A Project Report Submitted to the

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT
AS TERM WORK FOR THE SUBJECT
PROJECT
OF SEMESTER VIII
OF
BE (Electrical)

GUIDED BY: PREPARED BY:

Lect. HITARTH BUCH Mr. RAHUL PARMAR

Mr. SUSHIL RATHOD
Mr. HARSHAD PATEL
Mr. CHETAN KOTHIYA
Mr. VIKRAMSINH MALIVAD

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

L. E. COLLEGE, MORBI-2
SAURASHTRA UNIVERSITY, RAJKOT
YEAR 2007.

i
LUKHDHIRJI ENGINEERING COLLEGE
MORBI -363642

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the project work titled
“SPEED CONTROL OF DC MOTOR
USING PWM TECHNIQUE” is being
submitted by
NAME ROLL NO. EXAM. NO.
Mr. RAHUL PARMAR 30
Mr. SUSHIL RATHOD 46
Mr. HARSHAD PATEL 33
Mr. CHETAN KOTHIYA 22
Mr. VIKRAMSINH MALIVAD 24

for fulfillment of partial requirements of

Semester VIII of the degree Bachelor of
Engineering (Electr
(Electrical)
ical) of
Saurashtra University for the academic
year 2007.
GUIDED BY: HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT

LECT. HITARTH BUCH PROF. S. P. SAPRE

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT DEPARTMENT
L. E. COLLEGE L. E. COLLEGE

ii
 Place: MORBI Date:

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We express our deep and sincere thanks to our guide Mr. Hitarth Buch,
Lecturer in Electrical Engineering Department, L. E. College, Morbi. Initially he
helped us in selecting this project and then guided us throughout the project. He
also helped us by taking a lot of pain and sacrificing his personal valuable time in
completion of this practical project as well as the project report.

Next, we would like to express our deep gratitude towards Mr. K. B. Rathod,
Asst. Prof. in Electrical Engineering Department and Prof. S. P. Sapre, Head of
Electrical Engineering Department, who motivated us at one or another stage of
the project work.

We express our gratitude to the staff members of Electrical Engineering

Department, who directly or indirectly helped us.

Mr. RAHUL PARMAR

Mr. SUSHIL RATHOD
Mr. HARSHAD PATEL
Mr. CHETAN KOTHIYA
Mr. VIKRAMSINH MALIVAD

iii
 ABSTRACT
The aim of development of this project is towards providing efficient
and simple method for control speed of DC motor using pulse width modulation
technique. The modulation of pulse width is obtained using dual timer IC - NE556.

There are several methods for controlling the speed of DC motors.

One simple method is to add series resistance using a rheostat. As considerable
power is consumed in the rheostat, this method is not economical. Another method
is to use a series switch that can be closed or opened rapidly. This type of control
is termed as chopper control. The PWM based chopper circuit smoothly controls
the speed of general purpose DC motors.

To get desired modulation of pulse width as output, we have

fabricated astable multivibrator and monostable multivibrator circuit using single
dual timer IC – NE 556. The width of the pulse is changed by varying the control
voltage of the monostable circuit.

iv
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT................................
................................................................
................................ ..........................................................
................................ .......................... iii

ABSTRACT iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................

.........................................................................................
......................................................... v

LIST OF TABLES................................................................
................................................................................................
................................ .................................
................................ . vi

GLOSSARY OF TERMS ................................................................

........................................................................................
........................................................vii
........................vii

1.1 GOAL.......................................................................................................9
1.2 Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) Basics ....................................................9
2.1 GOAL.....................................................................................................14
3.1 GOAL.........................................................................................................21
3.2 DESIGN OF ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR...................................................21
4.1 GOAL.....................................................................................................23

4.3 PULSE WIDTH MODULATION TECHNIQUE: ....................................................

.................................................... 24

5.1 GOAL...........................................................................................................27
5.2 TESTING PROCEDURE AND CALIBRATION.............................................27
5.2.1 TESTING OF PULSE-WIDTH MODULATION CIRCUIT .........................27
6.1 GOAL.........................................................................................................29
6.2 WAVE-FORM OBSERVATION ..................................................................29
7.1 GOAL.....................................................................................................31
7.2 COMPONENT LIST .................................................................................31
8.1 GOAL.........................................................................................................33
8.2 TIME ANALYSIS........................................................................................33
8.3 COST ANALYSIS ......................................................................................34
9.1 GOAL..........................................................................................................36
9.2 CONCLUSION............................................................................................36
10.1 GOAL.....................................................................................................38
10.2 POSSIBLE MODIFICATIONS ................................................................38

APPENDIX 39

DATASHEETS...................................................................................................39

BIBLIOGRAPHY................................
BIBLIOGRAPHY................................................................
................................................................................................
....................................................................
.................................... 42

v
 LIST OF TABLES

TABLE 6-1 WAVE-FORM OBSERVATION ............................................................. vi

TABLE 6-2 VOLTAGE – SPEED CHARACTERISTICS......................................... vi
TABLE 6-1 WAVE-FORM OBSERVATION.................................................... 29
TABLE 6-2 VOLTAGE – SPEED CHARACTERISTICS ON NO-LOAD .... 29
TABLE 6-1 WAVE-FORM OBSERVATION
TABLE 6-2 VOLTAGE – SPEED CHARACTERISTICS
ON NO-LOAD
TABLE 7-1 PULSE-WIDTH MODULATION
TABLE 7-2 DRIVER CIRCUIT
TABLE 8-1 TIME ANALYSIS
TABLE 8-2 COST ANALYSIS
TABLE 10-1 FUTURE MODIFICATIONS

LIST OF FIGURES

FIG. 1.1 UNMODULATED, SINE MODULATED PULSES

FIG. 1.2 SPECTRA OF PWM
FIG. 1.3 SINE SAWTOOTH PWM
FIG. 1.4 TRAILING EDGE MODULATION
FIG. 1.5 REGULAR SAMPLED PWM
FIG. 1.6 SATURATED PULSE WIDTH MODULATION
FIG. 2.1 PIN DIAGRAM
FIG. 2.2 ASTABLE OPERATION
FIG. 2.3 MONOSTABLE OPERATION
FIG. 4.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM
FIG. 4.2 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
FIG. 4.3 PWM SIGNAL OF VARYING DUTY-CYCLES

vi
GLOSSARY OF TERMS

AC - Alternating Current
NPT - Non – Punch Through
CRO - Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
DC - Direct Current
IC - Integrated Circuit
PWM - Pulse Width Modulation

vii
 1.

INTRODUCTION

TO PWM TECHNIQUE

8
1.1 GOAL
“To explain PULSE WIDTH MODULATION technique in brief.”

1.2 Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) Basics

There are many forms of modulation used for communicating

information. When a high frequency signal has amplitude varied in response to a
lower frequency signal we have AM (amplitude modulation). When the signal
frequency is varied in response to the modulating signal we have FM (frequency
modulation. These signals are used for radio modulation because the high frequency
carrier signal is needs for efficient radiation of the signal. When communication by
pulses was introduced, the amplitude, frequency and pulse width become possible
modulation options. In many power electronic converters where the output voltage
can be one of two values the only option is modulation of average conduction time.

Fig. 1.1 Unmodulated, sine modulated pulses

1. Linear Modulation

The simplest modulation to interpret is where the average ON time of

the pulses varies proportionally with the modulating signal. The advantage of linear
processing for this application lies in the ease of de-modulation. The modulating
signal can be recovered from the PWM by low pass filtering. For a single low
frequency sine wave as modulating signal modulating the width of a fixed frequency
(fs) pulse train the spectra is as shown in Fig 1.2. Clearly a low pass filter can extract
the modulating component fm.

9
 Fig. 1.2 Spectra of PWM

2. Sawtooth PWM

The simplest analog form of generating fixed frequency PWM is by

comparison with a linear slope waveform such as a saw tooth. As seen in Fig 1.2 the
output signal goes high when the sine wave is higher than the saw tooth. This is
implemented using a comparitor whose output voltage goes to logic HIGH when ne
input is greater than the other. Other signals with straight edges can be used for
modulation a rising ramp carrier will generate PWM with Trailing Edge Modulation.

Fig. 1.3 Sine Sawtooth PWM

It is easier to have an integrator with a reset to generate the ramp in

Fig1.4 but the modulation is inferior to double edge modulation.

10
 Fig. 1.4 Trailing Edge Modulation

3. Regular Sampled PWM

The scheme illustrated above generates a switching edge at the instant

of crossing of the sine wave and the triangle. This is an easy scheme to implement
using analog electronics but suffers the imprecision and drift of all analog
computation as well as having difficulties of generating multiple edges when the
signal has even a small added noise. Many modulators are now implemented
digitally but there is difficulty is computing the precise intercept of the modulating
wave and the carrier. Regular sampled PWM makes the width of the pulse
proportional to the value of the modulating signal at the beginning of the carrier
period. In Fig 1.5 the intercept of the sample values with the triangle determine the
edges of the Pulses. For a saw tooth wave of frequency fs the samples are at 2fs.

Fig. 1.5 Regular Sampled PWM

11
 There are many ways to generate a Pulse Width Modulated signal
other than fixed frequency sine sawtooth. For three phase systems the modulation of
a Voltage Source Inverter can generate a PWM signal for each phase leg by
comparison of the desired output voltage waveform for each phase with the same
sawtooth. One alternative which is easier to implement in a computer and gives a
larger modulation depth is using space vector modulation.

4. Modulation Depth

Fig. 1.6 Saturated Pulse Width Modulation

For a single phase inverter modulated by a sine-sawtooth comparison,

if we compare a sine wave of magnitude from -2 to +2 with a triangle from -1 to +1
the linear relation between the input signal and the average output signal will be lost.
Once the sine wave reaches the peak of the transgle the pulses will be of maximum
width and the modulation will then saturate. The Modulation depth is the ratio of the
current signal to the case when saturation is just starting. Thus sine wave of peak
1.2 compared with a triangle with peak 2.0 will have a modulation depth of m=0.6.

12
 2.

THEORY

13
2.1 GOAL
“To study about Dual timer IC NE556 and its operation as Asteble and
Monostable Multivibrator.”

2.2 INTRODUCTION

A popular version is the NE555 and this is suitable in most cases

where a 555 timer is specified. The 556 is a dual version of the 555 housed in a
14-pin package, the two timers (A and B) share the same power supply pins. The
circuit diagrams show a 555, but they could all be adapted to use one half of a 556.

The circuit symbol for a 556 is a box with the pins arranged to suit the
circuit diagram: for example 555 pin 8 at the top for the +Vs supply, 555 pin 3
output on the right. Usually just the pin numbers are used and they are not labeled
with their function.

The 556 can be used with a supply voltage (Vs) in the range 4.5 to
15V (18V absolute maximum).

2.3 PIN DESCRIPTION

Fig. 2.1 Pin Diagram

The IC 556 is a dual timer 14 pin IC as shown in fig above. There are
two sets of six pins (pin no.1 – 6 and pin no. 8 - 13) are same as the pin no. 2 – 7
in IC 555. The brief description of each pin is as follows.

Pin 1 & 13: Discharge. This pin is connected internally to the collector of
transistor Q1. When the output is high Q1 is OFF and acts as an open circuit to
external capacitor C connected across it. On the other hand, when the output is

14
low, Q1 is saturated and acts as a short circuit, shorting out the external capacitor
C to ground.

Pin 2 & 12: Threshold. This is the non-inverting input of comparator 1,

which monitors the voltage across the external capacitor. When the voltage at this
pin is greater than or equal to the threshold voltage 2/3 VCC, the output of
comparator 1 goes high, which inturn switches the output of the timer low.

Pin 3 & 11: Control. An external voltage applied to this terminal changes
the threshold as well as trigger voltage. Thus by imposing a voltage on this pin or
by connecting a pot between this pin and ground, the pulse width of the output
waveform can be varied. When not used, the control pin should be bypassed to
ground with a 0.01µF Capacitor to prevent any noise problems.

Pin 4 & 10: Reset. The 555 timer can be reset (disabled) by applying a
negative pulse to this pin. When the reset function is not in use, the reset terminal
should be connected to +VCC to avoid any possibility of false triggering.

Pin 5 & 9: Output. There are two ways by which a load can be connected
to the output terminal: either between pin 3 and ground or between pin3 and
supply voltage +VCC. When the output is low the load current flows through the
load connected between pin3 and +VCC into the output terminal and is called sink
current. The current through the grounded load is zero when the output is low. For
this reason the load connected between pin 3 and +VCC is called the normally on
load and that connected between pin 3 and ground is called normally off-load. On
the other hand, when the output is high the current through the load connected
between pin 3 and +VCC is zero. The output terminal supplies current to the
normally off load. This current is called source current. The maximum value of sink
or source current is 200mA.

Pin 6 & 8: Trigger. The output of the timer depends on the amplitude of the
external trigger pulse applied to this pin. The output is low if the voltage at this pin
is greater than 2/3 VCC. When a negative going pulse of amplitude greater than 1/3
VCC is applied to this pin, comparator 2 output goes low, which in turn switches the
output of the timer high. The output remains high as long as the trigger terminal is
held at a low voltage.

Pin 7: Ground. All voltages are measured with respect to this terminal.

Pin 14: +VCC. The supply voltage of +5V to + 18V is applied to this pin with
respect to ground.

2.4 INPUTS OF 556

Trigger input: when < 1/3 Vs ('active low') this makes the output high
(+Vs). It monitors the discharging of the timing capacitor in an astable
circuit. It has a high input impedance > 2M .

15

Threshold input: when > 2/3 Vs ('active high') this makes the output low
(0V)*. It monitors the charging of the timing capacitor in astable and
monostable circuits. It has a high input impedance > 10M .

Reset input: when less than about 0.7V ('active low') this makes the output
low (0V), overriding other inputs. When not required it should be connected
to +Vs. It has an input impedance of about 10k .

Control input: this can be used to adjust the threshold voltage which is set
internally to be 2/3 Vs. Usually this function is not required and the control
input is connected to 0V with a 0.01µF capacitor to eliminate electrical
noise. It can be left unconnected if noise is not a problem.

The discharge pin is not an input, but it is listed here for convenience. It is
connected to 0V when the timer output is low and is used to discharge the
timing capacitor in astable and monostable circuits.

2.5 OUTPUT OF 556

The output of a standard 556 can sink and source up to 200mA. This
is more than most chips and it is sufficient to supply many output transducers
directly, including LEDs (with a resistor in series), low current lamps, piezo
transducers, loudspeakers (with a capacitor in series), relay coils (with diode
protection) and some motors (with diode protection). The output voltage does not
quite reach 0V and +Vs, especially if a large current is flowing.

2.6 APPLICATION

• Astable - producing a square wave

• Monostable - producing a single pulse when triggered

2.7 ASTABLE OPERATION

If we rearrange the circuit slightly so that both the trigger and

threshold inputs are controlled by the capacitor voltage, we can cause the 555 to
trigger itself repeatedly. In this case, we need two resistors in the capacitor
charging path so that one of them can also be in the capacitor discharge path. This
gives us the circuit shown to the left.

16
 Fig. 2.2 Astable Operation

In this mode, the initial pulse when power is first applied is a bit
longer than the others, having duration of T= 1.1( Ra + Rb ) * C .

However, from then on, the capacitor alternately charges and

discharges between the two comparator threshold voltages. When charging, C
starts at (1/3)Vcc and charges towards VCC. However, it is interrupted exactly
halfway there, at (2/3)VCC. Therefore, the charging time,

t1 = 0.693( Ra + Rb ) * C

When the capacitor voltage reaches (2/3)VCC, the discharge

transistor is enabled (pin 7), and this point in the circuit becomes grounded.
Capacitor C now discharges through Rb alone. Starting at (2/3)VCC, it discharges
towards ground, but again is interrupted halfway there, at (1/3)VCC. The discharge
time,

t 2 = 0.693Rb * C

The total period of the pulse train is t1 + t 2 = 0.693( Ra + 2 Rb ) * C

The output frequency of this circuit is the inverse of the period,

1.45
f =
( R a + 2 Rb ) * C

Note that the duty cycle of the 555 timer circuit in astable mode
cannot reach 50%. On time must always be longer than off time, because Ra must
have a resistance value greater than zero to prevent the discharge transistor from
directly shorting VCC to ground. Such an action would immediately destroy the 555
IC.

17
 One interesting and very useful feature of the 555 timer in either
mode is that the timing interval for either charge or discharge is independent of the
supply voltage, VCC. This is because the same VCC is used both as the charging
voltage and as the basis of the reference voltages for the two comparators inside
the 555. Thus, the timing equations above depend only on the values for R and C
in either operating mode.

In addition, since all three of the internal resistors used to make up

the reference voltage divider are manufactured next to each other on the same
chip at the same time, they are as nearly identical as can be. Therefore, changes
in temperature will also have very little effect on the timing intervals, provided the
external components are temperature stable. A typical commercial 555 timer will
show a drift of 50 parts per million per Centigrade degree of temperature change
(50 ppm/°C) and 0.01%/Volt change in V CC. This is negligible in most practical
applications.

2.8 MONOSTABLE OPERATION

The 555 timer configured for monostable operation is shown in figure.

Fig. 2.3 Monostable Operation

Monostable multivibrator often called a one shot multivibrator In
monostable mode, the timing interval, t, is set by a single resistor and capacitor, as
shown to the right. Both the threshold input and the discharge transistor (pins 6 &
7) are connected directly to the capacitor, while the trigger input is held at +VCC
through a resistor. In the absence of any input, the output at pin 3 remains low and
the discharge transistor prevents capacitor C from charging.

When an input pulse arrives, it is capacitively coupled to pin 2, the

trigger input. The pulse can be either polarity; its falling edge will trigger the 555. At
this point, the output rises to +VCC and the discharge transistor turn off. Capacitor
C charges through R towards +VCC. During this interval, additional pulses received
at pin 2 will have no effect on circuit operation.

18
 Time period, T = 1.1RC

The value of 1.1RC isn't exactly precise, of course, but the round off
error amounts to about 0.126%, which is much closer than component tolerances
in practical circuits, and is very easy to use. The values of R and C must be given
in Ohms and Farads, respectively, and the time will be in seconds. You can scale
the values as needed and appropriate for your application, provided you keep
proper track of your powers of 10. For example, if you specify R in megohms and
C in microfarads, t will still be in seconds. But if you specify R in kilohms and C in
microfarads, t will be in milliseconds. It's not difficult to keep track of this, but you
must be sure to do it accurately in order to correctly calculate the component
values you need for any given time interval.

The timing interval is completed when the capacitor voltage reaches

the +(2/3)VCC upper threshold as monitored at pin 6. When this threshold voltage is
reached, the output at pin 3 goes low again, the discharge capacitor (pin 7) is
turned on, and the capacitor rapidly discharges back to ground once more. The
circuit is now ready to be triggered once again.

19
 3.

CIRCUIT DESIGN

20
3.1 GOAL
“To design circuit this gives square pulse of modulated pulse width as
output.”

3.2 DESIGN OF ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR

We have choosen astable frequency as 549 Hz. We have also taken
value of capacitor C=0.01µF and R1=10R2.

Frequency of output pulse

1.45
f =
( R1 + 2 R2 ) * C
Putting the values of f, R1 and C
1.45
549 =
(10 R2 + 2 R2 ) * 0.00000001
1.45
∴ R2 = = 22KΩ
12 * 549 * 0.00000001
Therefore,
R1 = 10 * R2
= 10 * 22 KΩ
= 220KΩ .

3.3 DESIGN OF MONOSTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR

We have taken timing component for monostable multivibrator is

2.42ms. The time period for monostable multivibrator ,

T = 1.1*R1*C1

Putting the values of T and C1 in above equation

T
R1 =
1.1 * C1
0.00242
=
1.1 * 0.00000001
= 220KΩ .

21
 4.

CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION
AND WORKING

22
4.1 GOAL
“To explain working of the PWM circuit.”

4.2 BASIC BLOCK DIAGRAM

As shown in block diagram there are mainly three blocks: Astable

Multivibrator, Monostable Multivibrator and Driving Circuit.

Fig. 4.1 Block Diagram

The Basic Blocks are explained below:

• Astable Multivibrator: This block produce square pulses of same frequency

according to time constant RC. These pulses are fed to next block as triggering
pulses.

• Monostable Multivibrator: This block produces square pulses of variable

frequencies. The frequency of output pulse can be varied by changing the value of
resistor shown in figure. These pulses are fed to the driving circuit.

• Driving Circuit: This block provides power required to drive the motor. As the
frequency of output pulses of Monostable multivibrator changes, the average voltage
supplied to motor changes. Hence, the speed of motor changes.

23
4.3 PULSE WIDTH MODULATION TECHNIQUE:
Modulation means to vary something. Pulse Width modulation means
to vary the width of pulses to obtain desired output voltage.

As shown in the diagram above we have used IC556 for the generation
of pulses. The left part of IC is used as astable mode to generate square pulses of
frequency 549Hz and right part of IC is used as monostable mode. The output of
astable mode is fed to the trigger pin (Pin no. 8) of the monostable circuit. This
monostable circuit generates pulses of variable width. The Figure shows three
different pulse-width modulation signals. Fig. shows a pulse-width modulation output
at a 10% duty-cycle i.e. the signal is ON for 10% of period and 90% OFF. Figure also
shows Pulse-width modulation output at 50 % and 90 % duty-cycle respectively

4.4 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Fig. 4.2 Circuit Diagram

24
 Fig. 4.3 PWM signal of varying duty-cycles

As shown in circuit diagram all the timing components are placed as

per the calculation carried out in the portion Circuit Design.

A diode D1 is added in parallel with R5 to improve duty cycle in case of

Astable multivibrator. This D1 bypasses R2 during the discharging time of the cycle
so that TOFF depends only on R2 and C1 only. Hence, discharging time reduces and
duty cycle improves.

Resistor R4 (22Ω, 2W) serves as current limiter resistor. It avoids

overheating of transistor T1 by limiting load current.

Transistor T1 drives the motor. T1 turns ON and OFF according to the

output pulses of monostable oscillator at pin no. 9. As the transistor gets pulses on
its base, it turns ON and motor runs.

A diode D2 acts as free wheeling diode. As the T1 turns ON and OFF

with high frequency, energy is stored in winding of motor. During OFF period this
energy is dissipated in form of circulating current through D2 and winding of motor. If
free wheeling diode is not provided, it may damage the transistor T1.

The speed can be varied by adjusting VR1, which changes the

threshold value to which capacitor C1 in the monostable circuit is charged. This, in
turn, determines its output pulse width and hence the average voltage applied to the
motor.

The position of DPDT switch determines the direction of rotation of

motor. By changing the position of switch, we can make the motor to rotate in
forward or reverse direction.

For effective speed control, ON period of astable should be equal to

the maximum pulse width of monostable.

25
 5.

TESTING AND
CALIBARATION

26
5.1 GOAL
“To give details about testing procedure.”

5.2 TESTING PROCEDURE AND CALIBRATION

As in any technical project, it is necessary to test the work carried out.

Here also we carried out various tests on our project. We assembled the circuit in
section by section manner, tested the individual section and if required the section
component values were modified depending upon requirements. The overall testing
and calibration was divided into following steps.
1) Testing of Pulse-width modulation Circuit
2) Testing of variation in speed with reference to change in DC voltage
5.2.1 TESTING OF PULSE-WIDTH MODULATION CIRCUIT

1) Connect the circuit connection.

2) Connect the power supply to the ICs from the linear regulator circuit

3) Observe the wave-form at PIN-9 of IC 556. Measure each output

voltage for each case in observation table shown in table 7.1

4) Vary the potentiometer and observe the effect on the load.

5.2.2 TESTING OF VARIATION IN MOTOR SPEED WITH REFERENCE TO

CHANGE IN VOLTAGE.

1) Keep supply voltage at its nominal value.

2) Observe the speed variation of motor and measure the DC voltage by

varying the potentiometer. Observe the speed variation and plot the
graphical representation.

3) Measure each output speed for each case and take observation in
observation table.

27
 6.

RESULTS

28
6.1 GOAL
“To give obtained results of the project.”

6.2 WAVE-FORM OBSERVATION

TABLE 6-1 WAVE-

WAVE-FORM OBSERVATION

Sr. PIN NO TYPE OF WAVE- INFERENCE

No. FORM
1. AT Square-wave of Operation of OP-
PIN NO 9 voltage +12v AMP in saturation
OF IC 556 region alternatively

TABLE 6-2 VOLTAGE – SPEED CHARACTERISTICS ON NO-

NO-LOAD

Sr. No. Output voltage Speed variation

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

29
 7.
BILL OF MATERIAL

30
7.1 GOAL
“To give details of components used in project.”

7.2 COMPONENT LIST

TABLE 7-1 PULSE-

PULSE-WIDTH MODULATION

Sr. Component Reference Value Remark

No. Type Number
1 IC 556 IC 556 TIMER IC
2 RESISTOR R1 220KΩ FIXED RESISTOR
3 RESISTOR R2 220KΩ FIXED RESISTOR
4 RESISTOR R3 330Ω BISING RESISTOR
5 RESISTOR R4 22Ω,2W CURRENT LIMITOR
6 RESISTOR R5 22KΩ FIXED RESISTOR
7 VARIABLE VR1 10KΩ VARIATION OF PULSE WIDTH
RESISTOR
8 CAPACITOR C1 0.01µF RC TIME CONSTANT
9 CAPACITOR C2 0.01µF RC TIME CONSTANT

TABLE 7-2 DRIVER CIRCUIT

Sr. No. Component Type Reference Number Remark

1 TRANSISTOR SL100 DRIVING TRANSISTOR
2 DIODE 1N4001 FREE WHEELING DIODE
3 DPDT SWITCH MOTOR DIRECTION
REVERSAL

31
 8.

TIME & COST ANALYSIS

32
8.1 GOAL
“To give time and cost analysis of the project”

8.2 TIME ANALYSIS

TABLE 8-1 TIME ANALYSIS

SR. TASK TIME

NO. REQUIRED
(IN WEEKS)
1 Selection of project 1
2 Study of fundamental theory 2
3 Design of overall circuitry and component selection and 1
purchasing components
4 Testing of individual sections (on GP Board) and making 2
necessary modifications
5 Integrated testing of the project (on GP Board) and 1
making necessary modifications
6 Assembling and testing of the project on final GP Board 1
7 Writing Project report 1
8 Computerization of the report ( including figures) 1
Total Time Required in Weeks 10

33
8.3 COST ANALYSIS

TABLE 8-2 COST ANALYSIS

SR. WORK / COMPONENT COST

NO. Rs.
IC 556 30
RESISTORS 30
CAPACITORS 5
TRANSISTOR 15
GENERAL PURPOSE PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD 20
PROJECT REPORT DATA ENTRY, PRINTING , XEROXING 600
AND BINDING CHARGES
TOTAL COST OF THE PROJECT 700

34
 9.

CONCLUSION

35
9.1 GOAL
“To conclude the work carried out.”

9.2 CONCLUSION
From the project work, following points can be concluded.

1. It fulfils all the requirements for its application.

2. The motor responds to the average value of the pulses and not to the individual
pulses as the chopper works at high frequency.
3. Changing the duty-cycle of the pulse by changing the potentiometer changes the
average voltage level.
4. It is possible to improve overall performance of the chopper drive

36
 10.

FUTURE
MODIFICATIONS

37
10.1 GOAL
“To highlight possible modifications that can be made in the project for
improving performance”.

10.2 POSSIBLE MODIFICATIONS

Following are the possible future modifications in our project work.

TABLE 10-
10-1 FUTURE MODIFICATIONS

Sr. Modification Purpose

No.
1 Use of micro- Constant speed variation
controller/micro-processor
for closed loop operation
2 Use of MOSFET or IGBT Higher voltage and power requirement

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APPENDIX
DATASHEETS

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40
41
 BIBLIOGRAPHY
1) Electronics For You – EFY Enterprises Pvt. Ltd.
2) OPAMP and Linear Integrated Circuit – R. A. Gayakwad.
3) Power Electronics Circuits, Devices and Applications - Rashid M. H.
4) Power Electronics - P. S. Bhimbara.
5) Texas Instruments Linear IC Data Book
6) WEB SITE SUPPORT - www.kpsec.freeuk.com
- www.datasheetcatelog.com

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