Energy and Buildings 64 (2013) 456462

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Energy and Buildings

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/enbuild

Renewable energy integration for smart sites

Asim Kaygusuz a, , Cemal Keles a , Baris Baykant Alagoz a , Abdulkerim Karabiber b
a
b

Inonu University, Engineering Faculty, Electrical-Electronics Engineering, Turkey

Bingol University, Engineering Faculty, Electrical-Electronics Engineering, Turkey

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history:
Received 19 February 2013
Accepted 12 May 2013
Keywords:
Domestic distributed generation
Renewable source integration
Smart house
Smart grid

a b s t r a c t
Use of distributed renewable energy sources for domestic energy consumption will increase in the near
future, due to its advantages as being clean and innite energy generation possibility. This trend allows
more efcient energy consumption because of reducing transmission loses and dependence of domestic appliances to grid distribution. This study investigates potentials of a smart site concept based on
domestic renewable energy generation. The study addresses site scale integration of hybrid renewable
sources and grid energies as well as investigates possible advantages of the use of hybrid renewable
energy systems based on solar and wind power. A continuous energy mixing strategy is used for DC
integration of hybrid renewable energy (wind + solar) and the grid energy to meet site power demand.
The proposed case study demonstrates that the smart site with hybrid renewable sources considerably
reduces energy dependence of the house appliances to the grid which in turn presents a feasible solution
for implementation of distributed generation provision for future smart grids.
2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
The latest trend in domestic energy management of a smart grid
paradigm includes distributed renewable generation, distributed
energy storage possibilities, demand-side load management. The
complexity of the electric power infrastructure continues to grow
with increasing load demand [1]. In order to respond to this in
an environment friendly manner, the integration of distributed
renewable energy farms and the utilization of distributed energy
storages are becoming major concerns for stakeholders involved
in the design of future energy delivery grids [2]. Adoption of
renewable multi-generation systems for local and decentralized
electricity generation can lead to signicant benets in terms of
higher energy efciency, reduced CO2 emissions and enhanced
economy [3].
Today fossil fuels continue supplying much of the energy used
worldwide, however renewable energy is the worlds fastest growing energy market due to advances in renewable energy systems
[4]. Renewable energy served with improved control devices and
techniques has the potential for innite use. The integration of
existing grids with renewable sources provides economical, sustainable and efcient power distribution, and this allows the
control of the greenhouse effect. Sharing renewable energy of
distributed generators in the site scale can considerably reduce

Corresponding author. Tel.: +90 5363672021; fax: +90 4223410046.

E-mail addresses: asim.kaygusuz@inonu.edu.tr, akaygusuz@gmail.com
(A. Kaygusuz).
0378-7788/$ see front matter 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2013.05.031

energy demands from the grid, and thus, more environmentfriendly energy harvesting and efcient energy distribution will be
possible in the near future. Utilization of one or more renewable
sources for hybrid power systems (HPS), such as a combination of
wind turbines and solar panels will support local energy demands
more efciently than solo renewable energy installations because
of hourly changing regional wheatear and irradiation conditions
[5].
Energy generation based on photovoltaic and wind energy is
recognized as cost-effective way for improving social life standards in remote rural areas as isolated power system [6]. However,
there is extensive interest for the integration of distributed renewable sources in future smart grid structures for sustainable and
affordable energy generation. Domestic level [711] and grid level
renewable energy integration and management methods had been
addressed in many recent works [1217].
The impact of residential building-integrated photovoltaics on
the energy demand of multi-family dwellings was analyzed for
the potential of seven building integrated Photovoltaics technologies implemented in a residential prototype simulated in three
different cities in Brazil [18]. The study demonstrated that there
is a considerable amount of energy to be harvested from vertical
facades [18]. Mithraratne considered microgeneration of electricity
in urban houses in New Zealand at the single-building-scale using
gridconnected roof-top wind turbines [19].
This study investigates advantages of hybrid renewable energy
(solar + wind) utilization in a smart site concept that composed of
several residences and site services. A DC integration method was
used for continuously mixing grid energy and renewable energy

A. Kaygusuz et al. / Energy and Buildings 64 (2013) 456462

457

Energy Integraon Staon

DC Bus

AC

DC
AC

DC

Smart Site Loads

- Home Appliance
- Site Administraon

Grid

Hybrid Solar-Wind
Energy Generaon

Fig. 1. Smart site concept with HWES integration.

generated by solar panels and wind turbines in site power management simulations. Author presents a case study and demonstrates
that the site level integration of renewable sources can considerably reduce the dependency to the grid energy and enhance the
power quality and reliability for the site appliance.
The paper is organized as follows: smart site concept and insite renewable energy integration method are introduced in the
following section. The next section is devoted to demonstrate smart
site simulation results of a typical case study.
2. Smart site using renewable energy sources
Mixing of energy generated from various sources is one of main
concerns for the small scale distributed renewable source integration in the domestic level. Due to intermittent and uncertain
character of the wind and solar generation, renewable energy generation requires a backup energy source to preserve power quality
and energy balance between generation and consumption. Today,
domestic use of hybrid wind and solar energy system (HWES)
should be considered as a supportive energy source to reduce
dependence of domestic appliance to the grid energy. However,
high installation, management and maintenance costs of the HWES
make them difcult to apply at home. This is the main complication
reducing rate of the domestic level implementation of renewable
energy systems.
Nowadays increasing demand for personnel security and time
efciency in the social life, residences turns into smart sites. Smart
site provides self-supportive living environments including security serves, telecommunication network, sport and entertainment
facilities and shopping opportunities in the site territory. The HWES
integration in the smart site reduces dependence of site energy
demand to local power distribution grid and makes smart sites selfsupportive in term of energy requirement. HWES also provide clean
and sustainable energy for the domestic consumption and hence
environment-friendly green buildings can be possible by the smart
site with HWES integration.
Microgrids are the smallest fragments of future smart grid
[2,14,15,20,21]. Smart sites with HWES can be an efcient solution for implementation distributed generation in microgrids. Local
generation and consumption so called the distributed generation
improves energy efciency because of reducing transport losses
and energy demand from the grid [1,2,2224].
Site level implementation of the HWES will be much feasible
comparing to the stand alone home installation. This is because of
that larger scale installation and maintenance of HWES are more
affordable comparing to the per house installation. Fig. 1 describes
hybrid energy use in the smart sites. The energy integration station
is used to support the renewable energy generation with the
grid energy. The whole site power demand is supplied by three
phase output of the energy integration station. Each phase line
feeds a house group or an apartment including site administration

Fig. 2. Electrical schema of energy integration station using the continuous DC

energy mixing method.

appliances. Fig. 2 shows the electrical schema of the energy integration station performing continuous DC energy mixing from the DC
bus [1315]. The system composed of an AC/DC converter, a DC/AC
converter and diodes. The AC/DC converter generates 580 V DC voltage on the DC bus. Diodes in the station indicate the directions of
current ows, and correspondingly energy ows. The voltage from
solar and wind sources rise to 600 V DC and connected to DC bus via
D2 diode. The three phase DC/AC converter converts 600 V DC voltage to 220 V three phase AC voltage and supplies the site appliance
and homes. The system is congured as that 600 V DC is primarily derived from hybrid renewable sources as long as the hybrid
renewable sources supply a DC voltage greater than the voltage
coming from grid, which is 580 V. In this way the system is considered to use much energy from the renewable sources. When
the power of renewable sources is not enough for the site consumption, it results in the decrease of DC voltage on DC bus and
the grid contributes the renewable energy to supply the demanded
energy by site. This allows a continuous mixing of energies coming
from renewable sources and the grid depending on power status of
renewable sources. DC continuous energy mixing provides a satisfactory AC voltage stability under intermittent and uctuating
power generation of renewable sources [11,15]. Voltage synthesis from DC bus by DC/AC converter isolates the voltage signal from
the grid and it is advantageous for ltering the noise in grid voltage.
3. Case study
In this section, case studies are conducted for investigating
advantages of the HWES integration in a medium-size smart site
concept. The smart site consists of 15 homes and a site administration. Hourly hybrid wind and solar generation data derived from
the Capo Vado site reports [9] are used for the modeling of hybrid
renewable source generation potential in the site simulation. The
considered site is in Liguria, Italy, has high potential of wind energy.
Dynamic site loads representing regular home user and site administration appliances were used for electrical energy consumption
in modeling the smart site. These appliances are switched on or off
according to hourly consumption proles of the homes considering household activities. This schedule is given in Table 1. Fig. 3(a)
illustrates the home appliances used for the modeling regular home
consumption. Fig. 3(b) illustrates the electrical loads representing a site administration ofce and site serves. Site administration
consumption proles are also generated for hourly regular site
activities (lighting, security systems, etc.) according to Table 2.
The simulation model illustrated in Fig. 4 was developed using
Matlab Simulink environment in order to perform power simulations. Fig. 5(a) shows hourly wind and solar energy potentials
derived from Capo Vado site reports. This generation prole limits the power provided by HWES in the site simulation. The power
consumption proles used for a home alone and the whole site
includes 15 homes + site administration appliances are shown in

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A. Kaygusuz et al. / Energy and Buildings 64 (2013) 456462

Fig. 3. (a) Regular household appliances and (b) site administration ofce appliance and serves.

Fig. 5(b) and (c). Because of using the dynamic load model, hourly
switching on or off the appliances according to Tables 1 and 2 lead
to sharp rise in power demand of the site. Due to large computational complexity and memory requirements of the simulation,
0.1 s is conducted for each hour of day.
Voltage stability, phase and magnitude relevance of three phase
sinusoidal voltage, is an important indicator for the evaluation of
power quality when using intermittent renewable sources such as
wind turbines and solar panels. Fig. 5(d) demonstrates the voltage
stability at the site distribution while the site demand introduced
very sharp rises. Sinusoidal waveform of phase b and c showed
minor deformation at the moment of sharp rise in site demand at
the time 0.7 however this does not cause an electrical fault. Because

the phase and amplitude of the sinusoidal voltage does not severely
effected. This simulation result demonstrates that the integrated
energy station can tolerate these sharp demand rises and preserves
power quality in site distribution during the simulations.
Following four test scenarios are simulated in this case study.
Power ows from the uctuating hybrid solar and wind sources
and the grid toward dynamic site load are demonstrated in the
simulation results. Support rate of the hybrid renewable sources,
dened as the ratio of renewable energy (ER ) to total site energy
consumption (ES ), is expressed as SR = ER /ES . Support rate of the grid,
dened as the ratio of grid (EG ) to total site energy consumption
(ES ), as SG = EG /ES . Support rates are presented for the test scenarios and the grid dependence of power distribution is discussed

Fig. 4. Matlab Simulink top level simulation models for case studies.

A. Kaygusuz et al. / Energy and Buildings 64 (2013) 456462

Table 1
Home appliances list used in case study in order to model regular home consumption
according to GMT + 2 time domain.

459

Table 2
Site administration load list used in case study in order to model regular site serves
according to GMT + 2 time domain.

Home appliance

Nominal energy
consumption (W)

Home appliance
average working
schedule (h)

Site administration
appliance

Nominal energy
consumption (W)

Home appliance
average working
schedule (h)

Lighting
Refrigerator
Washing machine
Dishwasher
Heating/cooling
TV
Computer
Oven
Iron
Others

150
170
1000
1500
1200
200
400
2500
1000
100

1923
024
2122
2021
024
0708/1213/1723
1723
0708/1213/1920
2122
024

Lighting
Security systems
Heating/cooling
Others

150
500
1200
500

1905
024
024
818

for several energy generation potential (high, medium and low

levels).

a
3.1. Full power Capo Vado site generation scenario

35

Solar and wind generation is assumed to be at levels of Capo

Vado site power reports. This test refers to the case of a smart site
with a high as possible renewable energy generation potential.
Fig. 6 shows the simulation results from the test scenario of
full power Capo Vado site generation. For a possible site power
demand shown in Fig. 5(c) given above, the temporal power of
the grid and hybrid renewable sources are shown in Fig. 6(a) and
(b). The hybrid renewable energy support rate (SR ) was obtained
as about 0.92 and the grid energy support rate (SG ) was about
0.08 in the overall site consumption. While the derived temporal power peaks due to the demand of site, the energy integration
station preserves the power quality in the site power distribution by deriving the required energy from the grid. In this way
site can work self-supportive (islanded mode) in the rest of hours.
That is, the renewable energy generation potential of Capo Vado
site supplies the most of energy demand to the simulated site
and reduces energy dependence of the site appliance to grid
energy.

30

25
20
15
5

10
Hours

15

20

10

15

20

b
5

Phome

4
3
2
1
0
Hours

a
40

40

Pgrid

Psite

60

20

10

15

20

Hours

10

15

20

15

20

Hours

200

25

100

20

Prs

0
-100

15
10

-200
-300

20
10

d 300

30

5
0.67

0.68

0.69

0.7
Time

0.71

0.72

0.73

Fig. 5. (a) Hourly wind and solar energy potential (kW) used in simulations. (b) The
power demand prole in kW for a home consumption simulation. (c) The power
demand prole in kW for the site consumption simulation. (d) Three phase voltage
distribution inside the site while a sharp rise in demand is appeared at 0.7 s.

10
Hours

Fig. 6. (a) Instant power (kW) drawn from the grid for the full power Capo Vado
site generation scenario and (b) instant power (kW) drawn from the HWES for the
full power Capo Vado site generation scenario.

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A. Kaygusuz et al. / Energy and Buildings 64 (2013) 456462

80

Grid Outage Interval

100

Pgrid

Pgrid

60
40

50

20

0
5

10

15

20

15

20

15

20

Hours

b
15

30
25

10
Prs

Prs

10

Hours

20

15

10

15

10

20

Hours

10
Hours

Fig. 7. (a) Instant power (kW) drawn from the grid for the half power Capo Vado
site generation scenario and (b) instant power (kW) drawn from the HWES for the
half power Capo Vado site generation scenario.

c
200
200

3.2. Half power Capo Vado site generation scenario

0

Solar and wind generation is assumed to be at half levels of Capo

Vado site power reports. This test refers to the case of a smart site
with medium renewable energy generation potential.
For the site power demand shown in Fig. 5(c), the power drawings of the grid and hybrid renewable sources are shown in Fig. 7(a)
and (b). The support rate of hybrid renewable sources (SR ) was
about 0.70 and the grid support rate (SG ) was about 0.30 in the overall site energy consumption. Site can work self-supportive (islanded
mode) between 14:00 and 17:00 h. A half renewable generation of

0
-200

-200
0.5

1.5

Hours
Fig. 9. (a) Instant power (kW) drawn from the grid for the full power Capo Vado
site generation scenario, (b) instant power (kW) drawn from the HWES for the full
power Capo Vado site generation scenario and (c) three phase voltage measured in
the smart site simulation during the grid outage.

a
Capo Vado site can considerably reduce the dependence of the site
to grid energy.

80

Pgrid

60

3.3. A quarter power Capo Vado site generation scenario

40
20
0
5

10

15

20

Hours

b
8

Prs

Solar and wind generation is assumed to be at quarter levels of

Capo Vado site power reports. This test refers to the case of a smart
site with low renewable energy generation potential.
For the site power demand shown in Fig. 5(c), the power drawings of the grid and hybrid renewable sources are shown in Fig. 8(a)
and (b). The HWES support rate (SR ) and the grid support rate
(SR ) were about 0.34 and 0.66, respectively. Despite the fact that
a self-support operation is not possible in this scenario, it was seen
that the hybrid renewable generation can supply about 30% of the
overall site consumption.

3.4. Grid faults test scenario

2
5

10

15

20

Hours
Fig. 8. (a) Instant power (kW) drawn from the grid for a quarter power Capo Vado
site generation scenario and (b) instant power (kW) drawn from the HWES for a
quarter power Capo Vado site generation scenario.

A 17 h grid power interruption due to fault case in grid power

distribution was tested in full power Capo Vado site scenario.
Advantages of HWES for energy reliability were demonstrated in
this simulation.
Fig. 9(a) shows instant power coming from the grid utility.
Between 3.00 and 20:00 h, there was an outage in the grid and

A. Kaygusuz et al. / Energy and Buildings 64 (2013) 456462

461

Table 3
Energy supports rates calculated from simulation of the test scenarios.
Generation potentials

SR (%)

SG (%)

CO2 emission
reduction rates (%)

High level (full power Capa Vado site generation)

Medium level (half power Capa Vado site generation)
Low level (quarter power Capa Vado site generation)

92
70
34

8
30
66

98
74
36

therefore there was not any energy support from the grid to site
consumption in these hours. Fig. 9(b) shows the power drawing
from the HWES. Due to the outage in the grid, energy integration
station draws more power from HWES to meet the energy demand
of the site. Three phase voltage levels seen in Fig. 9(c) reveal that
the main site appliances can work during the grid fault period and
the voltage stability in the site distribution can be preserved. Continuous energy mixing of the grid and renewable energy sources
can tolerate energy interruption and uctuation in some degrees
and, considerably preserve power quality in the site distribution.
Therefore, HWES improves the energy reliability in the site because
of the multiple energy source usage.
This case study shows that,
- Grid dependence of domestic demand can be decreased depending on efciency of HWES. It is possible to implement
self-supportive hours for the site consumption.
- Continuous DC energy mixture enhances power quality and voltage stability of HWES so that it can be supported by the grid
energy in inefcient HWE hours. Faults in grid can be tolerated
by HWES in inefcient hours and by using intelligent energy
management algorithm. This enhances self-healing capability of
energy infrastructure.
- More reliable and sustainable energy distribution can be possible by site level HWES integrations in near future smart grid
architectures.
4. Conclusions
This study demonstrates that hybrid renewable energy source
integration in smart sites can reduce the energy dependence to
the grid energy. Energy balance between the site consumption
and HWES can be possible in productive generation hours and
this allows self-supportive (islanded mode) working hours of site.
When the HWES is not enough to supply the site load, grid power
supports the site consumption by using the continuous DC energy
mixing and provides persistent energy balance in the site. Table 3
summarizes the energy support rates of renewable sources and
the grid in the overall site consumption. CO2 emission reduction in
site power consumption is one of the main concerns of distributed
HWES utilization. Table 3 also reveals the possible contribution
of smart site HWES installation to prospects for CO2 emission
reduction. The CO2 emission reduction rates is predicted under
assumptions of the grid energy generated from fossil fuels fully,
zero CO2 emission from HWES and overall energy loses of 7% from
generation, transmission, distribution, etc. In this case, renewable
energy rate in consumption plus gain from energy loses indicates
CO2 emission reduction rates, which is calculated by using the formula of (0.07SR + SR ).
Smart site using a continuous mixing of grid energy and HWES
can provide a feasible way for implementation of the renewable
energy distributed generation in future smart grids. Installation
and maintenance burden of renewable sources decreases in site
level integration compared to stand alone home installation and
maintenance.
In addition to more clean and more efcient energy potentials
of the hybrid renewable sources, renewable energy integration to

power distribution can enhance the voltage stability and power

quality in the site consumption. Continuous DC energy mixing
isolates the domestic appliance from the possible grid faults and
voltage instabilities. Moreover, HWES can continue supplying the
site appliance at the grid outage, and relief the negative effect of
outages on social life standards.

Acknowledgements
This study was supported by Inonu University Smart Grid
Research Group in 2012 on the prospect of Green buildings concepts in Smart Grid provision.

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