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ROCKWELL AUTOMATION
Company Overview

Rockwell Automation is a global provider of industrial

automation, power, control and information solutions. Brands in
industrial automation include Allen-Bradley and Rockwell
Software.
At Rockwell Automation, helping manufacturers succeed and
grow is what it does best — with industrial automation control
and information solutions designed to give its customers a
competitive advantage. From stand-alone, industrial
components to enterprise-wide integrated systems, its
solutions have proven themselves across a wide range of
industries and in some of the most demanding manufacturing
environments.

End users and machine builders (OEMs) alike rely on its

comprehensive portfolio of products, software and services to
deliver value and help them meet their objectives:

• Faster time to market — through the speed,

responsiveness and flexibility of automated
manufacturing
• Lower total cost of ownership — through scalable,
modular, energy-efficient and open automation control
and information systems
• Better asset management/optimization — through
diagnostics, condition-based monitoring, failure
analysis and storage management
• Broader manufacturing business risk
management — through process variability analysis,
regulatory compliance and safety solutions

Around the world, it is committed to putting its customers'

needs first. Its global capabilities extend across 80 countries
and include a Partner Network of more than 5,600 regional and
global specialists in distribution, system integration and
product referencing. Simply put, it is there with the right
solution when and where its customers need it.
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And it is well-positioned to provide leading edge solutions for

years to come. Backed by a strong financial base, Rockwell
Automation continues to acquire expertise and invest in the
aggressive research and development that fuels innovation.

A BRIEF HISTORY
1903:
Lynde Bradley and Dr. Stanton Allen form the Compression Rheostat Company with
an initial investment of $1,000.
1904:
One of the first commercially manufactured Allen-Bradley brand of crane
controllers is shipped for exhibition at the 1904 St. Louis World's Fair.
1914:
Allen-Bradley's first sales office established in New York.
1944:
Eighty percent of company's orders are war related and center on two broad lines
of products, industrial controls and electrical components.
1969:
Allen-Bradley U.K. Ltd., located in Bletchley England, becomes the company's first
operation outside North America.
1985:
Allen-Bradley sets a new fiscal record with sales of $1 billion.

Allen-Bradley purchases Electronics Corporation of America and acquires the

Photoswitch line of photoelectric sensors.

Rockwell International purchases Allen-Bradley, the North American leader in the

industrial automation equipment market, for $1.651 billion, marking the largest
acquisition in Wisconsin's history. (February 20, 1985).

2001:
Rockwell Automation becomes an independent, publicly traded company using the
New York Stock Exchange symbol ROK.

Sequencia acquisition is completed, adding batch control software, services and

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support.

2004:
Rockwell Automation and Intel Corporation begin working together to expand the
use of Intel's new high-performance network processor technology in industrial
automation applications.

Allen-Bradley
The Allen-Bradley brand is known for superior reliability in
industrial control and automation products including:
controllers and I/O systems, operator interface devices,
industrial computers, relays, terminal blocks, push buttons,
sensors, starters, contactors, drives, motion control, network
communication products and power quality monitoring devices.

Rockwell Software
Through innovative Rockwell Software products, Rockwell
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Automation increases connectivity and productivity from shop

floor machinery to top floor enterprise systems. Rockwell
Software programming and communications packages utilize
the latest open commercial software platforms from leading
companies like Microsoft®. Our software programs enable
seamless integration of information, visualization, design and
control.

Sprecher + Schuh
A world class Swiss brand in low voltage Controlgear is
manufactured, sold and supported by RA India.
Sprecher+Schuh products are sold through Rockwell
Automation Channels and other S+S Channels. For details,
contact your nearest RA Sales office.

Rockwell Automation Global Manufacturing Solutions applies its

expertise to help you increase enterprise-wide productivity
through:
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• Asset Management
• Consulting
• Customer Support
• Engineering Solutions
• Process Solutions
• Training

PLC
PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER
Control engineering has evolved over time. In the past humans
were the main method for controlling a system. More recently
electricity has been used for control and early electrical control
was based on relays. These relays allow power to be switched
on and off without a mechanical switch. It is common to use
relays to make simple logical control decisions. The
development of low cost computer has brought the most recent
revolution, the Programmable Logic Controller (PLC). The
advent of the PLC began in the 1970s, and has become the
most common choice for manufacturing controls.

PLCs have been gaining popularity on the factory floor and will
probably remain predominant for some time to come. Most of
this is because of the advantages they offer.

• Cost effective for controlling complex systems.

• Flexible and can be reapplied to control other systems quickly
and easily.
• Computational abilities allow more sophisticated control.
• Trouble shooting aids make programming easier and reduce
downtime.
• Reliable components make these likely to operate for years
before failure.
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A PLC is an example of a real time system since output results

must be produced in response to input conditions within a
bounded time, otherwise unintended operation will result.

Ladder Logic
Ladder logic is the main programming method used for PLCs. As mentioned before, ladder
logic has been developed to mimic relay logic. The decision to use the relay logic diagrams
was a strategic one. By selecting ladder logic as the main programming method, the amount
of retraining needed for engineers and trades people was greatly reduced.

Modern control systems still include relays, but these are rarely used for logic. A relay is a
simple device that uses a magnetic field to control a switch. When a voltage is applied to the
input coil, the resulting current creates a magnetic field. The magnetic field pulls a metal
switch (or reed) towards it and the contacts touch, closing the switch. The contact that closes
when the coil is energized is called normally open. The normally closed contacts touch when
the input coil is not energized. Relays are normally drawn in schematic form using a circle to
represent the input coil. The output contacts are shown with two parallel lines. Normally open
contacts are shown as two lines, and will be open (non-conducting) when the input is not
energized. Normally closed contacts are shown with two lines with a diagonal line through
them. When the input coil is not energized the normally closed contacts will be closed
(conducting).
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Relays are used to let one power source close a switch for another (often high current) power
source, while keeping them isolated. In this system the first relay on the left is used as
normally closed, and will allow current to flow until a voltage is applied to the input A. The
second relay is normally open and will not allow current to flow until a voltage is applied to
the input B. If current is flowing through the first two relays then current will flow through
the coil in the third relay, and close the switch for output C. This circuit would normally be
drawn in the ladder logic form. This can be read logically as C will be on if A is off and B is
on.

The example in Figure does not show the entire control system, but only the logic. When we
consider a PLC there are inputs, outputs, and the logic. Figure 2.3 shows a more complete
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representation of the PLC. Here there are two inputs from push buttons. We can imagine the
inputs as activating 24V DC relay coils in the PLC. This in turn drives an output relay that
switches 115V AC, that will turn on a light. Note, in actual PLCs inputs are never relays, but
outputs are often relays. The ladder logic in the PLC is actually a computer program that the
user can enter and change. Notice that both of the input push buttons are normally open, but
the ladder logic inside the PLC has one normally open contact, and one normally closed
contact. Do not think that the ladder logic in the PLC needs to match the inputs or outputs.
Many beginners will get caught trying to make the ladder logic match the input types.

1. Basic Instruction of RS Logix 5000

About the Basic Instructions
These instructions, when used in ladder programs, represent
hardwired logic circuits used for the control of a machine or
equipment. The basic instructions are separated into three
groups: bit, timer, and counter. Before you learn about the
instructions in each of these groups, we suggest that you read
the overview that precedes the group:
• Bit Instructions Overview
• Timer Instructions Overview
• Counter Instructions Overview

Bit Instructions Overview

These instructions operate on a single bit of data. During
operation, the processor may set or reset the bit, based on
logical continuity of ladder rungs. You can address a bit as
many times as your program requires.
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Note Using the same address with multiple output instructions

is not recommended. Bit instructions are used with the
following data files:

Output and Input Data Files (Files O0: and I1:)

These represent external outputs and inputs. Bits in file 1 are
used to represent external inputs. In most cases, a single 16-bit
word in these files will correspond to a slot location in your
controller, with bit numbers corresponding to input or output
terminal numbers. Unused bits of the word are not available for
use. The table below explains the addressing format for outputs
and inputs. Note that the format specifies e as the slot number
and s as the word number. When you are dealing with file
instructions, refer to the element as e.s,. (slot and word), taken
together.

Status File (File S2:)

You cannot add to or delete from the status file. The MicroLogix
1000 controller status file is explained in appendix A and the
SLC 500 processor status file is explained in appendix B. You
can address various bits and words as follows:
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Bit Data File (B3:)

File 3 is the bit file, used primarily for bit (relay logic)
instructions, shift registers, and sequencers. The maximum size
of the file is 256 1-word elements, a total of 4096 bits. You can
address bits by specifying the element number (0 to 255) and
the bit number (0 to 15) within the element. You can also
address bits by numbering them in sequence, 0 to 4095.

You can also address elements of this file.

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Timer and Counter Data Files (T4: and C5:)

Control Data File (R6:)

These instructions use various control bits. These are 3-word
elements, used with Bit Shift, FIFO, LIFO, Sequencer
instructions, and ASCII instructions ABL, ACB, AHL, ARD, ARL,
AWA, and AWT. Word 0 is the status word, word 1 indicates the
length of stored data, and word 2 indicates position. This is
shown in the following figure. In the control element there are
eight status bits and an error code byte. A fixed controller and
an SLC 5/01 control element has six bits. Bits EU and EM are
not used by the processor.
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Integer Data File (N7:)

Use these addresses (at the bit level) as your program requires.
These are 1-word elements, addressable at the element and bit
level.
Assign integer addresses as follows:
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Examine if Closed (XIC)

Examine if Open (XIO)

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Output Energize (OTE)

Output Latch (OTL) and Output Unlatch (OTU)

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Using OTL
When you assign an address to the OTL instruction that
corresponds to the address of a physical output, the output
device wired to this screw terminal is energized when the bit is
set (turned on or enabled).
When rung conditions become false (after being true), the bit
remains set and the corresponding output device remains
energized.
When enabled, the latch instruction tells the controller to turn
on the addressed bit. Thereafter, the bit remains on, regardless
of the rung condition, until the bit is turned off (typically by a
OTU instruction in another rung).

Using OTU
When you assign an address to the OTU instruction that
corresponds to the address of a physical output, the output
device wired to this screw terminal is de–energized when the
bit is cleared (turned off or disabled).
The unlatch instruction tells the controller to turn off the
addressed bit. Thereafter, the bit remains off, regardless of the
rung condition, until it is turned on (typically by a OTL
instruction in another rung).

One–Shot Rising (OSR)

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Timer Instructions Overview

Each timer address is made of a 3-word element. Word 0 is the
control word, word 1 stores the preset value, and word 2 stores
the accumulated value.

Entering Parameters
Accumulator Value (.ACC)
This is the time elapsed since the timer was last reset. When
enabled, the timer updates this continually.

Preset Value (.PRE)

This specifies the value which the timer must reach before the
controller sets the done bit. When the accumulated value
becomes equal to or greater than the preset value, the done bit
is set. You can use this bit to control an output device. Preset
and accumulated values for timers range from 0 to +32,767. If
a timer preset or accumulated value is a negative number, a
runtime error occurs.

Timebase
The timebase determines the duration of each timebase
interval. For Fixed and SLC 5/01 processors, the timebase is set
at 0.01 second. For SLC 5/02 and higher processors and
MicroLogix 1000 controllers, the timebase is selectable as 0.01
(10 ms) second or 1.0 second.

Timer Accuracy
Timer accuracy refers to the length of time between the
moment a timer instruction is enabled and the moment the
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timed interval is complete. Inaccuracy caused by the program

scan can be greater than the timer timebase. You must also
consider the time required to energize the output device.
Timing accuracy is -0.01 to +0 seconds, with a program scan of
up to 2.5 seconds. The 1-second timer maintains accuracy with
a program scan of up to 1.5 seconds. If your programs can
exceed 1.5 or 2.5 seconds, repeat the timer instruction rung so
that the rung is scanned within these limits.

Note:
Timing could be inaccurate if Jump (JMP), Label (LBL), Jump to Subroutine
(JSR), or Subroutine (SBR) instructions skip over the rung containing a
timer instruction while the timer is timing. If the skip duration is less than
2.5 seconds, no time will be lost; if the skip duration exceeds 2.5 seconds,
an undetectable timing error occurs. When using subroutines, a timer
must be executed at least every 2.5 seconds to prevent a timing error.
Timer On–Delay (TON)

When the processor changes from the REM Run or REM Test
mode to the REM Program mode or user power is lost while the
instruction is timing but has not reached its preset value, the
following occurs:
• Timer Enable (EN) bit remains set.
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• Timer Timing (TT) bit remains set.

• Accumulated value (ACC) remains the same.

On returning to the REM Run or REM Test mode, the following

can happen:

Timer Off–Delay (TOF)

When processor operation changes from the REM Run or REM

Test mode to the REM Program mode or user power is lost
while a timer off-delay instruction is timing but has not reached
its preset value, the following occurs:
• Timer Enable (EN) bit remains set.
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• Timer Timing (TT) bit remains set.

• Timer Done (DN) bit remains set.
• Accumulated value (ACC) remains the same.

NOTE: The Reset (RES) instruction cannot be used with the TOF
instruction because RES always clears the status bits as well as
the accumulated value.

Retentive Timer (RTO)

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Note To reset the retentive timer’s accumulated value and

status bits after the RTO rung goes false, you must program a
reset (RES) instruction with the same address in another rung.

When the processor changes from the REM Run or REM Test
mode to the REM Program or REM Fault mode, or user power is
lost while the timer is timing but not yet at the preset value,
the following occurs:
• Timer Enable (EN) bit remains set.
• Timer Timing (TT) bit remains set.
• Accumulated value (ACC) remains the same.
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Entering Parameters

Accumulator Value (.ACC)

This is the number of false-to-true transitions that have
occurred since the counter was last reset.
Preset Value (PRE)
Specifies the value which the counter must reach before the
controller sets the done bit. When the accumulator value
becomes equal to or greater than the preset value, the done
status bit is set. You can use this bit to control an output
device. Preset and accumulated values for counters range from
–32,768 to +32,767, and are stored as signed integers.
Negative values are stored in two’s complement form.
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Count Up (CTU)

When rung conditions for a CTU instruction have made a false-

to-true transition, the accumulated value is incremented by one
count, provided that the rung containing the CTU instruction is
evaluated between these transitions. The ability of the counter
to detect false–to–true transitions depends on the speed
(frequency) of the incoming signal.

Note The on and off duration of an incoming signal must not

be faster than the scan time 2x (assuming a 50% duty cycle).

The accumulated value is retained when the rung conditions

again become false. The accumulated count is retained until
cleared by a reset (RES) instruction that has the same address
as the counter reset.
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The accumulated value is retained after the CTU instruction

goes false, or when power is removed from and then restored
to the controller. Also, the on or off status of counter done,
overflow, and underflow bits is retentive. The accumulated
value and control bits are reset when the appropriate RES
instruction is enabled. The CU bits are always set prior to
entering the REM Run or REM Test modes.

Count Down (CTD)

When rung conditions for a CTD instruction have made a false-

to-true transition, the accumulated value is decremented by
one count, provided that the rung containing the CTD
instruction is evaluated between these transitions. The
accumulated counts are retained when the rung conditions
again become false. The accumulated count is retained until
cleared by a reset (RES) instruction that has the same address
as the counter reset.
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The accumulated value is retained after the CTD instruction

goes false, or when power is removed from and then restored
to the controller. Also, the on or off status of counter done,
overflow, and underflow bits is retentive. The accumulated
value and control bits are reset when the appropriate RES
instruction is executed. The CD bits are always set prior to
entering the REM Run or REM Test modes.

Reset (RES)
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Note
When resetting a counter, if the RES instruction is enabled and
the counter rung is enabled, the CU or CD bit is reset.

If the counter preset value is negative, the RES instruction sets

the accumulated value to zero. This in turn causes the done bit
to be set by a countdown or count up instruction.

Because the RES instruction resets the accumulated

value, and the done, timing, and enabled bits, do not
use the RES instruction to reset a timer address used in
a TOF instruction. Otherwise, unpredictable machine
operation or injury to personnel may occur.
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2. Comparison Instructions
About the Comparison Instructions
Comparison instructions are used to test pairs of values to
condition the logical continuity of a rung. As an example,
suppose a LES instruction is presented with two values. If the
first value is less than the second, then the comparison
instruction is true.

Comparison Instructions Overview

The following general information applies to comparison
instructions.

Using Indexed Word Addresses

When using comparison instructions, you have the option of
using indexed word addresses for instruction parameters
specifying word addresses.

Using Indirect Word Addresses

You have the option of using indirect word-level and bit-level
addresses for instructions specifying word addresses when
using an SLC 5/03 OS302, SLC 5/04 OS401, or SLC 5/05
processors.

Equal (EQU)

Not Equal (NEQ)

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Less Than (LES)

Less Than or Equal (LEQ)

Greater Than (GRT)

Greater Than or Equal (GEQ)

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Masked Comparison for Equal (MEQ)

Entering Parameters
• Source is the address of the value you want to compare.
• Mask is the address of the mask through which the
instruction moves data. The mask can be a hexadecimal value.
• Compare is an integer value or the address of the
reference.
If the 16 bits of data at the source address are equal to the 16
bits of data at the compare address (less masked bits), the
instruction is true. The instruction becomes false as soon as it
detects a mismatch. Bits in the mask word mask data when
reset; they pass data when set.

Limit Test (LIM)

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Entering Parameters

The Low Limit, Test, and High Limit values can be word
addresses or constants, restricted to the following
combinations:

• If the Test parameter is a program constant, both the Low

Limit and High Limit parameters must be word addresses.

• If the Test parameter is a word address, the Low Limit and

High Limit parameters can be either a program constant or a
word address.

True/False Status of the Instruction

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3. Math Instructions
About the Math Instructions
The majority of the instructions take two input values, perform
the specified arithmetic function, and output the result to an
assigned memory location.
For example, both the ADD and SUB instructions take a pair of
input values, add or subtract them, and place the result in the
specified destination. If the result of the operation exceeds the
allowable value, an overflow or underflow bit is set.

Math Instructions Overview

The following general information applies to math instructions.

Entering Parameters
• Source is the address of the value on which the
mathematical, logical, or move operation is to be performed.
This can be word addresses or program constants. An
instruction that has two source operands does not accept
program constants in both operands.

• Destination is the address of the result of the operation.

Signed integers are stored in two’s complementary form and
apply to both source and destination parameters.
When using either an SLC 5/03 (OS301 and higher), SLC 5/04,
or SLC 5/05 processor; floating point and string values
(specified at the word level) are supported.

Add (ADD)
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Subtract (SUB)

Multiply (MUL)
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Divide (DIV)
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Clear (CLR)

Square Root (SQR)

Cosine (COS)
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Sine (SIN)

Tangent (TAN)
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Natural Log (LN)

Log to the Base 10 (LOG)

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X to the Power of Y (XPY)

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1. ON a lamp with START push button and OFF the same lamp
with STOP push button.
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2. Whit START push button is pressed a BULB is switched ON.

When RUN push button is pressed first BULB goes OFF and
second BULB goes ON. When PROCESS push button is
pressed the second BULB goes OFF and first goes ON. The
system will stop by pressing STOP push button.
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3.There are three lamps, first lamp should go ON when START

push button is pressed, when again the same push button is
pressed first lamp should go OFF and second lamp should
switch ON, when again the same push button is pressed the
second lamp should go OFF and third should go ON, when
again the same push button is pressed the third lamp go OFF
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and again the first lamp goes ON. The system will stop by
pressing the OFF push button.

4. When START toggle switch is pressed a lamp should go ON for

10second, after 10 second the lamp should go OFF while the
START toggle switch is ON.
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5. Alamp should go ON after 10second of pressing the START

push button and it will go OFF by pressing the STOP push
button.
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6. Ahigh to low pulse is generated after every 10second of

pressing START push button.
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7. Thereare two lamps, the first lamp should go ON for 10second

by pressing the START push button, after 10second the first
lamp should go OFF and the second lamp should go ON. The
ON bulb should go OFF on pressing STOP push button.
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8. There are two lamps, on pressing the START push button

first lamp should go ON and when start push button is
pressed again the first lamp goes OFF and second lamp
should go ON. If any lamp is ON for more than 15second
then both the lamps will interchange their status i.e. the ON
lamp goes OFF and OFF lamp goes ON. The process will
stop by pressing the STOP push button.
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SCADA
INTRODUCTION:

 SCADA stands for supervisory control and data

acquisition.
 46

 SCADA is the Software tool in which you can able to

view/Monitor/Control your Process Variable data and
Graphical representation of your plant etc. It's an
operator front end display. Example of few SCADA S/W is
Wonderware, IFix, RS View, WinCC etc.

 SCADA is a software used to gather data from field

instruments with the help of DCS or PLC depending on
the applications by the server and making it available in
animated form. This is usually found in control rooms.

 This is a software that control two or more PLCs.

SCADA SUBSYSTEM

1. A Human-Machine Interface or HMI is the apparatus

which presents process data to a human operator, and
through this, the human operator monitors and controls
the process.
2. A supervisory (computer) system, gathering
(acquiring) data on the process and sending commands
(control) to the process.
3. Remote Terminal Units (RTUs) connecting to sensors in
the process, converting sensor signals to digital data and
sending digital data to the supervisory system.
4. Programmable Logic Controller (PLCs) used as field
devices because they are more economical, versatile,
flexible, and configurable than special-purpose RTUs.
5. Communication infrastructure connecting the
supervisory system to the Remote Terminal Units.

RSView32

 It is a ROCKWELL software for SCADA.

 47

 It is an integrated windows based software, used to

control and monitor automation machines and
processes.
 This software is divided into two packages:
1. RSView32 Works Software
2. RSView32 Runtime Software

1. RSView32 Works Software:

Contains editors for developing an entire project it also
develops software for running graphic displays of an
operation.

2. RSView32 Runtime Software:

Contains a subset of editor for editing certain parts of a
project.

PROJECT CREATION

 RSView32 Project:
A set of files created in RSView32 Software that
are
used to automate an industrial process to enable
an
operator to control and monitor an operation.
RSView32 Software initially creates a folder with
the
name of the project.

• Activity Log:
Contains activity log files.

• Project Name:
Can be up to 255 characters.
The RSView32 project file has .rsv.

• Project Manager:
Contains the tools or the editors for creating and
editing the components that make up a project.
The
project manager is divided into two panes:
 48

1. Left Pane:
Contains following five folders, which contain
editors to create and configure project
components.
a) System
b) Graphics
c) Alarms
d) Data Log
e) Logic and Control

2. Right Pane:
Displays the project components.

CONFIGURING AN RSView32 PROJECT

It is used to enable a programmer to control or monitor an

operation. A computer with RSView32 Software installed
connects to other communication devices using following
components:
1. Communication Device
2. Communication Channel
3. Network
4. Node
5. Communication Driver

1. Communication Device:
 49

Hardware device that connect the communication

channel to
RSView32 station.

2. Communication Channel:
Link that sends data between an RSView32 station and
one or
more processor on a network.

3. Network:
Group of devices that are connected by a medium for
Communications such as a cable systems.

4. Node:
Physical device, such as processor, computer etc on a
communication network.

5. Communication Driver:
The communication driver is the software that permits
the
Computer to communicate with the communication
device.
For communication with most Allen–Bradley
programmable
 50

controllers, use RSLinx.

GRAPHICS DISPLAY
A graphic display represents the operator’s view of plant
activity. The display can show system or process data and
provide operators with a way to write values to an external
device such as a programmable controller. Operators can also
print the display at runtime to create a visual record of tag
values.

GRAPHICS DISPLAY EDITOR

To open the Graphic Display editor:
1. In the Project Manager, open the Graphics folder.
2. Open the Graphic Display editor by doing one of the
following:
• double–click the Display icon
• right–click the Display icon and then click New

The editor’s main components

The figure below shows the main components of the Graphic
Display editor. Each component is briefly described in the table
on the following page.
 51

To rotate an object:
 52

1. Click the Rotate tool.

2. Click the mouse button. A small circle with a crosshair
appears.
This is the anchor point that is used as the center of rotation.
To move the center of rotation, drag the crosshair.
3. Place the pointer on an edge of the object and drag the
object to rotate it.
To rotate the object in five–degree increments, press Ctrl while
you drag.
4. When the object is in the desired position, release the mouse
button.

Types of graphic objects:

You can create the following types of objects:

Simple objects: geometric and freehand objects, and text.

These objects are created in the RSView32 Graphic Display
editor.

Advanced objects: complex objects that typically require data

configuration.

OLE objects: objects such as spreadsheets, charts, or text

produced by other Windows applications. The types of OLE
objects that are available depend on the software installed on
your system.

ActiveX objects (formerly called OLE custom controls or

OCXs): control objects such as gauges, sliders, and buttons,
and objects you create yourself using a tool like Visual Basic
 53

DRIVES & MOTORS

INTRODUCTION
An adjustable speed drive is a device that controls speed, and
direction of an AC or DC motor. Some high performance drives
are able to run in torque regulation mode.

ELECTROMECHANICAL TERMINOLOGIES
1. Electromechanical system:
A machine or a series of machines that converts incoming
electrical energy to outgoing mechanical energy.

2. Voltage:
The difference in electrical potential that causes currant to
flow
in an electrical circuit. It is some time referred as electrical
pressure and is measured in voltage.

3. Current:
The rate of flow of an electrical charge. Current is measured
in
amperes (amps.)

4. Resistance:
The opposition to the flow of electricity within a circuit.
Resistance is measured in ohms.

5. Frequency:
The rate at which alternating current make s complete cycle
or
reversal. Calculated as 1 Hertz = 1 cycle per second
 54

DC Drives

DC Drive Control System

A basic DC drive control system generally contains a drive
controller and DC motor.
The controls allow the operator to start, stop, and change
direction and speed of the motor by turning potentiometers or
other operator devices. These controls may be an integral part
of the controller or may be remotely mounted. The drive
controller converts a 3-phase AC voltage to an adjustable DC
voltage, which is then applied to a DC motor armature.

The DC motor converts power from the adjustable DC voltage

source to rotating mechanical force. Motor shaft rotation and
direction are proportional to the magnitude and polarity of the
DC voltage applied to the motor. The tachometer (feedback
device) converts actual speed to an electrical signal that is
summed with the desired reference signal. The output of the
summing junction provides an error signal to the controller and
a speed correction is made.

DC Motors
The following are the four basic types of DC motors and their
operating characteristics:
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Shunt Wound
Shunt-wound motors have the field controlled separately from
the armature winding. With constant armature voltage and
constant field excitation, the shunt-wound motor offers
relatively flat speed-torque characteristics. The shunt-wound
motor offers simplified control for reversing, especially for
regenerative drives.

Series Wound
The series-wound motor has the field connected in series with
the armature. Although the series wound motor offers high
starting torque, it has poor speed regulation. Series-wound
motors are generally used on low speed, very heavy loads.

Compound Wound
The compound-wound DC motor utilizes a field winding in
series with the armature in addition to the shunt field, to obtain
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a compromise in performance between a series and a shunt

wound type motor. The compound-wound motor offers a
combination of good starting torque and speed stability.

Permanent Magnet
The permanent magnet motor has a conventional wound
armature with commutator and brushes. Permanent magnets
replace the field windings. This type of motor has excellent
starting torque, with speed regulation slightly less than that of
the compound motor. Peak starting torque is commonly limited
to 150% of rated torque to avoid demagnetizing the field poles.
Typically these are low horsepower.

Armature voltage controlled DC drives are capable of providing

rated current and torque at any speed between zero and the
base (rated) speed of the motor. These drives use a fixed field
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supply and give motor characteristics. The motor output

horsepower is directly proportional to speed (50% horsepower
at 50% speed).

The term constant torque describes a load type where the

torque requirement is constant over the speed range.
Horsepower at any given operating point can be calculated with
the following equation:

Where:
Torque is measured in Lb-Ft
Speed is measured in RPM.
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pulse width modulated “PWM” technique. With this method, a

DC voltage is applied to the motor windings in time controlled
pulses in order to achieve current that approximates a sine
wave of the desired frequency. IGBTs or Isolated Gate Bipolar
Transistors are the latest technology and offer the ability to
switch the PWM pulses very fast. This allows several thousand
pulses to be applied in one cycle of the applied motor
frequency. More pulses in a given cycle result in a smoother
current waveform and better motor performance.

AC Motor Types
AC motors can be divided into two main types: induction and
synchronous. Induction motors are most common in industry.
Synchronous motors are special purpose motors that do not
require any slip and operate at synchronous speed.
The induction motor is the simplest and most rugged of all
electric motors. The induction motor is generally classified by a
NEMA design category. Before a meaningful discussion on
NEMA type motors can be had, we should first look at what
makes up a torque speed curve.
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Anatomy of a Speed Torque Curve

Generally speaking the following can be said about a speed
torque curve when starting across the line. Starting torque is
usually around 200% even though current is at 600%. This is
when slip is the greatest. (Starting torque is also called Blocked
Rotor Torque, Locked Rotor Torque or Breakaway Torque.) Such
a large inrush of current may cause the supply voltage to dip
momentarily, affecting other equipment connected to the same
lines. To prevent this, large motors will connect extra resistors
to inductors in series with the stator during starting. Extra
protective devices are also required to remove the motor from
the supply lines if an excessive load causes a stalled condition.

As the motor begins to accelerate, the torque drops off,

reaching a minimum value, called Pull-up Torque, between 25-
40% of synchronous speed (Point B). Pull-up Torque is caused
by harmonics that result from the stator windings being
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concentrated in slots. If the windings are uniformly distributed

around the stator periphery, Pull-up Torque is greatly reduced.
Some motor design curves show no actual Pull-up Torque and
follow the dashed line between points A and C.
As acceleration continues, rotor frequency and inductive
reactance decrease. The rotor flux moves more in phase with
the stator flux and torque increases. Maximum Torque (or
Breakdown Torque) is developed at point C where inductive
reactance becomes equal to the rotor resistance.

Beyond point C, (points D, E and F) the inductive reactance

continues to drop off but rotor current also decreases at the
same rate, reducing torque.
Point G is synchronous speed and proves that if rotor and stator
are at the same speed, rotor current and torque are zero.

At running speed, the motor will operate between points F and

D, depending on load. However temporary load surges may
cause the motor to slip all the way back near point C on the
“knee” of the curve.

Beyond point C, the power factor decreases faster than current

increases causing torque to drop off. On the linear part of the
motor curve (points C to G), rotor frequency is only 1 to 3 hertz
– almost DC. Inductive reactance is essentially zero and rotor
power factor approaches unity.

Torque and current now become directly proportional – 100%

current produces 100% torque. If a 1HP motor has a nameplate
current of 3.6 amps, then when it draws 3.6 amps (at proper
voltage and frequency) it must be producing 100% of its
nameplate torque. Torque and current remain directly
proportional up to approximately 10% slip.

Notice that as motor load increases from zero (point F) to 100%

(point E), the speed drops only 45-55 RPM, about 3% of
synchronous speed. This makes the squirrel cage induction
motor very suitable for most constant speed applications (such
as conveyors) where, in some cases, 3% speed regulation
might be acceptable. If better speed regulation is required, the
squirrel cage motor may be operated from a closed loop
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regulator such as a Rockwell Automation variable frequency

drive.

The locked rotor torque and current, breakdown torque, pull-up

torque and the percent slip, determine the classifications for
NEMA design motors. The speed-torque curve and
characteristics of each design are as follows:

Design A — motors have a low resistance, low inductance rotor

producing low starting torque and high breakdown torque. The
low resistance characteristic causes starting current to be high.
It is a high efficiency design; therefore the slip is usually 3% or
less.

Design B — motors have a higher impedance rotor producing a

slightly higher starting torque and lower current draw. For this
reason, design B motors are a general-purpose type motor and
account for the largest share of induction motors sold. The slip
of a Design B motor is approximately 3-5% or less.
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Design C — motors uses a two-cage rotor design, high

resistance for starting low resistance for running. This creates a
high starting torque with a normal starting current and low slip.
During starting, most of the current flows in the low inductance
outer bars. As the rotor slip decreases, current flows more in
the inner low resistance bars.

The Design C motor is usually used where breakaway loads are

high at starting, but are normally run at rated full load, and are
not subject to high overload demands after running speed has
been reached. The slip of the Design C motor is 5% or less.

Design D — motors have the highest resistance rotor creating

high slip, high starting torque and low starting current. Because
of the high amount of slip, the speed varies dramatically with
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load. The slip of this type motor is approximately 5 to 8%. This

high slip characteristic relates to a low efficiency design and a
motor that runs hot.

Synchronous Motors
Synchronous motors operate at synchronism with the line
frequency and maintain a constant speed regardless of load
without sophisticated electronic control. The two most common
types of synchronous motors are reluctance and permanent
magnet. The synchronous motor typically provides up to a
maximum of 140% of rated torque. These designs start like an
induction motor but quickly accelerate from approximately 90%
sync speed to synchronous speed. When operated from an ac
drive they require boost voltage to produce the required torque
to synchronize quickly after power application.
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Also available in high horsepower motors is the separately

excited synchronous motor. This design requires a Load
Commutated Inverter (LCI) which is not presently available
from Allen- Bradley.