Alternating Current: Unit 1 When You Complete This Objective You Will Be Able To

Integrated Training Program / Phase B Generator Page 1 of 69
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UNIT 1
When you complete this objective you will be able to
Explain the creation of single phase and three-phase alternating power; define cycle,
frequency and phase relationships (voltage/current) for AC sine waves.
Learning Material
Alternating Current
Almost all of the electrical power supplied at the present day is in the form of
alternating current. It has two major advantages over direct current. Firstly, it can be
generated without the limits imposed by commutators, and secondly, after generation its
voltage can be very easily transformed up or down for transmission and distribution.
Alternating current power may be generated and distributed at a higher voltage and then
reduced in voltage closer to the location of the load (user).
Simple AC Generator
Fig. 1 shows a simple AC generator composed of a simple loop, a pair of slip rings, and
an electromagnet supplying the magnetic field. The slip rings and brushes provide the
connections from the loop to the external circuit. Through the use of slip rings, one side
of the loop is always connected to the same side of the external circuit rather than
having the connections reversed every half turn as with the simple commutator used
with the DC generator.

Figure 1
Simple AC Generator

Fig. 2 shows the rotation of a conductor through a magnetic field. The rotation is
marked in 12 positions. Each of the 12 conductor positions is shown on the graph, with
the emf (electromotive force) that is being generated at that point. The conductor starts
at the 0 position, with no lines of flux being cut in the magnetic field and no emf being
generated. At position 1, lines of flux in the magnetic field are being cut, and a positive
emf is being generated, as shown on the sine wave graph at position 1. The emf
increases until the conductor reaches position 3 or 90, where the maximum lines of
flux are being cut. The emf decreases as the conductor passes through positions 4, 5,
and is back at 0 when it passes position 6 or 180.
As the conductor moves past position 7, it is again cutting lines of flux in the magnetic field.
The conductor is moving in the opposite direction, in relation to the lines of flux of the
magnetic field, and the emf generated is now in the opposite direction (negative). At
position 9, the conductor is cutting the maximum number of flux lines creating the
maximum negative emf. When the conductor again reaches position 0, no lines of flux are
being cut, and no emf is being generated. One revolution of 360 has been completed.
The emf values corresponding to the 360 rotation takes the form of a sinusoidal (sine)
wave. As the conductor continues to rotate, the alternating voltage and current induced
in the loop is transferred directly to the external circuit.

Figure 2
Sine Wave Generation


Voltage and Current
The sine wave illustrates how voltage and current in an AC circuit rises and falls with
time. The peak value of a sine wave occurs twice each cycle, once at the positive
maximum value and once at the negative maximum value.

Figure 3A
Sine Wave Peak Valves

Peak-to-peak value
The value of the voltage or current between the peak positive and peak negative values
is called the peak-to-peak value.

Figure 3B
Peak to Peat Valve

Instantaneous value
The instantaneous value is the value at any one particular time. It can be in the range of
anywhere from zero to the peak value.

Figure 4
Instantaneous Valve

Calculating instantaneous Voltage
The voltage waveform produced as the armature rotates through 360 degrees rotation is
called a sine wave because instantaneous voltage is related to the trigonometric function
called sine (sin u = sine of the angle). The sine curve represents a graph of the
following equation:
u sin =
peak
E e

Instantaneous voltage is equal to the peak voltage times the sine of the angle of the
generator armature. The sine value is obtained from trigonometric tables. The following
table reflects a few angles and their sine value.

Angle Sin u Angle Sin u
30 degrees -5 210 degrees -.5
60 degree .866 240 degrees -.866
90 degrees 1 270 degrees -1
120 degrees .866 300 degrees -.866
150 degrees .5 330 degrees -.5
180 degrees 0 360 degrees 0


The following example illustrates instantaneous values at 90, 150, and 240 degrees. The
peak voltage is equal to 100 volts. By substituting the sine at the instantaneous angle
value, the instantaneous voltage can be calculated.

Figure 5
Example of Instantaneous Valve

Any instantaneous value can be calculated. For example:
At 240
o
e = 866 . 100
e = -86.6 volts
Effective value of an AC sine wave
Alternating voltage and current are constantly changing values.A method of translating the
varying values into an equivalent constant value is needed. The effective value of voltage
and current is the common method of expressing the value of AC. This is also known as the
RMS (root-mean square) value. If the voltage in the average home is said to be 120 volts,
this is the RMS value. The effective value figures out to be 0.707 times the peak value.

Figure 6
Effective Valve of an AC Sine Wave

The effective value of AC is defined in terms of an equivalent heating effect when
compared to DC. One RMS ampere of current flowing through a resistance will produce
heat at the same rate as a DC ampere. For purpose of circuit design, the peak value may
also be needed. For example, insulation must be designed to withstand the peak value,
not just the effective value. It may be that only the effective value is known. To
calculate the peak value, multiply the effective value by 1.41. For example, if the
effective value is 100 volts, the peak value is 141 volts.
Cycle And Frequency
Passage of the conductor across two poles produces one cycle. On the sine wave
diagram this means from zero through positive maximum, negative maximum and back
to zero. The number of times that this occurs in one second determines the frequency in
cycles per second (or Hertz) of the generator output.
The generator shown in Fig.1 and Fig. 2 is a two-pole machine. One revolution of the
armature conductors results in one cycle of the generated emf. The cycles per second
occurring in the circuit would then be equal to the number of revolutions per second.

A two-pole alternator has two field poles on the rotor (rotating field construction). Each
time the rotor makes one revolution; one complete cycle is produced at the alternator
terminals. In order to produce 60 Hz power, the rotor must turn 60 r/s, or 3600 r/min.

Figure 7
Frequency Sample

A four-pole alternator has four field poles so each time the rotor makes one revolution;
two complete cycles are produced at the alternator terminals. Using the same logic as
before, the rotor would have to turn at 1800 r/min to produce 60 Hz power.

Figure 8
Relation between number of poles frequency

The relationship between the number of poles in the machine and its speed gives the
frequency of the supply, that is:

The power frequency used in North America is 60 Hz. In Europe and most of Asia and
Africa it is 50 Hz.
Phase Relationship
If an AC voltage is applied to a circuit it will produce an AC current flow. If the voltage
and the current reach their maximum values at the same time they are said to be in
phase. This would be the case in a circuit having only resistance. A sine wave with
voltage and current in phase is shown in Fig.9 (a).
When the current reaches its maximum later than the voltage it is said to be a lagging
current. This would occur in a circuit having an inductive load. An inductive load is
usually one containing a coil or coils, very often around a magnetic core. A sine wave
with a lagging current is shown in Fig.9 (b).
If the current reaches its maximum earlier than the voltage it is said to be a leading
current. This would occur in a circuit having a capacitance load. A capacitive load is the
opposite of a capacitor or any capacitive circuit to the flow of current. Capacitors
consist of two conductors separated by an insulating material. They are used in
telephone and radio circuits.
A sine wave with a leading current is shown in Fig. 9 (c).


Figure 9
Phase Relationships

Three-Phase Alternating Power

A balanced three-phase circuit can be looked upon as a combination of three single-
phase circuits as far as the relationships of current, voltage, and power are concerned.
In the case of the three-phase alternator, the coil windings are connected in three
different groups, one for each phase. In this manner, three different voltages, identical in
magnitude but displaced from each other by 120 are produced. If the coil outputs were
connected to separate circuits, each circuit would carry single-phase power. When the
three coil connections are connected to the same circuit, it carries all three phases, or
three-phase power.
The three-phase alternator in Fig. 10 is similar to the simple loop machine, having a
stationary field and rotating conductors. It has three rotor windings spaced 120 apart. Fig. 5
shows the three separate voltage sine waves generated by the alternator in Fig. 4. Each of
the sine waves E1, E2, and E3 are separated or displaced by 120 electrical degrees. If the
alternator output is connected to a single circuit the result is three-phase power.

Figure 10
Three-Phase Alternator

Figure 11
Three-Phase Power Sine Waves
Fig. 11 shows three identical single-phase sine waves, each displaced by 120 electrical
degrees. A conductor passing across the faces of one N and one S pole in turn completes
one cycle, and this is termed 360 electrical degrees.

If the amount of rotation required to accomplish this were divided into thirds and three
conductors were placed on the armature so that one conductor was in each of these
thirds, then these conductors would be spaced 120 electrical degrees. When rotated,
each of the conductors would produce a voltage, which would vary as a sine wave, and
the combined voltages would appear as in Fig. 11.
In a single-phase circuit the flow of power is pulsating. Where the current and voltage
are in phase the power will be zero twice during each cycle. Although the power to each
of the three phases of the three-phase circuit is pulsating, the total three-phase power
supplied to a three-phase circuit is constant. Because of this the operating characteristics
of three phase machines in general are superior to those of similar single-phase
machines. Three phase machines are smaller, lighter in weight and more efficient than
single-phase machines of the same rated capacity.
Alternators
Alternators are generators that produce alternating current. Alternators may be built the
same way as the simple loop machine, having a stationary field and rotating conductors.
However, it is more practical to build them with a rotating field and stationary
conductors (Fig. 12). The rotating field is obtained by exciting windings on the rotor
with DC power supplied through a pair of slip rings. Small portable alternators use a
permanent magnet on the rotor. The stationary conductors are called the stator.
The advantages of an alternator with a rotating field are:
1. Brushes and slip rings carry only the excitation current, which has a much smaller
voltage and amperage than the current supplied by the stator to the output terminals.
2. The size of the rotating mass is reduced.
3. Only one pair of slip rings is required for a three-phase rotating field alternator
versus a minimum of three rings for a three-phase stationary field alternator.
4. It is easier to insulate the output leads, especially important when operating at
high voltages.

Figure 12
Two-Pole Alternator (Single-Phase)

UNIT 2
Define the following terms and explain their relationships in an ac circuit: capacitance,
inductance, reactance, impedance, power factor, alternator ratings (kVA and kW).
Learning Material
Capacitanc
Capacitance is a measure of a circuits ability to store an electrical charge. A device
manufactured to have a specific amount of capacitance is called a capacitor. A capacitor
is made up of a pair of conductive plates separated by a thin layer of insulating material.
Another name for the insulating material is dielectric material. When a voltage is
applied to the plates, electrons are forced onto one plate. That plate has an excess of
electrons while the other plate has a deficiency of electrons. The plate with an excess of
electrons is negatively charged. The plate with a deficiency of electrons is positively
charged.

Figure 13
Capacitance Components

Direct current cannot flow through the dielectric material because it is an insulator.
Capacitors have a capacity to hold a specific quantity of electrons. The capacitance of a
capacitor depends on the area of the plates, the distance between the plates, and the
material of the dielectric. The unit of measurement for capacitance is farads,
abbreviated F. Capacitors usually are rated in F (microfarads), or pF (picofarads).

Capacitor circuit symbols
Capacitance is usually indicated symbolically on an electrical drawing by a combination
of a straight line with a curved line, or two straight lines.

Figure 14
Capacitor Symbol

Simple capacitive circuit
In a resistive circuit, voltage change is considered instantaneous. If a capacitor is used,
the voltage across the capacitor does not change as quickly. In the following circuit,
initially the switch is open and no voltage is applied to the capacitor.
When the switch is closed, voltage across the capacitor will rise rapidly at first, then
more slowly as the maximum value is approached. For the purpose of explanation, a DC
circuit is used.

Figure 15
Capacitive Circuit

Capacitive Time Constant
The time required for voltage to rise to its maximum value in a circuit containing
capacitance is determined by the product of capacitance, in farads, times resistance, in
ohms. This is the time it takes a capacitor to become fully charged. This product is the
time constant of a capacitive circuit. The time constant gives the time in seconds
required for voltage across the capacitor to reach 63.2% of its maximum value. When
the switch is closed in the previous circuit, voltage will be applied. During the first time
constant, voltage will rise to 63.2% of its maximum value. During the second time
constant, voltage will rise to 63.2% of the remaining 36.8%, or a total of 86.4%. It takes
about five time constants for voltage across the capacitor to reach its maximum value.

Similarly, during this same time, it will take five time constants for current through the
resistor to reach zero.

Figure 16
Capacitor Performance

Calculating the time constant of a capacitive circuit
To determine the time constant of a capacitive circuit, use one of the following
formulas:
) ( ) ( ) sec ( s microfarad C megaohms R onds in = t
) ( ) ( ) sec ( picofarads C megaohms R onds micro in = t
) ( ) ( ) sec ( s microfarad C ohms R onds micro in = t

In the following illustration, C
1
is equal to 2 F, and R
1
is equal to 10 .When the
switch is closed, it will take 20 microseconds for voltage across the capacitor to rise
from zero to 63.2% of its maximum value. There are five time constants, so it will take
100 microseconds for this voltage to rise to its maximum value.

Figure 17
Capacitive Circuit Example

RC = t
O = 10 2 F t
nds micro sec 20 = t
Formula for series capacitors
Connecting capacitors in series decreases total capacitance. The effect is like increasing
the space between the plates. The rules for parallel resistance apply to series
capacitance. In the following circuit, an AC generator supplies electrical power to three
capacitors. Total capacitance is calculated using the following formula:
3 2 1
1 1 1 1
C C C C
t
+ + =

Figure 18
Series Capacitors

20
1
10
1
5
1 1
+ + =
t
C

20
7 1
=
t
C

t
C = 2.86 F
Formula for parallel capacitors
In the following circuit, an AC generator is used to supply electrical power to three
capacitors. Total capacitance is calculated using the following formula:
4 3 2 1
C C C C C
t
+ + + =

Figure 19
Parallel Capacitors
t
C =5 F + 10 F + 20 F
t
C =35 F
A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by an insulating material. They are
used in telephone and radio circuits. Power companies also use capacitors to correct the
effects of inductive loads. The amount of charge that a capacitor receives for each volt
of applied potential is called the capacitance of the capacitor. The unit of capacitance is
the Farad (F), and the symbol is C.
Capacitive resistance is the opposition of a capacitor or any capacitive circuit to the
flow of current. In a capacitive circuit, the current flowing is directly proportional to the
capacitance and to the rate at which the applied voltage is changing (frequency).
Therefore if either the frequency increases or the capacitance increases, the current flow
increases
The vector representation of voltages and currents given that current and voltage in a
purely resistance circuit are in phase with each other, the voltage required to overcome
the resistance is calculated by
V = IR. This is often referred to as the IR Voltage drop.

Inductance
Is the property of an electric circuit that opposes any change in electric current.
Resistance opposes current flow, inductance opposes change in current flow. Inductance
is designated by the letter L. The unit of measurement for inductance is the henry (h).
Current flow and field strength
Current flow produces a magnetic field in a conductor. The amount of current
determines the strength of the magnetic field. As current flow increases, field strength
increases, and as current flow decrease, field strength decreases

Figure 20
Current flow and field strength

Any change in current causes a corresponding change in the magnetic field surrounding the
conductor. Current is constant in DC, except when the circuit is turned on and off, or when
there is a load change. Current is constantly changing in AC, so inductance is a continual
factor. A change in the magnetic field surrounding the conductor induces a voltage in the
conductor. This self-induced voltage opposes the change in current. This is known as
counter emf. This opposition causes a delay in the time it takes current to attain its new
steady value. If current increases, inductance tries to hold it down. If current decreases,
inductance tries to hold it up. Inductance is somewhat like mechanical inertia, which must
be overcome to get a mechanical object moving, or to stop a mechanical object from
moving. A vehicle, for example, takes a few moments to accelerate to a desired speed, or
decelerate to a stop. Inductance is usually indicated symbolically on an electrical drawing
by one of two ways. A curled line or a filled rectangle can be used.

Figure 21
Inductance

Inductors are coils of wire. They may be wrapped around a core. The inductance of a
coil is determined by the number of turns in the coil, the spacing between the turns, the
coil diameter, the core material, the number of layers of windings, the type of winding,
and the shape of the coil. Examples of inductors are transformers, chokes, and motors.
In a resistive circuit, current change is considered instantaneous. If an inductor is used,
the current does not change as quickly. In the following circuit, initially the switch is
open and there is no current flow. When the switch is closed, current will rise rapidly at
first, then more slowly as the maximum value is approached. For the purpose of
explanation, a DC circuit is used.

Figure 22
Inductive Circuit

Inductive Time Constant
The time required for the current to rise to its maximum value is determined by the ratio
of inductance, in henrys, to resistance, in ohms. This ratio is called the time constant of
the inductive circuit. A time constant is the time, in seconds, required for the circuit
current to rise to 63.2% of its maximum value. When the switch is closed in the
previous circuit, current will begin to flow. During the first time constant current rises
to 63.2% of its maximum value. During the second time constant, current rises to 63.2%
of the remaining 36.8%, or a total of 86.4%. It takes about five time constants for
current to reach its maximum value.


Similarly, when the switch is opened, it will take five time constants for current to reach
zero. It can be seen that inductance is an important factor in AC circuits. If the
frequency is 60 hertz, current will rise and fall from its peak value to zero 120 times a
second.

Figure 23
Inductance Performance

Calculating the time constant of an inductive circuit
The time constant is designated by the symbol t . To determine the time constan of
an inductive circuit use one of the following formulas:
) (
) (
) sec (
ohm R
henry L
onds in = t
) (
) (
) sec (
ohm R
millihenry L
onds mili in = t
) (
) (
) sec (
ohm R
microhenry L
onds micro in = t
In the following illustration, L1 is equal to 15 millihenrys and R1 is equal to 5 O .
When the switch is closed, it will take 3 milliseconds for current to rise from zero to
63.2% of its maximum value.

Figure 24
Inductive Circuit Example
O
=
5
15
) sec (
mh
onds milli in t
t = 3 milliseconds

Formula for Series Inductors
The same rules for calculating total resistance can be applied. In the following circuit,
an AC generator is used to supply electrical power to four inductors. There will always
be some amount of resistance and inductance in any circuit. The electrical wire used in
the circuit and the inductors both have some resistance and inductance. Total inductance
is calculated using the following formula:
3 2 1
L L L L
t
+ + =

4 3 2 1
L L L L L
t
+ + + =
t
L =2mh + 2mh+ 1mh +1mh
t
L =6mh

Figure 25
Series Inductors

Formula for parallel inductors
In the following circuit, an AC generator is used to supply electrical power to three
inductors. Total inductance is calculated using the following formula:
3 2 1
1 1 1 1
L L L L
t
+ + =

Figure 26
Parallel Inductors

20
1
10
1
5
1 1
+ + =
t
L

20
7 1
=
t
L

t
L = 2.86 mh
When a conductor moves relative to a magnetic field so as to pass through or cut the
magnetic flux, a voltage or emf is induced in the conductor. Whether the conductor is
stationary and the field moves, the field is stationary and the conductor moves, or if
both move, is immaterial as long as relative movement between field and conductor
occurs. When relative movement ceases, production of induced emf ceases. This
process is called electromagnetic induction.
When a current is passed through a conductor, a magnetic field consisting of concentric
lines of flux is set up around the conductor. When the current is an alternating current,
the field also alternates, building up in one direction, then collapsing into the conductor
and building up in the opposite direction.
Lenz's Law is a law of electro-magnetic induction. It states: the direction of an induced
emf is always such that any current it produces opposes, through its magnetic effects,
the charge inducing the emf.
Hence, if a current is passed through a coil of wire, the magnetic field in building up
around each turn of the coil, cuts adjacent turns of the coil and induces an emf within
them. The total voltage induced in the coil by Lenz's law is a counter emf that opposes
the voltage applied to the coil. This counter emf produces an opposition to current flow
within the coil, which is known as self-inductance.
Self-inductance is an opposition additional to that provided by the resistance of the coil.
In DC circuits, self-inductance delays the build up of current to its maximum value
determined by the value of the applied voltage and the coil resistance. Once the current
reaches its steady maximum value, no further induction takes place and self-inductance
is no longer a factor. When the circuit is opened self-inductance again becomes a factor,
this time trying to delay the current collapse.
In AC circuits, because of the continually changing current, self-inductance is continually a
factor in limiting the current through a coil.
Any circuit capable of producing magnetic flux has inductance. A circuit with inductive
load is usually one containing a coil or coils, very often around a magnetic core.
Examples are motor, generator and transformer windings. A very long conductor can
also have some inductance. An example is a transformer wire.
Inductance affects the current flow only when the current is changing in value. In an AC
circuit the current is continuously changing in value. Therefore a continuous emf
(electromotive force) is also generated. The opposition to the current by the inductance
is called the inductive reactance, which is measured in measured in ohms

Reactance
Inductance only affects current flow when the current is changing. Inductance oduces a
self-induced voltage (counter emf) that opposes changes in current. In an AC circuit,
current is changing constantly. Inductance in an AC circuit, therefore, causes a
continual opposition. This opposition to current flow is called inductive reactance, and
is designated by the symbol X
L
.
Inductive reactance is dependent on the amount of inductance and frequency. If
frequency is low current has more time to reach a higher value before the polarity of the
sine wave reverses. If frequency is high current has less time to reach a higher value. In
the following illustration, voltage remains constant. Current rises to a higher value at a
lower frequency than a higher frequency.

Fig. 27. ( a ) Fig. 27 ( b )

The formula for inductiv reactance is:
fL X
L
t 2 =
ce induc frequency X
L
tan 14 . 3 2 =
In a 60 hertz, 10 volt circuit containing a 10 mh inductor, the inductive reactance
ould be:
fL X
L
t 2 =
01 . 0 60 14 . 3 2 =
L
X
O = 768 . 3
L
X
Once inductive reactance is known, Ohm's Law can be used to calculate reactive
current.
Z
E
I =
768 . 3
10
= I
= I 2.68 amps

Phase relationship between current and voltage in an inductive circuit
Current does not rise at the same time as the source voltage in an inductive circuit.
Current is delayed depending on the amount of inductance. In a purely resistive circuit,
current and voltage rise and fall at the same time. They are said to be in phase. In this
circuit there is no inductance, resistance and impedance are the same.

Fig. 28 ( a )
Resistive Circuit Phase Relation

In a purely inductive circuit, current lags behind voltage by 90 degrees. Current and
voltage are said to be out of phase. In this circuit, impedance and inductive reactance
are the same.

Figure 28
( b ) Pure inductive Circuit Phase Relation

All inductive circuits have some amount of resistance. AC current will lag somewhere
between a purely resistive circuit, and a purely inductive circuit. The exact amount of
lag depends on the ratio of resistance and inductive reactance. The more resistive a
circuit is, the closer it is to being in phase.The more inductive a circuit is, the more out
of phase it is. In the following illustration, resistance and inductive reactance are equal.
Current lags voltage by 45 degrees.

Figure 28
( c ) Inductive Circuit Phase Relation

Calculating impedance in an inductive circuit
When working with a circuit containing elements of inductance, capacitance, and
resistance, impedance must be calculated. Because electrical concepts deal with
trigonometric functions, this is not a simple matter of subtraction and addition. The
following formula is used to calculate impedance in an inductive circuit:
2 2
R X Z
L
+ =
In the circuit illustrated above, resistance and inductive reactance are each 10 ohms.
Impedance is 14.1421 ohms. A simple application of Ohms Law can be used to find
total circuit current.
2 2
10 10 + = Z
200 = Z
O = 1421 . 14 Z
Vectors
Another way to represent this is with a vector. A vector is a graphic representation of a
quantity that has direction and magnitude. A vector on a map might indicate that one
city is 50 miles southwest from another. The magnitude is 50 miles, and the direction is
southwest. Vectors are also used to show electrical relationships. As mentioned earlier,
impedance (Z) is the total opposition to current flow in an AC circuit containing
resistance, inductance, and capacitance. The following vector illustrates the relationship
between resistance and inductive reactance of a circuit containing equal values of each.
The angle between the vectors is the phase angle represented by the symbol u . When
inductive reactance is equal to resistance the resultant angle is 45 degrees. It is this
angle that determines how much current will lag voltage.

Reactance is the combined effect of inductive reactance and capacitive reactance. In an
inductive circuit the voltage drop IX
L
, due to the inductive reactance X
L
, leads the
current by 90 (the current is said to be lagging) as shown in Fig. 3 (b).

Capacitive reactance
Capacitance also opposes AC current flow. Capacitive reactance is designated by the
symbol XC. The larger the capacitor, the smaller the capacitive reactance. Current flow
in a capacitive AC circuit is also dependent on frequency. The following formula is
used to calculate capacitive reactance:
fC
Xc
t 2
1
=
Capacitive reactance is equal to 1 divided by 2 times pi, times the frequency, times the
capacitance. In a 60 hertz, 10 volt circuit containing a 10 microfarad capacitor the
capacitive reactance would be:
fC
Xc
t 2
1
=
0001 . 0 60 14 . 3 2
1

= Xc
O = 39 . 265 Xc
Once capacitive reactance is known, Ohm`s Law can be used to calculate reactive
current.
Z
E
Xc =
39 . 265
10
= Xc
= Xc 0.0376 amps

Phase relationship
The phase relationship between current and voltage are
between current and voltage in a capacitive circuit
opposite to the phase relationship of an inductive circuit. In a purely capacitive circuit,
current leads voltage by 90 degrees.

Figure 29 ( a )
Pure Capacitive Circuit Phase Relation

All capacitive circuits have some amount of resistance. AC current will lead somewhere
between a purely resistive circuit and a purely capacitive circuit. The exact amount of
lead depends on the ratio of resistance and capacitive reactance. The more resistive a
circuit is, the closer it is to being in phase. The more capacitive a circuit is, the more out
of phase it is. In the following illustration, resistance and capacitive reactance are equal.
Current leads voltage by 45 degrees.

Figure 29 ( b )
Capacitive Circuit Phase Relation

Calculating impedance in a capacitive circuit
The following formula is used to calculate impedance in a capacitive circuit:
2 2
c
X R Z + =
In the circuit illustrated above, resistance and capacitive reactance are each 10 ohms.
Impedance is 14.1421 ohms.
2 2
10 10 + = Z
200 = Z
O = 1421 . 14 Z
The following vector illustrates the relationship between resistance and capacitive reactance of a
circuit containing equal values of each. The angle between the vectors is the phase angle
represented by the symbol
u
. When capacitive reactance is equal to resistance the resultant
angle is -45 degrees. It is this angle that determines how much current will lead voltage.

In a capacitive circuit the voltage drop IX
C
, due to the capacitive reactance X
C
, lags the
current by 90 (here the current is termed a leading current). See Fig. 3 (c)
Inductive reactance causes the current to lag the voltage. Capacitive reactance causes the
current to lead the voltage. When inductive reactance and capacitive reactance are
connected in series, the combined effect is their difference. The equation for reactance is:

X = X
L
- X
C

Where: X = Reactance (ohms)
X
L
= Inductive Reactance (ohms)
XC = Capacitive Reactance (ohms)

IMPEDANCE

When the effects of inductive reactance and capacitive reactance are combined in one
circuit they cannot be added arithmetically because of the phase relationships. The
impedance triangle, Fig. 30, illustrates the method used.

Figure 30
Phase Relationships
Impedance is the total opposition in a circuit to the flow of current. It combines the
effect of the resistance and reactance of a circuit. The formula for impedance is:
Z=E/I
Where: Z = Impedance (ohms)
E = Effective Applied Voltage (volts)
I = Effective Current (amps)
Inductive reactance and capacitive reactance act in direct opposition to one another and
tend to cancel one another out. The complete expression for the impedance of an ac
circuit having resistance, inductive and capacitive loads connected in series, is:
Z=
2 2
) (
C L
X X R +

ohms
Where Z = Impedance (ohms)
XL = Inductive Reactance (ohms)
XC = Capacitive Reactance (ohms)
R = Resistance (ohms)

Power Factor
Power consumed by a resistor is dissipated in heat and not returned to the source. This
is true power. True power is the rate at which energy is used. Current in an AC circuit
rises to peak values and diminishes to zero many times a second. The energy stored in
the magnetic field of an inductor, or plates of a capacitor, is returned to the source when
current changes irection. Power in an AC circuit is the vector sum of true power and
reactive power. This is called apparent power. True power is equal to apparent power
in a purely resistive circuit because voltage and current are in phase. Voltage and
current are also in phase in a circuit containing equal values of inductive reactance and
capacitive reactance. If voltage and current are 90 degrees out of phase, as would be in a
purely capacitive or purely inductive circuit, the average value of true power is equal to
zero. There are high positive and negative peak values of power, but when added
together the result is zero.
True power and apparent power formulas
The formula for apparent power is:
EI P =
Apparent power is measured in volt-amps (VA).True power is calculated from another
trigonometric function, the cosine of the phase angle (cos u ). The formula for true
power is:
u cos EI P =
True power is measured in watts.
In a purely resistive circuit, current and voltage are in phase. There is a zero degree
angle displacement between current and voltage. The cosine of zero is one. Multiplying
a value by one does not change the value. In a purely resistive circuit the cosine of the
angle is ignored.
In a purely reactive circuit, either inductive or capacitive, current and voltage are 90
degrees out of phase. The cosine of 90 is zero. Multiplying a value times zero results in
a zero product. No power is consumed in a purely reactive circuit.
The power in an AC circuit is equal to the effective current I times the effective voltage
E at that instant. This is only really true when the current and voltage are in phase.
When reactance is present, the voltage and current are out of phase. In this case the
value of power produced is less than E x I. The value of E x I in a circuit is also called
volt-amperes (VA) or kilovolt amperes (kVA). This is called the apparent power of a
system. The real power in watts is the apparent power multiplied by the power factor.

Power Factor
Power factor is the ratio of true power to apparent power in an AC circuit. Power factor
is expressed in the following formula:
PA
PT
PF =
Power factor can also be expressed using the formulas for true power and apparent
power. The value of EI cancels out because it is the same in the numerator and
denominator. Power factor is the cosine of the angle.
EI
EI
PF
u cos
=
u cos = PF
In a purely resistive circuit, where current and voltage are in phase, there is no angle of
displacement between current and voltage. The cosine of a zero degree angle is one. The
power factor is one. This means that all energy delivered by the source is consumed by
the circuit and dissipated in the form of heat.
In a purely reactive circuit, voltage and current are 90 degrees apart. The cosine of a 90
degree angle is zero. The power factor is zero. This means the circuit returns all energy
it receives from the source to the source.
In a circuit where reactance and resistance are equal, voltage and current are displaced
by 45 degrees. The cosine of a 45 degree angle is .7071. The power factor is .7071. This
means the circuit has used approximately 70% of the energy supplied by the source and
returned approximately 30%.


Figure 31
Power Phase Relationship
The relationship of the real power EI cos , apparent power EI, and reactive power EI
sin is shown in the phase diagram Fig. 31. The angle between the apparent and reactive
power is , and the power factor is cos .
The term cos is known as the power factor and has some value between one and zero
(100% and zero). Because of the large number of induction motors and other inductive
devices the power factor of many such systems is low (75%), resulting in line losses and
substantial voltage drops. To improve power factor a corrective capacitor can be used.
Power factor can be expressed as a percentage or as decimal value. (75% or 0.75 for
example)
If the current and voltage are in phase, the power factor is 1. If the current and the
voltage were out of phase by 90 degrees as in a purely reactive or purely inductive
circuit, the power factor would be zero. Then the actual power would be zero. Normally
a circuit contains both resistive and reactive loads. This results in a power factor
between zero and one. The power factors of some common loads are:
Small induction motors - 60 to 80 percent
Incandescent lighting - 95 to 100 percent
Large induction motors - 80 to 90 percent

Static capacitors like the pole mounted ones in Fig.32 can be used to increase the power
factor at a facility such as an industrial plant. They are connected in parallel with the
power lines. The capacitor plates are inside the metal tanks, immersed in insulating oil
for operating at high voltages.

Figure 32
Capacitors Used to Adjust Power Factor

Alternator Ratings
Alternator capacity is rated in (kilovolt amperes) kVA or (megavolt amperes) MVA and
also kilowatts (kW) or megawatts (MW) at a specified power factor. For example, a
generator may be rated at 125 MVA and 100MW at 0.8 lagging power factor. The
maximum continuous rating (MCR) expressed in MVA is based on the nominal values
of the stator and rotor currents. Neither of these should be exceeded, as the additional
losses may damage their respective insulating materials.
Alternator nameplates also carry voltage, current, frequency, number of phases, and
speed ratings. Maximum temperature rise is also stated, along with the type of
measurement used. Excitation data is also included. It is stated as field voltage and field
amperes.

UNIT 3
Describe the stator and rotor designs, operation, and applications for salient pole and
cylindrical rotor alternators, Excitation, Permanent Magnet Generator (PMG),voltage
regulator, and governor
Learning Material
Alternators

AC generators are usually referred to as alternators. Both single-phase and three-phase
alternators are manufactured, but the three-phase alternator is far more common in
industry. Modern alternators consist of a stator on which the AC voltage producing
windings are placed, and a rotating armature or rotor on which a DC excitation winding
is placed. The rotors DC winding is supplied via slip-rings and produces a magnetic
field which when rotated cuts the stator conductors inducing an AC voltage within
them. The AC winding is a distributed winding. The windings are distributed in slots
around the stator very much like the armature winding of a DC machine.

There are two different kinds of rotor, salient pole rotors and cylindrical type rotors.
Cylindrical rotors are used on alternators exceeding 1800 r/min. Steam and gas turbine-
driven alternators will have cylindrical-type rotors, as shown in Fig. 33 (a).

Figure 33
Alternator Rotor Designs
The stator consists of a magnetic steel core, built up in laminated sheets. The winding is
placed in slots in the core in the same manner as the armature winding of the DC
generator. The rotor carries the field windings, supplied through brush gear and slip-
rings.
Slow-speed generators not exceeding 1800 r/min such as those driven by diesel engines
or water turbines have rotors with projecting, or salient, field poles. A salient pole rotor
is shown in Fig. 10(b). Fig. 34 shows a multi-pole, 240 r/min, 2140 kW, 60 hertz Allis-
Chalmers generator.
Fig. 35 shows a two-pole, 100 MW, 3000 r/min, 50-hertz machine. This figure shows
the complete turbo generator set including turbines, alternator and exciter.


Figure 34
Salient Pole Generator
Unlike DC generators alternators must be driven at very definite constant speed. This is
the speed that produces the required frequency of power. For example, if 60-hertz is
required by the power grid, a two-pole machine would have to be run at 3600 r/min.
Where a single alternator is supplying a circuit load, the frequency of that circuit or
system will depend entirely upon that alternator speed. If however, there are a number
of alternators running in parallel to supply the system, the speed of each machine will
be locked into the system frequency. The system frequency will not vary unless the
speed of all the machines change
.Again, if an additional alternator is to be switched into the system supply it must be run
up to an exact speed first to correspond with the others. This is termed the Synchronous
speed. For a 60-hertz frequency system a two-pole machine has a synchronous speed of
3600 r/min; a four-pole machine, 1800 r/min; twelve-pole, 600 r/min, and so on.
Standard frequency on the North American continent is 60 hertz (Europe 50 hertz) and
alternators normally run at 3600 r/min when two-pole, and 1800 r/min when four-pole.
The modern turbo-alternator is almost without exception of two-pole design. The lower
operating speed with the four-pole machine is not generally favorable to a high-pressure
turbine design and the unit as a whole is bulkier and more expensive than a two-pole
machine of similar rating. Most development has therefore been concentrated on the
two-pole generator design.
The common types of prime movers used to drive alternators are steam turbines, gas
turbines, steam and diesel engines. The types of alternator employed will be chosen to
match the prime mover, and both will be influenced by the required output, voltage, and
so on.

The alternator illustrated in Fig. 35 is a multi-pole engine-type generator typical for use
at speeds below 500 r/min. The machine shown has 28 field poles on the revolving rotor
and will run at 257 r/min to generate 60 hertz. Typical output will be up to 5000 kVA.
Alternators for hydro-electric or diesel engine generating stations are of the slow-speed
multi-pole type; in most cases the hydro-station type will have the alternator shaft
disposed vertically. Those for steam or gas turbine drive are always of the horizontal,
cylindrical rotor-type shown in Fig. 33 (a).

Figure 35
Stator and Rotor Assemblies for
Large Engine-Type Synchronous Generator

Rotor Design
The rotor of such machines is forged of solid steel, which may in the largest sizes have
a diameter of some 1070 mm, a body length of 6 m and, with the shaft ends an overall
length of 10.5 m or more. The mass of such a forging may be 50 or 60 tonnes and
requires considerable care in testing after manufacture to ensure that it contains no
internal defect.

Figure 36
Rotor Construction

The body of the rotor is slotted to receive the windings. Steel retaining rings referred to
as end caps or end bells, are shrunk on to hold the end windings in position against
heavy centrifugal force.
The rotor is wound as in Fig.36 (b) first. Note that it forms a concentric winding on each
of the two rotor poles. Then the slot wedges are fitted and finally the end bells are
shrunk over the end turns so that they butt against the slotted rotor body and lock the
wedges in position.
These end caps may be made of non-magnetic steel alloy in order to reduce the stray
losses. British and European practice appears to favor magnetic steel because of its
higher tensile strength.
The rotor windings are of copper strip insulated with micanite and held into the rotor
slots against centrifugal force by steel wedges. Fig. 36 gives a view of the rotor:
(a) Before winding
(b) After winding and before fitting slot wedges and end bells
(c) Complete with end bells, fans and couplings

Stator Design
The basic features of the stator are the core, built up from segmental steel sheets and the
windings of copper insulated with micanite and carried in slots in the inner periphery of
the core. A stator frame is necessary to support the core and windings and provide an
enclosure for circulation of the gaseous coolant.
The stator core is built up of slotted segments made of special silicon alloy steel sheets
0.35 to 4 mm thick. These are keyed into the stator frame and clamped longitudinally.
Radial ducts are provided for cooling purposes at intervals along the length of the core,
these being formed by I-section spacers spot-welded to adjacent segments.

Stator windings for large turbo-alternators are of the bar type usually formed from
rectangular section copper conductors, the number of conductors per slot being chosen
to suit the winding arrangement. This will always be of the three-phase type, the
conductors being circumferentially arranged in six groups. Long end windings are
necessary to connect the winding groups and special precautions must be taken to
support these. They are secured firmly to brackets and numerous support blocks are
provided to ensure that the windings will not deform in the event of fault conditions
producing surge currents.
It is, in fact, quite common for a customer to call for a machine on the test bed to be
subjected to a sudden three-phase short circuit at its terminals while running on open
circuit at normal voltage and frequency. Stator winding insulation is generally micanite
although a number of different bonding materials are in use.

Exciters and Excitation Systems
The amount of voltage that is generated in the armature of an alternator is
dependent on:
1) the number of armature turns per coil (fixed)
2) the speed of the rotating field along with its flux (fixed)
3) the amount of flux produced by the field (variable)
of these three only number three is practical since the armature turns can not be varied
since most alternators must operate at a fixed rotation frequency to generate constant
cycles per second (Hertz)
The amount of flux produced in the field is dependent on three factors:
1) the number of turns in the field windings (fixed)
2) the type of core material, iron that the rotor made of (fixed)
3) the amount of current flowing through the field windings (variable)
of these three factors, only number three cn be varied once the machine has been
constructed.
Therefore on a synchronous generator, the only variable that can control output voltage
is the amount of current flowing in the field which is called field excitation current.
There are two types of alternator
1- separately excited
2- self excited
Separately Excited Synchronous Generator

Figure 37
Separately Excited Synchronous Generator

Self Excited Brushless Type Synchronous Generator

Figure 38
Self Excited Brush less type Synch. Gen
Voltage Regulator
the use of voltage regulator is the instrument used to sense the generator voltage,
compare it with the reference voltage and output a current fed to the exciter field
accordingly.

Figure 39
Voltage Regulator Function Block Diagram


BRUSHLESS GENERATOR OPERATATION BLOCK
DIAGRAM

Rotate on Common Shaft

Figure 40

Exciter field
(Stationary)
Exciter Armature
( Revolving )
Alternator
Field
(Revolving)

Stator
Alternator
(Stationary)

Load

Regulator
Voltage
Sensing
Regulator
Power Regulator
Output

PMG
Pilot Exciter
Advantages of a permanent magnet generator:
- Provides an economical and simple means of reliable, responsive and stable input
power to the voltage regulator.
- Provides full exciter power for motor starting, regardless of alternator voltage.
- Enhances manual voltage control regulation as the PMG provides a more stable
power source to the manual control.
- Reduces the effects of both conducted and radiated electromagnetic interference
(EMI). With an EMI filter, the PMG and a Kato voltage regulator will meet the
emissions requirements of Mil-Std. 461C, Part 9, Class C2.
- Supplies continuous power to the exciter through the voltage regulator to maintain
up to 300% short-circuit current from the alternator during a fault condition.
current from the alternator during a fault condition.
How the PMG Works
Figure 41 illustrates a typical application of a PMG pilot exciter. The PMG exciter
provides input power to the voltage regulator on a brushless revolving field generator to
help maintain rated output voltage during sudden load changes. The PMG is a separate
power source for the voltage regulator. In the event of a sudden load change due to a
motor starting application or even a sudden short-circuit condition on the generator
output, the PMG will supply rated voltage to the regulator. This will force the generator
into saturation and supply the necessary output current to
start the motor or clear the fault condition. The generator will produce up to 300% or
more short circuit current during a three-phase fault condition.
This is normally more than enough current to trip a properly sized circuit breaker. The
PMG, when used as regulator power, sharply reduces system conducted RFI. If the MG
is used in conjunction with a Kato EMI filter pack and a Kato voltage regulator, this
system will meet Mil-Std. 461C, Part 9, Class 2. A revolving field brushless generator
obtains excitation from a direct-connected brushless exciter.
The voltage regulator regulates the generator output voltage by automatically regulating
the DC current fed to the exciter field. The constant output voltage from the PMG pilot
exciter is fed to the brushless exciter field. When the generator rotor begins to turn, the
PMG rotating magnetic field produces voltage in the PMG stationary armature winding.
The output voltage from this PMG armature winding is then used to power the voltage
regulator.

The rotating permanent magnet field assembly is mounted on the generator shaft. As
shown in Figure 42, the PMG armature is mounted outboard for easy removal.
Typically both the PMG and the exciter are mounted in the same frame. The PMG will
provide constant power to the voltage regulator through a wide range of transient
conditions. The only external input required is rotational energy from the prime mover.

Figure 41
PMG Pilot Exciter Application


Figure 42
PMG


Governor
An uncontrolled horse, running in a pasture, can be a pretty sight, however, if work is to
be accomplished the horse must be harnessed and controlled
Generator governor give the operation of speed control and load sharing as in the Basic
Load Sensing Block Diagram.

Figure 43.
Governor ( Load Sharing and Speed Control ) Application )

Alternator Start building voltage sequence :
When the driving engine is started and brought to rated speed a small voltage is induced
into the revolving exciter armature due to residual magnetism in the exciter field iron.
This voltage causes a direct current to flow from the exciter armature, through its
rectifying circuit into alternator field this current induces a low sinusoidal voltage into
the alternator stator or armature. ( generally greater than 5 VRMS) the AVR will be able
to rectify it via its rectifying circuit and send it back to via its exciter field terminals.
This current will aid the residual magnetism of the exciter field . this will cause higher
alternator field current wich in turn raises alternator output voltage . this build up
process will continue until 75% rated voltage detected by Automatic Voltage Regulator
(AVR) a Build up relay within the AVR energized allowing the its operation on
controlling the output voltage.

UNIT 4
Describe water, air and hydrogen cooling systems for large generators.
Learning Material
Generator Cooling
The general trend in modern design is to ever-increase output from an individual
machine. In all cases a single machine will cost less than two smaller machines giving
the same total output, both in construction and in running costs. Despite the more
expensive raw materials required and the increasing complexity of design, efforts are
being made to increase the size of alternators.
The main limitation on the output which can be obtained from any given turbo-
alternator frame is the amount of heat which can be dissipated from the rotor without
the temperature rise of the windings exceeding the permissible limits. Effective cooling
must be carried out in the stator windings too, but since these windings are stationary
the problem is not so acute.
Liquid-Cooled Alternators
Direct cooling of the conductors in the stator windings of alternators has been carried
out by circulation of liquid through hollow conductors. The advantages to be gained
through more effective cooling of the stator windings are: increased current densities in
the stator copper, and consequent reduction in overall mass of the machine for any
given output.
The liquid chosen as most suitable for this method of cooling was water. The generators
being installed employ water-cooling in the stator windings. Stainless steel manifolds
carry the cooling-water supply to and from the ends of the hollow copper conductors.
Plastic insulating hoses are used for the connections.
Water of high purity is used to ensure low electrical conductivity and so minimize the
losses due to leakage current flow. Leakage current flow refers to current flowing
through the water.
Direct Air Cooling
The first alternator designs used a straight through air-cooling arrangement for stator
and rotor cooling. Fans mounted on the rotor shaft drew in atmospheric air and
discharged it through the core and windings. The disadvantages were that the ventilating
ducts gathered dust and grit and became choked. The fire hazard was considerable as
the hot coils of the generator could ignite the dust and grit.

Enclosed Air System
The next design enclosed the alternator air system so that the same air re-circulates
through the windings after passing through an air cooler. Most of these designs use a
separate ventilating air fan. Fig. 44 shows a typical arrangement.
The advantages are that the windings are kept very much cleaner, the fire hazard is
reduced since the quantity of oxygen in the system is limited, and the generator area can
be kept quieter and cooler. The alternator design is made more compact because the fan
and air cooler can be located in the alternator foundation block.
The cooling medium for the air-cooler is circulating water. Care has to be taken that no
leakages occur at the tubes. Water could leak into the generator causing shorting or
arcing. The water used is not ultra pure and will conduct electricity. Means are provided
for emergency access to atmospheric air in the event of loss of cooling water supply.
The atmospheric air is then used to cool the circulating water. The load on the generator
would have to be reduced, when using air as a cooling medium.

Figure 44
Alternator Ventilating Arrangement

Hydrogen Cooling
The use of a closed circuit system of alternator ventilation and cooling suggested the
possibility of some other gas in place of air being used as the cooling medium. Air has
the disadvantages of a poor thermal capacity, high density and the fact that it will
support combustion. The gas, which was universally chosen in place of air for alternator
cooling, was hydrogen.
Hydrogen has outstanding advantages as a cooling medium. It as a high heat transfer
coefficient and will therefore absorb and reject heat rapidly. It has a high thermal
conductivity and will transmit the heat rapidly. It has a low density. This requires little
power to force it through a fan and offers very little braking effect (windage) to the
rotating parts of the alternator. The low density gives reduced windage loss and this
results in a direct increase in the alternator efficiency of approximately 1%. The specific
heat of hydrogen is high enough to compensate for the low density so that it will carry
off about the same amount of heat as air for a given quantity of gas.
Compared directly with air, its specific heat is fourteen times as great, and its density is
about one-fourteenth. Its heat transfer coefficient is about one and one half times that of
air and its thermal conductivity six times.
The higher thermal conductivity and greater heat transfer coefficient of hydrogen both
reduce the temperature gradient in an alternator, or conversely permit a greater output to
be obtained from the same frame.
The increase in output obtained with hydrogen cooling in place of air- cooling on any
particular machine has been shown to be 20 to 30%, based on a hydrogen pressure of
3.5 kPa. A further increase in output may be obtained by raising the pressure of
hydrogen in the alternator, each 7-kPa increase above atmosphere giving about 1% gain
in output. Experiments have been carried out with pressures up to 170 kPa and
alternators are regularly operated up to 100 kPa.
In addition to the above, the use of hydrogen for cooling brings the following
advantages: reduced maintenance because of the gas-tight and hence dirt and moisture-
proof casing; quieter operation due to the virtual elimination of windage losses;
simplified foundations since external fans and coolers are not required.
The disadvantages are the added complications of a gas control system and shaft sealing
devices, and the necessity for a gas-tight and explosion-safe casing.


Figure 45
Arrangement of Hydrogen-Cooled Alternator
In order to avoid having an explosive mixture of air and hydrogen in the stator at times
of charging or purging, carbon dioxide is used as a buffer gas, that is, when replacing
the air in the stator with hydrogen, carbon dioxide is used to expel the air and then
hydrogen in turn displaces the carbon dioxide. In the case of purging the hydrogen from
the stator prior to opening up for overhaul and repair, CO
2
is used to expel the hydrogen
and then air to displace the CO
2
.
Hydrogen and air form an explosive mixture between the limits of 4% and 74%
hydrogen in air by volume. During normal running it is not difficult to maintain the
purity of the hydrogen in the stator at 95% or above. A hydrogen cooled alternator
arrangement is shown in Fig. 45.
With regard to the risk of explosion, which is attendant upon the use of hydrogen,
experience has shown that if ordinary precautions are taken there is no danger.
Nevertheless, hydrogen-cooled alternators are enclosed in a casing, which is designed to
withstand the highest pressure, which could occur in the event of an explosion.

The complete system of piping and auxiliaries for a hydrogen-cooled alternator is
illustrated in Fig. 48. The layout shows lubricating (seal) oil lines, carbon dioxide,
hydrogen, distilled water (for hydrogen coolers) and river water (for distilled water
coolers) piping.
Increasing the hydrogen gas pressure in the stator can increase the effectiveness of
hydrogen cooling of alternators. Allowing the gas direct access to the copper conductors
on the rotor winding can also increase cooling. This method is known as Direct Rotor
Cooling and together with increased gas pressure has been responsible for a major
advance in the design of turbo-alternators. The rotor winding design is arranged to
allow cooling gas to flow in contact with the copper by the use of slotted, grooved or
hollow conductors.
The gas flow paths vary with manufacturers designs. In some cases the gas enters at
each end of the rotor and leaves at the center. In others it flows from end to end. Still
other designs allow the gas to enter special rotor ventilation slots and then escape
radially through slotted conductors.


Figure 46
Complete System of Pipework and Auxiliaries for Hydrogen-Cooled Alternator

Shaft Seals
The shafts must be sealed at the point where they pass through the stator casing.
Various types of shaft seals have been designed and are in use. Fig. 47 (a) and (b)
illustrates a radial clearance and an axial clearance type.

Figure 47
Shaft Seal Used in Hydrogen-Cooled Alternators
In each case the basic idea is to prevent the hydrogen from escaping outwards by
forcing seal oil inwards. The present day seals are extremely effective and the quantity
of oil required to maintain tightness is relatively small. The oil is supplied from the
main machine lubricating oil system and is returned after passing through a hydrogen
detraining tank where the oil is delayed long enough to allow any entrained hydrogen to
be given off.

UNIT 5
Explain parallel operation of alternators and state the requirements for synchronization.
Describe manual and automatic synchronization.
Learning Material
Paralleling Alternators
The process of connecting an alternator in parallel with other operating alternators is
referred to as synchronizing. The alternator that is being synchronized must meet the
following conditions before it can be put into the operating system:
1. The incoming alternator must be the same voltage as the system. Adjust the
alternator_field rheostat until the terminal voltage matches the system voltage.
2. Alternator frequency and system frequency must be the same. Adjusting the speed
of the prime mover controls the alternator frequency. In most cases this means
control of steam supply to the turbine.
3. Its phase sequence must be the same as the system. If the system bus bars are
designated Red, White and Blue and the maximum of the voltage waves of these
three phases occur in the sequence Red, White, Blue, then the incoming machine
(which is to be connected Red to Red, Blue to Blue, etc.) must also have voltage
maximums occurring in the phase sequence Red, White, Blue. Phase sequence is
also referred to as phase rotation. Lamps or a phase rotation meter can check
phase sequence.
4. It must be in phase with the system. This means that the phase voltage of the
alternator must reach its maximum at the same time as the system voltage reaches
its maximum.
The phase relationship of incoming machine and system requires the use of a
synchronizing device such as an indicator; this may be in the form of a bank of lamps or
a synchroscope. Modern large machines will always use a synchroscope because
indication by lamps is not accurate enough.
There are two common manual methods of synchronization, the lamp method and the
synchroscope method. The synchroscope method is the best, but lamps are cheaper and
may need to be used in an emergency, and also have definite advantages in checking
phase rotation.

Lamp Method of Synchronization
There are two ways of connecting lamps for synchronizing, but the procedure prior to
synchronization is the same for both. We will therefore deal with one method and point
out the difference with the other method.
One Dark, Two Bright Synchronization (rotating lamps)
Fig. 48 shows how the lamps are connected across the synchronizing switch for this
method. The procedure is as follows:

Figure 48
One Dark, Two Bright Synchronization
i. The prime-mover of the incoming alternator is started and brought up to speed.
ii. The DC field excitation switch of the incoming alternator is closed and by means
of the field rheostat the voltage is adjusted to approximately the same voltage as
the system.
iii. The synchronizing lamps should go bright and dark one after the other giving a
kind of rotating effect. If they all go bright and dark in unison, then the phase
sequence of the incoming alternator is incorrect and should be corrected by
changing any two of its three output leads.
iv. When they are rotating correctly the speed of the incoming alternator should be
adjusted so that the rotation is slow.
v. After finally checking that the voltages are the same, and adjusting if not, the
synchronizing switch should be closed at the moment when lamp a and c are
equally bright and lamp b is dark. Be sure that it is b lamp that is dark.
vi. Once the alternator is paralleled, it can be made to share load by increasing the
driving torque of its prime mover.

All Dark Synchronization
Fig. 49 shows how the lamps should be connected for this method of synchronization.
When the phase sequence is correct all three lamps should go dark and bright together.
If they rotate in brightness, then the phase sequence of the incoming alternator is
incorrect and should be corrected.
The procedure is then the same as before, except the synchronizing switch should be
closed when all three lamps are dark. The main disadvantage of this method is that a
considerable voltage can exist across the lamps even when they are dark, and closing
the switch in these circumstances can cause disturbance in the system. All lamps should
have a voltage rating at least as high as 1.15 x line voltage of the system. Otherwise,
two or more lamps connected in series, or potential transformers should be used.

Figure 49
All Dark Synchronization

Synchroscope Synchronization
The synchroscope is a single-phase device used to synchronize three-phase and single-
phase alternators. When using a synchroscope, the phase rotation should be checked by
lamps, or by some other method, as it cannot be detected by the synchroscope. The face
of the synchroscope appears as illustrated in Fig. 50. The procedure is as before, but the
alternator speed should be adjusted so that the rotating pointer is rotating slowly in the
fast direction. The synchronizing switch is then closed when the pointer is vertical
and pointing upwards.

Figure 50
Synchroscope

Automatic Synchronization
It is becoming common for each generator in a power plant to have its own equipment
for automatically synchronizing the generator to the power grid. The manual equipment
as described above is only used as a backup. The automatic synchronizing equipment
includes a speed matching relay, a voltage-matching relay, a synchronizing relay,
auxiliary relays, and transformer relays or switches. The automatic synchronizing
equipment is turned on as part of the generating unit start-up. As the generator unit
reaches its rated speed, the speed-matching relay provides raise or lower impulses to the
prime mover. This is done to match the generator frequency to the bus or grid
frequency. The voltage-matching relay matches the generator and bus voltages by
sending more or less excitation to the generator. When the generator and bus voltages
and frequencies are matched, as determined by the synchronizing relay, the closing
impulse is given to the generator breaker to close its contacts.
Disconnecting an Alternator
To take an alternator off the line in a system involving two or more alternators, the
driving torque of the prime mover of the alternator to be removed should be reduced
until it is supplying zero current to the busbars. At this point its main disconnect switch
can be opened disconnecting the machine from the busbars. The output voltage is then
reduced to a minimum by means of the field rheostat, and the DC field excitation switch
is opened. The prime mover can now be stopped.

UNIT 6
Describe the Generator normal operation, starting and stop, protection philosophy,
installation and maintenance guide lines and describe the renewal parts for motors and
generators which included in appendix of NEC RP 1.
Learning Material
Generator normal operation
Most of the topics covered in this section are not dependant on the type of Since Diesel
engines are very often used some specific information about Diesel generator sets will
be given.
The power output requirement for the generator set is probably the most important
criterion to be defined. The output of a generator set is typically defined on the
active/reactive power graph as represented in Figure 51 .

Figure 51
Active / Reactive Power Graph Showing Operating Limits

The active power output depends on the type of fuel used, and on site conditions
including ambient temperature, cooling medium temperature, altitude, and relative
humidity. It also depends on load characteristics such as possible overloading and load
variations over time. The ISO 3046-1 standard for Diesel engines defines three different
types of power ratings, and a standard definition of overload capability.

The different power ratings are:
- continuous power rating: The engine can supply 100% rated power for an
unlimited time. This rating is normally used for production sets.
- prime power rating: The engine can supply a base load for an unlimited time, and
100% rated power for a limited time. The base load and acceptable time for 100%
rated power are different for each manufacturer. Typical values are a base load of
70% of the rated power, and 100% rated power during 500 hours per year.
- standby power rating: This is the maximum power that the engine can deliver and
is limited in time, typically less than 500 hours per year. This rating should only
be applied to generator sets which are used exclusively for emergency power.
Since the engine is incapable of supplying more power, a security factor of at least
10% should be used when defining the standby power rating.
The standard overload capacity is defined as 10% more power during 1 hour for every
12 hours of operation. There is no overload capacity with a standby power rating. Most
manufacturers allow the standard overload capacity with the continuous power rating
and the prime power rating, but since there are exceptions, the overload capacity should
always be specified together with the type of power rating used.
A typical example is a Diesel engine having a continuous power rating of 1550 kW, a
prime power rating of 1760 kW, and a standby power rating of 1880 kW.
For remote sites having no utility supply, several generator sets are used. A typical
distribution system is shown in Figure 52
The number of sets N will depend on the power required, but since generator sets
require periodic maintenance, plant power should be able to be supplied by N - 1 sets
without any load shedding.
The generator set size should be such that they are loaded at least 50%. A poor load
factor can be detrimental to the sets. For example Diesel engines loaded at less than
30% will not achieve a good operating temperature resulting in poor combustion and
degrading of lubrication oil.
Plant operation at N - 2 sets should also be considered, this case occurring when one set
is being maintained and there is a loss of an additional set.
The highest initial load factor F that can be used with N installed generators such that
load


Figure 52
I ndustrial Site Without Utility Supply

shedding is not required for N - 2 operation can be determined from:
1
2
=
N
N
F
For example the highest load factor for N = 6 will be 80%. Bus-tie circuit-breakers are
often used for maintenance purposes. During normal plant operation all bus-tie circuit-
breakers are normally closed. Short-circuit calculations should always take operation
with N generators into account since it is normal to connect standby sets prior to
switching off sets for maintenance.
A power supply using local generation is generally much weaker than a utility supply
and therefore it is probable that load shedding will be required to maintain system
stability during fault conditions.
Determination of how much load must be shed requires dynamic simulation of the network
for different fault conditions such as a loss of a generator or a short-circuit. Prior to the
study it is necessary to determine which operating configurations are to be considered.
Operating conditions with the bus-tie circuit-breaker both in the open and the closed
positions will greatly increase the complexity of the load shedding system since each busbar
can be operated independently and will require specific load shedding criteria. For most
plants it is recommended that only the standard operating configuration be used for the
dynamic simulations and definition of the load shedding strategy.

Figure 52 shows each generator having its own transformer. The use of generator
transformers has several advantages:
- provides flexibility in the choice of generator voltage,
- reduces peak short-circuit current at main board,
- allows use of high impedance generator grounding (reduces possible damage to
generator).
Starting and stopping of generator sets
Since Diesel generator sets are often used for emergency power, it is necessary that
steps be taken to ensure that the set will start correctly and quickly when required.
An example of measures to be taken is lubrication, and heating of the cooling water
when the set is not operating. The Diesel generator set manufacturer should list all such
measures and the design should take into account the availability of all auxiliary
supplies necessary during times when set is not operating.
A starting time of 15 seconds from the start order to the closing of the generator circuit-
breaker can be guaranteed by manufacturers. Specifying shorter starting times should be
avoided since the decrease in starting time will be small and could increase the cost of
the set. Critical equipment must be supplied by an UPS in any case.
Two techniques are commonly used for starting.
These are compressed air and battery, compressed air generally being used for larger
sets. The starting equipment should be designed for a minimum of 3 consecutive starts.
It should be carefully monitored in order to enable preventive maintenance to be carried
out prior to a failure during an attempted start. Failure to start is most often due to a
problem with the starting battery. Where reliable starting is essential, consideration
should be given to using compressed air.
When a generator is operating in parallel with another source, it will be synchronized,
and gradually loaded.
When a generator set is operating alone, the load will be applied in one or more steps.
The variation in frequency and voltage will depend upon the size of the step loads. As
an example, step loads of 90% can be applied to a Diesel generator set without the
frequency varying more than 10% and the voltage more than 15%.
Should specific limits on frequency and voltage variations be required, they should be
specified together with the type of load which is to be connected. This information
should include motor starting characteristics such as the starting current, and the type of
starting (direct-on-line, wye-delta). Several steps may be required should the frequency
and voltage tolerance be small.

When stopping a generator set, the power output should be reduced to zero by
transferring the load to other sources, and the circuit-breaker then tripped. The generator
set should be run for several minutes to allow it to cool down prior to shutdown. In
some cases the cooling system should continue to operate after shutdown in order to
remove latent heat from the machine.
Manufacturers recommendations for shutdown should be followed.
Generator set start and stop sequences should be handled by the generator set control
equipment.
Generator sets should be operated periodically.
For installations where short power outages are not critical, opening the normal
incoming circuit breaker will cause the set to start and automatically pick up the
emergency load.
After the required minimum operating time, the generator circuit-breaker can be tripped
and the normal source circuit-breaker closed.
For plants where power outages mean unacceptable production losses, it must be
possible to test generator sets without first switching off the supply. This is normally
done by using a maintenance transfer. The generator set is started, and after it is ready to
take load, it is synchronized to the incoming supply.
The generator circuit-breaker (or bus-tie circuit breaker depending on the scheme) will
then be closed and the generator will thus be paralleled with the incoming supply. The
closing of the circuit-breaker will cause tripping of the incoming supply and the loads
will be supplied by the generator. The transfer to the normal incoming supply is done in
the same manner without power interruption. Since the supplies are paralleled only for a
few hundred milliseconds, it is not necessary to dimension the switchboard for the
combined short-circuit power of both the normal incoming supply and the generator.
Where equipment has been designed to operate in parallel on a permanent basis, it is not
necessary to trip the incoming supply after connection the generator to the load. For this
case, however, the switchboard must be designed for the combined short-circuit power
of the incoming supply and the generator.
Generator General Protection Philosophy
Since generators are a source of electrical power, the overcurrent protection relays
should be connected to current transformers on the neutral side of the stator windings in
order to cover faults occurring in the windings.
Additional protection relays are required at the generator circuit-breaker only for
applications where generator sets will be operating in parallel with other generator sets
or with the utility, and will pick up faults on the line side of the generator. The current
transformers for these protection relays are installed at the generator circuit-breaker in
order to cover the whole connection to the generator.

Reverse active and reverse reactive power relays are normally connected to current
transformers on the neutral side of the generator as shown in figure 53. They can also be
connected to the current transformers associated with the circuit-breaker. The location
will depend on the split of works

Figure 53
Recommended Generator Protection

The recommended protection functions are shown in figure 35. Function reference
numbers are the following:
- protection functions connected to generator neutral current transformers:
o 32P : reverse active power
o 32Q : reverse reactive power serving as loss of field (for generators above 1
MVA)
o 46 : negative sequence (for generators above 1 MVA)
o 49 : thermal image
o 51 : overcurrent
o 51G : earth fault
o 51V : voltage restrained overcurrent
o 87G : generator differential protection (for generators above 2 MVA)
(Note: 46,49, 32P and 32Q can also be connected to the line-side current
transformers)
- Protection functions connected to voltage transformers:
o 25 : synchronism-check (for parallel operation only)
o 27 : undervoltage
o 59 : overvoltage
o 81 : overfrequency and underfrequency
- Protection functions connected to line-side current transformers (for parallel
operation only):
o 67 : directional overcurrent (not required if 87G is used)
o 67N : directional earth fault (on core balance CT for better sensitivity)
- Generator mechanical protection functions connected to sensors
o 49T : stator temperature (recommended for generators above 2 MVA)
o 49T : bearing temperature (recommended for generators above 8 MVA)
o 64F : rotor earth fault protection
The following table gives typical settings for each protection function, and what action
should be taken. This information should be verified with the generator set
manufacturer for each application. A general shutdown means tripping and locking out
the generator circuit breaker, switching off the excitation, and closing the fuel supply to
the engine.


Figure 54
Recommended Relay Settings and Action

Generator Installation And Maintenance
The installation of generator sets requires close cooperation among several disciplines
such as electrical, construction, process, and mechanical.
The following information should be considered when designing the installation of the
sets.
Location:
The location should be chosen close to the load center to reduce voltage drop and losses
in the connections. Due to the relatively large size of the equipment, adequate space
must be allowed for the transportation to and from the location.
The building housing the equipment must have adequate space to allow maintenance
including overhauling, and be provided with the necessary overhead cranes. The
generator set manufacturer should provide all information concerning space and access
requirements on civil works guide drawings.

In many locations noise emission will be a problem. The solution consists in sound
proofing the generator set, the building, or a combination of both. Sound proofing will
have a significant impact on cost and therefore must be defined prior to placing an order
for equipment.
Care must also be taken to avoid noise transmission via the generator set base.
Air Intake And Exhaust
In the definition of the rated power of generator sets, the length and configuration of the
air intake ducts and the exhaust piping is important.
In certain cases generator sets will be located in areas where long ducting and piping is
required, and this is to be taken into account in the definition of the rated power of the
engine.
Care must also be taken to ensure that the air intake is remote from the exhaust.
Generator sets used for emergency power must be able to operate in all site conditions.
In desert areas this can include sand storms. Special sand filters are required at the air
intake and can increase the foot print and cost of the generator set.
Compliance with Local Regulation
In many countries there are local regulations that must be met. In addition to
requirements related to emissions, environmental considerations often dictate the design
of the fuel system. This can include the maximum capacity of day tanks and the type of
buried storage tanks (double walled, etc.).
Local regulations must also be respected for the fire detection and protection equipment.
Fire detection should be installed in all locations where generator sets are located.
Automatic fire protection equipment should also be provided where possible.
Fire protection is normally achieved by flooding the building with inert gas. This type of
system requires automatic shutting of ventilation openings, air intake openings, and doors.
Local regulations cover many aspects such as the number and location of warning signs,
the location of the fire control panel, and the type of inert gas which can be used.
The assistance of a local company familiar with such regulations to get all required
approvals is very useful and often indispensable.
Special Tools and Spare Parts
Generator sets require periodic maintenance and also overhauls after a certain number
of years of operation. Special tools are normally required for periodic maintenance, and
additional special tools are required for overhauls. The definition and supply of tools
should be made with the generator set manufacturer based on the type of maintenance to
be performed. The list of special tools should be checked with the maintenance manuals
in order to ensure that all have been provided. Spare parts for the first overhaul should
be provided in addition to those required for normal operation.

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