport in Alabama. The certicated
airline transport pilot (ATP) received minor injuries and the
certicated private pilot was not injured. The private pilot
was receiving a checkride from the ATP (who was also a
designated examiner) for a commercial pilot certicate with
a multi-engine rating. After performing airwork at altitude,
ACT ORIENT they returned to the airport and the private pilot performed a
single-engine approach to a full stop landing. He then taxied
back for takeoff, performed a short eld takeoff, and then
joined the trafc pattern to return for another landing. During
the approach for the second landing, the ATP simulated a right
engine failure by reducing power on the right engine to zero
thrust. This caused the aircraft to yaw right.
DECIDE

The procedure to identify the failed engine is a two-step

process. First, bring power to maximum controllable on both
engines. Because the left engine is the only engine delivering
Figure 17-10. The OODA Loop. thrust, the yaw increases to the right, which necessitates
application of additional left rudder application. The failed
Orient, the second node of the Loop, focuses the pilots engine is the side that requires no rudder pressure, in this
attention on one or more discrepancies in the ight. For case the right engine. Second, having identied the failed
example, there is a low oil pressure reading. The pilot is right engine, the procedure is to feather the right engine and
aware of this deviation and considers available options in adjust power to maintain descent angle to a landing.
view of potential hazards to continued ight.
However, in this case the pilot feathered the left engine
The pilot then moves to the third node, Decide, in which because he assumed the engine failure was a left engine
he or she makes a positive determination about a specic failure. During twin-engine training, the left engine out
effect. That decision is made based on experience and is emphasized more than the right engine because the left
knowledge of potential results, and to take that particular engine on most light twins is the critical engine. This is due to
action will produce the desired result. The pilot then Acts on multiengine airplanes being subject to P-factor, as are single-
that decision, making a physical input to cause the aircraft engine airplanes. The descending propeller blade of each
to react in the desired fashion. engine will produce greater thrust than the ascending blade
when the airplane is operated under power and at positive
Once the loop has been completed, the pilot is once again in angles of attack. The descending propeller blade of the right
the Observe position. The assessment of the resulting action engine is also a greater distance from the center of gravity,
is added to the previously perceived aspects of the ight to and therefore has a longer moment arm than the descending
further dene the ights progress. The advantage of the propeller blade of the left engine. As a result, failure of the left
OODA Loop model is that it may be cumulative, as well as engine will result in the most asymmetrical thrust (adverse
having the potential of allowing for multiple progressions to yaw) because the right engine will be providing the remaining
occur at any given point in the ight. thrust. Many twins are designed with a counter-rotating right
engine. With this design, the degree of asymmetrical thrust
The DECIDE Model is the same with either engine inoperative. Neither engine is
Using the acronym DECIDE, the six-step process DECIDE more critical than the other.
Model is another continuous loop process that provides the
pilot with a logical way of making decisions. [Figure 17-11]
DECIDE means to Detect, Estimate, Choose a course of
action, Identify solutions, Do the necessary actions, and
Evaluate the effects of the actions.

17-17
 Aeronautical Decision-Making

A. Analytical B. Automatic/Naturalistic

Situation
Pilot Aircraft Enviroment External Factors

Pilot Aircraft Enviroment External Factors

Detection Detection

Evaluation of event

Evaluation of event

Risk or hazard
Potential outcomes
Capabilities of pilot
Aircraft capabilities
Risk to flight
Outside factors
Pilot training
Pilot experience

Outcome desired

Outcome desired
Solutions to get you there
Solution 1
Solution 2
Solution 3
Solution 4
Take action

What is best action to do

Effect of decision
Successful
Problem remains

Done

The DECIDE Model

1.
2.
3.
4
5.
6.

Figure 17-11. The DECIDE model has been recognized worldwide. Its application is illustrated in A while automatic/naturalistic
decision-making is shown in B.

17-18
Since the pilot never executed the rst step of identifying the environment. Experience, discipline, awareness, and
which engine failed, he feathered the left engine and set the knowledge will inuence how a pilot ranks a problem.
right engine at zero thrust. This essentially restricted the
aircraft to a controlled glide. Upon realizing that he was not Choose (a Course of Action)
going to make the runway, the pilot increased power to both After the problem has been identified and its impact
engines causing an enormous yaw to the left (the left propeller estimated, the pilot must determine the desirable outcome
was feathered) whereupon the aircraft started to turn left. and choose a course of action. In the case of the multiengine
In desperation, the instructor closed both throttles and the pilot given the simulated failed engine, the desired objective
aircraft hit the ground and was substantially damaged. is to safely land the airplane.

This case is interesting because it highlights two particular Identify (Solutions)

issues. First, taking action without forethought can be just
The pilot formulates a plan that will take him or her to the
as dangerous as taking no action at all. In this case, the
objective. Sometimes, there may be only one course of action
pilots actions were incorrect; yet, there was sufficient
available. In the case of the engine failure, already at 500
time to take the necessary steps to analyze the simulated
feet or below, the pilot solves the problem by identifying
emergency. The second and more subtle issue is that decisions
one or more solutions that lead to a successful outcome. It is
made under pressure are sometimes executed based upon
important for the pilot not to become xated on the process
limited experience and the actions taken may be incorrect,
to the exclusion of making a decision.
incomplete, or insufcient to handle the situation.
Do (the Necessary Actions)
Detect (the Problem)
Once pathways to resolution are identied, the pilot selects
Problem detection is the rst step in the decision-making
the most suitable one for the situation. The multiengine pilot
process. It begins with recognizing a change occurred or an
given the simulated failed engine must now safely land the
expected change did not occur. A problem is perceived rst
aircraft.
by the senses and then it is distinguished through insight
and experience. These same abilities, as well as an objective
Evaluate (the Effect of the Action)
analysis of all available information, are used to determine the
Finally, after implementing a solution, evaluate the decision
nature and severity of the problem. One critical error made
to see if it was correct. If the action taken does not provide
during the decision-making process is incorrectly detecting
the desired results, the process may have to be repeated.
the problem. In the example above, the change that occurred
was a yaw.
Decision-Making in a Dynamic
Environment
Estimate (the Need To React)
In the engine-out example, the aircraft yawed right, the pilot The common approach to decision-making has been through
was on nal approach, and the problem warranted a prompt the use of analytical models such as 5P, 3P, OODA, and
solution. In many cases, overreaction and xation excludes DECIDE. Good decisions result when pilots gather all
a safe outcome. For example, what if the cabin door of a available information, review it, analyze the options, rate the
Mooney suddenly opened in ight while the aircraft climbed options, select a course of action, and evaluate that course of
through 1,500 feet on a clear sunny day? The sudden opening action for correctness.
would be alarming, but the perceived hazard the open door
presents is quickly and effectively assessed as minor. In In some situations, there isnt always time to make decisions
fact, the doors opening would not impact safe ight and based on analytical decision-making skills. A good example
can almost be disregarded. Most likely, a pilot would return is a quarterback whose actions are based upon a highly uid
to the airport to secure the door after landing. and changing situation. He intends to execute a plan, but new
circumstances dictate decision-making on the y. This type
The pilot ying on a clear day faced with this minor problem of decision-making is called automatic decision-making or
may rank the open cabin door as a low risk. What about naturalized decision-making. [Figure 17-11B]
the pilot on an IFR climb out in IMC conditions with light
intermittent turbulence in rain who is receiving an amended
clearance from air trafc control (ATC)? The open cabin
door now becomes a higher risk factor. The problem has
not changed, but the perception of risk a pilot assigns it
changes because of the multitude of ongoing tasks and

17-19
Automatic Decision-Making and prevents complacency. Effects of stress are cumulative
In an emergency situation, a pilot might not survive if he or and, if the pilot does not cope with them in an appropriate
she rigorously applied analytical models to every decision way, they can eventually add up to an intolerable burden.
made; there is not enough time to go through all the options. Performance generally increases with the onset of stress,
But under these circumstances does he or she nd the best peaks, and then begins to fall off rapidly as stress levels
possible solution to every problem? exceed a persons ability to cope. The ability to make
effective decisions during ight can be impaired by stress.
For the past several decades, research into how people There are two categories of stressacute and chronic. These
actually make decisions has revealed that when pressed for are both explained in Chapter 16, Aeromedical Factors.
time, experts faced with a task loaded with uncertainty, rst
assess whether the situation strikes them as familiar. Rather Factors referred to as stressors can increase a pilots risk of
than comparing the pros and cons of different approaches, error in the ight deck. [Figure 17-13] Remember the cabin
they quickly imagine how one or a few possible courses of door that suddenly opened in ight on the Mooney climbing
action in such situations will play out. Experts take the rst through 1,500 feet on a clear sunny day? It may startle the
workable option they can nd. While it may not be the best of pilot, but the stress would wane when it became apparent
all possible choices, it often yields remarkably good results. the situation was not a serious hazard. Yet, if the cabin door
opened in IMC conditions, the stress level makes signicant
The terms naturalistic and automatic decision-making have impact on the pilots ability to cope with simple tasks. The
been coined to describe this type of decision-making. The key to stress management is to stop, think, and analyze before
ability to make automatic decisions holds true for a range jumping to a conclusion. There is usually time to think before
of experts from re ghters to chess players. It appears the drawing unnecessary conclusions.
experts ability hinges on the recognition of patterns and
consistencies that clarify options in complex situations. There are several techniques to help manage the accumulation
Experts appear to make provisional sense of a situation, of life stresses and prevent stress overload. For example, to
without actually reaching a decision, by launching experience- help reduce stress levels, set aside time for relaxation each
based actions that in turn trigger creative revisions. day or maintain a program of physical tness. To prevent
stress overload, learn to manage time more effectively to
This is a reexive type of decision-making anchored in avoid pressures imposed by getting behind schedule and not
training and experience and is most often used in times of meeting deadlines.
emergencies when there is no time to practice analytical
decision-making. Naturalistic or automatic decision-making Use of Resources
improves with training and experience, and a pilot will nd To make informed decisions during ight operations, a pilot
himself or herself using a combination of decision-making must also become aware of the resources found inside and
tools that correlate with individual experience and training. outside the ight deck. Since useful tools and sources of
information may not always be readily apparent, learning
Operational Pitfalls to recognize these resources is an essential part of ADM
Although more experienced pilots are likely to make more training. Resources must not only be identied, but a pilot
automatic decisions, there are tendencies or operational must also develop the skills to evaluate whether there is
pitfalls that come with the development of pilot experience. time to use a particular resource and the impact its use will
These are classic behavioral traps into which pilots have have upon the safety of ight. For example, the assistance
been known to fall. More experienced pilots (as a rule) try of ATC may be very useful if a pilot becomes lost, but in
to complete a ight as planned, please passengers, and meet an emergency situation, there may be no time available to
schedules. The desire to meet these goals can have an adverse contact ATC.
effect on safety and contribute to an unrealistic assessment
of piloting skills. All experienced pilots have fallen prey to, Internal Resources
or have been tempted by, one or more of these tendencies in One of the most underutilized resources may be the person in
their ying careers. These dangerous tendencies or behavior the right seat, even if the passenger has no ying experience.
patterns, which must be identied and eliminated, include When appropriate, the PIC can ask passengers to assist with
the operational pitfalls shown in Figure 17-12. certain tasks, such as watching for trafc or reading checklist
items. Some other ways a passenger can assist:
Stress Management Provide information in an irregular situation, especially
Everyone is stressed to some degree almost all of the time. A if familiar with ying. A strange smell or sound may
certain amount of stress is good since it keeps a person alert alert a passenger to a potential problem.

17-20
 Operational Pitfalls

Peer Pressure
Poor decision-making may be based upon an emotional response to peers, rather than evaluating a situation objectively.

Mind Set
A pilot displays mind set through an inability to recognize and cope with changes in a given situation.

Get-there-itis
This disposition impairs pilot judgment through a fixation on the original goal or destination, combined with a disregard for any
alternative course of action.

Duck-Under Syndrome
A pilot may be tempted to make it into an airport by descending below minimums during an approach. There may be a belief that
there is a built-in margin of error in every approach procedure, or a pilot may want to admit that the landing cannot be completed
and a missed approach must be initiated.

Scud Running
This occurs when a pilot tries to maintain visual contact with the terrain at low altitudes while instrument conditions exist.

Continuing Visual Flight Rules (VFR) into Instrument Conditions

Spatial disorientation or collision with ground/obstacles may occur when a pilot continues VFR into instrument conditions. This can
be even more dangerous if the pilot is not instrument rated or current.

Getting Behind the Aircraft

This pitfall can be caused by allowing events or the situation to control pilot actions. A constant state of surprise at what happens
next may be exhibited when the pilot is getting behind the aircraft.

Loss of Positional or Situational Awareness

In extreme cases, when a pilot gets behind the aircraft, a loss of positional or situational awareness may result. The pilot may not
know the aircrafts geographical location, or may be unable to recognize deteriorating circumstances.

Operating Without Adequate Fuel Reserves

Ignoring minimum fuel reserve requirements is generally the result of overconfidence, lack of flight planning, or disregarding
applicable regulations.

Descent Below the Minimum En Route Altitude

The duck-under syndrome, as mentioned above, can also occur during the en route portion of an IFR flight.

Flying Outside the Envelope

The assumed high performance capability of a particular aircraft may cause a mistaken belief that it can meet the demands
imposed by a pilots overestimated flying skills.

Neglect of Flight Planning, Preflight Inspections, and Checklists

A pilot may rely on short- and long-term memory, regular flying skills, and familiar routes instead of established procedures and
published checklists. This can be particularly true of experienced pilots.

Figure 17-12. Typical operational pitfalls requiring pilot awareness.

Stressors

Environmental
Conditions associated with the environment, such as
temperature and humidity extremes, noise, vibration, and lack
of oxygen.

Physiological Stress
Physical conditions, such as fatigue, lack of physical fitness,
sleep loss, missed meals (leading to low blood sugar levels),
and illness.

Psychological Stress Figure 17-13. System stressors. Environmental, physiological, and

Social or emotional factors, such as a death in the family, a psychological stress are factors which affect decision-making skills.
divorce, a sick child, or a demotion at work. This type of stress
may also be related to mental workload, such as analyzing a These stressors have a profound impact especially during periods
problem, navigating an aircraft, or making decisions. of high workload.

17-21
 Confirm after the pilot that the landing gear is It is necessary for a pilot to have a thorough understanding
down. of all the equipment and systems in the aircraft being own.
Learn to look at the altimeter for a given altitude in a Lack of knowledge, such as knowing if the oil pressure
descent. gauge is direct reading or uses a sensor, is the difference
between making a wise decision or poor one that leads to a
Listen to logic or lack of logic. tragic error.

Also, the process of a verbal brieng (which can happen Checklists are essential ight deck internal resources. They
whether or not passengers are aboard) can help the PIC in are used to verify the aircraft instruments and systems are
the decision-making process. For example, assume a pilot checked, set, and operating properly, as well as ensuring
provides a lone passenger a brieng of the forecast landing the proper procedures are performed if there is a system
weather before departure. When the Automatic Terminal malfunction or inight emergency. Students reluctant to
Information Service (ATIS) is picked up, the weather has use checklists can be reminded that pilots at all levels of
signicantly changed. The discussion of this forecast change experience refer to checklists, and that the more advanced the
can lead the pilot to reexamine his or her activities and aircraft is, the more crucial checklists become. In addition, the
decision-making. [Figure 17-14] Other valuable internal pilots operating handbook (POH) is required to be carried on
resources include ingenuity, aviation knowledge, and ying board the aircraft and is essential for accurate ight planning
skill. Pilots can increase ight deck resources by improving and resolving inight equipment malfunctions. However, the
these characteristics. most valuable resource a pilot has is the ability to manage
workload whether alone or with others.
When flying alone, another internal resource is verbal
communication. It has been established that verbal External Resources
communication reinforces an activity; touching an object
Air trafc controllers and ight service specialists are the best
while communicating further enhances the probability an
external resources during ight. In order to promote the safe,
activity has been accomplished. For this reason, many solo
orderly ow of air trafc around airports and, along ight
pilots read the checklist out loud; when they reach critical
routes, the ATC provides pilots with trafc advisories, radar
items, they touch the switch or control. For example, to
vectors, and assistance in emergency situations. Although
ascertain the landing gear is down, the pilot can read the
it is the PICs responsibility to make the ight as safe as
checklist. But, if he or she touches the gear handle during the
possible, a pilot with a problem can request assistance from
process, a safe extension of the landing gear is conrmed.
ATC. [Figure 17-15] For example, if a pilot needs to level
off, be given a vector, or decrease speed, ATC assists and

Figure 17-14. When possible, have a passenger reconfirm that critical tasks are completed.

17-22
 request practice DF guidance and approaches in VFR weather
conditions.

Situational Awareness
Situational awareness is the accurate perception and
understanding of all the factors and conditions within
the ve fundamental risk elements (ight, pilot, aircraft,
environment, and type of operation that comprise any given
aviation situation) that affect safety before, during, and after
the ight. Monitoring radio communications for trafc,
weather discussion, and ATC communication can enhance
situational awareness by helping the pilot develop a mental
picture of what is happening.

Maintaining situational awareness requires an understanding

Figure 17-15. Controllers work to make flights as safe as of the relative signicance of all ight related factors and their
possible. future impact on the ight. When a pilot understands what is
becomes integrated as part of the crew. The services provided going on and has an overview of the total operation, he or she
by ATC can not only decrease pilot workload, but also help is not xated on one perceived signicant factor. Not only
pilots make informed inight decisions. is it important for a pilot to know the aircrafts geographical
location, it is also important he or she understand what is
The FSS are air trafc facilities that provide pilot brieng, happening. For instance, while ying above Richmond,
en route communications, VFR search and rescue services, Virginia, toward Dulles Airport or Leesburg, the pilot
assist lost aircraft and aircraft in emergency situations, relay should know why he or she is being vectored and be able to
ATC clearances, originate Notices to Airmen (NOTAM), anticipate spatial location. A pilot who is simply making turns
broadcast aviation weather and National Airspace System without understanding why has added an additional burden
(NAS) information, receive and process IFR ight plans, to his or her management in the event of an emergency. To
and monitor navigational aids (NAVAIDs). In addition, at maintain situational awareness, all of the skills involved in
selected locations, FSSs provide En Route Flight Advisory ADM are used.
Service (Flight Watch), issue airport advisories, and advise
Customs and Immigration of transborder ights. Selected Obstacles to Maintaining Situational Awareness
FSSs in Alaska also provide TWEB recordings and take Fatigue, stress, and work overload can cause a pilot to xate
weather observations. on a single perceived important item and reduce an overall
situational awareness of the ight. A contributing factor
Another external resource available to pilots is the VHF in many accidents is a distraction that diverts the pilots
Direction Finder (VHF/DF). This is one of the common attention from monitoring the instruments or scanning outside
systems that helps pilots without their being aware of its the aircraft. Many ight deck distractions begin as a minor
operation. FAA facilities that provide VHF/DF service are problem, such as a gauge that is not reading correctly, but
identied in the A/FD. DF equipment has long been used result in accidents as the pilot diverts attention to the perceived
to locate lost aircraft and to guide aircraft to areas of good problem and neglects to properly control the aircraft.
weather or to airports. DF instrument approaches may be
given to aircraft in a distress or urgency condition. Workload Management
Effective workload management ensures essential operations
Experience has shown that most emergencies requiring DF are accomplished by planning, prioritizing, and sequencing
assistance involve pilots with little ight experience. With this tasks to avoid work overload. [Figure 17-16] As experience
in mind, DF approach procedures provide maximum ight is gained, a pilot learns to recognize future workload
stability in the approach by using small turns, and wings- requirements and can prepare for high workload periods
level descents. The DF specialist will give the pilot headings during times of low workload. Reviewing the appropriate
to y and tell the pilot when to begin descent. If followed, chart and setting radio frequencies well in advance of when
the headings will lead the aircraft to a predetermined point they are needed helps reduce workload as the ight nears the
such as the DF station or an airport. To become familiar with airport. In addition, a pilot should listen to ATIS, Automated
the procedures and other benets of DF, pilots are urged to Surface Observing System (ASOS), or Automated Weather

17-23
 Recognizing a work overload situation is also an important
component of managing workload. The first effect of
high workload is that the pilot may be working harder but
accomplishing less. As workload increases, attention cannot
be devoted to several tasks at one time, and the pilot may
begin to focus on one item. When a pilot becomes task
saturated, there is no awareness of input from various sources,
so decisions may be made on incomplete information and the
possibility of error increases. [Figure 17-17]

When a work overload situation exists, a pilot needs to stop,

think, slow down, and prioritize. It is important to understand
how to decrease workload. For example, in the case of the
cabin door that opened in VFR ight, the impact on workload
should be insignicant. If the cabin door opens under IFR
different conditions, its impact on workload will change.
Therefore, placing a situation in the proper perspective,
remaining calm, and thinking rationally are key elements in
reducing stress and increasing the capacity to y safely. This
ability depends upon experience, discipline, and training.

Figure 17-16. Balancing workloads can be a difcult task. Managing Risks

The ability to manage risk begins with preparation. Here are
Observing System (AWOS), if available, and then monitor some things a pilot can do to manage overall risk:
the tower frequency or Common Trafc Advisory Frequency
(CTAF) to get a good idea of what trafc conditions to Assess the flights risk based upon experience.
expect. Checklists should be performed well in advance so Use some form of risk assessment. For example, if
there is time to focus on trafc and ATC instructions. These the weather is marginal and the pilot has low IMC
procedures are especially important prior to entering a high- training, it is probably a good idea to cancel the
density trafc area, such as Class B airspace. ight.

High
Task Load

b i l i t i e s
Capa
Low

Preflig
ht
Pilot
Time
ents

Takeo
ff
quirem

Cruise
e
Task R

Appro
ach &
Landin
g

Figure 17-17. The pilot has a certain capacity of doing work and handling tasks. However, there is a point where the tasking exceeds the
pilots capability. When this happens, tasks are either not done properly or some are not done at all.

17-24
 Brief passengers using the SAFETY list: Automation is the single most important advance in aviation
S Seat belts fastened for taxi, takeoff, landing technologies. Electronic ight displays (EFDs) have made
vast improvements in how information is displayed and
Shoulder harness fastened for takeoff, landing what information is available to the pilot. Pilots can access
Seat position adjusted and locked in place electronic databases that contain all of the information
traditionally contained in multiple handbooks, reducing
A Air vents (location and operation)
clutter in the ight deck. [Figure 17-18]
All environmental controls (discussed)
Action in case of any passenger discomfort Multifunction displays (MFDs) are capable of displaying
moving maps that mirror sectional charts. These detailed
F Fire extinguisher (location and operation)
displays depict all airspace, including Temporary Flight
E Exit doors (how to secure; how to open) Restrictions (TFRs). MFDs are so descriptive that many
Emergency evacuation plan pilots fall into the trap of relying solely on the moving
maps for navigation. Pilots also draw upon the database to
Emergency/survival kit (location and contents) familiarize themselves with departure and destination airport
T Trafc (scanning, spotting, notifying pilot) information.
Talking, (sterile ight deck expectations)
More pilots now rely on electronic databases for ight
Y Your questions? (Speak up!) planning and use automated ight planning tools rather than
planning the ight by the traditional methods of laying out
In addition to the SAFETY list, discuss with charts, drawing the course, identifying navigation points
passengers whether or not smoking is permitted, ight (assuming a VFR ight), and using the POH to gure out
route altitudes, time en route, destination, weather the weight and balance and performance charts. Whichever
during ight, expected weather at the destination, method a pilot chooses to plan a ight, it is important to
controls and what they do, and the general capabilities remember to check and conrm calculations
and limitations of the aircraft.
Although automation has made ying safer, automated
Use a sterile ight deck (one that is completely silent
systems can make some errors more evident, and sometimes
with no pilot communication with passengers or by
hide other errors or make them less evident. There are concerns
passengers) from the time of departure to the rst
about the effect of automation on pilots. In a study published
intermediate altitude and clearance from the local
in 1995, the British Airline Pilots Association ofcially
airspace.
voiced its concern that Airline pilots increasingly lack basic
Use a sterile flight deck during arrival from the ying skills as a result of reliance on automation.
rst radar vector for approach or descent for the
approach. This reliance on automation translates into a lack of basic
Keep the passengers informed during times when the ying skills that may affect the pilots ability to cope with
workload is low. an inight emergency, such as sudden mechanical failure.
The worry that pilots are becoming too reliant on automated
Consider using the passenger in the right seat for
systems and are not being encouraged or trained to y
simple tasks such as holding the chart. This relieves
manually has grown with the increase in the number of MFD
the pilot of a task.
ight decks.

Automation As automated ight decks began entering everyday line

In the GA community, an automated aircraft is generally operations, instructors and check airmen grew concerned
comprised of an integrated advanced avionics system about some of the unanticipated side effects. Despite the
consisting of a primary ight display (PFD), a multifunction promise of reducing human mistakes, the ight managers
ight display (MFD) including an instrument-certied Global reported the automation actually created much larger errors
Positioning System (GPS) with trafc and terrain graphics, at times. In the terminal environment, the workload in an
and a fully integrated autopilot. This type of aircraft is automated ight deck actually seemed higher than in the older
commonly known as an advanced avionics aircraft. In an analog ight decks. At other times, the automation seemed
advanced avionics aircraft, there are typically two display to lull the ight crews into complacency. Over time, concern
(computer) screens, PFD (left display screen) and the surfaced that the manual ying skills of the automated ight
MFD.

17-25
Figure 17-18. Electronic flight instrumentation comes in many systems and provides a myriad of information to the pilot.

17-26
crews deteriorated due to over-reliance on computers. The While a pilots lack of familiarity with the EFIS is often
ight crew managers said they worried that pilots would have an issue, the approach would have been made easier by
less stick-and-rudder prociency when those skills were disengaging the automated system and manually ying the
needed to manually resume direct control of the aircraft. approach. At the time of this study, the general guidelines
in the industry were to let the automated system do as much
A major study was conducted to evaluate the performance of the ying as possible. That view has since changed and
of two groups of pilots. The control group was composed it is recommended that pilots use their best judgment when
of pilots who ew an older version of a common twin- choosing which level of automation will most efciently
jet airliner equipped with analog instrumentation and the do the task considering the workload and situational
experimental group was composed of pilots who ew the awareness.
same aircraft, but newer models equipped with an electronic
ight instrument system (EFIS) and a ight management Emergency maneuvers clearly broadened the difference in
system (FMS). The pilots were evaluated in maintaining manual ying skills between the two groups. In general, the
aircraft parameters such as heading, altitude, airspeed, analog pilots tended to y raw data, so when they were given
glideslope, and localizer deviations, as well as pilot control an emergency such as an engine failure and were instructed
inputs. These were recorded during a variety of normal, to y the maneuver without a ight director, they performed
abnormal, and emergency maneuvers during 4 hours of it expertly. By contrast, SOP for EFIS operations at the time
simulator sessions. was to use the ight director. When EFIS crews had their
ight directors disabled, their eye scan again began a more
Results of the Study erratic searching pattern and their manual ying subsequently
When pilots who had own EFIS for several years were suffered.
required to y various maneuvers manually, the aircraft
parameters and ight control inputs clearly showed some Those who reviewed the data saw that the EFIS pilots who
erosion of ying skills. During normal maneuvers such as better managed the automation also had better ying skills.
turns to headings without a ight director, the EFIS group While the data did not reveal whether those skills preceded
exhibited somewhat greater deviations than the analog group. or followed automation, it did indicate that automation
Most of the time, the deviations were within the practical test management needed to be improved. Recommended best
standards (PTS), but the pilots denitely did not keep on the practices and procedures have remedied some of the earlier
localizer and glideslope as smoothly as the analog group. problems with automation.

The differences in hand-ying skills between the two groups Pilots need to maintain their ight skills and ability to
became more signicant during abnormal maneuvers such maneuver aircraft manually within the standards set forth in
as slam-dunks. When given close crossing restrictions, the the PTS. It is recommended that pilots of automated aircraft
analog crews were more adept at the mental math and usually occasionally disengage the automation and manually y
maneuvered the aircraft in a smoother manner to make the the aircraft to maintain stick-and-rudder prociency. It
restriction. On the other hand, the EFIS crews tended to go is imperative pilots understand that the EFD adds to the
heads down and tried to solve the crossing restriction on overall quality of the ight experience, but it can also lead to
the FMS. [Figure 17-19] catastrophe if not utilized properly. At no time is the moving
map meant to substitute for a VFR sectional or low altitude
Another situation used in the simulator experiment reected en route chart.
real world changes in approach that are common and can
be assigned on short notice. Once again, the analog crews
transitioned more easily to the parallel runways localizer,
whereas the EFIS crews had a much more difcult time, with
the pilot going head down for a signicant amount of time
trying to program the new approach into the FMS.

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 N 3
33

6
30
GS

E
12
24
NAV
15
OBS
21 S

N 3
33

6
30
W

E
12
24
15
OBS
21 S

N 3
33

30

6
W

E
12
24
15
21 S
HDG

NAV1 108.00 113.00 WPT _ _ _ _ _ _ DIS _ _ ._ NM DTK _ _ _ TRK 360 134.000 118.000 COM1
NAV2 108.00 110.60 123.800 118.000 COM2

4000
130 4300
2

120 4200
1
110 4100
1 60
100 44000
000
9 20
90 3900
1

80 3800
270 2

70
TAS 106KT
4300
OAT 7C

VOR 1

XPDR 5537 IDNT LCL 10:12:34

ALERTS
ALERT

Figure 17-19. Two similar flight decks equipped with the same information two different ways, analog and digital. What are they indicating?
Chances are that the analog pilot will review the top display before the bottom display. Conversely, the digitally trained pilot will review
the instrument panel on the bottom first.

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Equipment Use Respect for Onboard Systems
Autopilot Systems Automation can assist the pilot in many ways, but a thorough
In a single-pilot environment, an autopilot system can greatly understanding of the system(s) in use is essential to gaining
reduce workload. [Figure 17-20] As a result, the pilot is free the benets it can offer. Understanding leads to respect
to focus his or her attention on other ight deck duties. This which is achieved through discipline and the mastery of the
can improve situational awareness and reduce the possibility onboard systems. It is important to y the airplane using
of a CFIT accident. While the addition of an autopilot may minimal information from the primary ight display (PFD).
certainly be considered a risk control measure, the real This includes turns, climbs, descents, and being able to y
challenge comes in determining the impact of an inoperative approaches.
unit. If the autopilot is known to be inoperative prior to
departure, this may factor into the evaluation other risks. Reinforcement of Onboard Suites
The use of an electronic flight display may not seem
intuitive, but competency becomes better with understanding
and practice. Computer-based software and incremental
training help the pilot become comfortable with the onboard
suites. Then the pilot needs to practice what was learned
in order to gain experience. Reinforcement not only yields
dividends in the use of automation, it also reduces workload
signicantly.

Getting Beyond Rote Workmanship

The key to working effectively with automation is getting
beyond the sequential process of executing an action. If a
Figure 17-20. An example of an autopilot system. pilot has to analyze what key to push next, or always uses
the same sequence of keystrokes when others are available,
For example, the pilot may be planning for a VHF he or she may be trapped in a rote process. This mechanical
omnidirectional range (VOR) approach down to minimums process indicates a shallow understanding of the system.
on a dark night into an unfamiliar airport. In such a case, the Again, the desire is to become competent and know what to
pilot may have been relying heavily on a functioning autopilot do without having to think about,what keystroke is next.
capable of ying a coupled approach. This would free the Operating the system with competency and comprehension
pilot to monitor aircraft performance. A malfunctioning benets a pilot when situations become more diverse and
autopilot could be the single factor that takes this from a tasks increase.
medium to a serious risk. At this point, an alternative needs
to be considered. On the other hand, if the autopilot were to Understand the Platform
fail at a critical (high workload) portion of this same ight,
Contrary to popular belief, ight in aircraft equipped with
the pilot must be prepared to take action. Instead of simply
different electronic management suites requires the same
being an inconvenience, this could quickly turn into an
attention as aircraft equipped with analog instrumentation
emergency if not properly handled. The best way to ensure
and a conventional suite of avionics. The pilot should review
a pilot is prepared for such an event is to carefully study the
and understand the different ways in which EFD are used in
issue prior to departure and determine well in advance how
a particular aircraft. [Figure 17-21]
an autopilot failure is to be handled.
Two simple rules for use of an EFD:
Familiarity
As previously discussed, pilot familiarity with all equipment Be able to y the aircraft to the standards in the PTS.
is critical in optimizing both safety and efciency. If a pilot is Although this may seem insignicant, knowing how to
unfamiliar with any aircraft systems, this will add to workload y the aircraft to a standard makes a pilots airmanship
and may contribute to a loss of situational awareness. This smoother and allows him or her more time to attend
level of prociency is critical and should be looked upon to the system instead of managing multiple tasks.
as a requirement, not unlike carrying an adequate supply of Read and understand the installed electronic ight
fuel. As a result, pilots should not look upon unfamiliarity systems manuals to include the use of the autopilot
with the aircraft and its systems as a risk control measure, and the other onboard electronic management tools.
but instead as a hazard with high risk potential. Discipline
is key to success.

17-29
 advanced avionics aircraft Safety Study found that poor
decision-making seems to afict new advanced avionics
pilots at a rate higher than that of GA as a whole. The review
of advanced avionics accidents cited in this study shows the
majority are not caused by something directly related to the
aircraft, but by the pilots lack of experience and a chain of
poor decisions. One consistent theme in many of the fatal
accidents is continued VFR ight into IMC.

Thus, pilot skills for normal and emergency operations hinge

not only on mechanical manipulation of the stick and rudder,
but also include the mental mastery of the EFD. Three key
ight management skills are needed to y the advanced
avionics safely: information, automation, and risk.

Information Management
For the newly transitioning pilot, the PFD, MFD, and GPS/
VHF navigator screens seem to offer too much information
presented in colorful menus and submenus. In fact, the pilot
may be drowning in information but unable to nd a specic
piece of information. It might be helpful to remember these
systems are similar to computers which store some folders
on a desktop and some within a hierarchy.

The rst critical information management skill for ying with

advanced avionics is to understand the system at a conceptual
level. Remembering how the system is organized helps the
pilot manage the available information. It is important to
understanding that learning knob-and-dial procedures is not
enough. Learning more about how advanced avionics systems
work leads to better memory for procedures and allows pilots
to solve problems they have not seen before.

There are also limits to understanding. It is generally

impossible to understand all of the behaviors of a complex
Figure 17-21. Examples of different platforms. Top to bottom are the
avionics system. Knowing to expect surprises, and to
Beechcraft Baron G58, Cirrus SR22, and Cirrus Entega.
continually learn new things is more effective than attempting
Managing Aircraft Automation to memorize mechanical manipulation of the knobs.
Simulation software and books on the specic system used
Before any pilot can master aircraft automation, he or she
are of great value.
must rst know how to y the aircraft. Maneuvers training
remains an important component of ight training because
The second critical information management skill is stop,
almost 40 percent of all GA accidents take place in the
look, and read. Pilots new to advanced avionics often become
landing phase, one realm of ight that still does not involve
xated on the knobs and try to memorize each and every
programming a computer to execute. Another 15 percent of
sequence of button pushes, pulls, and turns. A far better
all GA accidents occurs during takeoff and initial climb.
strategy for accessing and managing the information available
in advanced avionics computers is to stop, look, and read.
An advanced avionics safety issue identied by the FAA
Reading before pushing, pulling, or twisting can often save
concerns pilots who apparently develop an unwarranted over-
a pilot some trouble.
reliance in their avionics and the aircraft, believing that the
equipment will compensate for pilot shortcomings. Related
Once behind the display screens on an advanced avionics
to the over-reliance is the role of ADM, which is probably
aircraft, the pilots goal is to meter, manage, and prioritize the
the most signicant factor in the GA accident record of high
performance aircraft used for cross country ight. The FAA

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information ow to accomplish specic tasks. Certicated into the navigation system? Calloutseven for single-pilot
ight instructors (CFIs) as well as pilots transitioning to operationsare an excellent way to maintain situational
advanced avionics will nd it helpful to corral the information awareness as well as manage information.
ow. This is possible through such tactics as conguring the
aspects of the PFD and MFD screens according to personal Other ways to maintain situational awareness include:
preferences. For example, most systems offer map orientation Perform verication check of all programming. Before
options that include north up, track up, DTK (desired departure, check all information programmed while
track up), and heading up. Another tactic is to decide, when on the ground.
possible, how much (or how little) information to display.
Pilots can also tailor the information displayed to suit the Check the ight routing. Before departure, ensure all
needs of a specic ight. routing matches the planned ight route. Enter the
planned route and legs, to include headings and leg
Information flow can also be managed for a specific length, on a paper log. Use this log to evaluate what
operation. The pilot has the ability to prioritize information has been programmed. If the two do not match, do not
for a timely display of exactly the information needed for any assume the computer data is correct, double check the
given ight operation. Examples of managing information computer entry.
display for a specic operation include: Verify waypoints.
Program map scale settings for en route versus Make use of all onboard navigation equipment. For
terminal area operation. example, use VOR to back up GPS and vice versa.
Utilize the terrain awareness page on the MFD for a Match the use of the automated system with pilot
night or IMC ight in or near the mountains. prociency. Stay within personal limitations.
Use the nearest airports inset on the PFD at night or Plan a realistic ight route to maintain situational
over inhospitable terrain. awareness. For example, although the onboard
Program the weather datalink set to show echoes and equipment allows a direct flight from Denver,
METAR status ags. Colorado, to Destin, Florida, the likelihood of
rerouting around Eglin Air Force Bases airspace is
Enhanced Situational Awareness high.
An advanced avionics aircraft offers increased safety with Be ready to verify computer data entries. For example,
enhanced situational awareness. Although aircraft ight incorrect keystrokes could lead to loss of situational
manuals (AFM) explicitly prohibit using the moving map, awareness because the pilot may not recognize errors
topography, terrain awareness, trafc, and weather datalink made during a high workload period.
displays as the primary data source, these tools nonetheless
give the pilot unprecedented information for enhanced Automation Management
situational awareness. Without a well-planned information Advanced avionics offer multiple levels of automation, from
management strategy, these tools also make it easy for an strictly manual ight to highly automated ight. No one level
unwary pilot to slide into the complacent role of passenger of automation is appropriate for all ight situations, but in
in command. order to avoid potentially dangerous distractions when ying
with advanced avionics, the pilot must know how to manage
Consider the pilot whose navigational information the course deviation indicator (CDI), the navigation source,
management strategy consists solely of following the and the autopilot. It is important for a pilot to know the
magenta line on the moving map. He or she can easily y peculiarities of the particular automated system being used.
into geographic or regulatory disaster, if the straight-line GPS This ensures the pilot knows what to expect, how to monitor
course goes through high terrain or prohibited airspace, or if for proper operation, and promptly take appropriate action if
the moving map display fails. the system does not perform as expected.

A good strategy for maintaining situational awareness For example, at the most basic level, managing the autopilot
information management should include practices that help means knowing at all times which modes are engaged
ensure that awareness is enhanced by the use of automation, and which modes are armed to engage. The pilot needs to
not diminished. Two basic procedures are to always double- verify that armed functions (e.g., navigation tracking or
check the system and verbal callouts. At a minimum, ensure altitude capture) engage at the appropriate time. Automation
the presentation makes sense. Was the correct destination fed management is another good place to practice the callout

17-31
technique, especially after arming the system to make a In Colombia, a multi-engine aircraft crewed with two pilots
change in course or altitude. struck the face of the Andes Mountains. Examination of
their FMS revealed they entered a waypoint into the FMS
In advanced avionics aircraft, proper automation management incorrectly by one degree resulting in a ightpath taking
also requires a thorough understanding of how the autopilot them to a point 60 NM off their intended course. The pilots
interacts with the other systems. For example, with some were equipped with the proper charts, their route was posted
autopilots, changing the navigation source on the e-HSI from on the charts, and they had a paper navigation log indicating
GPS to LOC or VOR while the autopilot is engaged in NAV the direction of each leg. They had all the tools to manage
(course tracking mode) will cause the autopilots NAV mode and monitor their ight, but instead allowed the automation
to disengage. The autopilots lateral control will default to to y and manage itself. The system did exactly what it was
ROL (wing level) until the pilot takes action to reengage the programmed to do; it ew on a programmed course into a
NAV mode to track the desired navigation source. mountain resulting in multiple deaths. The pilots simply failed
to manage the system and inherently created their own hazard.
Risk Management Although this hazard was self-induced, what is notable is
Risk management is the last of the three ight management the risk the pilots created through their own inattention.
skills needed for mastery of the glass ight deck aircraft. The By failing to evaluate each turn made at the direction of
enhanced situational awareness and automation capabilities automation, the pilots maximized risk instead of minimizing
offered by a glass ight deck airplane vastly expand its safety it. In this case, a totally avoidable accident become a tragedy
and utility, especially for personal transportation use. At the through simple pilot error and complacency.
same time, there is some risk that lighter workloads could
lead to complacency. For the GA pilot transitioning to automated systems, it is
helpful to note that all human activity involving technical
Humans are characteristically poor monitors of automated devices entails some element of risk. Knowledge, experience,
systems. When asked to passively monitor an automated and mission requirements tilt the odds in favor of safe and
system for faults, abnormalities, or other infrequent events, successful ights. The advanced avionics aircraft offers
humans perform poorly. The more reliable the system, the many new capabilities and simplies the basic ying tasks,
poorer the human performance. For example, the pilot only but only if the pilot is properly trained and all the equipment
monitors a backup alert system, rather than the situation is working as advertised.
that the alert system is designed to safeguard. It is a paradox
of automation that technically advanced avionics can both Chapter Summary
increase and decrease pilot awareness. This chapter focused on helping the pilot improve his or
her ADM skills with the goal of mitigating the risk factors
It is important to remember that electronic ight displays do associated with ight in both classic and automated aircraft.
not replace basic ight knowledge and skills. They are a tool In the end, the discussion is not so much about aircraft, but
for improving ight safety. Risk increases when the pilot about the people who y them.
believes the gadgets will compensate for lack of skill and
knowledge. It is especially important to recognize there are
limits to what the electronic systems in any light GA aircraft
can do. Being PIC requires sound ADM which sometimes
means saying no to a ight.

Risk is also increased when the pilot fails to monitor the

systems. By failing to monitor the systems and failing to
check the results of the processes, the pilot becomes detached
from the aircraft operation and slides into the complacent role
of passenger in command. Complacency led to tragedy in a
1999 aircraft accident.

17-32