MBA Basics: The Essentials Taught in America's Top Business Schools

MBA Basics
The essentials taught in Americas top business schools
Seminar Procedure
Lecturer: Stephan Staber Bernhard Frie Daniela Ebner Time: Wed. 14 c.t. 15:45 Place: Computerlab WBW
Preliminary Discussion
Lectures
Presentations
Written Exams
II
III
IV
VI
The grading is made up of 40 per cent presentation and 60 per cent written examination.
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Seminar Content
Strategy Operations
Operations Management
Marketing Economics
Business
Quantitative Analysis
MBA MBA
Human Resources
Ethics Organizational Behavior
Finance Accounting
Money
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Accounting
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Topic 1: Accounting
Accounting Rules (GAAP) and Concepts The Financial Statements Ratio Analysis
What is accounting for?
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Accounting Rules and Concepts

GAAP Rules: General Accepted Accounting Principles The Fundamental Concepts of Accounting:
The Entity Cash Basis Versus Accrual Accounting Objectivity Conservatism Going Concern Consistency Materiality
Standard setting for an comparison on an equal basis
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The Financial Statements

The Balance Sheet
Presents the assets owned by a company, the liabilities owed to others, and the accumulated investment of its owners at a specific date
The Income Statement

Shows the flow of activity and transactions over a specific period of time
The Statement of Cash Flows

Presenting the sources and uses of a companys cash
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The Balance Sheet

Assets: are the resources that the company possesses for the
Cash, inventory, accounts receivable, equipment, buildings
future benefit of the business
debt, and other obligations to provide goods or services to others

Bank dept, accounts payable, taxes owed, wages owed to employees
Liabilities: are cash-specific obligations to repay borrowing,
owners investment in the company
Owners Equity: is the accumulated cash measure of the

Common stock, additional paid-in capital (both investment by owners), retained earning (reinvestment of earnings by owners)
Assets (A) = Liabilities (L) + Owners Equity (OE)

The Balance Sheet - Important Issues

Liquidity
Liquidity means the ability of an asset to be converted to cash
Current: cash, accounts receivable, inventory (within next period) Fixed - long-term non-current assets (NCA) respectively NCL
Working Capital (WC)

Refers to the A and L that a company constantly works with as a part of daily business
WC items are consequently the CA and the CL Net working Capital (NWC): NWC = CA - CL
Owners Equity
Owners are paid only after all other dept payments are made
OE captions can be affected: contribute more funds (+), retain profits (+), receive dividends (-)
Example: Balance Sheet

Bob' Market - Balance Sheet, as of Dec. 31, 1999
Assets
Current Assets Cash Accounts Receivable Store Inventory Total Current Assets Noncurrent Assets (longterm) Store Equipm ent (<1a) Accum ulated Depreciation Net Long-term Assets 30000 (3000) 27000 5000 10000 100000 115000
Liabilities
Current Liabilities Account Payable W ages Payable Taxes Payable Total Current Liabilities Noncurrrent Depts (longterm) Bank Dept Total Liabilities 10000 97000 80000 5000 2000 87000
Ow ners Equity
Com m on Stock Retained Earnings Total Owners' Equity Total Assets 142000 Total L & OE 15000 30000 45000 142000
The Income Statement

There are revenues from sales and expenses relating to those revenues. When both are properly matched using accrual accounting, the difference is income Revenue - Expenses = Income Income Statement Terminology
Gross Margin = Sales - The Direct Cost of the Goods Sold (COGS) Operating Profit = EBIT Net Income
Example: Income Statement

Bob's Market - Income Statement for the Year Ending Dec. 31,1999
Sales to Customers Cost of Goods Sold Gross Margin Less Selling, General and Administrative Expenses Payroll Rent Utilities Advertising Allocated Cost of Store Equipment (Depreciation) All Other Operating Income (EBIT) Less Interest Expense Income Before Taxes Less Income Taxes Net Income Net Income Per Share (1000 shares) 5.200.000 (3.900.000) 1.300.000
(1.000.000) (150.000) (75.000) (18.000) (3.000) (10.000) 44.000 (1.000) 43.000 (13.000) 30.000 30
The Statement of Cash Flows

The Cash Flow Statement is a management tool to help avoid liquidity problems. Cash = CL + NCL + OE - AR - INV - NCA It answers the following questions:
What is the relationship between cash flow and earning? How are the dividends financed? How are the debts paid off? How is the cash generated by operations used? Are managements stated financial policies reflected in the cash flow? Operations Activities Investing Activities Financing Activities
Three types of business activities
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The Three Types of Activities

Operating Activities
Generated from the day-to-day operations Accrual Accounting to Cash Accounting
Investing Activities
Long-term (non-current) investments by the company Reflection to Balance Sheet
Financing Activities
Two way of financing: borrow or raise from investors
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Example: Cash Flow Statement

Bob's Market Statement of Cash Flows for the Year Ending Dec. 31, 1999
Operating Activities: Net Income Add Back Expenses Not Using Cash Depreciation Adjust for Changes in WC Current Assets: Customer Receivable Store Inventory Current Liabilities: Vendor Payable W ages Payable Taxes Payable Cash Flow from Operating Activities Investing Activities: Purchase of Store Equipment Cash Flow from Investing Activities Financing Activities: Proceeds from Bank Borrowing Sale of Stock to Owners Payment of Dividends to Owners Cash Flow from Financing Activities Increase in Cash for the Year Cash at Beginning Cash at End
Incr./Decr.
30.000
3.000 33.000
I I D D D
(10.000) (100.000) 80.000 5.000 2.000 (23.000) 10.000
(30.000) (30.000)
10.000 15.000 0 25.000 5.000 0 5.000
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Reading the Statements with Ratios

Liquidity Measures
Current Ratio = CA / CL
Capitalization Ratios
Financial Leverage = (Total L + OE) / OE Long-term Dept (LTD) to Capital = LTD / (L + OE)
Activity Ratios
Asset Turnover per Period = Sales / Total A Inventory Turns per Period = COGS / Average Inventory Days Sales in Inventory = Ending Inventory / (COGS/365)
Profitability Ratios
Return on Sales (ROS) = Net Income / Sales Return on Equity (ROE) = Net Income / OE Return on Assets (ROA = NI/Total A) = Profit Margin (ROS) x Asset Turnover
Quantitative Analysis
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Topic 2: Quantitative Analysis

Cash Flow Analysis Net Present Value Decision Analysis
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Cash Flow Analysis

What does the investment cost and how much cash will it generate each year? What is the current investment and what are the future benefits? 5 Steps:
Define the value of the investment Calculate the magnitude of the benefits Determine the timing of the benefits Quantify the uncertainty of the benefits Do the benefits justify the wait?
Dont mistake cash flow and profit! Cash Flow Analysis is a technique used to evaluate individual projects over the life of the project. Depreciation is not relevant in cash flow analysis! Financing costs are not included in cash flow analysis!
Example: Cash Flow

Quaker Oats is considering a $ 100,000 investment in a cereal filling machine for it's plant in Kansas City. The fibre craze has spurred the demand for oatmeal to the point of exhausting plant capacity. If the machine is purchased, additional cereal sales of $80,000 could be made each year. The cost of goods sold is only $20,000 and the profits derived would be taxed at 30 percent. The increased sales will also require holding $10,000 in inventory. Quaker will partially offset that use of cash by increasing its payables by $8,000 to farmers for the oats and Stone Container for the boxes to net a $2,000 additional cash investment. At the end of three years the machine will be worn out, but the equipment will still be useful to a milling company in Mexico. Quaker plans to sell it to Molino Grande at a price of $10,000.
Milling Project ( in thousands of dollars)

Year 0 Investment Revenue Cost of Goods sold Taxes Increase in Inventory Increase in Payables Sale of Equipment Total Cash Flow - $ 102 + $ 51 + $ 51 - $ 10 +$8 + $ 10 + $ 61
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Year 1 + $ 80 - $ 20 -$9
Year 2 + $ 80 - $ 20 -$9
Year 3 + $ 80 - $ 20 -$9
- $ 100
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The Timing of Cash Flows

The timing of cash flows is critical to determining the projects value. Bar graphs are often used to represent the timing of cash flows. There are several possibilities for timing the flows; three of them are shown below.
+ $163 Year 0 - $102 Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 0 - $102 + $51 + $51 + $61 Year 0 - $102 Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 + $163
When the milling project produces cash, Quaker reinvests it rather than let it remain idle. Therefore the company earns income with the cash of two more years in Scenario1 than in Scanario2. Scenario 3 is the worst.
Accumulated Value Calculation

Accumulated Value: $51,000 + $51,000 + $61,000 = $163,000 + earned interest $34,230= $197,230 Earned interest: the investment opportunities yield 10 percent.
Year one: there are $163,000 to be invested in year two Year two: $163,000 x 0.1 = $16,300 gained Year three: $163,000 x 0.1 = $16,300 gained $16,300 x 0.1 = $1,630 gained End of year 3: $16,300 + $16,300 + $1,630 = $34,230 earned interest.
Future Value of a $ in a periods = ($ today) x (1 + reinvestment rate) exp. a $1 today = $1 today $1 invested = $1.1 in 1 year $1 invested = $1.21 in 2 years Accumulation Factors at a rate of 10 percent
Net Present Value (NPV)

Cash flow analysis determines the flows of a project. NPV technique values them in today's dollars. Different projects can be compared regardless of timing. Basic idea: A dollar today is worth more than a dollar received in the future. NPV analysis takes future cash flows and discounts them to their present-day value (inverse of accumulated value).
NPV = ($ in Future) x (1 + Discount Rate) -Number of periods
$1 today = $1 today $1 in 1 year = $.90909 today $1 in 2 years = $.82645 today $1 in 3 years = $.75131 today Discount Factors at a rate of 10 percent
Probability Theory
Probability theory describes how statistics are used to solve problems. In situations where multiple outcomes are possible, the result is a distribution of outcomes. Each possibility is assigned a probability. A graph showing the distribution of outcomes is called a probability mass (only few possibilities) or density (many possibilities) function. Most used: binomial distribution and normal distribution
Decision Theory - Decision Tree

Decision theory teaches how to break complex problems into manageable parts. It is a framework to attack difficult situations. A decision tree diagram organizes the problem's alternatives, risks and uncertainty. 5 steps:
Determine all the possible alternatives and risks associated with the situation. Calculate the monetary consequences of each of the alternatives. Determine the uncertainty associated with each alternative. Combine the first three steps into a tree diagram. Determine the best alternative (highest EMV) and consider the nonmonetary aspects of the problem.
Decision Tree - Example

Mr. Houston is about to exercise his option to drill for oil on a promising parcel. Should he drill? If he hits a gusher there is an estimated $1,000,000 to be gained. When he investigated all of the alternatives, Mr. Houston made the following list: He paid $200,000 for the drilling option. He could lower his risks if he hired a geologist to perform seismic testing ($50,000). That would give him a better indication of success and lower his risk of wasting drilling costs. Should he roll the dice and incur $200,000 in drilling costs without seismic evaluation to guide him? He consulted with oil experts. They believe his parcel has a 60% chance of having oil without the benefit of any tests. If seismic tests are positive, there is a 90% chance that there is some oil. If the tests are negative, there is still a 10% chance of success. He could decide not to drill at all.
The Decision Tree (in thousands of dollars)

$900 0,9 Drill $700 Positive $420 0,6 $370 $400 No Test Drill $400 No Drill -200 0,4 Test -50 0,4 Negative $0 No Drill Drill -200 0,1 $100 0,1 0,9 Oil Dry Oil Dry
$1000 EMV > Cost Drill
$0
$1000 EMV < Cost No Drill
$0 -200
$0
No Drill
$0
$600 0,6
Oil Dry
$1000
EMV > Cost Drill
$0 $0
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Finance
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Topic 3: Finance
Business Structures Risk Capital Asset Pricing Model Investment Valuations Discounted Cash Flows Capital Budgeting and Structure Dividend Policy Mergers and Acquisitions
Business Structures
Proprietorships
Business is owned by an individual The owner reaps all the profits and has unlimited liability for all losses
Partnerships
Business is owned by several individuals General partnership: unlimited liabilities for all business debts Limited partnership: shielded to the extend of their investment
Corporations
Legal entities that are separate from the individuals who own them The ownership is split into shares of stock that investors can trade Problem of double taxation: company and stock owner
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Investments - Risk and Returns

Types of Risks
Systematic risks: applies a whole class of assets (stock market..) - movements in the economy, interest rates and inflation Unique or unsystematic risk: applies a particular or a small group of assets (single stock) - can be largely compensated by diversification (portfolio)
Beta Risk - Risk Within a Portfolio

Volatility of stocks is equated with risk Beta quantifies the risk of holding a particular investment versus owning a very large portfolio representing the market (S&P 500, Nikkei)
Beta of 1 M=I
Expected Return % Expected Return %
Beta of .5 M I
Beta of 1.75 I
Expected Return %
Time
Time
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Investments - Risk and Returns

The Capital Asset Pricing Model for Stocks (CAPM)
Ke = Rf + (Km - Rf) x
The CAPM determines the required rate of return of an investment by adding the unsystematic risk and the systematic risk of owning an asset
CAPM Exercise:
You want to know what IBM should yield to be a worthwhile investment! The Value Line Survey tells you that IBM has a conservative of 1.2. The Wall Street Journal tells you that the long-term riskfree US Treasury Bond pays a return of 8%. A study conducted since 1926 shows the average return on the S&P 500 has exceeded the the risk-free rate of investing in US Treasury Bonds by 7.4%. What return rate should IBM yield to be interesting for an investment?
Financial Markets - Bonds

Bonds are issued by companies or government agencies to raise money at fixed rates of interests
Coupons / Face (Par) Value / Maturity Date
A bonds value comes from the present value of future cash flows. The Yield Curve
Interest Rates % 7 3 1 3 10
Years
Caterpillar Bond Valuation of Discounted Cash Flows

Interest @ 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 Total 8 % Coupon $8 $8 $8 $8 $8 $8 $8 $8 $8 $8 $ 80 Principal Repayment $0 $0 $0 $0 $0 $0 $0 $0 $0 $ 100 $ 100 Face Value Payment Total x $8 $8 $8 $8 $8 $8 $8 $8 $8 $108 Discount Factors @ 8 % Market = .9259 .8573 .7939 .7350 .6806 .6302 .5835 .5403 .2002 .4632 Net Present Value $ 7.41 $ 6.86 $ 6.35 $ 5.88 $ 5.44 $ 5.04 $ 4.67 $ 4.32 $ 4.0 $ 50.03 $ 100.00 Market Value
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Financial Markets - Stocks

Stocks have no contractual terms of payment and no maturity if earnings are adequate they pay dividends (no obligation) Classes of stocks
Stock Class Description Examples
Rapidly Growing Companies Wal-Mart Growth Stocks Very Large Companies Kodak, Coke Blue Chips Fluctuate Greatly with Economy Ford, GM Cyclicals Risky, Small Companies Jet Electro Pennies
Stock Valuation Models

Dividend Growth Model
Value per Share = D / (K - g)
Price Earnings Ratio (PE-Ratio)

EPS - current stock price to the current or projected earning per share
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Financial Markets - Options

Options are contractual rights to buy or sell any asset at a fixed price on or before a stated date
At a stated price - the strike price By a certain date - the expiration date At a cost for the privilege - the option premium
Call Options (right to buy) - Put Options (right to sell)

Underlying Stock Price Movement UP DOWN Gain Loss Loss Gain
CALL PUT
Hedging
Hedging is buying an option to offset a possible decline in value in an owned investment
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The Value of a Wal-Mart SEP $55 Call Option

$ 25
$ 20 Option Price and Theoretical Value
$ 15
$ 10
MV
TV
$5 $ 2.69 $0 $ 30 $ 40 $ 50 $ 60 $ 70 $ 80
MV = option market value
TV = option theoretical value

The Value of a Wal-Mart SEP $55 Put Option

$ 25
$ 20 Option Price and Theoretical Value
$ 15 TV MV
$ 10
$5 $ 2.75 $0 $ 30 $ 40 $ 50 $ 60 $ 70 $ 80
MV = option market value
TV = option theoretical value

Business Investment Decisions

Three basic decisions
Accept or reject a single investment proposal Choose one competing investment over another Capital rationing - which project among many should be chosen
Two basic MBA tools

Payback Period
Payback = Number of years to recover initial investment
Net Present Value

NPV = Cash to be Received x (1 + Discount Rate) - Number of Periods
Riskiness of projects - different discount rates Unequal lives of projects - in the discount rate Scale differences - Profitability Index PI = NPV of Future Cash Flows / Initial Investment
Business Financing Decisions

The goal of corporate finance is to raise sufficient capital at the least cost for the level of risk that management is willing to live with Five basic ways of financing a companys needs:
Supplier Credit
Negotiate longer longer credit terms or stretch payables by paying late
Lease Financing
Operating Lease (asset returned) - Capital Lease (asset stays at lessee)
Bank Financing
Long- and short-term credits are often secured by the assets of the company
Bond Issuance
The risk to the firms owners comes if the mature bonds cannot be serviced
Stock Issuance
Business Financing Decisions

The After-Tax Cost of Borrowing (interest cost less tax benefit) The financing mixs risk and return
Interest payments for borrowing e.g. from bankers are tax-deductible, while dividends to shareholders are not After-Tax Cost of Borrowing = Borrowing Rate x (1 - Tax Rate) What is the best mix between dept and equity? To find a solution the acronym FRICTO can help:
Flexibility: how much to meet unforeseen events (new competitors)? Risk: with how much can you live to meet foreseen events (strikes)? Income: what level of interests or dividends can earnings support? Control: how much stock ownership do you want to share? Timing: attractive rates on dept markets - own shares overvalued Other: ......
Optimal Capital Structure

The Cost of Capital
Ke Cost of Capital KWACC Kd
0 Capital = Debt + Equity
Debt to Capital Ratio %
high
Ke = Cost of Equity , Kd = Cost of Debt KWACC = Weighted Average Cost of Capital

Optimal Capital Structure

The Value of the Firm and the Weighted Average Cost of Capital
Firm Value Value of the Firm Cost of Capital KWACC
Debt to Capital Ratio %
Capital = Debt + Equity

Final Financing Decision Questions

Can the company do a better job by investing its earnings back into the firm than investors could by investing elsewhere? Who is our stockholder? What will be the stockholders reaction be to any changes in dividend payment? What is the degree of financial leverage of the company? What is the growth strategy of the company?
Marketing
Cartoon p. 18
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Topic 4: Marketing
Marketing comes first Philip Kotler Marketing integrates all the functions of a business and speaks directly to the customer through advertising, salespeople and other marketing activities. The 7 Steps of Marketing Strategy Development
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The Marketing Strategy Process

1. Consumer Analysis 7. Go Back & Revise 2. Market Analysis
6. Evaluate Economics
3. Competition Analysis
5. Marketing Mix
4. Distribution Channel
Step 1: Consumer Analysis

What is the need category? Who is buying and who is using the product? What is the buying process? Is the product a high- or a low-involvement product? How can a segmentation be done?
Awareness - Information Search - Evaluate Alternatives - Purchase Evaluate
High price - the need for the benefit - the need for the psychological reward (Consumer Behavior Matrix) Segments: large enough, efficiently reached, help develop marketing programs
The Consumer Behavior Matrix
Experiment
Significant
Complex Process Brand Loyality
Variety Seeking
Differences
Buy cheapest one

Few
Dissonance Reduction Baseless Beliefs
Random Behavior
Low
High
Involvement
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Step 2: Market Analysis

What is the relevant market?
Once identified: accessible and large enough? Yes = Marketable product
Where is the product in its product life cycle?

Intro - Growth - Maturity - Decline
What are the key competitive factors in the industry?

Key Competitive Factors:
Quality, Price, Advertising, R&D, Service?
The Product Life Cycle (PLC)

Market Sales Maturity Decline
Growth
Intro Time
Introduction: What is it?
Awareness and education needed - innovators/adopters Education and competition - selective distribution (boost your sales volume) Price competition and brand loyalty - strong segmentation Slow price decline or increase - relationship marketing, relaunch
Growth: Where can I get it? Maturity: Why this one? Decline: How much?
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Step 3: Competitive Analysis

What is the the company and the competitors good at?
Distribution, new product development and intro (3M), advertising?
Who are we in the marketplace?
Market size and relative share, financial position, historic performance and reputation? People, technology-research, sales forces, cash, trade relations, manufacturing (core competencies)?
What are our and the competitors resources? Entry Barriers? Market Share Leverage?
What are the Strengths and Weaknesses? (SWOT-Analysis)
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Step 4: Distribution Analysis

How can my product reach the consumer?
Direct selling (mail selling, e-commerce) or channel intermediaries (wholesalers, distributors, retailers, sales forces...: e.g. B2B-Marketing)
How do the players in each distribution channel profit?

Everyone who touches the merchandise takes a cut = margin Percent Markup on Selling Price (SP) = ($ Markup / $ SP) x 100 (Exercise)
Who has the power in the channels?

Grower, refiner, stock exchange, supermarket?
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Exercise: What is the Retail Price?

Channel Partcipant
Sr. Juan Valdez
Channel Function
Grower
Margin
SP to next level $2/kg
W estway Merkuria
Coffee Broker
4.8%
Kraft General Food Associated Grocers Inc. Bob's Market
Processor Grocery Wholesalers Retailer
75%
9%
23%
..............
Mr. & Mrs. Student
Consumer
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Step 5: The Marketing Mix The four Ps

Product:
How does my product fit with my others? How do I differentiate my product? How does the PLC affect my plans?
Product Place Price Promotion
Place - Where to Sell?

What distribution strategy? (exclusive, selective, mass) Which channels? (product specifics, need for control, margins desired)
Promotion:
Advertising, Personal Selling, Sales Promotion, Public Relations-Publicity, Direct Selling
Price: What should my price be?

Cost Plus, Perceived Value to the Customer, Skimming, Penetration, Price/Quality Relationship, Meet Competition, Market Size, Price Elasticity
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Step 6: What are the Economics

What are the costs?
Fixed or Variable Costs?
What is the Break Even?

BE is the point at which the fixed cost are recovered from the sale of goods but no profit is made BE Unit Volume = Fixed Costs / Unit Contribution (= Price - Variable Costs) Target Volume = ( FC + Profit ) / Unit Contribution
How long is the payback of my investment?

How long does it take to get my investment back? Payback = Initial Investment / Annual Profit
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The Break Even Point

Revenue [$]
Total Revenue
fi Pro
BE Revenue
t
Total Costs
Variable Costs
s Los
Fixed Costs
BE Sales
Quantity Sold [t...]

Step 5: Go Back and Revise the Plan

At this stage revisit the marketing strategy development process outlined before: Should another segment be targeted? Is the mail order respectively e-commerce an option? Should I not advertise and rely an a cheap price to move my product? .....
Strategy
WELL, THE DISCUSSION HAS APPARENTLY TURNED TO STRATEGY; AND I MUST CONFESS TO BEING OUT OF MY DEPTH
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Topic 5: Strategy
The Seven S Model The Value Chain Integration and Expansion Strategies Industry Analysis Competitive Strategies Signaling Synergy Portfolio Strategies
The Seven S Model

Structure Strategy Systems
Superordinate Goals
Skills
Style
Staff
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The Value Chain and Integration

Porter: Value Chain
Each link in the chain, a channel participant, adds value to the product Component Purchase Motor Assembling Car Assembling Distribution (Retailers) Preparation
Integration
Forward and backward integration Vertical and horizontal integration
Backward Integration Horizontal Integration
Ore Mining
Horizontal Integration
GM
Car Company
Direct Sale
FIAT
Forward Integration
Level of Strategy
Functional Strategy
Are those operational methods and value adding activities that management chooses for its business (lower cost by advanced productions technology)
Business Strategy
Are the battle plans used to fight the competition in the industry that a company currently participates in (heavy marketing activities)
Corporate Strategy
Looks at the whole gamut of business opportunities (launch a new product in a new market)
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Expansion Strategy
Ansoff Matrix
Product old new
old Market new
Market Penetration
Expansion (Product Development)
Related Diversification (Market Development)
Unrelated Diversification
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Industry Analysis
Porter: The Five Forces Theory
Potential Potential Entrants Entrants
Threat of new entrants
Bargaining power of suppliers
Industry Industry Competitors Competitors Buyers Buyers

Bargaining power of buyers
Suppliers Suppliers
Threat of substitute products or services
Subtitutes Subtitutes
Generic Strategies
Strategic Advantage
Uniqueness Low Cost
Industrywide
Differentiation
Overall Cost Leadership
Strategic Target
Particular Segment Only
Focus
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Cost Leadership
Economies of Scale Learning efficiencies
Labor Efficiency: repetition and automation (CIM, CAM) New processes and improved methods Product redesign: to lower cost of labor, material...(CAD) Product standardization: decreasing the variations (CI) Efficiencies of scale: doubling capacity doesnt cost twice as much Substitution: using less expensive materials
Learning Curve
10 8 Direct Labor Cost of 6 Last Unit Produced [$] 4 2 1 2 4 8 16 32 64 128 256 512
Total Units Produced
Competitive Tactics
Signaling: Letting your competitors know what is on your mind - or just bluffing
Price movements Prior announcements Media discussion Counterattack Announced results Ligitation: to tie up a competitor in court
Synergy
Market linkages: customer bases, distribution channel, brands Technological linkages: factory processes, research, IT Product linkages: excess capacity, staff functions Intangible linkages: know-how, experience, similar strategy
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PIMS and Portfolio Strategies
Question Marks
Stars
Industry Growth
high
...Amount of Cash Flows
-/
+/...Direction of Cash Flows
10%
low
_
Dogs
low 1
...Life Cycle
+
Cash Cows
high
Relative Markt Share

Economics
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Topic 6: Economics
Like kings of old dispensing with their astrologers, big business is sacking its economic soothsayers. Their stargazing proved entertaining and interesting - but not very useful. Forbes, Jan. 21, 1991 Supply and Demand Microeconomics
Opportunity and Marginal Costs, Marginal Utility Elasticity Market Structures
Macroeconomics
Keynesian and Monetarist Theory Gross National Product Accounting Fiscal and Monetary Policy
Supply and Demand

The basis of all economic theory: At what is referred to as equilibrium (E), the market price allows the quantity supplied to equal the quantity demanded.
Price Level (P)
$ .25 Mug Price
Aggregated Demand (AD)
Demand Supply E
Aggregated Supply (AS)
10 Sale of Kegs
15
Economic Output (Y)

Microeconomics
Microeconomics deals with the supply and demand equation of individuals, families, companies or industries Opportunity Costs: is the cost of choice, when output, time and money are limited Marginal Revenue (MR) and Marginal Costs (MC)
E
Price
MR (monopoly..) MC MR (real..) - MU
Quantity Produced
Marginal Utility (MU): means the usefulness or utility of having an additional unit
Microeconomics
Price Elasticity: buyers responsiveness or sensitivity to changes in price
Elastic: customers are very sensitive to price changes
Fast food - value meals

Inelastic: the purchasing behavior do not change with price changes
Cigarettes - nicotine addicts, medical services - drugs
Competitive Market Structure: drives supply, demand and price

Pure Monopoly: only one seller with a unique product Oligopoly: few suppliers with a product without real substitutes Monopolistic Competition: many producers but product can be differentiated Pure Competition: many producers selling a similar, substitutable product
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Macroeconomics
Macroeconomics concerns itself with the economics of cities, countries or the world
Theories of what drives the economy Theories of what drives the economy
Government intervention can significantly improve the operation of the economy
The markets work best with minimal government interference
Keynesian Theory Keynesian Theory

John M. Keynes
Monetarist Theory Monetarist Theory

Milton Friedman
Keynesians vs. Monetarists

Keynesian Thoughts
Free enterprise without government intervention does not cause full employment Unemployment is the big problem that needs a solution With government spending and monetary policy, government should smooth out the business cycles Adequate information is available to take government action Government spending can help spur efficient economic growth
Monetarist Thoughts
Free market economics are the best in the long run even at the cost of unemployment Inflation is the big evil, it is a tax on everyone Government tinkering makes the economy worse off in the long run Available economic data are usually inaccurate and too late for useful intervention Government spending crowds out efficient private activity
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Keynesian Topics
Gross National Product (GNP)
GNP is the total market value of all final goods and services produced by an economy in a year Changes are a measure of the health on an economy If the price level of GNP rises, it is called inflation (CPI, PPI) Net National Product (NNP) = GNP - asset depreciation Gross Domestic Product (GDP) - produced within the borders The GNP Equation: GNP = C + I + G + X
C...Personal Consumption G...Government Purchase I...Private Investment X...Net of Exports over Imports
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Keynesian Topics
Fiscal Policy
How the government decides to spend the money is called fiscal policy (G) the fiscal policy can prime the pump of a weak economy
The IS/LM Curve

Interest rates are also powerful driving forces in the economy High interest rates retard investments - investment and spending curve (IS) The higher the interest rates the higher the liquidity preference for money liquidity and money curve (LM)
Interest Rate E i
LM
IS Total Income and

Y Y2 Output (GNP)
Monetarist Topics
What is money?
Money is the medium of exchange to buy and to sell goods and services Money is cash (M1) and money equivalents (e.g. checking account balances, M2)
The Quantity Theory of Money

Money is the main driver of GNP (Keynes = LM-curve)
MxV=PxQ
Money x Velocity = Price Level x Real GNP
Monetary Policy Tools

Change the discount rate Trade government securities Change the reserve requirement of financial institutions
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Operations
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Topic 7: Operations
Operation Research Gantt Charts Critical Path Method Linear Programming Inventories Quality Six Sigma
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POM-History and -Scientists

Frederick Taylor Job Fractionalization
Studies of steel workers. Breaking down a complex task into smaller components, which could be improved by time and motion studies
F. and L. Gilbreth Therblig

Identification of 17 different workers movement. Efficiency improvement by elimination of waste movements.
Elton Mayo Human Relations

The emotional state of workers is just as important as finding the right combination of movements.
Churchman... Operations Research

Bottleneck elimination by mathematical models
Douglas McGregor Theory X-Y William Ouchi Theory Z

Theory X
People are inherent lazy and have no creativity
People do what they are told to - nothing more (unmotivated)
They need to be pushed to work and punished
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Theory Y (Z)
People are self motivated and responsible in a supportive environment
People increase performance on their own
People want to perform and should be consulted for improvement
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Basic Issues of POM

Capacity - How much can I produce?
6M: Methods, Materials, Manpower, Machinery, Money, Messages Methods: continuous process, assembly line, job shop Gantt Charts, networks (CPM)...... Inventory Flow Diagram Economic Order Quantity Accounting (succeeding chapters) Total Quality Management
Scheduling Inventory
Standards and Control
Scheduling
Basics of Statistics and Operational Research Special topics
Project planning and scheduling
Bar/Gantt charts CPM/PERT network
Linear programming
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Quantitative Techniques (QT)

Statistics:
Basic probability, Sampling & Estimation Decision theory Hypothesis testing Linear regression & Time series analysis
Operation Research (OR):

Scheduling methods [Gantt charts & CPM/PERT] LP, transportation & assignment models Inventory control Queuing Simulation
Bar/Gantt Charts
Features
Activities plotted against time/cost Listing of activities, activity duration, schedule dates, progress to-date
Advantages:
Simple to understand and easy to change Best visualization form for a project
Disadvantages
Fails to retain logic as project gets bigger Provides vague description of project
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CPM/PERT Network Analysis

Requirements
Project breakdown into activities Estimate activity duration, schedule and critical path Estimate resource requirements
Advantages
logical relationships maintained Problem areas/effects of changes identifiable Alternative plans possible
Disadvantage
Complex - implementation problems
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Linear Programming [LP]

Resource allocation Steps
Mathematical formulation
Identify controllable variables and the objective Express objective & constraints as linear relationships of variables
Optimal solution Evaluation & sensitivity analysis
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Inventory
The Balancing Act
Different departments want different levels of inventory
Reasons for holding inventory

Pipeline: inventory on hand to minimize production delays and maximize efficiency Cycle: suppliers have minimum order amounts that are greater than the immediate need Safety: avoid a shortage because of uncertain production demands Anticipatory: inventory held in anticipation of known demand Speculative: items purchased to beat supplier prices increases
Just in Time inventory (JIT)

Materials arrive just in time for production - supply chain management necessary
Inventory Flow Diagram

Value of Inventory
Value of Finished Goods Value Added by Labor & Overhead While in Progress Value of Raw Materials
Raw Materials
Work in Progress Materials
Finished Goods Materials Process Time
Start Work
Finish Work
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Economic Order Quantity (EOQ)

Find just the right quantity of inventory
Based on the trade-off of two costs associated with inventory
Carrying Cost: storage, insurance, financing (+opportunity cost) Ordering Cost: ordering costs including accounting and clerical labor
Total Cost
Annual Inventory Cost of an Item
Carrying Cost Item Cost Ordering Cost EOQ

Order Size (Q)
EOQ-Formula
EOQ = [(2 x R x O) / C]0,5

Total Quality Management

What is quality?
User-based? Manufacturing-based? Product-based?
Quality is the totality of features and characteristics of a product or service that bear on its ability to satisfy stated or implied needs ,ASQC
Quality affects a company in 4 ways:

Costs and market share Company reputation Product liability International implications
Quality Standards
Europe: ISO9000, USA: Q90-94 Refers to a quality that encompasses the entire organization, from supplier to customer.
Demings 14 Points
1. Create consistency of purpose 2. Lead to promote change 3. Build quality into the product, stop depending on inspections 4. Build long-tern relationships based on performance instead of awarding business on the basis of price 5. Continuously improve product, quality and service 6. Start training 7. Emphasize leadership 8. Drive out fear 9. Break down barriers between departments 10. Stop haranguing workers 11. Support, help, improve 12. Remove barriers to pride in work 13. Institute a vigorous program of education and self-improvement 14. Put everybody in the company to work on the transformation

Basics of TQM
Quality focus Continuous Improvement Employee Empowerment Benchmarking
Quality measures - Award systems

BNQA EFQM - EQA - AQA
People Mgt. 90 points People Satisfaction 90 points Customer Satisfaction 90 points Impact on Society 90 points
Leadership
100 points
Policy & Strategies 80 points Ressources 90 points
Processes
140 points
Business Results
150 points
Enablers 500 points
Results 500 points

Six Sigma
Six Sigma is a management concept for cost reduction and quality increase with an increase of costumer satisfaction at the same time The sigma level indicates the probability of defect occurrence. (The higher the sigma value, the better the process capability)
Target Value
Sigma Level Defects per Million Units
6 5 4
4,5 1,5 1,5 4,5
3,4 233 6.210 66.807 308.537

3 2
Ethics
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Topic 8: Ethics
Examples
Environment issues: pollution Employee privacy issues: AIDS, drug testing Diversity issues: race, gender, ethnicity Sexual harassment Others: antitrust actions, insider trading
The Social Responsibility of Business Relativism Organisational Culture Stakeholder Analysis

The Social Responsibility of Business

Neoclassical View: Milton Friedman
Social Responsibility = the aim of the company to stay for a long time in the market by raising its profits
Vs. Modern View: Corporate Sustainability

Social Responsibility = companies have societal obligations which go beyond maximizing profits
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Relativism
We cant decide on matters of right and wrong, or good and evil! Ethics is relative to the personal, social and cultural circumstances in which one finds oneself. Naive Relativism: every person has his or her own standard Role Relativism: distinguishes between private and public role Social Relativism: people refer to social norms Cultural Relativism: no universal morale code to judge other society
Organisational Culture (OC)

Characteristics of OC (Schreygg)
OC is of implicit character OC is lived and accepted as natural within the firm by its members OC tends to exist of uniform and coherent behaviour OC communicates sense and orientation OC is not directly learned but internalised within a process of socialisation.
Culture influenced by various characteristics

Several cultural models and studies (e.g. Schein, Hofstede, Trompenaars,)
Stakeholder Analysis
Stakeholder Analysis is a a simple tool for weighting various elements and reaching a decision
1. List all potentially affected parties 2. Evaluate harms and benefits that a particular action will have on those involved 3. Determine the parties rights and responsibilities 4. Consider the relative power of each 5. Consider the short- and long-term consequences 6. Formulate contingency plans for alternative scenarios 7. Make a judgment
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Exercise: Stakeholder Analysis

Example: The spotted owl case!
Decision: Stop logging due to the owls?
Lumber Companies Harms & Benefits Rights & Responsibilities

Higher costs Lower profits Higher value on private lands owned Value maximization for owners within the law
Loggers
Less work More free time Reasonably exploit natural resources Make a living
Logging Communities
Lost wages in local economy Business failures Reasonably exploit natural resources
Owls & Trees

Survivial
Life
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Organizational Behavior
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Topic 9: Organizational Behavior

Problem Solving Psychology - APCFB Motivation Leadership Basic Organizational Model Evolution and Revolution
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The OB Problem Solving Model

Problem Definition
Want-Got Gaps The Level of Problems
Source Problems and Causal Chains
Individual, group, organization
Analysis
Link Problems and Causes - Understand Set Specific Goals - Define Activities, Resources, Responsibilities - Set a Timetable - Forecast Outcomes Formulate a Detailed Plan of Action - Implement, Supervise Execution and Evaluate Goals
Action Planning
Psychology: The APCFB Model
Assumptions
Beliefs Values
Perceptions
Filters
Event
Defense Mechanisms Conclusions Feelings
Behaviors
Doing Saying
Motivation
Expectancy Theory:
Motivation = Expectation of Work will lead to Performance x Expectation of Performance will lead to Reward x Value of Reward
Herzberg, Maslow and McClelland:

Behavior is motivated by the urge to satisfy needs
Maslow: Pyramid of Needs (primary - safety - belong - status - selfactualization) Herzberg: Maximizing Satisfiers (Motivators) and Minimizing Dissatisfiers (Maintenance Factors) McClelland: 3 Needs: Achievement - Power - Affiliation
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Job Design
CORE JOB DIMENSIONS Skill Variety Task Identity Task Significance Autonomy CRITICAL PSYCHOLOGICAL STATES Experienced Meaningfulness of Work Experienced Responsibility for Outcomes Knowledge of the Actual Results of the Work Activities PERSONAL AND WORK OUTCOME High Internal Work Motivation High Quality Performance High Satisfaction Low Absenteeism and Turnover
Feedback
The Leadership VCM-Model

Three characteristics are part of a leaders personal profile:
Vision Commitment Management Skills
V M C M C Balanced Visionary
V M C V
Managerial
Characteristics are based on the idea of man a leader has!

MBA Office Procedures

Active Listening
Respond to information - dont lead Respond to personal information - dont give advice Identify the interviewees feelings as well as the contend
Performance Appraisals
Organizational (aim at proper conduct, performance, pay..) Feedback and Evaluation (process and documentation of performance) Coaching and Development (the primary goal of appraisal)
Reprimands
Check the facts - Pause and express your displeasure - Display a carrying attitude
Power on the Job

Coercive - Reward - Referent - Legitimate - Expert
Basic Organizational Model

Culture Strategy
Thoughts Climate Feelings Behaviors Policies
Individual Systems Organization Environment Structure
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Organizational Structures
CEO Staff Functions
Classic Divisional
VP Marketing
VP Finance
VP Operations
Functional - Product - Customer - Geographic Divisions are independent businesses operating under the umbrella of a parent corporation (except financing)
Matrix
The matrix departs from the principle of unity of command: Only one boss for each employee
Amorphous
No formal structure at all
Evolution and Revolution

Two Different Ways to Achieve Change
C h an ge of 1 st O rd er R ed u ced to sin gle asp ects R ed u ced to sin gle levels Q u an titative ch an ge C an ge of th e con ten t C on tin u ity, sam e d irection In crem en tal L ogical an d ration al W ith ou t ch an gin g p arad igm C h an ge of 2 n d O rd er M ultidim ensional C om prises all levels Q ualitative change C hange of the context D iscontinuity, new direction R evolutionary S upposed irrational C hange of paradigm
TQM, CI
BPR
The 5 Phase Change-Theory

5. Crisis of ????
.....Revolution Stage Large .....Evolution Stage

3. Crisis of Control
4. Crisis of Red Tape 5. Growth t. Collaboration 4. Growth t. Coordination
Size of Organization
2. Crisis of Autonomy 1. Crisis of Leadership 2. Growth t. Direction 1. Growth t. Creativity 3. Growth t. Delegation
Small Young
Old
Age of Organization
Choosing Tactics for Change

Situation - Action Needed for Change (Kotler, Schlesinger)
Company Lacks Information - Education and Communication Tactics You Need Information and You Have Little Leverage Participation and Involvement Tactics Adjustment Problems - Support and Facilitation Tactics Your Desired Changes Will Cause Losses and Opponents have the Power to Block You - Negotiation and Agreement Tactics You have No Alternatives and No Money for Facilitation Manipulation (No Choices) Speed is Needed and You Have the Power - Explicit Orders and Coercion Tactics

MBA Basics: The Essentials Taught in America's Top Business Schools

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MBA Basics: The Essentials Taught in America's Top Business Schools

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MBA Basics

The essentials taught in Americas top business schools

Ethics Organizational Behavior

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Accounting Rules and Concepts

Standard setting for an comparison on an equal basis

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The Financial Statements

The Income Statement

The Statement of Cash Flows

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The Balance Sheet

future benefit of the business

debt, and other obligations to provide goods or services to others

Liabilities: are cash-specific obligations to repay borrowing,

owners investment in the company

Owners Equity: is the accumulated cash measure of the

Assets (A) = Liabilities (L) + Owners Equity (OE)

The Balance Sheet - Important Issues

Working Capital (WC)

Example: Balance Sheet

The Income Statement

Example: Income Statement

The Statement of Cash Flows

Three types of business activities

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The Three Types of Activities

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Example: Cash Flow Statement

(10.000) (100.000) 80.000 5.000 2.000 (23.000) 10.000

10.000 15.000 0 25.000 5.000 0 5.000

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Reading the Statements with Ratios

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Topic 2: Quantitative Analysis

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Cash Flow Analysis

Example: Cash Flow

Milling Project ( in thousands of dollars)

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The Timing of Cash Flows

Accumulated Value Calculation

Net Present Value (NPV)

Decision Theory - Decision Tree

Decision Tree - Example

The Decision Tree (in thousands of dollars)

$1000 EMV > Cost Drill

$1000 EMV < Cost No Drill

EMV > Cost Drill

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Investments - Risk and Returns

Beta Risk - Risk Within a Portfolio

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Investments - Risk and Returns

Financial Markets - Bonds

Caterpillar Bond Valuation of Discounted Cash Flows

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Financial Markets - Stocks

Stock Valuation Models

Price Earnings Ratio (PE-Ratio)

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Financial Markets - Options

Call Options (right to buy) - Put Options (right to sell)

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The Value of a Wal-Mart SEP $55 Call Option

$ 20 Option Price and Theoretical Value

MV = option market value

TV = option theoretical value

The Value of a Wal-Mart SEP $55 Put Option

$ 20 Option Price and Theoretical Value

MV = option market value

TV = option theoretical value