1. What are the basic functions of an operating system?

- Operating system controls and

coordinates the use of the hardware among the various applications programs for various
uses. Operating system acts as resource allocator and manager. Since there are many
possibly conflicting requests for resources the operating system must decide which
requests are allocated resources to operating the computer system efficiently and fairly.
Also operating system is control program which controls the user programs to prevent
errors and improper use of the computer. It is especially concerned with the operation and
control of I/O devices.
2. Why paging is used? - Paging is solution to external fragmentation problem which is to
permit the logical address space of a process to be noncontiguous, thus allowing a
process to be allocating physical memory wherever the latter is available.
3. While running DOS on a PC, which command would be used to duplicate the entire
diskette? diskcopy
4. What resources are used when a thread created? How do they differ from those
when a process is created? - When a thread is created the threads does not require any
new resources to execute the thread shares the resources like memory of the process to
which they belong to. The benefit of code sharing is that it allows an application to have
several different threads of activity all within the same address space. Whereas if a new
process creation is very heavyweight because it always requires new address space to be
created and even if they share the memory then the inter process communication is
expensive when compared to the communication between the threads.
5. What is virtual memory? - Virtual memory is hardware technique where the system
appears to have more memory that it actually does. This is done by time-sharing, the
physical memory and storage parts of the memory one disk when they are not actively
being used.
6. What is Throughput, Turnaround time, waiting time and Response time? -
Throughput – number of processes that complete their execution per time unit.
Turnaround time – amount of time to execute a particular process. Waiting time
– amount of time a process has been waiting in the ready queue. Response time
– amount of time it takes from when a request was submitted until the first
response is produced, not output (for time-sharing environment).
7. What is the state of the processor, when a process is waiting for some event to
occur? - Waiting state
8. What is the important aspect of a real-time system or Mission Critical Systems? - A
real time operating system has well defined fixed time constraints. Process must be done
within the defined constraints or the system will fail. An example is the operating system
for a flight control computer or an advanced jet airplane. Often used as a control device
in a dedicated application such as controlling scientific experiments, medical imaging
systems, industrial control systems, and some display systems. Real-Time systems may
be either hard or soft real-time. Hard real-time: Secondary storage limited or absent,
data stored in short term memory, or read-only memory (ROM), Conflicts with time-
sharing systems, not supported by general-purpose operating systems. Soft real-time:
Limited utility in industrial control of robotics, Useful in applications (multimedia,
virtual reality) requiring advanced operating-system features.
9. What is the difference between Hard and Soft real-time systems? - A hard real-time
system guarantees that critical tasks complete on time. This goal requires that all delays
 in the system be bounded from the retrieval of the stored data to the time that it takes the
operating system to finish any request made of it. A soft real time system where a critical
real-time task gets priority over other tasks and retains that priority until it completes. As
in hard real time systems kernel delays need to be bounded
10. What is the cause of thrashing? How does the system detect thrashing? Once it
detects thrashing, what can the system do to eliminate this problem? - Thrashing is
caused by under allocation of the minimum number of pages required by a process,
forcing it to continuously page fault. The system can detect thrashing by evaluating the
level of CPU utilization as compared to the level of multiprogramming. It can be
eliminated by reducing the level of multiprogramming.
11. What is multi tasking, multi programming, multi threading? - Multi programming:
Multiprogramming is the technique of running several programs at a time using
timesharing. It allows a computer to do several things at the same time.
Multiprogramming creates logical parallelism. The concept of multiprogramming is that
the operating system keeps several jobs in memory simultaneously. The operating system
selects a job from the job pool and starts executing a job, when that job needs to wait for
any i/o operations the CPU is switched to another job. So the main idea here is that the
CPU is never idle. Multi tasking: Multitasking is the logical extension of
multiprogramming .The concept of multitasking is quite similar to multiprogramming but
difference is that the switching between jobs occurs so frequently that the users can
interact with each program while it is running. This concept is also known as time-
sharing systems. A time-shared operating system uses CPU scheduling and
multiprogramming to provide each user with a small portion of time-shared system.
Multi threading: An application typically is implemented as a separate process with
several threads of control. In some situations a single application may be required to
perform several similar tasks for example a web server accepts client requests for web
pages, images, sound, and so forth. A busy web server may have several of clients
concurrently accessing it. If the web server ran as a traditional single-threaded process, it
would be able to service only one client at a time. The amount of time that a client might
have to wait for its request to be serviced could be enormous. So it is efficient to have
one process that contains multiple threads to serve the same purpose. This approach
would multithread the web-server process, the server would create a separate thread that
would listen for client requests when a request was made rather than creating another
process it would create another thread to service the request. To get the advantages like
responsiveness, Resource sharing economy and utilization of multiprocessor architectures
multithreading concept can be used.
12. What is hard disk and what is its purpose? - Hard disk is the secondary storage device,
which holds the data in bulk, and it holds the data on the magnetic medium of the
disk.Hard disks have a hard platter that holds the magnetic medium, the magnetic
medium can be easily erased and rewritten, and a typical desktop machine will have a
hard disk with a capacity of between 10 and 40 gigabytes. Data is stored onto the disk in
the form of files.
13. What is fragmentation? Different types of fragmentation? - Fragmentation occurs in a
dynamic memory allocation system when many of the free blocks are too small to satisfy
any request. External Fragmentation: External Fragmentation happens when a dynamic
memory allocation algorithm allocates some memory and a small piece is left over that
 cannot be effectively used. If too much external fragmentation occurs, the amount of
usable memory is drastically reduced. Total memory space exists to satisfy a request, but
it is not contiguous. Internal Fragmentation: Internal fragmentation is the space wasted
inside of allocated memory blocks because of restriction on the allowed sizes of allocated
blocks. Allocated memory may be slightly larger than requested memory; this size
difference is memory internal to a partition, but not being used
14. What is DRAM? In which form does it store data? - DRAM is not the best, but it’s
cheap, does the job, and is available almost everywhere you look. DRAM data resides in
a cell made of a capacitor and a transistor. The capacitor tends to lose data unless it’s
recharged every couple of milliseconds, and this recharging tends to slow down the
performance of DRAM compared to speedier RAM types.
15. What is Dispatcher? - Dispatcher module gives control of the CPU to the process
selected by the short-term scheduler; this involves: Switching context, Switching to user
mode, Jumping to the proper location in the user program to restart that program,
dispatch latency – time it takes for the dispatcher to stop one process and start
another running.
16. What is CPU Scheduler? - Selects from among the processes in memory that are ready
to execute, and allocates the CPU to one of them. CPU scheduling decisions may take
place when a process: 1.Switches from running to waiting state. 2.Switches from running
to ready state. 3.Switches from waiting to ready. 4.Terminates. Scheduling under 1 and 4
is non-preemptive. All other scheduling is preemptive.
17. What is Context Switch? - Switching the CPU to another process requires saving the
state of the old process and loading the saved state for the new process. This task is
known as a context switch. Context-switch time is pure overhead, because the system
does no useful work while switching. Its speed varies from machine to machine,
depending on the memory speed, the number of registers which must be copied, the
existed of special instructions(such as a single instruction to load or store all registers).
18. What is cache memory? - Cache memory is random access memory (RAM) that a
computer microprocessor can access more quickly than it can access regular RAM. As
the microprocessor processes data, it looks first in the cache memory and if it finds the
data there (from a previous reading of data), it does not have to do the more time-
consuming reading of data from larger memory.
19. What is a Safe State and what is its use in deadlock avoidance? - When a process
requests an available resource, system must decide if immediate allocation leaves the
system in a safe state. System is in safe state if there exists a safe sequence of all
processes. Deadlock Avoidance: ensure that a system will never enter an unsafe state.
20. What is a Real-Time System? - A real time process is a process that must respond to the
events within a certain time period. A real time operating system is an operating system
that can run real time processes successfully
21. 3. What is a binary semaphore? What is its use?
A binary semaphore is one, which takes only 0 and 1 as values. They are used to implement
mutual exclusion and synchronize concurrent processes.

4. What is thrashing?
It is a phenomenon in virtual memory schemes when the processor spends most of its time
swapping pages, rather than executing instructions. This is due to an inordinate number of page
faults.
 5. List the Coffman's conditions that lead to a deadlock.
Mutual Exclusion: Only one process may use a critical resource at a time.
Hold & Wait: A process may be allocated some resources while waiting for others.
No Pre-emption: No resource can be forcible removed from a process holding it.
 Circular Wait: A closed chain of processes exist such that each process holds at least one
resource needed by another process in the chain.

6. What are short-, long- and medium-term scheduling?

Long term scheduler determines which programs are admitted to the system for processing. It
controls the degree of multiprogramming. Once admitted, a job becomes a process.
Medium term scheduling is part of the swapping function. This relates to processes that are in a
blocked or suspended state. They are swapped out of real-memory until they are ready to
execute. The swapping-in decision is based on memory-management criteria.
Short term scheduler, also know as a dispatcher executes most frequently, and makes the finest-
grained decision of which process should execute next. This scheduler is invoked whenever an
event occurs. It may lead to interruption of one process by preemption.

7. What are turnaround time and response time?

Turnaround time is the interval between the submission of a job and its completion. Response
time is the interval between submission of a request, and the first response to that request.

8. What are the typical elements of a process image?

User data: Modifiable part of user space. May include program data, user stack area, and
programs that may be modified.
User program: The instructions to be executed. 
 System Stack: Each process has one or more LIFO stacks associated with it. Used to store
parameters and calling addresses for procedure and system calls.
Process control Block (PCB): Info needed by the OS to  control processes.

9. What is the Translation Lookaside Buffer (TLB)?

In a cached system, the base addresses of the last few referenced pages is maintained in
registers called the TLB that aids in faster lookup. TLB contains those page-table entries that
have been most recently used. Normally, each virtual memory reference causes 2 physical
memory accesses-- one to fetch appropriate page-table entry, and one to fetch the desired data.
Using TLB in-between, this is reduced to just one physical memory access in cases of TLB-hit.
22.
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