Grade 12

Chapter 1
Relations and Functions

 A relation R from a set A to a set B is a subset of A B obtained by describing a

relationship between the first element a and the second element b of the ordered
pairs in A B. That is, R {(a, b) A B, a A, b B}

 The domain of a relation R from set A to set B is the set of all first elements of
the ordered pairs in R.

 The range of a relation R from set A to set B is the set of all second elements of
the ordered pairs in R. The whole set B is called the co-domain of R. Range
Co-domain

 A relation R in a set A is called an empty relation, if no element of A is related to

any element of A. In this case, R = A A
Example: Consider a relation R in set A = {3, 4, 5} given by R = {(a, b): ab <
25, where a, b A}. It can be observed that no pair (a, b) satisfies this condition.
Therefore, R is an empty relation.

 A relation R in a set A is called a universal relation, if each element of A is related

to every element of A. In this case, R = A A
Example: Consider a relation R in the set A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} given by R = {(a,
b): a + b is an even number}.
Here, we may observe that all pairs (a, b) satisfy the condition R. Therefore, R is
a universal relation.

 Both the empty and the universal relation are called trivial relations.

 A relation R in a set A is called reflexive, if (a, a) R for every a R.

Example: Consider a relation R in the set A, where A = {2, 3, 4}, given by R =
{(a, b): ab = 4, 27 or 256}. Here, we may observe that R = {(2, 2), (3, 3), and
(4, 4)}. Since each element of R is related to itself (2 is related 2, 3 is related to
3, and 4 is related to 4), R is a reflexive relation.

 A relation R in a set A is called symmetric, if (a1, a2) R (a2, a1) R, a1,

a2 R
Example: Consider a relation R in the set A, where A is the set of natural
numbers, given by R = {(a, b): 2 ≤ ab < 20}. Here, it can be observed that (b,
a) R since 2 ≤ ba < 20 [since for natural numbers a and b, ab = ba]
Therefore, the relation R symmetric.
 A relation R in a set A is called transitive, if (a1, a2) R and (a2, a3) R (a1,
a3) R for all a1, a2, a3 A
Example: Let us consider a relation R in the set of all subsets with respect to a
universal set U given by R = {(A, B): A is a subset of B}
Now, if A, B, and C are three sets in R, such that A B and B C, then we also
have A C. Therefore, the relation R is a symmetric relation.

 A relation R in a set A is said to be an equivalence relation, if R is altogether

reflexive, symmetric, and transitive.
Example: Let (a, b) and (c, d) be two ordered pairs of numbers such that the
relation between them is given by a + d = b + c. This relation will be an
equivalence relation. Let us prove this.
(a, b) is related to (a, b) since a + b = b + a. Therefore, R is reflexive.
If (a, b) is related to (c, d), then a + d = b + c c + b = d + a. This shows that
(c, d) is related to (a, b). Hence, R is symmetric.
Let (a, b) is related to (c, d); and (c, d) is related to (e, f), then a + d = b + c and
c + f = d + e. Now, (a + d) + (c + f) = (b + c) + (d + e) a + f = b + e. This
shows that (a, b) is related to (e, f). Hence, R is transitive.
Since R is reflexive, symmetric, and transitive, R is an equivalence relation.

 Given an arbitrary equivalence relation R in an arbitrary set X, R divides X into

mutually disjoint subsets Ai called partitions or subdivisions of X satisfying:
All elements of Ai are related to each other, for all i.
No element of Ai is related to any element of Aj , i ≠ j
Aj = X and Ai Aj= , i ≠ j

The subsets Ai are called equivalence classes.

 A function f from set X to Y is a specific type of relation in which every element

x of X has one and only one image y in set Y. We write the function f as f: X
Y, where f (x) = y

 A function f: X Y is said to be one-one or injective, if the image of distinct

elements of X under f are distinct. In other words, if x1, x2 X and f (x1) = f (x2),
then x1 = x2. If the function f is not one-one, then f is called a many-one
function.
The one-one and many-one functions can be illustrated by the following figures:
 A function f: X Y can be defined as an onto (subjective) function, if y Y
such that there exists x X such that f (x) = y
The onto and many-one functions can be illustrated by the following figures:

 A function f: X Y is said to be bijective, if it is both one-one and onto. A

bijective function can be illustrated by the following figure:

Example: Show that the function f: R N given by f (x) = x3 – 1 is bijective.

Solution:
Let x1, x2 R
For f (x1) = f (x2), we have
x13 1 x23 1
x13 x23
x1 x2
Therefore, f is one-one.
Also, for any y in N, there exists 3 y 1 in R such that
3
f 3 y 1 3 y 1 1 y . Therefore, f is onto.
Since f is both one-one and onto, f is bijective.
 Composite function: Let f: A B and g: B C be two functions. The
composition of f and g, i.e. gof, is defined as a function from A to C given by gof
(x) = g (f (x)), x A

Example: Find gof and fog, if f: R R and g: R R are given by f (x) = x2 –

1 and g (x) = x3 + 1

Solution:
gof g f x
g x2 1
3
x2 1 1
x6 1 3x 4 3x 2 1
x 2 x 4 3x 2 3
fog f g x
f x3 1
2
x3 1 1
x6 2 x3 1 1
x3 x3 2

 A function f: X Y is said to be invertible, if there exists a function g: Y X

such that gof = IX and fog = IY. In this case, g is called inverse of f and is written
as g = f–1

 A function f is invertible, if and only if f is bijective.

Example: Show that f: R+ {0} N defined as f (x) = x3 + 1 is an invertible

function. Also, find f–1.

Solution:
Let x1, x2 R+ {0} and f (x1) = f (x2)
3 3
x1 1 x 2 1
x13 x23
x1 x2
Therefore, f is one-one.
 Also, for any y in N, there exists 3 y 1 R+ {0} such that f 3 y 1 =x
Therefore, f is onto.
Hence, f is bijective.
This shows that f is invertible.
Let us consider a function g: N R+ {0} such that g y 3 y 1
Now,
gof x g f x g x3 1 3 x3 1 1 x
3
fog y f g y f 3 y 1 3 y 1 1 y
Therefore, we have
gof x I R {0} and fog (y) = IN
1
f g 3 y 1

 A binary operation on a set A is a function from A A to A

 An operation on a set A is commutative, if a b = b a a, b A

 An operation on a set A is associative, if (a b) c = a (b c) a, b, c A

 An element e A is the identity element for binary operation : A A A, if a

e=a=e a a A

 An element a A is invertible for binary operation : A A A, if there exists

b A such that a b = e = b a, where e is the identity for . The element b is
called inverse of a and is denoted by a–1.

Example: Show that is a binary operation defined on R – {0} by a b = ab

Also show that is both commutative and associative. Find the identity element
of , if it exists. Find the inverse of a where a R – {0}, if is invertible.

Solution:
The operation is defined for a, b, c R
Therefore, is a binary operation.
Let a, b, c R – {0}
Now, a b = ab and b a = ba
Since ab = ba,
a b=b a
Hence, is commutative.
Now, a (b c) = a (bc) = abc
(a b) c = (ab) * c = abc
a (b c) = (a b) c
 Hence, is associative.
Now, 1 R – {0} and a 1 = a 1 = a and 1 a = 1 a = a
Therefore, a 1 = 1 a = a
Thus, 1 is the identity element for the binary operation .
Now, since a R – {0},
1
R {0}
a
1
However, a 1
a
1
Therefore, a 1

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