Embedded System Applications in Automobiles Report

EMBEDDED SYSTEM APPLICATIONS IN AUTOMOBILES
TECHINICAL REPORT
ABSTRACT
There are several tasks in which real time OSs beat their desktop counterparts hands-down. A common application of embedded systems in the real world is in automobiles because these systems are cheap, efficient and problem free. Almost every car that rolls off the production line these days makes use of embedded technology in one form or the other. RTOSs are performed in this area due to their fast response times and minimal system requirements. Most of the embedded systems in automobiles are rugged in nature, as most of these systems are made up of a single chip. Other factors aiding their use are the low costs involved, ease of development, and the fact that embedded devices can be networked to act as sub modules in a large system. No driver clashes or system busy condition happen in these systems. Their compact profiles enable them to fit easily under the cramped hood of a car. Embedded systems can be used to implement features ranging from adjustment of the suspension to suit road conditions and the octane content in the fuel to anti lock braking systems (ABS) and security systems. Speaking of the things nearer home the computer chip that control fuel injections in a Hyundai Santro or the one that controls the activation of air bag in a Fiat in a weekend in nothing but an embedded system. Right from brakes to automatic traction control to air bags and fuel/air mixture controls, there may be up to 30-50 embedded systems within a present-day car.
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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
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1.1 EMBEDDED SYSTEM:

An embedded system is any device controlled by instructions stored on a chip. These devices are usually controlled by a micro processor that executes the instructions stored on a read only memory (ROM) chip. The software for the embedded system is called firmware. The firmware will be written in assembly language for time or resource critical operations or using higher level languages like C or embedded C. The software will be simulated using micro code simulators for the target processor. Since they are supposed to perform only specific tasks, these programs are stored in read only memories (ROMs).Moreover they may need no or minimal inputs from the user, hence the user interface like monitor, mouse and large keyboard etc, may be absent. Embedded systems are also known as real time systems since they respond to an input or event and produce the result within a guaranteed time period. This time period can be few microseconds to days or months. The computer system must meet various timing and other constraints that are imposed on it by the real-time behavior of the external world to which it is interfaced. Hence comes the name real time. Another Name for many of these systems is reactive systems, because their primary purpose is to respond to or react to signals from their environment. A real time computer system may be a component of a larger system in which it is embedded; reasonably such a computer component is called an embedded system. Applications and examples of real time systems are ubiquitous and proliferating, appearing as part of our commercial, government, military, medical, educational, and cultural infrastructures. Included are: Vehicle systems for automobiles, subways, aircraft, railways and ships. Traffic control for highways, airspace, railway tracks and shipping lanes. Process control for power plants, chemical plants and consumer products such as soft drinks and beer.
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Medical systems for radiation therapy, patient monitoring and defibrillation Military uses such as firing weapons, tracking and command and control. Manufacturing systems with robots. Telephone, radio and satellite communications. Computer games. Multimedia systems that provide text, graphic, audio and video interfaces. Households systems for monitoring and controlling appliances. Building managers that controls such entities as heat, light, Doors and elevators.
1.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF EMBEDDED SYSTEMS:

Sophisticated functionality. Often have to run sophisticated algorithms or multiple algorithms. Often provide sophisticated user interfaces. Real-time operation.
Must finish operations by deadlines. Low manufacturing cost. Low power. Designed to tight deadlines by small teams.
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CHAPTER 2 EMBEDDED SYSTEM IN AUTOMOBILE
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EMBEDDED SYSTEM IN AUTOMOBILE

Automotive electronics are the electronics used in automobiles. This includes body electronics, in car entertainment, computers, chassis electronics and telematics. Automotive electronics first began with the need for better controls of the engine. In fact, the first electronic parts in automobiles were used to control various engine functions and were referred to as ECUs (Engine Control Units). However, as electronic controls began to be used for other automotive applications, the acronym ECU took on the more general meaning of electronic control unit. Today, specific ECUs are generally referred to as modules [e.g. the engine control module (ECM) or the Transmission Control Module (TCM)]. A modern car may have up to 100 electronic control units and a commercial vehicle up to 40. Automotive electronics or automotive embedded systems are distributed systems and according to different domains in the automotive field they can be classified into: 1. Engine Electronics 2. Transmission Electronics 3. Chassis Electronics 4. Active Safety 5. Driver assistance 6. Passenger Comfort 7. Infotainment systems
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Automotive Systems: Technology in today's vehicle:
FIG 2.1: EMBEDDED SYSTEMS INSIDE A MODERN CAR
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CHAPTER 3 ADAPTIVE CRUISE CONTROL (ACC)
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3.1 ADAPTIVE CRUISE CONTROL (ACC)

Embedded systems can also make driverless vehicle control a reality. Major automobile manufacturers are already engaged in work on these concepts. One such technology is Adaptive Cruise Control (ACC).
FIG 3.1: ADAPTIVE CRUISE CONTROL ACC allows cars to keep safe distances from other vehicles on busy highways. The driver can set the speed of his car and the distance between his car and others. When traffic slows down, ACC alters vehicle speed using moderate braking. This ensures that a constant distance is maintained between cars. As soon as traffic becomes less, ACC moves up to the desired cruise speed that has been set by the driver. The driver can over ride the system any time he wants to be breaking. Each car with ACC has a micro wave radar unit or laser transceiver fixed in front of it to determine the distance and relative speed of any vehicle in the path. The ACC computer (What else but an embedded system or a grouped system of embedded system) constantly controls the throttle and brakes of the car. This helps to make sure that the set cruise speed or adapted speed of traffic at that time is not exceeded.
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3.2 ACC WORKING PRINCIPLE

As already mentioned each car with ACC have a micro wave radar unit fixed in front of it to determine the distance and relative speed of any vehicle in its path. The principle behind the working of this type of radar is- the Doppler Effect. DOPPLER EFFECT Doppler Effect is the change in frequency of the waves when there is a relative motion between the transmitting and receiving units. The two figures below clearly show the Doppler Effect. High Pitch Sound
FIG 3.2: HIGHER PITCH SOUND In this case the vehicle is speeding towards the stationary listener. The distance between the listener and the car is decreasing. Then the listener will hear a higher pitch sound from the car, which means the frequency of sound, is increased. Lower Pitch Sound
FIG 3.3: LOWER PITCH SOUND

TECHINICAL REPORT
In this case the vehicle is moving away from the listener. The distance between and the car is increasing. Then the listener will hear a lower pitch sound from the car, which means the frequency of sound, is decreased. So that is the Doppler Effect in case of sound waves. Similarly the radar unit in ACC will be continuously transmitting radio waves. They will be reflected and echo singles (reflected waves) will be having the same frequency or different frequency depending on speed/position of the object due to which the echo singles originate. If the echoes singles have the same frequency it is clear that there is no relative motion between the transmitting and receiving ends. If the frequency is increased it is clear that the distance between the two is decreasing and if the frequency is decreased it means that the distance is increasing. The figure below shows a car having ACC transmitting and receiving radio waves.
FIG 3.4: ACC TRANSMITTING AND RECEIVING RADIO WAVES In the above case, the gun transmits the waves at a given frequency toward an oncoming car. Reflecting waves return to the gun at a different frequency, depending on how fast the car being tracked is moving. A device in the gun compares the transmission frequency to the received frequency to determine the speed of the car. Here, the high frequency or the reflected waves indicate the motorist in the left car is speeding.
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The embedded system is connected to the radar unit and its output will be sent to breaking and accelerating unit as early mentioned the embedded system is a device controlled by instructions stored in a chip. So we can design the chip or ACC having an algorithm such that it will give output only when the input signals are less than the corresponding safe distance value. So only when the between the car and the object in front of it is less then the same distance value the embedded system will give output to the breaking and the accelerating units. Thus the safe distance will be kept always. Thats how the ACC works.
3.3 ACC TECHNICAL DETAILS

Adaptive cruise control typically uses radar in a frequency band that doesnt compete with police radar and doesnt trigger radar detectors. For full-range ACC, some automakers use two radars one for close range out to about 100 feet and a second that sees out to about 600 feet, or about 6-7 seconds at highway speeds. Partial ACC is usually a single unit, while some full-range ACC implementations are now able to use single radar as well.
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FIG 3.5: TECHNOLOGY BEHIND ACC Radar-based systems employ a variety of sensing and processing methods to determine the position and speed of the vehicle ahead. A fairly simple scheme (like the one used by Mercedes) switches rapidly among three beams by changing feed points along the antenna, creating a scanning effect inexpensively and with no moving parts. The beams are wide enough to ensure that each overlaps those adjacent, providing a combined 12-degree field of view. An advantage is that the wider beams permit the use of a smaller antenna.
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More advanced and costlier sensing schemes rely on an antenna that is mechanically scanned and that emits a narrow beam. These systems scan between 64 and 128 points in the radar's field of view, also typically 12 degrees, so that resolution is much higher than for a three-beam system. The beams are much narrower than in the three-beam models, however, so the antenna has to be larger. And the multiplicity of beams requires much more processing power to handle the streams of data that pour out as the radar scans across the multiple points of focus to determine the leading car's position and speed. Regardless of the scanning mechanism, the radars typically operate in the millimeter-wave region at 76-77 GHz. The automakers refused to alter the shape or construction of their vehicles to accommodate ACC, so designers had to build systems small enough to be mounted inside a car's front grille. That stringent size requirement in turn demanded a compact antenna, which in turn forced the use of the high frequencies, antenna size being inversely related to frequency. At 76-77 GHz, frequencies are high enough to work with small antennas, yet not so high that the components are exotic and stupendously expensive. Typical automotive radar, produced by Delphi Delco Electronics Systems, of Kokomo, Ind., is roughly the size of two stacked paperback books--just 14 by 7 by 10 cm. The radar and the cameras work together to track the car ahead and distinguish it from extraneous nonmoving objects more rapidly than would be possible with either alone, according to Keiji Fujimura, a senior manager at Fujitsu Ten. While the radar homes in on the lead car's rear bumper, the stereo camera is constantly measuring the widths of all the items in its wide field of view [see illustration, above ]. To calculate them, it uses an algorithm based on the detection of vertical edges and the distance. Bridges, trees, and other stationary objects that are much wider or narrower than a car are quickly rejected as reasons for the system to apply the brakes.
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CHAPTER 4 ANTILOCK BRAKING SYSTEM (ABS)
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4.1 DESCRIPTION OF ANTILOCK BRAKING SYSTEM (ABS):

Anti-lock braking system (ABS) is an automobile safety system that allows the wheels on a motor vehicle to maintain tractive contact with the road surface according to driver inputs while braking, preventing the wheels from locking up (ceasing rotation) and avoiding uncontrolled skidding. It is an automated system that uses the principles of threshold braking and cadence braking which were practiced by skillful drivers with previous generation braking systems. It does this at a much faster rate and with better control than a driver could manage. ABS generally offers improved vehicle control and decreases stopping distances on dry and slippery surfaces for many drivers; however, on loose surfaces like gravel or snow-covered pavement, ABS can significantly increase braking distance, although still improving vehicle control. Since initial widespread use in production cars, anti-lock braking systems have evolved considerably. Recent versions not only prevent wheel lock under braking, but also electronically control the front-to-rear brake bias. This function, depending on its specific capabilities and implementation, is known as electronic brake force distribution (EBD), traction control system, emergency brake assist, or electronic stability control (ESC).
FIG 4.1: ANTILOCK BRAKING SYSTEM
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4.2 ABS OPERATION:
FIG 4.2: ABS OPERATION The anti-lock brake controller is also known as the CAB (Controller Antilock Brake. Typically ABS includes a central electronic control unit (ECU), four wheel speed sensors, and at least two hydraulic valves within the brake hydraulics. The ECU constantly monitors the rotational speed of each wheel; if it detects a wheel rotating significantly slower than the others, a condition indicative of impending wheel lock, it actuates the valves to reduce hydraulic pressure to the brake at the affected wheel, thus reducing the braking force on that wheel; the wheel then turns faster. Conversely, if the ECU detects a wheel turning significantly faster than the others, brake hydraulic pressure to the wheel is increased so the braking force is reapplied, slowing down the wheel. This process is repeated continuously and can be detected by the driver via brake pedal pulsation. Some anti-lock systems can apply or release braking pressure 15 times per second.[17] Because of this, the wheels of cars equipped with ABS are practically impossible to lock even during panic braking in extreme conditions.
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The ECU is programmed to disregard differences in wheel rotational speed below a critical threshold, because when the car is turning, the two wheels towards the center of the curve turn slower than the outer two. For this same reason, a differential is used in virtually all road going vehicles. If a fault develops in any part of the ABS, a warning light will usually be illuminated on the vehicle instrument panel, and the ABS will be disabled until the fault is rectified. Modern ABS applies individual brake pressure to all four wheels through a control system of hub-mounted sensors and a dedicated micro-controller. ABS is offered or comes standard on most road vehicles produced today and is the foundation for electronic stability control systems, which are rapidly increasing in popularity due to the vast reduction in price of vehicle electronics over the years. Modern electronic stability control systems are an evolution of the ABS concept. Here, a minimum of two additional sensors are added to help the system work: these are a steering wheel angle sensor, and a gyroscopic sensor. The theory of operation is simple: when the gyroscopic sensor detects that the direction taken by the car does not coincide with what the steering wheel sensor reports, the ESC software will brake the necessary individual wheel(s) (up to three with the most sophisticated systems), so that the vehicle goes the way the driver intends. The steering wheel sensor also helps in the operation of Cornering Brake Control (CBC), since this will tell the ABS that wheels on the inside of the curve should brake more than wheels on the outside, and by how much. ABS equipment may also be used to implement a traction control system (TCS) on acceleration of the vehicle. If, when accelerating, the tire loses traction, the ABS controller can detect the situation and take suitable action so that traction is regained. More sophisticated versions of this can also control throttle levels and brakes simultaneously. Upon the introduction of the Subaru Legacy in 1989, Subaru networked the four channel anti-lock brake function with the all wheel drive system so that if the car
TECHINICAL REPORT
detected any wheel beginning to lock up, the variable assists the all wheel drive system installed on vehicles with the automatic transmission would engage to ensure all wheels were actively gripping while the anti-lock system was attempting to stop the car.
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CHAPTER 5 DYNAMIC TRACTION CONTROL
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DYNAMIC TRACTION CONTROL

Dynamic Traction Control (DTC) allows more wheel slip and thus a more dynamic driving style with higher wheel traction and DSC controlling stability. A small amount of spin on the drive wheels improves traction when pulling off from a standstill in snow or on loose terrain. Dynamic Traction Control (DTC) is a sub-function of the Dynamic Stability Control (DSC) system that can be turned on and off. DTC has two major roles: to regulate traction and to enable sports-style driving while providing active stability control. When the drive wheels start losing traction the DSC automatically begins stabilization measures. The Dynamic Stability Control system curbs the engine output and stops slip on the wheels. In exceptional situations, however, a small amount of wheel slip can be an advantage. When driving in deep snow, slush or on loose terrain a small amount of wheel spin improves traction. For these occasions, as well as those when the drivers want a sportier driving style, the DTC can be activated by pressing a button and this allows more slip and reduces the DSCs curbing of the engine. The result: better traction and more thrust. The DTC also makes driving on snow and ice-free roads more dynamic. When activated, the DTC allows sporty drivers more room to maneuver around curves than the Dynamic Stability Control and even permits controlled drifts. The driver retains complete control over the vehicle in every situation and the Dynamic Stability Controls stabilizing measures remain active even when the DTC is activated.
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Fig 5.1: With and Without Dynamic Traction Control System
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CHAPTER 6 DRIVE BY WIRE TECHNOLOGY
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6.1 DRIVE BY WIRE TECHNOLOGY

Traditional hydraulic brakes make use of a master cylinder and several slave cylinders. When the driver pushes down on the brake pedal, it physically applies pressure to the master cylinder. In most cases, that pressure is amplified by a vacuum or hydraulic brake booster. The pressure is then transmitted via brake lines to the brake calipers or wheel cylinders. Anti-lock brake systems were early precursors of modern brake-by-wire technologies. Most vehicles that are equipped with ABS still use hydraulic brakes, but the brakes can also be pulsed without any input from the driver. That is accomplished by an electronic actuator. Electronic, traction control, and automatic braking systems are also related to brake-by-wire technology. In vehicles that use true brake-by-wire systems, there are no mechanical connections between the brake pedals and the brakes. When the driver pushes down on the brake pedal in one of these systems, it activates an electronic switch. An appropriate level of braking force is then applied by an electromechanical actuator. Electronic Throttle Control The most common type of throttle control uses a cable that is directly connected to both the gas pedal and the throttle. When the gas pedal is pressed down, the cable pulls the throttle open. In vehicles that use electronic throttle control (ETC), there is no physical connection between the gas pedal and the throttle. Like brake-by-wire systems, the gas pedal sends a signal that causes an electromechanical actuator to open the throttle.
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FIG 6.1: Drive by Throttle Steer-By-Wire Most vehicles use a rack and pinion unit or worm and sector steering gear that is physically connected to the steering wheel. When the steering wheel is rotated, the rack and pinion unit or steering box also turns. A rack and pinion unit can then apply torque to the ball joints via tie rods, and a steering box will typically move the steering linkage via pitman arm. In vehicles that are equipped with steer-by-wire technology, there is no physical connection between the steering wheel and the tires. In fact, steer-by-wire systems dont technically need to use steering wheels at all. When a steering wheel is used, some type of steering feel emulator is typically used to provide the driver with feedback.
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Fig 6.2: Steer by Wire 6.2 What Vehicles Already Have Drive-By-Wire Technology? There are no fully drive-by-wire production vehicles, but a number of manufacturers have built concept vehicles that fit the description. General Motors demonstrated a drive-by-wire system in 2003 with its Hy-Wire concept, and Mazdas Ryuga concept also used the technology in 2007. Drive-by-wire can be found in equipment like tractors and forklifts, but even cars and trucks that feature electronic power steering still have physical steering linkage. Electronic throttle control is far more prevalent, and a variety of makes and models make use of the technology. Brake-by-wire can also be found in production models, and two examples of the technology are Toyotas Electronic Controlled Brake and Mercedes Benzs Sensotronic.
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6.3 The Future of Drive-By-Wire
Fig 6.3: Future Drive By Wire Safety concerns have slowed the adoption of drive-by-wire technologies. Mechanical systems can and do fail, but regulatory authorities still see them as being more reliable than electronic systems. Drive-by-wire systems are also more expensive than mechanical controls due to the fact that they are significantly more complex. However, the future of drive-by-wire technology could lead to a number of interesting developments. The removal of mechanical controls could allow automakers to design vehicles that are radically different from the cars and trucks that are on the road today. Concept cars like the Hy-Wire have even allowed the seating configuration to be moved around, since there are no mechanical controls that dictate the position of the driver. Drive-by-wire technology could also be integrated with driverless car technology, which would allow vehicles to be operated remotely or by a computer. Current driverless car projects use electromechanical actuators to control steering, braking, and acceleration, which could be simplified by connecting directly to drive-by-wire technology.
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CHAPTER 7 CONCLUSION
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CONCLUSION
There is lot of scope for the development of newer technologies in the automotive electronics domain. Electronic Control Units (ECU) can be designed to provide optimum driving conditions which increase the efficiency. Areas such as firmware, dedicated intelligence chips and ECUs are in demand in the Automotive Electronics Industry. The recent trends in the automobile industry highlight the scope for electronics in the industry. On an average any automobile has 50 ECUs. 13% of manufacturing cost is for the software developed. 35% of the cost of the car comes from the electronics involved in it. Also 80% of the automotive innovation in the recent years has been from Automobile electronics.
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REFERENCES
1. www.spectrum.ieee.org 2. www.extremetech.com 3. www.auto.howstuffworks.com 4. www.wiki.fot-net.eu 5. www.wikipedia.com 6. Report of 5th Meeting of the U.S. Software System Safety Working Group April 12th-14th 2005 @ Anaheim, California USA
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Embedded System Applications in Automobiles Report

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Embedded System Applications in Automobiles Report

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EMBEDDED SYSTEM APPLICATIONS IN AUTOMOBILES

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