Technology, Environment and Society

Bachelor of Engineering (B.E.) Year/Part: IV/II Program: Computer and Electronics Prepared by: Dr. K.N. Dulal

Definitions
Technology
According to Websters dictionary, technology is defined as a description of arts. General definition of technology Technology is technical means, which involves the systematic application of organized knowledge, and tools and materials for the extension of human faculties. Technology is the source of change in society. Technological innovation Creative. feasible ideas Practical application Diffusion through society

Environment
Environment is defined as the immediate surroundings which supports life and sustains various human activities. The surroundings comprises of Biotic or living things: plants, animals, microorganisms Abiotic or non-living things: land, water, air etc.

Society
Society is people living together in communities.

Chapter 1. Brief History of Technology

Beginnings (from beginning to 3000BC)
Universe: Evolution theory: Big bang theory, 10 to 20 billion years ago Solar system: Sun at the centre and eight planets, age of sun: about 5 billion years Earth and life: some facts

Third planet that orbit the sun Formed from cloud of dust and gas drifting through space about 4.6 billion years ago. First primitive life: algae and bacteria appeared around 3.4 billion years ago. Human being o Separation of human lineage from primates: about 2 million years ago. o Modern human (homosapiens) appeared in Africa around 100,000 years ago. o Beginning of human civilization: about 5000 years ago

Stone Age Age prior to the beginning of civilized society (up to 3000BC) Tools: stone, wood, animal bone, horn No use of metal tools Potters wheel (around 6500BC) Nomadic culture: Humans moved from one place to another place searching for the foods At the end, more settled

1.1 Civilizations between 3000BC to 1660 AD a. First civilizations (3000 BC to 1100 BC)
Bronze Age Cupper: First discovered metal Bronze (Mixture of Cu and Tin): Second discovered metal Sequences By 4000BC, quasi-civilized society in Egypt and Mesopotamia Around 3000 BC: human civilization began. Civilizations a. Egyptian civilization: in the valley of Nile b. Sumerian civilization: in plain of Tigris and Euphrates in Southern Mesopotamia c. Assyrian civilization: in upper Tigris d. Maya civilization: in Peru e. Civilizations in China f. Civilizations in India: Flourishing of Hindu religion in India, Vedas and Upanishad g. First Babylonian empire Semitic (dark white or brownish people from Syria and Arabia) people conquered Sumeria by 2750BC, made Babylon the capital Hammurabi: 6th king of Babylonia, made code of laws, which is first written code of laws h. Jews (Hebrews) Semitic people settled in Judea long before 1000 B.C. Hebrew Bible (Old testament) around 1000 BC Prophets of Jews: Abraham, Mosses Solomon: king of Hebrew Monarchy, builder of the first temple in Jerusalem i. Spreading of Aryans Tribes of fair and blue eyed Nordic race Spread from central Europe to Asia Inventions/ Developments during Bronze age

Discovery of bronze, Metal working, Glass working Invention of Potato in Peru Animal domestication: cattle, sheep, goats and asses Cultivation Navigation technology Techniques of Yoga and meditation Invention of first writing system (wage-shaped) by Sumerians Invention of picture writing system by Egyptians Invention of Semitics writing system by Hebrews by mixing Sumerian and Egyptian writing o All other major languages, e.g. Sanskrit, Latin, Greek, French, Arabic etc. derived from Semitics Construction of cities, temples, tombs, systematic irrigation, war chariots

b. Iron Age (1100 BC to 500 AD)

First use of iron for implements and weapons.

Historical sequences in Iron Age a. Gautam Buddha (nearly 550 BC) b. Confucius and Lao Tse in China (around 6th century BC) c. Emperor Ashoka in India: spread Buddhism to Kashmir, Persia, Ceylon, China and Alexandria (capital of Roman empire) d. Jesus Christ e. Victory of Aryan: from 900 to 600 BC over the whole ancient world: Semitic, Egyptian, Greek, India except China f. Greek civilization Greek people: trades, travelers, enthusiastic Greek Philosophers Thales, Pythagoras, Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Ptolemy, Euclid, Archimedes Plato, Aristotle: most prominent Plato (400 BC): Mathematics and Astronomy o Plato published a book named Utopia which deals with the plan to form a different and better than the existing one. Utopian society defines the process of development in three steps: plan, public, and law. Aristotle (300BC) o Gathering information, analyzing and solving the problem in a systematic way (beginner of science). o Father of history and founder of political science g. Roman civilization Autocratic Roman empire in Europe (from 200 BC) No scientific development Focus of Romans on health and well being h. Spreading of Mongolians all over the world by two century BC. Inventions/technological development during iron age Prosperous China: Construction of great wall, invention of paper, tea, wood block printing Development of Iron technology Literature: around 200 BC

c. The middle ages (500 to 1450)

Sequences of middle age a. prophet Muhammad (600AD) Dictated a book, Koran, which he declared was communicated to him from God Beginning of Islam religion b. Arabs supremacy Powerful Arabian empire: Arabians were Masters, Europeans pupils Stretched from Spain to China Learnt paper and printing from China Came in touch with Indian Mathematics Translated Greek literature c. Mongolians conquest Jengis Khan (1200 AD): conquered China, Turkmenistan, Persia, Armenia, part of India down to Lahore, South Russia and Hungary Ogdai Khan: completed the conquest of whole China and all Russia (former Soviet Union) Other emperors: Mangu Khan, Kublai Khan, Hulagu Khan d. Mogul dynasty in India (Mongolian: Mogul in Urdu) Baber: Descendent of Mongolian, conquest India Akbar: completed the conquest of whole India f. Renaissance of Europe: Intellectual revival From 1200 AD: revival of European intelligence Commercial and industrial activities boomed in northern and central Italian cities (1250) Development of cities Growth in trading Arabian literature and scientific experiments translated into common language Roger Bacon: father of modern experimental science, deserves prominence in our history second to that of Aristotle University at Paris, Oxford, Bologna and other cities Exploration: Marco Polo, Columbus, Vasco De Gama By 1500 AD, Europeans became intellectual and material leader Inventions/Developments in middle age a. From Arab world Great advances in Math, Physics, Chemistry and Medical science Spreading of Arabic figure invented by Hindus, sign zero invented by Arabs Metallurgical and technical devices made by Arabs b. From Mongolian Opening of silk road by Mongolians to link Asia and Europe for trade c. From renaissance of European Good quality paper and printing Advance in education and science Mariners compass

d. Towards the modern world (1450 to 1660)

Sequences a. Period of growth for scientific knowledge Birth of many scientists: Leonardo Da Vinci, Galileo, Kepler, Blaise Pascal, Robert Hooke, Newton: Influenced the world of science b. Age of mechanical revolution Process of mechanical invention and discovery Technological development due to organized science Mechanical power and the machine doing the labour work of human and animals c. Advance in popular education throughout the Westernized world Inventions/Developments Invention of saw mill, microscope, telescope, clocks

1.2 The Industrial revolution, early days (1660 to 1815)

The mechanical revolution was followed by the industrial revolution. Sequences Age of social and financial development Scientific discoveries, application of science and technology Began from England around sixties of seventeenth century after the invention of steam engine by James Watt Mass production, factory system and improved machinery and machine tool Further advancement due to the invention of electric power By the early 19th century, industrial revolution spread to other parts of Europe Inventions/Developments Friedrich Staedtler founded a pencil factory in Nuremberg, Germany. o Staedtler Mars GmbH & Co. the oldest manufacturing companies in the world. Many books on industrial development water-powered mill Processing of iron from ore using blast furnace technique in 18th century o Rolled iron sheet in 1728 and rolled rods and bars in 1783. First modern steam engine by James Watt (1765) Use of steam power: cotton factory, boat, ship First locomotive by Trevithick in 1804 Electricity: Investigation of Franklin, Volta, Faraday and Galvani Chemistry advanced American System of Manufacturing (1813) Steam powered train

1.3 The Industrial revolution in maturity (1815 to 1918)

Sequences a. By early 19th century, science has come to be revolutionized. Prominent scientists e.g. Alfred Nobel, Faraday, Graham Bell, Charles Darwin, Albert Einstein b. Age of engineering: Technological development Inventions/Developments Electric motor by Faraday (1821) First railway between Stockton and Darlington in 1825 Discovery of electric telegraph in 1835, first under seas cable laid in 1851 between France and England Analytical engine by Charles Babbage (1834), father of computer Steam hammer (1838) Bessemer process (1856) and open hearth process (1864) for processing of iron and steel Telephone by Alexander Graham Bell (1876) Steam turbine (1884) Petrol car by Carl Benz (1888) Internal combustion diesel engine by Rudolph Diesel (1893) Wireless telegraphy by Marconi (1896) Medical science and agricultural science advanced In 1903 testing of the first air craft by Wright brothers in the USA, availability of aeroplane for humans from 1909 Book on scientific management by Taylor in 1911 Moving-assembly-line techniques for car manufacturing by Ford (1913) Project management techniques (Gantt Chart -1917) Impact of industrial revolution Mechanization: Change of power source from muscle power and animal power to steam engine which was more economical, easier to handle and efficient than previous sources. Social, cultural and economical change Revolution in transport and communication Easier and more comfortable life, better health condition Advance in education, science, medicine, textile and agriculture Relocation of large portions of the population from the countryside to the towns and cities Growth in trade and business Availability of great variety of materials Rise of wealthy people o Especially businessman became richer, while workers also got good wages. Start of automation replacing human operations Negative points: break up of joint family, women and child labor, gap between poor and rich Material growth and subsequent colonization o Demand of raw materials and nationalist pride led colonization to produce and trade goods Dutch, Portuguese (Brazil), Spanish (North and South America), French, England Negative impact of colonization Conflict and internal strife in colonized countries Extraction of vast amounts of natural resources from the colonies by British Empire

1.4 Influence of First and Second World wars on technology

World War I (WWI) (1914-1918) Main Causes o Beginning: Beginning of war after the assassination of Ferdinand, heir to the AustroHungarian throne, by, a Bosnian Serb citizen of Austria-Hungary . The retaliation by Austria-Hungary against Serbia activated a series of alliances that set off a chain reaction of war declarations. Within a month, much of Europe was in a state of open warfare. Alliance of France, UK, Russia, Italy, US Alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary o Continuing French resentment over the loss of territory to Germany in the 19th century o The growing economic and military competition between Britain and Germany o German desire to become more established countries of Europe. End of war: The war was ended by several treaties, most notably the Treaty of Versailles, signed on 28 June 1919. Technical inventions during WWI Chemical advancement: high explosive, poison gases, fixing of atmospheric N2 Telephone, wireless communication, armoured cars, tanks Development of ship and aircraft, military weapons Automatic rifle Impact of world war I on technology Development of the mechanical equipment and scientific development of weapons accelerated

Between two wars (1918 to 1939)

The construction and developments were done throughout the world. Inventions of radar (1922), talking film (1922), helicopter (1924), Electronic TV (1927), Jet Engine (1937)

The Second World War (1939 to 1945)

Causes a. Hitlers Aims to dominate Europe and the World b. The aggression of Hitlers Allies: Italy and Japan c. Democratic (USA, Britain and France) powers were passive d. The League of Nations failed to keep peace Sequences Involved a majority of the world's nations, including all of the great powers organized into two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis Axis: Germany, Japan, Italy Allies: UK, France, Poland, Russia, China, USA etc. Starting with the German invasion of Poland in 1939 and subsequent declarations of war on Germany by the United Kingdom, France and the British Dominions Ended with Allies victory in 1945 Inventions/ Technical developments

Development of military weapons Jet plane, Crewless plane, Modern rockets, Helicopters Advance in tank design Advance in communication Airplanes used to carry bombs. Development of nuclear weapons Development of artificial harbors Oil pipelines under the English Channel. Acquaintance of atomic energy The modern era of automatic digital computer began during world war II o 1939 to 1944: first automatic digital computer

Impact

New technological developments in speed and arms advanced. Emergence of the Soviet Union and the United States as the superpowers. Creation of the United Nations Decolonization movement Integration of western Europe Beginning of computer age

Negative impacts of world wars Loss of life: Great human disaster Destruction of property Air, water and soil pollution Spreading of disease

1.5 Information age (1945 to present)

Sequences Post industrial era: information age Liberation of colonized countries aftermath of war Development of computer technology (modern computer in 1950) Introduction of era of global satellite communication 1957: start of globalization of information revolution after Sputnik launched by Russians Human beings in space (1961) Communication satellite (1962) Human being on moon (1969) Space shuttle (1981) Optical fiber Laser Exploration of space using manned/unmanned satellite Supercomputer (1976) and Laptop computer (1989) Robot: most vivid example in technological history Internet: vast sources of information

Chapter 2. The technological society

2.1 The machine age
Era of invention and machine-based change in society that began with the Industrial Revolution Most important development of machine age o Fossil fuels such as coal as sources of energy o Improvement of metallurgical processes (especially of steel and aluminum) o Development of electricity and electronics o Invention of the internal-combustion engine o Use of metal and cement in construction work

2.2 The steam locomotive and its impact on transportation

Easier and more comfortable life Cultural diffusion and social transfusion Growth of trade and business

2.3 The telephone and telegram and their impact on telecommunication

Ease in conversations, conducting business, getting help in an emergency Upgrading of the social value, bridge for the social transformation Acceleration of economic growth Impact on cultural, religion and education Saving time and money for the flow of information Increased efficiency and effectiveness of the works

2.4 The automobile and its impact on mobility

Creation of job for millions and increase in the mobility of people Increment of economic activities Fast, luxurious and efficient life Noise and air pollution, causalities

2.5 Development of electronics and silicon chips

Development of computer First fully electronic computer (using vacuum tubes) in 1946 Storing program in 1946 Development of Germanium transistor in 1947 Development of modern computer with the invention of Integrated Circuit (IC) in 1950 by Jack Kilby at Texas Instruments After the invention of silicon chips, drastic change on other electronic equipments The fast development of silicon chips predicts the maturity of information era

2.6 The computer and its impact

Revolution in analysis, computation and communication, and start of information age Environmental quality control Medical diagnosis Program planning: urban planning, population studies, land use change, highway planning Increased access to the jobs Creation of new job opportunities Automation decreasing the labor intensiveness Rise of information industries Creation of high standard of living Increased production Negative impact on individuality, privacy Crime (money/information/service theft, virus, program copying, hardware/software damage etc.): threat to society

2.7 Information society

Post industrial society in which most of the people are involved in the business of information

Transformation from industrial society to information society After discovery of modern computer: main tool for information society Computer technology is to information age what mechanization was to the industrial revolution. In computer age, we are dealing with the conceptual space connected by electronics rather than physical space connected by motor car Combined technology of telephone, computer and television have merged into an information and communication system Information economy: Real, renewable and self generating economy Revolution in communication technology due to sophisticated information technology Application of technology to old industrial tasks and then gradually to new tasks Focus on better education Continuation of manufacturing industries, only change from physical to more intellectual functions Marx theory of labor value has replaced by knowledge theory of value. Majority of professional workers involved in information sector: e.g. teachers, lawyers, engineers, computer programmers, system analysts, architects, accountants, doctors, nurses, social workers, librarians, newspaper reporters, managers, insurance people, bankers Information is wealth like capital in industrial society The new source of power is not money in the hands of a few, but information in the hands of many Scientific research expanded many folds due to information age: many journal papers, technical literatures Robot doing skilled and unskilled job Easy access to vast amount of information due to internet Challenges of information society Information age not absolute

Erosion in employment opportunities due to computer and robot Challenge to make people computer literate Challenge to control computer related theft, fraud Challenge to implement rules and regulations for information sharing

2.8 Information as source of knowledge and power

Publication of millions of pages of scientific journals and technical literature per year Billions of websites in the internet to provide information Increase in scientific works Increased use of computer even in undeveloped countries like Nepal In an information economy, value is increased not by labor, but by knowledge Emerging communication network fueling the information society Information always worked to enhance the knowledge From the information we acquire knowledge power and therefore the source of knowledge, information, is power.

2.9 Importance of technology in the modern house

Easier and comfortable life Saving time of information society Utilizing their time for their growth and development

Chapter 3. Environmental issues

3.1 Introduction
Introduction to Ecology and Ecosystem Ecology Oikos: home or surrounding, logos: study Ecology: Science of interrelationship between organisms and their relationship with the environment Ecosystem Natural unit which consists of biotic communities and their abiotic environment Basic functional unit in ecology, Types: Freshwater, grassland, marine, desert Characteristics of ecosystem 1. Biotic component: producer (green plants), consumers (animals), decomposers (microorganisms) 2. Abiotic component: air, water, soil 3. Energy flow: sun main source of energy 4. Matter 5. Interrelationship 6. Biological integration 7. Flexibility 8. Ecological regulation Human impact on environment/ecosystem Destruction or modification of habitat Overexploitation for commercial, scientific and education purpose Overgrazing for domestic animals Change in arable land Forestry Traditional rural practice Industrialization, Urbanization Mining and quarrying Pressure from introduced plants Population pressure Use of drugs and chemicals Destruction of ecological balance Environmental sanitation Cleaning of environment Environmental sanitation includes the following: 1. Collection and disposal of refuse and sewage from houses, buildings and other public places 2. Proper ventilation for the control of indoor air pollution: fresh air circulation 3. Sufficient light in the buildings for healthy conditions of human body 4. Heating Local environmental issues: water pollution, air pollution, noise pollution, solid waste pollution, deforestation, land degradation Global environmental issues: Global warming, Acid rain deposition, Ozone layer depletion

3.2 Water pollution

Water pollution: presence of various types of impurities that tends to degrade its quality and either constitutes a health hazard or otherwise decrease the utility of water Sources of water pollution Natural: Soil erosion, solutions of mineral in water, rain water, storms, earthquake, seawater intrusion, dust/dirt falling from atmosphere, deposition of animal wastes and fallen leaves etc. Man made: Due to agriculture, sewage, wastes, industry Sewage: Liquid waste from community, contains 99.9% water, 0.1% solids (organic/inorganic matter, disease producing organisms) Types of pollutants Pathogenic organisms Oxygen demanding substances Plant nutrients: Nitrogen and Phosphorus Toxic organic chemicals: pesticides Poisonous inorganic chemicals Oil Thermal pollution (Heat): from power plants Sediment Radioactive substances Others: color, odor, taste Impact of water pollution Health hazard due to the presence of pathogenic bacteria from domestic sewage, toxic materials and industrial waste Water borne diseases: typhoid, cholera, dysentery, infectious hepatitis Economic loss: disturbance recreation, aesthetics, agriculture, industry, property Impact on aquatic and plant life Prevention of pollution Treatment of sewage Treatment of industrial waste Providing training and technical facilities in industry to treat waste water Not using water source for discharging sewage Rules and regulations for controlling pollution Proper planning of towns Sewage disposal method 1. Natural methods Dilution: discharging into water course e.g. sea, river or lake, self purification in due course of time Land treatment: spreading sewage on land, two ways: filtration, sewage farming 2. Artificial method: Sewage treatment method for removal of suspended solids, pathogens

Cause, Effect and remedial measures of various water pollutants Physical Impurity/pollutants 1. Suspended solids (turbidity)

2. Color

Cause Clay, silt, organic matters, inorganic matter, minerals, algae, fungi Dissolved organic matters, inorganic matter and minerals, industrial waste Dead or living microorganisms, dissolved gases e.g. H2S, minerals, e.g. Nacl, industrial waste

Effect Turbidity, color, odor

Remedial measures Treatment: Settling, coagulation, filtration Treatment method, such as aeration, treatment with activated carbon, oxidation of organic matters

3. Taste and odor

Objectionable from aesthetic and psychological point of view, no health effect Bad smell, not suitable for drinking

Biological Impurity/pollutants 1. Pathogenic organisms Cause Human and animal fecal waste Effect Water-borne diseases, e.g. cholera, typhoid, paratyphoid, dysentery, diarrhea, vomiting Remedial measures Disinfection, e.g. by boiling, by ultraviolet rays, by using ozone, potassium per magnate, chlorination

Chemical pollutants a. Some chemicals Impurity/pollutants Cause Acidity/alkalinity Presence of acid or (PH) alkali PH = log10[1/H+]

Calcium and Magnesium Chloride (In the form of NaCl) Sulfate

Natural Natural, pollution from sea water, brine or industrial and domestic waste Natural

Effect Acidic water: tuberculosis, corrosion Alkaline water: incrustation, sediment deposits Hardness Not significant in small amount, salty taste, corrosion Not significant in small amount, Laxative effect, hardness, taste <1ppm, fewer cavities in the teeth of children >1.5ppm, spotting and discoloration of teeth

Remedial measures Neutralizing

Water softening Treatment method, such as dilution, reverse osmosis, distillation Treatment method, such as reverse osmosis, distillation <1ppm, fluoridation (adding fluoride compound) >1.5ppm, defluoridation (e.g. limesoda process)

Fluoride

Water additive for promoting strong teeth, erosion of natural deposits, fertilizer and aluminum factories

Phosphate

Natural, agriculture, boiler water, laundries

Algal growth

Chemical precipitation

b. Dissolved gas Impurity/pollutants Cause Dissolved oxygen Absorption from atmosphere Dissolved CO2 Dissolved H2S Absorption from atmosphere Natural: due to Sulfur reducing bacteria, hot water heater fitted with Magnesium

Effect Positive effect: taste Negative: corrosion Bad taste, odor, corrosion Bad taste, odor, corrosion

Remedial measures Chemical method for treatment e.g. using Sodium sulfite, boiling Treatment method, such as aeration Treatment method, such as aeration, activated carbon, oxidation

c. Forms of Nitrogen Impurity/pollutants Cause Nitrite, Nitrate Runoff from fertilizer use, leaching from septic tanks, sewage, erosion of natural deposits Ammonia Metabolic, agriculture

Effect Effect to infants, blue-baby syndrome, algal growth Not of immediate health relevance, Pollution, growth of algae

Remedial measures Treatment method, such as biological treatment, distillation, reverse osmosis Treatment method, such as biological treatment, aeration

d. Agrochemicals Impurity/pollutants Pesticide

Cause Agriculture use

Effect Positive: Increase in crop production Negative: water pollution, effect to other animals, birds, including human health

Chemical fertilizer

Agriculture use

Positive: Increase in crop production Negative: water pollution, algal growth

Remedial measures Pest management by ecofriendly manner, e.g. crop rotation, multi-crop agriculture, natural predator, parasites, pathogens for controlling pest, sterilization Use of organic fertilizers (manure, compost), use of minimum level of inorganic fertilizer

e. Metals Impurity/pollutants Cause Iron and Natural deposits, iron Manganese pipes Effect Taste, color and turbidity, staining of clothes, incrustation in water mains Liver or kidney Remedial measures Treatment method, such as aeration, oxidation Corrosion control

Copper

Corrosion of household

plumbing systems; erosion of natural deposits Zinc Natural deposits

Aluminum

Natural deposits, treatment using Aluminium sulphate as coagulant

damage, effect on lungs, restriction in the growth of aquatic plants Not water hazard overdose: vomiting, dizziness Neurological disorders

Treatment method, such as coagulation, filtration Treatment method, such as reverse osmosis, softening

f. Some toxic metals Impurity/ pollutants Arsenic

Cause Natural, Industrial effluents (glass & electronics), medicinal use

Effect Toxic, respiratory and skin cancer, nervous disorders

Remedial measures Use of low arsenic water, e.g. rain water Treatment method, such as reverse osmosis, filtration Not using water containing lead, Treatment method, such as filtration Treatment method, such as filtration, granular activated Carbon, reverse osmosis Treatment method, such as reverse osmosis

Lead

Mercury

Corrosion of plumbing systems, erosion of natural deposits, industrial waste, dust, paint Erosion of natural deposits, industrial discharge

Kidney problems, high blood pressure, nervous disorder Highly toxic, Kidney damage, nervous disorder, blurred vision

Cadmium Chromium Cyanide Barium

Erosion of natural deposits, industrial discharge

Cadmium: kidney, lung Chromium: respiratory Cyanide: nerve damage Barium: High blood pressure

3.3 Air pollution

Composition of atmosphere N2: 78%, O2: 21%, Other gases: 1% e.g. Argon, CO2, H2, He, CH4, O3, Neon, CO, NO2, NH3 etc. Air pollution: presence of certain substances in the air in high enough concentrations and for long enough duration to cause undesirable effects Sources of air pollution 1. Natural sources Forest fires, dust storms, volcanic eruption, salt sea spray, pollen grains 2. Man made sources Fuel combustion: coal, gas Automobile emissions Industrial emissions: iron and steel manufacturing, oil refining, brick factory, cement factory, chemical and petrochemical operations, pulp and paper industry, fertilizer plants, thermal power plants, textile industry etc. Decomposition of organic waste and municipal garbage Classification of air pollutants based on origin 1. Primary: pollutants that are directly emitted to the atmosphere Main primary pollutants SO2: due to coal burning NO2: due to combustion of fossil fuels, e.g. coal or gasoline CO: due to incomplete combustion of fossil fuels Particulate matter (solid or liquid droplets, <10 m, suspended in air) Particulate lead: due to vehicle emission 2. Secondary: pollutants that are formed in the atmosphere by chemical reaction Main secondary pollutants H2SO4: formed by chemical reaction between SO2 and H2O O3: photochemical reaction between HC and NO Definitions Dust: 1 to 100 m, Smoke or fume: less than 1 m, Mist: suspension of liquid particles between 0.1 to 10 m, Spray: liquid particles >10 m, Smog: Smoke and fog Hazardous or toxic air pollutants Asbestos: due to demolition of old buildings containing Asbestos fire proofing, cancer, lung disease Benzene: due to gasoline powered vehicles, cancer Beryllium: from foundries, ceramic factories, incinerations Mercury: coal burning, incineration of garbage Vinyl Chloride Radioactive air pollutants Effects of air pollution 1. Health effects Chronic disease, Respiratory illness: bronchitis, asthma, lung cancer Temporary effect: nose or eye or throat irritation, coughing, chest pain, general discomfort

2. Damage to material objects Soiling and deterioration of building surface, corrosion of metals, weakening of rubber, textile, synthetic 3. Effect on vegetation damage to tree, flowers, fruits, vegetables 4. Effects on physical properties of atmosphere Effects on visibility Effects on urban atmosphere and weather conditions: fog, cloud, precipitation Effects on atmospheric constituents: increase in atmospheric CO2 Air pollution control 1. Natural self-cleansing of the environment: dispersion by wind, settling by gravity, washout by rain, adsorption by soils, rocks, leaves, buildings 2. Control of particulate pollutants in industries using mechanical device 3. Control of gaseous pollutants in industries using mechanical device 4. Controlling air pollution from automobiles 5. Air quality legislation and standards Controlling air pollution from automobiles (CO, HC, NOx, particulates, SO2) Catalytic convertor: for complete oxidation of combustible fuel Reducing lead and sulfur content in gasoline Correct operation and maintenance of engine Fuel substitutions: use of reformulated gasoline (oxygenated fuel containing at least 2% of O2) or alternate fuels such as liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), compressed natural gas (CNG), methanol, ethanol, propane, Hydrogen, electric powered vehicle Indoor air pollution Pollution of air inside buildings Air exchange methods: infiltration (through cracks, joints, holes), natural ventilation, forced ventilation (e.g. fans) Sources of indoor air pollution Combustion products: tobacco smoke, combustion from stove, heater, fireplace, chimney Asbestos: fire resistant and insulation in buildings Radon: Radioactive decay of Radium found in soil and rock Organic chemicals from household products: paints, waxes, varnishes, cleaning agents, pesticides, cosmetics, hobby materials Formaldehyde: used in paints, coatings, glues, adhesives Lead: paint, dust Biological substances: bacteria, fungi, viruses, house dust, pollen Effects of indoor air pollution Health problems: eye, nose and throat irritation, respiratory problem, headache, dizziness, visual problem, memory impairment, asthma, cancer, transmission of infectious disease e.g. influenza, measles etc. Remedial measures of indoor air pollution Proper ventilation, use of fans, exhaust fans, inspection of chimneys, furnaces annually, restricted use of asbestos, proper disposal of organic materials

3.4 Noise pollution

Sound: produced by mechanical vibration of sound source, transmitted in the form of wave Wavelength: distance between peaks or valleys Amplitude: height of peak of wave Frequency: no. of wavelengths in 1S (cycle/s or HZ) Single wavelength: cycle Decible scale for sound Noise pollution: unwanted sound which produce undesirable physiological and psychological effect. Source Traffic: air traffic, road traffic and seashore and inland water traffic Industries Others: loudspeaker, siren, shouting, ringing bell, general daily activities Effect

General discomfort Reduction in efficiency of persons Psychological effect Effect on sleep, recreation and personal communication Reduction in gastric activity, dizziness, rise in breathing Irritation, anxiety and stress Lack of concentration Mental fatigue Effect of prolonged exposure: Physical damage to ear, temporary/permanent hearing loss, or nervous breakdown, increase in blood pressure

Countermeasures Protection of the recipient: use of air plugs or air muffs Increasing path distance Noise barriers: absorptive materials, e.g. heavy drapes, carpets, special ceiling, wall acoustic material Reduction of noise at the source Rules and regulations

3.5 Global warming (Greenhouse effect)

Global warming Rise in global mean temperature of the earth Solar energy: short wave radiation Energy radiated from the earths surface: long wave radiation Greenhouse effect Concept of conventional greenhouse with glass: transmit short wave radiation, opaque to long wave radiation Greenhouse effect: effect caused by greenhouse gases in the atmosphere in which short wave radiation is transmitted to the earths surface, but the long wave radiation from the earth is absorbed thereby increasing the temperature Greenhouse gases Group of about 20 gases responsible for the greenhouse effect through their ability to absorb long wave terrestrial radiation occupy less than 1% of total volume of atmosphere Major greenhouse gases CO2: major, responsible 60% of total GHG CH4 NOx, mainly N2O: responsible 7% of total GHG Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC): responsible 25% of total GHG O3 Water vapor Cause of global warming: Enhancement of green house effect due to anthropogenic activities Sources of GHG CO2: Burning of fossil fuels (oil, gas and coal), large scale deforestation CH4: large scale decomposition of organic matter in swamps, rice paddy, livestock yards, cattle rising, biomass burning N2O: soil and fertilizer, groundwater and oceans, combustion CFC: using refrigerant, air-conditioning, fire extinguisher, cleaning solvent, blowing agent, aerosol spray O3: upper natural environment Prediction of global warming Using global circulation models (GCM): computer analysis of mathematical equations that model earths atmosphere Impact of global warming Rise in temperature: 0.3 to 0.6 deg c in the last century Sea level rise: due to thermal expansion of water on oceans and melting of ice caps and glaciers, 1-2 mm/year over the last century, flooding of coastal areas, beach erosion, saltwater intrusion into coastal areas Effect on water resources: change in the pattern of evaporation and precipitation, increase in evaporation and precipitation, more precipitation on the form of rain, increase in runoff

Effect on storms and desertification: more storms, expansion of deserts and sub-arid areas with higher evaporation Socio-economic effect: chances of disease due to high temperature, increase in poverty due to flood and drought Ecological effect: effect on agriculture and forest ecosystem

Countermeasures Environmental taxes on GHG emissions Using the revenue of tax to develop permanent and stable funding for improved efficiency and developing renewable energy sources International efforts to control global warming 1. Atmospheric scientists meeting in Geneva in 1990 Steps to reduce emission of GHGs: industrialized nations could reduce CO2 emission by 20% by 2005 2. Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 Signing of treaty to stabilize emissions of GHGs at year 1990 level by year 2000 3. Global warming conference in Berlin in 1995 Binding time table for reduction in GHGs emission after year 2000 4. International conference in Kyoto, Japan in 1997 Kyoto protocol: set of binding emission targets and timelines for developed nations

3.6 Acid rain

PH: measure of H ion concentration, range: 0-14, 7: neutral, <7: acidic, <7: alkaline Rainwater: naturally acidic, with PH of about 5.6 Acid rain: Rainwater with PH<5.6 that results from air pollution caused by human activities Causes

Emission of SO2 and NOx into the atmosphere o Natural source: decomposition and forest fire, volcanic eruptions o Anthropogenic: burning of fossil fuels, industrial process and gasoline powered automobiles Transformation into mild sulfuric or nitric acid by combining with water vapor Dissolution of H2SO4, HNO3 and oxides of Nitrogen and Sulfur and other gases in cloud containing rain and settling down of acid rain

Wet deposition: the pollutant material that comes down with rain, includes particulates and gases Dry deposition: the material reaching the ground by gravity during dry intervals, includes particulates and gases and aerosols Impact of acid rain Lowering of PH in lakes and rivers, springs, wells, harming fish and aquatic life Decline in forest, reduction in pollination of crops, crop quality and quantity Deterioration of building materials, e.g. steel, paint, plastics, cement, masonry, limestone, marble, sandstone Potential infiltration to groundwater and increase in solubility of toxic materials (Pb, Cu, Zn) in groundwater

Effect on human health: due to acidic surface and groundwater consumption, respiratory illness, asthma Corrosion of water pipes, dissolving metals, e.g. lead , cupper and iron in water pipes causing direct harm to human through consumption Damage to soil fertility

Countermeasures a. Technological approaches 1. pre-combustion: choose fuel with low S and N content or treat the fuels, physical and chemical process to remove S and N 2. Reduce emission of pollutants during combustion, e.g. catalytic or coal-limestone combustion 3. post-combustion: reduce emissions by high efficiency removal techniques, e.g. scrubber b. Environmental clean up and restoration e.g. liming of acidified surface water bodies (for neutralization) to save or restore many important resources c. Technical measure to reduce CO2 emission 1. Improve the efficiency of fuel to useable ends 2. Direct removal of CO2: technique for removal of CO2 from atmosphere by power plant 3. Reduction of CO2 by forestry 4. Cleaner energy production, e.g. photovoltaic, wood or wind

3.7 Ozone depletion

Important role with regard to atmospheric chemistry in both troposphere and the stratosphere Pollutant at ground level, but stratospheric O3 is crucial for life on the earth: blocks/absorbs most of the harmful ultraviolet (UV) rays coming from the sun, thus protecting plants and animals

Effect of UV Human skin cancer, eye cataracts, suppression of immune system response Effect on plants and aquatic life Ozone hole: ozone depleted region over Antarctica O3: unstable molecule, balance between formation and removal Main cause of O3 depletion: presence of Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) in atmosphere Source of CFC: using refrigerant, air-conditioning, fire extinguisher, cleaning solvent, blowing agent, aerosol spray From CFC, release of Cl atom by UV, acts as catalyst for destruction of O3 Countermeasures Adoption of environmentally safe alternatives to CFCs for refrigeration and thermal insulation Reduction in CFC use

Chapter 4. Technology and society 4.1 Different types of technology Labor-based technology Labor/equipment mix technology: a technology which gives priority to labor, supplementing with appropriate equipment Advantages Creation of more employment (mostly unskilled) Reduction of environmental impact Increased use of associated local resources, contributing to local economy Labor intensive technology Involvement of large numbers of workers to produce goods or services High labor cost relative to capital Physical and manual job Labor intensive industries include restaurants, hotels, agriculture and mining Advantage: Control of expenses during market downturns by controlling the size of the employee base Appropriate technology Technology that is appropriate to the environmental, cultural and economic situation Requirement of fewer resources, as well as lower cost and less impact on the environment.

 Considered to be suitable for use in developing nations or underdeveloped rural areas of industrialized nations, which they feel cannot operate and maintain high technology Usually labor-intensive Some appropriate technologies Information and communication technology Construction Solar cell, biogas, bio-fuel, wind power, micro hydro Smokeless and wood conserving stoves Rainwater harvesting, fog collection 4.2 Levels of technology 1. Low level technology Up to 3200 BC Tools and machines developed by earlier human beings Primitive tools and simple machines that served as the foundations for other tools and machines Type of tools Natural tools: no modification, naturally available, e.g. stone piece Adapted tools: modified in size and shape, e.g. sharpened bone at one end Manufactured tools: developed tools, e.g. arrow, bow, spear Human and animal powered machines 2. Intermediate level technology From 3200 BC to industrial revolution in some countries, to present in most of the countries

 Tools that are more sophisticated or complex than those currently in use in a developing nation but still much less costly, or more accessible, than those tools that would be used in a developed nation Improvement/modification of primitive tools and machines Axe and hammer made of metal Compound or complex machines powered by humans, animals or other forces Steam power, diesel engine, steam turbine Civilizations in this technological period 3. High level technology Technology of post-industrial era More sophisticated tools and machines Prevalent in mostly western societies Sources of power: no human power, e.g. electric power, mechanical power, steam power Three sub-divisions Assembly line: group of complex machines working in conjunction Automation Computer technology 4.3 Technology as a curse or as a blessing Handling of technology decides whether it is curse or a blessing. Technology for betterment of life: blessing, technology for negative effects, e.g. destruction: curse

e.g. blessing: material things, airplane for easy transport, easy life, freedom from heat/cold, great human achievements curse: airplane to carry bombs for war, pollution and other destructive effects 4.4 Technology is now irreversible The development of the technology: result of development human civilization. From the early to the todays modern technology, the technological development continued and obviously not reversed. To develop a new technology, the knowledge and resources are needed. But to reverse a technology, we can have the resource of old days but the knowledge can not be. 4.5 Technology creates the opportunity for society change Families and modern technology Due to technology people migrating for job, carrier, better opportunity, breaking the tradition of joint family Greater number of working women Sense of companionship is taking place on the society among the family members Economy Change in economy due to technology, broader market, wide area of global economy High productivity due to technology

 High consumption due to low price Politics By using technology more resources are used to generate wealth and wealth gives the power. Periodic reorganization of political forces due to technology Technology occasionally becoming a political asset Education Technology development processes started because of education. Easier methods of learning , e.g. audio visual aids Easy distribution of information distribution Technology has made education essential to earn living. Models of education o Classical model: history, literatures, philosophy, language , focus on past achievements o Religious model: focus on holy books of religion o Managerial model: focus on vocational education o Humanistic model: making the people more human, focus on arts and science Religion Technology helps to unmask old social problems. For a large number of people in modern societies, religion is neither good nor bad but simply irrelevant, given the many alternative ways to find meaning in various forms of cultural pursuits, ethical ideals, and lifestyles.

 The technology has changed the spiritual beliefs to the business opportunities. 4.6 Importance of technology in controlling prices Increase in the production rate at low price with the help of modern tools like automation, management techniques etc. More consumption of goods due to reduction in price According to supply-demand chain, low price due to more consumption For example, electronic goods are cheaper now than yesterday. 4.7 Interaction between technology and the labor force With the development of technology, the uses of muscle power is decreasing day by day The automatic system, robots etc displacing the labor force. Creation of new types of job opportunities requiring qualified people in less numbers 4.8 Societys control on technology The technology should be adaptable to the society according to the social status and needs E.g. sustainable development for rural society, dynamic technologies for urban society If the technology does not cope with the social requirement then it goes out.

4.9 Benefits of society from new technological inventions Acceleration of social growth e.g. social transformation due to the invention of steam power, petrol car, diesel engine, increase in interaction due to the invention of television, computer, airplanes 4.10 Technological innovation can unmask the old social problems Unmasking of cast discrimination and superstitions by education with the help of modern technology Unmasking of chronic social problems by regular advertisement and awareness programs using modern technology like television, internet etc. 4.11 Impact of industrialization of societies that are not yet technologized Positive: opportunities, growth in trade and economy, infrastructures development, acceleration of human civilization Negative: water pollution, air pollution, noise pollution, ozone layer depletion, deforestation etc. 4.12 Shifts in employment opportunities Creation of new kinds of jobs and businesses due to transportation, communications, and computer International competition in businesses

 Shifting from farming in rural areas to industrial jobs in cities and suburbs in western countries. Change in production and employment patterns as a result of technological advances, increased levels of world trade, and a rapid increase in the demand for services. Change in the education pattern due to the shift in employment opportunities

Chapter 5. Nepalese perspective on technology, environment and society Economic development and economic growth Economic development refers to the problems of underdeveloped countries while economic growth refers to the problems of developed countries. The raising of income levels is generally called economic development in rich countries and in poor ones it is called economic growth. Economic growth: more output, Economic development: more output and change in technical and institutional arrangement by which it is produced and distributed Nepal: Least developed country 5.1 Least developed/underdeveloped countries/Third world countries/Developing countries Countries in the intermediate level of technological developments Some criteria for measuring underdevelopment Poverty: high Per capita income: low Ratio of capital to per head of population: low Ratio of industrial output to total output: low Main features of an underdeveloped country Poverty: low GNP per capita

 Agriculture based economy: 2/3 people in rural areas and involved agriculture Dualistic economy: developed urban area(market economy) and less developed rural areas (subsistence economy) Underdeveloped natural resources: unutilized or underutilized or misutilized Population: Rapidly increasing Unemployment: high Economic backwardness: low labor efficiency due to poverty Backward in technology Lack of enterprise and initiative Insufficient capital equipment: capital poor, low saving and low investing Foreign trade orientation: export of primary products and import of goods and machinery, neglect of other sectors of economy 5.2 Economic planning Deliberate control and direction of the economy by a central authority for the purpose of achieving definite targets and objectives within a specified period of time Objectives of planning in underdeveloped countries To increase the rate of economic development for increasing national income and per capita income To reduce inequalities of income and wealth and concentration of economic power To strengthen market mechanism

To remove unemployment To develop agriculture and industrial sector To develop infrastructure and manpower To remove poverty To expand domestic and foreign trade To achieve balanced regional development To achieve self-reliance

Plan formulation and requisites for successful planning Planning commission: setting up of a Planning commission with work divisions for professionals of various sectors Statistical data: Data related to natural resources, agriculture, industry, transport, technical and non-technical personnel etc. Setting of objectives Fixation of targets and priorities Mobilization of resources Balancing in the plan: balance in economy, balance between saving and investment, supply and demand, manpower requirements and availabilities, demand for import and available foreign exchanges Incorrupt and efficient administration Proper development policy Economy in administration An education base Public cooperation Theory of consumption: LDCs should not follow the consumption pattern of developed countries. Strategic plan

 Process of defining strategy, or direction and making decisions on allocating resources to pursue the strategy, including capital and people Organizations future course Three Steps of strategic plan 1. Evaluation of current situation 2. Definition of goals and objectives 3. Mapping of possible routes to the goals and objectives Periodic plan Plan for a fixed time, e.g. for a year or less Three steps of periodic plan o Goal, o Subject o Deadline 5.3 Sustainable development Economic development without polluting environment Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs Ways to achieve sustainable development 1. Economic growth and poverty reduction 2. Better health service and balanced population growth 3. Emissions control 3. Conservation of forests, ecosystems and biodiversity 4. Education base 5. Good governance

6. Infrastructure: roads, railways, electricity, communication 7. Peace and security Development strategy a. Quick transition strategy Big transitional jump from intermediate level to high level of technological development To cope with the problems of overpopulation, energy, health and pollution, need of quick transition strategy Focus on science and technology for development b. Slow transition strategy Slow and more gradual transition Societies of especially third world countries not ready to cope with big jump Technology suitable for local condition: labor intensive, low cost, use of local materials, simply constructed, simple to maintain and operate 5.4 Planned development in Nepal Strategy of planning in Nepal Socioeconomic growth with basic needs fulfillment Rural development Equity distribution Peoples' participation Employment generation First five year plan: started from 1956

Tenth plan: 2002-2007 Objectives of the tenth plan To alleviate poverty To mobilize available physical and human resources To strengthen institutional and administrative sector To attract private sector To encourage proper and qualitative researches To focus on development; and extension and use of information technology and bio-technology To create conducive environment for transfer of technology and foreign investments To produce highly skilled manpower To enhance local technology Targets of the tenth plan To achieve GDP growth of seven percent during the plan period and the following consecutive two plans To reduce poverty to 10 percent by 2017 from over 38% in 2004

5.5 Energy sources Nonrenewable Energy source which will be exhausted Coal, petroleum products Renewable

 Energy source which can supply continuously Hydropower (including micro-hydro), biogas, solar, and wind energy Biomass: fuelwood, agricultural residues, and animal waste Biogas Methane-rich gas produced by methanogenic bacteria by anaerobic digestion of animal and human excreta Use: for cooking Solar Traditional use: drying crops, clothes, fuelwood, and others. Two methods of utilizing solar energy: solar thermal systems for heating water and solar photovoltaic systems for generating electricity Wind Wind power for grinding grains, generating electricity Hydropower Electricity from hydropower, clean energy Impact of technology in Nepal Economy: economic development, increase in GDP and per capita income Employment: Numerous employment opportunities in several sectors, e.g. cottage industries, transportation industry, some manufacturing industries

 Social value: decline in the population growth and increase in literacy rate, comfortable life, social transformation due to electricity, telephone, radio, televisions, rise in life expectancy, decrease in child mortality rate Environmental pollution 5.6 Water Quality situation in Nepal Degradation in the quality of surface and groundwater and drinking water Deterioration of water quality in urban and riverside settlement areas o Sewage and solid waste, industrial waste o Use of agro-chemicals o Haphazard urbanization and inadequate sewerage facilities: Discharging domestic sewers, wastewater and industrial wastes directly into the local rivers without pre-treatment For example, the Bagmati River, which drains the Kathmandu Valley, is highly polluted. In Kathmandu the quality is inferior due to the presence of different contaminants such as coliform bacteria, Iron and Ammonia. Biological contamination in rural parts : due to open defecation Natural cause of water pollution: not so significant o Landslides, soil erosion, and floods have often caused turbidity of river water o In the absence of proper protection, floods induce turbidity and add various nutrients to the river water

 In the Terai, groundwater is a major source of drinking water: arsenic contamination, high iron and Manganese, coliform bacteria Biological contamination causing water-borne diseases in both urban and rural areas 5.7 Air Quality situation in Nepal Deteriorating air quality in urban areas and indoor air pollution in rural areas of Nepal. Urban air pollution o causes Vehicular emission Heavy vehicular traffic in major towns such as Kathmandu, Pokhara, Biratnagar and Birgunj Industrial emissions Construction work Poorly maintained and narrow roads Old vehicles and poor vehicular maintenance o High Particulate matter o Effect: Respiratory problems Indoor air pollution in rural area o Reason: burning of firewood in closed, improperly ventilated rooms. o Effect: Bronchitis, pneumonia and other respiratory problems among rural women and children Natural process: seasonal dust storm in the valleys. Indoor pollution in industries: threat to the health of workers