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C CPP Reference Manual

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C CPP Reference Manual

c++

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You are on page 1/ 480

OS/390

C/C++
Language Reference

SC09-2360-05

OS/390

C/C++
Language Reference

SC09-2360-05

Note!
Before using this information and the product it supports, be sure to read the information in Notices on page 411.

Sixth Edition (September 2000)

This edition applies to Version 2 Release 10 Modification 0 of OS/390 C/C++ (5647-A01) and to all subsequent
releases and modifications until otherwise indicated in new editions. This edition replaces SC09-2360-04. Make sure
that you use the correct edition for the level of the program listed above. Also, ensure that you apply all necessary
PTFs for the program.
Technical changes in the text since the last release of this book are indicated by a vertical line (|) to the left of the
change.
Order publications through your IBM representative or the IBM branch office serving your location. Publications are
not stocked at the address below. Note that the OS/390 C/C++ publications are available through the OS/390 Library
page at: http://www.ibm.com/s390/os390/bkserv/
IBM welcomes your comments. You can send your comments in any one of the following methods:
v Electronically to the network ID listed below. Be sure to include your entire network address if you want a reply.
Internet: torrcf@ca.ibm.com
IBMLink: toribm(torrcf)
v By FAX, use the following number:
United States and Canada: (416) 448-6161
Other countries: (+1) 416-448-6161
v By mail, to the following address:
IBM Canada Ltd. Laboratory
Information Development
2G/KB7/1150/TOR
1150 Eglinton Avenue East
Toronto, Ontario, Canada M3C 1H7
If you send comments, include the title and order number of this book, and the page number or topic related to your
comment. When you send information to IBM, you grant IBM a nonexclusive right to use or distribute the information
in any way it believes appropriate without incurring any obligation to you.
Copyright International Business Machines Corporation 1996, 2000. All rights reserved.
US Government Users Restricted Rights Use, duplication or disclosure restricted by GSA ADP Schedule Contract
with IBM Corp.

Contents
Part 1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Chapter 1. About This Book . . . . . . .
Who Should Use This Book . . . . . . .
A Note about Examples . . . . . . . . .
IBM OS/390 C/C++ and Related Publications .
Hardcopy Books . . . . . . . . . . . .
PDF Books . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Softcopy Books . . . . . . . . . . . .
Softcopy Examples . . . . . . . . . . .
OS/390 C/C++ on the World Wide Web . . .
How to Read the Syntax Diagrams . . . .

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Chapter 2. About IBM OS/390 C/C++ . . . . . . . . . .

Changes for Version 2 Release 10 . . . . . . . . . . .
OS/390 Language Environment Downward Compatibility . .
The C/C++ Compilers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The C Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The C++ Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Common Features of the OS/390 C and C++ Compilers. . .
OS/390 C Compiler Specific Features . . . . . . . . .
OS/390 C++ Compiler Specific Features . . . . . . . .
Utilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Class Libraries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Class Library Source. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Debug Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
IBM C/C++ Productivity Tools for OS/390 . . . . . . . . .
OS/390 Language Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Program Management Binder . . . . . . . . . . . .
OS/390 UNIX System Services (OS/390 UNIX) . . . . . . .
OS/390 C/C++ Applications with OS/390 UNIX C/C++ Functions
Input and Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I/O Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
File Types. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Additional I/O Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The System Programming C Facility . . . . . . . . . . .
Interaction with Other IBM Products . . . . . . . . . . .
Additional Features of OS/390 C/C++ . . . . . . . . . .

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Part 2. The C and C++ Languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Chapter 3. Introduction to C and C++ .
Overview of the C Language . . . . .
C Source Programs . . . . . . . .
CBC3RAAA - example C program . .
C Source Files . . . . . . . . . .
CBC3RAAB - Source File 1 . . . .
CBC3RMAX - Source file 2 . . . .
Program Execution . . . . . . . .
Scope in C . . . . . . . . . . .
Block Scope . . . . . . . . . .
Function Scope. . . . . . . . .
Copyright IBM Corp. 1996, 2000

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File Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Function Prototype Scope . . . . . . . . . . .
Example of Scope in C . . . . . . . . . . . .
Related Information . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Program Linkage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Internal Linkage . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
External Linkage . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
No Linkage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Storage Duration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Name Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Related Information . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Command-Line Arguments . . . . . . . . . . .
Under OS/390 Batch . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Under IMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Under CICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Under TSO Command . . . . . . . . . . . .
Under TSO Call . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Under OS/390 UNIX Shell . . . . . . . . . . .
Related Information . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Overview of the C++ Language . . . . . . . . . .
C++ Support for Object-Oriented Programming . . . .
Data Abstraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Encapsulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Inheritance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Dynamic Binding and Polymorphism . . . . . . .
Other Features of C++ . . . . . . . . . . . .
C++ Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CBC3X02D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Scope in C++ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Local Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Function Scope. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
File Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Class Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Simple C++ Input and Output . . . . . . . . . .
CBC3X02F . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Output (cout, cerr, and clog) . . . . . . . . . .
Input (cin) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Linkage Specifications Linking to non-C++ Programs .
CBC3X02J . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Chapter 4. Lexical Elements of C and C++ .

Tokens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Source Program Character Set . . . . . .
Trigraph Sequences . . . . . . . . .
Digraph Characters . . . . . . . . .
Additional Keywords (C++ only). . . . .
Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C++ Comments. . . . . . . . . . .
Identifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Special Characters in Identifiers . . . .
Case Sensitivity in Identifiers . . . . . .
Significant Characters in Identifiers . . .
Keywords . . . . . . . . . . . . .
OS/390 C/C++ External Name Mapping. .
OS/390 Long Name Support . . . . . .
Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

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Integer Constants . . . . .
Floating-Point Constants . .
Fixed-Point Decimal Constants
Character Constants . . . .
String Literals . . . . . .
Escape Sequences . . . .

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Chapter 5. Declarations . . . . . . . .
Declarations Overview . . . . . . . . .
Block Scope Data Declarations . . . . . .
Initialization . . . . . . . . . . . .
Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Related Information . . . . . . . . .
File Scope Data Declarations . . . . . .
Initialization . . . . . . . . . . . .
Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Related Information . . . . . . . . .
Objects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Storage Class Specifiers . . . . . . . .
auto Storage Class Specifier . . . . . .
extern Storage Class Specifier . . . . .
register Storage Class Specifier. . . . .
static Storage Class Specifier . . . . .
typedef . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Examples of typedef Declarations . . . .
Related Information . . . . . . . . .
Type Specifiers . . . . . . . . . . . .
Characters . . . . . . . . . . . .
Floating-Point Variables. . . . . . . .
Fixed-Point Decimal Data Types (C Only) .
Integer Variables . . . . . . . . . .
Enumerations . . . . . . . . . . .
Pointers . . . . . . . . . . . . .
void Type . . . . . . . . . . . .
Arrays. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Structures . . . . . . . . . . . .
Unions . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Declarators . . . . . . . . . . . .
Initializers . . . . . . . . . . . .
C/C++ Data Mapping . . . . . . . .
C++ Function Specifiers . . . . . . .
C++ References . . . . . . . . . .

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Chapter 6. Expressions and Operators . .

Operator Precedence and Associativity . .
Examples of Expressions and Precedence
Operands . . . . . . . . . . . . .
lvalues . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Examples of lvalues . . . . . . . .
Type-based Aliasing . . . . . . . .
Related Information . . . . . . . . .
Primary Expressions . . . . . . . . .
C++ Scope Resolution Operator (::) . . .
Parenthesized Expressions ( ) . . . .
Constant Expressions . . . . . . . .
Function Calls ( ) . . . . . . . . .

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Contents

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Array Subscript [ ] (Array Element Specification)

Dot Operator (.) . . . . . . . . . . . .
Arrow Operator (>) . . . . . . . . . .
Unary Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . .
Increment (++) . . . . . . . . . . . .
Decrement () . . . . . . . . . . . .
Unary Plus (+) . . . . . . . . . . . .
Unary Minus () . . . . . . . . . . . .
Logical Negation (!) . . . . . . . . . . .
Bitwise Negation (). . . . . . . . . . .
Address (&) . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Indirection (*) . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cast Expressions . . . . . . . . . . .
sizeof (Size of an Object) . . . . . . . .
digitsof and precisionof (C Only) . . . . . .
C++ new Operator . . . . . . . . . . .
C++ delete Operator . . . . . . . . . .
C++ throw Expressions . . . . . . . . .
Binary Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . .
Multiplication (*) . . . . . . . . . . . .
Division (/) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Remainder (%) . . . . . . . . . . . .
Addition (+) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Subtraction () . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bitwise Left and Right Shift (<< >>) . . . . .
Relational (< > <= >=) . . . . . . . . . .
Equality (== !=) . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bitwise AND (&) . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bitwise Exclusive OR (|) . . . . . . . . .
Bitwise Inclusive OR (|) . . . . . . . . .
Logical AND (&&) . . . . . . . . . . .
Logical OR (||) . . . . . . . . . . . .
C++ Pointer-to-Member Operators (.* >*) . .
Conditional Expressions . . . . . . . . . .
Type of Conditional C Expressions . . . . .
Type of Conditional C++ Expressions . . . .
Examples of Conditional Expressions . . . .
Assignment Expressions . . . . . . . . . .
Simple Assignment (=) . . . . . . . . .
Compound Assignment . . . . . . . . .
Comma Expression (,). . . . . . . . . . .

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Chapter 7. Implicit Type Conversions

Integral Promotions . . . . . . . .
Standard Type Conversions. . . . .
Signed-Integer Conversions. . . .
Unsigned-Integer Conversions . . .
Floating-Point Conversions . . . .
Pointer Conversions . . . . . .
Reference Conversions . . . . .
Pointer-to-Member Conversions . .
Function Argument Conversions . .
Other Conversions . . . . . . .
Arithmetic Conversions . . . . . .

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Chapter 8. Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

Functions Overview. . . . . . . . .
C++ Enhancements to C Functions . . .
Function Declarations . . . . . . . .
C Function Declarations . . . . . .
C++ Function Declarations . . . . .
Examples of Function Declarations . .
Function Definitions. . . . . . . .
Related Information . . . . . . . .
The main() Function . . . . . . . .
Arguments to main . . . . . . . .
Example of Arguments to main . . .
Calling Functions and Passing Arguments
Passing Arguments in C++ . . . . .
Examples of Calling Functions. . . .
Passing Arguments by Reference . .
Default Arguments in C++ Functions . .
CBC3X06B . . . . . . . . . . .
Restrictions on Default Arguments . .
Evaluating Default Arguments . . . .
Function Return Values . . . . . . .
Using References as Return Types . .
Pointers to Functions . . . . . . . .
C++ Inline Functions . . . . . . . .

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Chapter 9. Statements . . . . . . . .
Labels . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Examples . . . . . . . . . . . .
Related Information . . . . . . . . .
Block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Initialization within Block Statements . .
Example . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Related Information . . . . . . . . .
break . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Restrictions. . . . . . . . . . . .
Examples . . . . . . . . . . . .
Related Information . . . . . . . . .
continue . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Restrictions. . . . . . . . . . . .
Examples . . . . . . . . . . . .
Related Information . . . . . . . . .
do . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Example . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Related Information . . . . . . . . .
Expression . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Examples . . . . . . . . . . . .
Resolving Ambiguous Statements in C++ .
for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Examples . . . . . . . . . . . .
Related Information . . . . . . . . .
goto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Example . . . . . . . . . . . . .
if . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Examples . . . . . . . . . . . .
null . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Example . . . . . . . . . . . . .
return . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Contents

vii

Value of a return Expression and Function

Examples . . . . . . . . . . . .
Related Information . . . . . . . . .
switch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Restrictions . . . . . . . . . . . .
Examples . . . . . . . . . . . .
Related Information . . . . . . . . .
while . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Example . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Related Information . . . . . . . . .

Value
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Chapter 10. Preprocessor Directives . . . .

Preprocessor Overview . . . . . . . . . .
Preprocessor Directive Format. . . . . . . .
Phases of Preprocessing. . . . . . . . . .
Macro Definition and Expansion (#define) . . .
Object-Like Macros . . . . . . . . . . .
Function-Like Macros . . . . . . . . . .
Scope of Macro Names (#undef) . . . . . . .
Examples of #undef Directives. . . . . . .
Single Number Sign Operator (#). . . . . . .
Examples of the # Operator. . . . . . . .
Related Information . . . . . . . . . . .
Macro Concatenation with the ## Operator . . .
Double Number Sign Operator (##) . . . . .
Preprocessor Error Directive (#error) . . . . .
Related Information . . . . . . . . . . .
File Inclusion (#include) . . . . . . . . . .
Predefined Macro Names . . . . . . . . .
ANSI/ISO Standard Predefined Macro Names .
OS/390 C/C++ Predefined Macro Names . . .
Examples of Predefined Macros . . . . . .
Conditional Compilation Directives . . . . . .
#if, #elif . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
#ifdef . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
#ifndef . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
#else . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
#endif . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Examples of Conditional Compilation Directives
Line Control (#line) . . . . . . . . . . . .
Example of #line Directives . . . . . . . .
Null Directive (#) . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pragma Directives (#pragma) . . . . . . . .
Restrictions on #pragma Directives . . . . .
IPA Considerations . . . . . . . . . . .
chars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
checkout. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
comment . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
convlit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
csect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
define (C++ Only) . . . . . . . . . . .
disjoint (C Only) . . . . . . . . . . . .
environment (C Only) . . . . . . . . . .
export . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
filetag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
hdrstop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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implementation (C++ Only) . . . .

info (C++ Only) . . . . . . . .
inline (C Only) - also see noinline .
isolated_call . . . . . . . . .
langlvl. . . . . . . . . . . .
leaves. . . . . . . . . . . .
linkage . . . . . . . . . . .
longname . . . . . . . . . .
map . . . . . . . . . . . .
margins . . . . . . . . . . .
noinline (C and C++) - also see inline
options (C Only) . . . . . . . .
option_override . . . . . . . .
pack . . . . . . . . . . . .
page (C Only) . . . . . . . . .
pagesize (C Only) . . . . . . .
priority (C++ Only) . . . . . . .
reachable . . . . . . . . . .
runopts . . . . . . . . . . .
sequence . . . . . . . . . .
skip (C Only) . . . . . . . . .
strings . . . . . . . . . . .
subtitle (C Only) . . . . . . . .
target (C Only) . . . . . . . .
title (C Only) . . . . . . . . .
variable . . . . . . . . . . .
wsizeof . . . . . . . . . . .

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Part 3. C++ Language Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275

Chapter 11. C++ Classes . . .
C++ Classes Overview . . . .
Classes and Structures . . .
Aggregate Classes . . . . .
Declaring Class Objects . . . .
Class Names . . . . . . .
Using Class Objects . . . .
Scope of Class Names . . . .
CBC3X10E . . . . . . . .
Incomplete Class Declarations.
Nested Classes . . . . . .
Local Classes . . . . . . .
Local Type Names . . . . .

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285

Chapter 12. C++ Class Members and Friends

Class Member Lists. . . . . . . . . . .
Data Members . . . . . . . . . . . .
Class-Type Class Members . . . . . . . .
Member Functions . . . . . . . . . . .
const and volatile Member Functions . . .
Virtual Member Functions . . . . . . .
Special Member Functions . . . . . . .
Inline Member Functions . . . . . . . .
Member Function Templates . . . . . .
Member Scope . . . . . . . . . . . .
CBC3X11A . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Contents

Pointers to Members . . . . . .
CBC3X11B . . . . . . . . .
The this Pointer . . . . . . . .
CBC3X11C . . . . . . . . .
CBC3X11D . . . . . . . . .
Static Members . . . . . . . .
Using the Class Access Operators
Static Data Members . . . . .
Static Member Functions . . . .
Member Access . . . . . . . .
Classes and Access Control . .
Access Specifiers . . . . . .
Friends . . . . . . . . . . .
CBC3X11I . . . . . . . . .
CBC3X11J . . . . . . . . .
Friend Scope . . . . . . . .
Friend Access . . . . . . . .

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314
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316

Chapter 14. Special C++ Member Functions .

Constructors and Destructors Overview . . .
Constructors . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Default Constructors . . . . . . . . .
Copy Constructors . . . . . . . . . .
Construction Order of Class Objects . . .
Explicitly Constructing Objects . . . . . .
Destructors . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Free Store . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Temporary Objects . . . . . . . . . . .
Related Information . . . . . . . . . .
User-Defined Conversions . . . . . . . .
Conversion by Constructor . . . . . . .
Conversion Functions . . . . . . . . .
Initialization by Constructor . . . . . . . .

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327

Chapter 13. C++ Overloading . . . . .

Overloading Functions. . . . . . . . .
CBC3X12A . . . . . . . . . . . .
Declaration Matching . . . . . . . .
Restrictions on Overloaded Functions . .
Argument Matching in Overloaded Functions
Sequence of Argument Conversions . .
Trivial Conversions . . . . . . . . .
Overloading Operators . . . . . . . .
CBC3X12B . . . . . . . . . . . .
General Rules for Overloading Operators.
Operands of Overloaded Operators . . .
Restrictions on Overloaded Operators . .
Overloading Unary Operators . . . . . .
Overloading Binary Operators . . . . . .
Special Overloaded Operators . . . . . .
Overloaded Assignment . . . . . . .
Overloaded Function Calls . . . . . .
Overloaded Subscripting . . . . . . .
Overloaded Class Member Access . . .
Overloaded Increment and Decrement . .
Overloaded new and delete . . . . . .

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

Explicit Initialization . . . . . . . . . .
Initializing Base Classes and Members . .
Construction Order of Derived Class Objects
Copying Class Objects . . . . . . . . .
Copy Restrictions . . . . . . . . . .
Copy by Assignment . . . . . . . . .
Copy by Initialization . . . . . . . . .

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332

Chapter 15. C++ Inheritance . . . . .

Inheritance Overview . . . . . . . .
Multiple Inheritance . . . . . . . .
The Inheritance Design Process . . .
Direct and Indirect Base Classes . . .
Polymorphism . . . . . . . . . .
Derivation . . . . . . . . . . . .
CBC3X14A . . . . . . . . . . .
CBC3X14B . . . . . . . . . . .
CBC3X14C . . . . . . . . . . .
Syntax of a Derived Class Declaration .
Inherited Member Access . . . . . .
Protected Members . . . . . . . .
Derivation Access of Base Classes . .
Access Declarations . . . . . . .
Access Resolution . . . . . . . .
Access Summary . . . . . . . .
Multiple Inheritance . . . . . . . . .
Virtual Base Classes . . . . . . .
Multiple Access . . . . . . . . .
Accessible Base Classes. . . . . .
Ambiguous Base Classes . . . . .
Virtual Functions . . . . . . . . . .
Ambiguous Virtual Function Calls. . .
Virtual Function Access . . . . . .
Abstract Classes . . . . . . . . . .

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351
353
354
355

Chapter 16. C++ Templates . . . . . . . . .

Templates Overview . . . . . . . . . . . .
CBC3X15A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Structuring Your Program Using Templates . . . .
File stack.h . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
File stackdef.h . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Class Templates . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Class Template Declarations and Definitions . .
Reference and Uniqueness . . . . . . . . .
Nontype Template Arguments . . . . . . . .
Explicitly Defined Template Classes . . . . . .
Function Templates . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Example of a Function Template . . . . . . .
Overloading Resolution for Template Functions .
Defining Template Functions . . . . . . . .
Explicitly Defined Template Functions . . . . .
Function Template Declarations and Definitions .
Differences between Class and Function Templates .
CBC3X15B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Member Function Templates . . . . . . . . .
Friends and Templates . . . . . . . . . . .

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Contents

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Static Data Members and Templates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371

Chapter 17. C++ Exception Handling . . . . . . .
C++ Exception Handling Overview . . . . . . . . .
Formal and Informal Exception Handling . . . . . . .
Using Exception Handling . . . . . . . . . . . .
Transferring Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CBC3X16A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CBC3X16F . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Catching Exceptions . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Matching Exceptions Thrown and Exceptions Caught .
Order of Catching . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Nested Try Blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Rethrowing an Exception. . . . . . . . . . . .
Using a Conditional Expression in a Throw Expression.
Constructors and Destructors in Exception Handling. . .
CBC3X16D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Exception Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Exception Specification Syntax . . . . . . . . .
Empty Exception Specifications . . . . . . . . .
Functions without an Exception Specification . . . .
Other Exception Specifications . . . . . . . . .
Special Exception Handling Functions . . . . . . . .
unexpected() . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
terminate() . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
set_unexpected() and set_terminate() . . . . . . .
Example of Using the Exception Handling Functions .

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385
386
386
386
386
387

Part 4. Appendixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389

Appendix A. C and C++ Compatibility . . .
C++ Constructs Not Found in ANSI/ISO C . .
Constructs Found in Both C++ and ANSI/ISO C
Character Array Initialization . . . . . .
Character Constants . . . . . . . . .
Class and typedef Names . . . . . . .
Class and Scope Declarations . . . . . .
const Object Initialization . . . . . . . .
Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Definitions within Return or Argument Types
Enumerator Type . . . . . . . . . .
Enumeration Type . . . . . . . . . .
Function Declarations . . . . . . . . .
Functions with an Empty Argument List . .
Global Constant Linkage . . . . . . . .
Jump Statements . . . . . . . . . .
Keywords . . . . . . . . . . . . .
main() Recursion. . . . . . . . . . .
Names of Nested Classes . . . . . . .
Pointers to void . . . . . . . . . . .
Prototype Declarations . . . . . . . .
Return without Declared Value. . . . . .
__STDC__ Macro . . . . . . . . . .
typedefs in Class Declarations. . . . . .
Interactions with Other Products . . . . . .

xii

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

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394
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394
395
395

Appendix B. Common Usage C Language Level . . . . . . . . . . . 397

Appendix C. Conforming to POSIX 1003.1

Appendix D. Supporting ANSI/ISO Standards

Implementation-Defined Behavior. . . . . .
Identifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Characters . . . . . . . . . . . . .
String Conversion . . . . . . . . . .
Integers . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Floating-Point . . . . . . . . . . . .
Arrays and Pointers. . . . . . . . . .
Registers . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Structures, Unions, Enumerations, Bit Fields
Declarators . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Preprocessing Directives . . . . . . . .
Library Functions . . . . . . . . . .
Error Handling. . . . . . . . . . . .
Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Translation Limits . . . . . . . . . .
Streams, Records, and Files . . . . . .
Memory Management . . . . . . . . .
Environment . . . . . . . . . . . .
Localization. . . . . . . . . . . . .
Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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405
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406
407
407
408
409
409
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410

Notices . .
Programming
Trademarks.
Standards .

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412
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Glossary

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Interface Information
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Bibliography . .
OS/390 . . . .
OS/390 C/C++ .
OS/390 Language
Assembler . . .
COBOL . . . .
PL/I . . . . .
VS FORTRAN. .
CICS . . . . .
DB2 . . . . .
IMS/ESA. . . .
QMF . . . . .
DFSMS . . . .
INDEX

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Environment
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Contents

xiii

xiv

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

Part 1. Introduction
This part describes how to use the OS/390 C/C++ Language Reference, and how
to find additional information in the OS/390 C/C++ library. This part introduces the
IBM OS/390 C/C++ product.
Chapter 1. About This Book
Describes how to use this book in relation to the OS/390 C/C++ information
library and related OS/390 documentation.
Chapter 2. About IBM OS/390 C/C++
Introduces the OS/390 C/C++ product and its key features, related OS/390
environments such as OS/390 UNIX System Services, and other OS/390
tools that are useful when using OS/390 C/C++.

Copyright IBM Corp. 1996, 2000

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

Chapter 1. About This Book

This book describes the IBM C language and C++ language definitions which
comply with the POSIX and XPG4 standards, and which the OS/390 Language
Environment implements. Use this book if you are a programmer who needs to
understand the support that IBM OS/390 C/C++ provides.

Who Should Use This Book

This book is intended for programmers who will write C or C++ applications under
the OS/390 operating system. This book is a reference rather than a tutorial. It
assumes that you have some experience with writing C or C++ programs and are
familiar with the OS/390 operating system.

A Note about Examples

Examples that illustrate the use of the OS/390 C/C++ compiler use a simple style.
They are instructional examples, and do not attempt to minimize run time, conserve
storage, or check for errors. The examples do not demonstrate all the uses of C
and C++ language constructs. Some examples are only code fragments and will not
compile without additional code.

Copyright IBM Corp. 1996, 2000

IBM OS/390 C/C++ and Related Publications

This section summarizes the content of the IBM OS/390 C/C++ publications and
shows where to find related information in other publications.
Table 1. OS/390 C/C++ Publications
Book Title and Number

Key Sections/Chapters in the Book

OS/390 C/C++ Programming Guide,

SC09-2362

Guidance information for:

v C/C++ input and output
v Debugging OS/390 C programs that use input/output
v Using linkage specifications in C++
v Combining C and assembler
v Creating and using DLLs
v Using threads in an OS/390 UNIX application
v Reentrancy
v Using the decimal data type in C and C++
v Handling exceptions, error conditions, and signals
v Optimizing code
v Optimizing your C/C++ code with Interprocedural Analysis
v Network communications under OS/390 UNIX
v Interprocess communications using OS/390 UNIX
v Structuring a program that uses C++ templates
v Using environment variables
v Using System Programming C facilities
v Library functions for the System Programming C facilities
v Using runtime user exits
v Using the OS/390 C multitasking facility
v Using other IBM products with OS/390 C/C++ (CICS, CSP, DWS, DB2,
GDDM, IMS, ISPF, QMF)
v Internationalization: locales and character sets, code set conversion utilities,
mapping variant characters
v POSIX character set
v Code point mappings
v Locales supplied with OS/390 C/C++
v Charmap files supplied with OS/390 C/C++
v Examples of charmap and locale definition source files
v Converting code from coded character set IBM-1047
v Using built-in functions
v Programming considerations for OS/390 UNIX C/C++

OS/390 C/C++ Users Guide,

SC09-2361

Guidance information for:

v OS/390 C/C++ examples
v Compiler options
v Binder options and control statements
v Specifying OS/390 Language Environment runtime options
v Compiling, IPA Linking, binding, and running OS/390 C/C++ programs
v Using precompiled headers
v Utilities (Object Library, DLL Rename, CXXFILT, DSECT Conversion, Code
Set and Locale, ar and make, BPXBATCH)
v Diagnosing problems
v Cataloged procedures and REXX EXECs supplied by IBM
v Error messages and return codes

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

Table 1. OS/390 C/C++ Publications (continued)

Book Title and Number

Key Sections/Chapters in the Book

OS/390 C/C++ Language Reference,

SC09-2360

Reference information for:

v The C and C++ languages
v Lexical elements of OS/390 C and OS/390 C++
v Declarations, expressions, and operators
v Implicit type conversions
v Functions and statements
v Preprocessor directives
v C++ classes, class members, and friends
v C++ overloading, special member functions, and inheritance
v C++ templates and exception handling
v OS/390 C and OS/390 C++ compatibility

OS/390 C/C++ Run-Time Library

Reference, SC28-1663

Reference information for:

v C header files
v C Library functions

OS/390 C Curses, SC28-1907

Reference information for:

v Curses concepts
v Key data types
v General rules for characters, renditions, and window properties
v General rules of operations and operating modes
v Use of macros
v Restrictions on block-mode terminals
v Curses functional interface
v Contents of headers
v The terminfo database

OS/390 C/C++ Compiler and

Run-Time Migration Guide,
SC09-2359

Guidance and reference information for:

v Common migration questions
v Application executable program compatibility
v Source program compatibility
v Input and output operations compatibility
v Class library migration considerations
v Changes between releases of OS/390
v C/370 to current compiler migration
v Other migration considerations

OS/390 C/C++ Reference Summary,

SX09-1313

Summary tables for:

v Character set, trigraphs, digraphs, and keywords
v Escape sequences, storage classes
v Predefined and derived types, type qualifiers
v Operator precedence, redirection symbols
v fprintf() format, type characters, and flag characters
v fscanf() format and type characters
v __amrc structure
v Hardware exceptions and signals
v Compiler return codes
v Compiler options
v #pragma directives
v Library functions
v Utilities

Chapter 1. About This Book

Table 1. OS/390 C/C++ Publications (continued)

Book Title and Number

Key Sections/Chapters in the Book

OS/390 C/C++ IBM Open Class

Library Users Guide, SC09-2363

Guidance information for:

v Using the Complex Mathematics Class Library: Review of complex
numbers, header files, constructing complex objects, mathematical
operators for complex, friend functions for complex, handling complex
mathematics errors
v Using the I/O Stream Class Library: Introduction, getting started, advanced
topics, and manipulators
v Using the Collection Class Library: Overview, instantiating and using,
element and key functions, tailoring a collection implementation,
polymorphic use of collections, support for notifications, exception handling,
tutorials, problem solving, compatibility with previous releases, thread safety
v Using the Application Support Class Library: Introduction, String classes,
Exception and Trace classes, Date and Time classes, controlling threads
and protecting data, the IBM Open Class* notification framework, Binary
Coded (Packed) Decimal classes

OS/390 C/C++ IBM Open Class

Library Reference, SC09-2364

Reference information for:

v Complex Mathematics Class Library
v I/O Stream Class Library
v Collection Class Library
v Application Support Class Library

Debug Tool Users Guide and

Reference, SC09-2137

Guidance and reference information for:

v Preparing to debug programs
v Debugging programs
v Using Debug Tool in different environments
v Language-specific information
v Debug Tool reference

APAR and BOOKS files (Shipped with Partitioned data set CBC.SCBCDOC on the product tape contains the
Program materials)
members, APAR and BOOKS, which provide additional information for using
the IBM OS/390 C/C++ licensed program, including:
v Isolating reportable problems
v Keywords
v Preparing an Authorized Program Analysis Report (APAR)
v Problem identification worksheet
v Maintenance on OS/390
v Late changes to OS/390 C/C++ publications
Note: For complete and detailed information on linking and running with OS/390 Language Environment and using
the OS/390 Language Environment runtime options, refer to OS/390 Language Environment Programming Guide,
SC28-1939. For complete and detailed information on using interlanguage calls, refer to OS/390 Language
Environment Writing Interlanguage Applications, SC28-1943.

The following table lists the OS/390 C/C++ and related publications. The table
groups the publications according to the tasks they describe.
Table 2. Publications by Task
Tasks

Books

Planning, preparing, and migrating to OS/390

C/C++

v OS/390 C/C++ Compiler and Run-Time Migration Guide,

SC09-2359
v OS/390 Language Environment Customization, SC28-1941
v OS/390 UNIX System Services Planning, SC28-1890
v OS/390 Planning for Installation, GC28-1726
v OS/390 Task Atlas, available on the OS/390 Library page on the
World Wide Web (http://www.ibm.com/s390/os390/bkserv/)

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

Table 2. Publications by Task (continued)

Tasks

Books

Installing

v OS/390 Program Directory

v OS/390 Planning for Installation, GC28-1726
v OS/390 Language Environment Customization, SC28-1941

Coding programs

v
v
v
v
v
v
v

Coding and binding programs with

interlanguage calls

v
v
v
v

Compiling, binding, and running programs

v OS/390 C/C++ Users Guide, SC09-2361

v OS/390 Language Environment Programming Guide, SC28-1939
v OS/390 Language Environment Debugging Guide and Run-Time
Messages, SC28-1942
v OS/390 DFSMS Program Management, SC27-0806
v OS/390 Messages Database, available on the OS/390 Library page
on the World Wide Web (http://www.ibm.com/s390/os390/bkserv/)

Compiling and binding applications in the

OS/390 UNIX environment

v
v
v
v

OS/390
OS/390
OS/390
OS/390

Debugging programs

v
v
v
v
v
v

README file
Debug Tool Users Guide and Reference, SC09-2137
OS/390 C/C++ Users Guide, SC09-2361
OS/390 C/C++ Programming Guide, SC09-2362
OS/390 Language Environment Programming Guide, SC28-1939
OS/390 Language Environment Debugging Guide and Run-Time
Messages, SC28-1942
OS/390 UNIX System Services Messages and Codes, SC28-1908
OS/390 UNIX System Services Users Guide, SC28-1891
OS/390 UNIX System Services Command Reference, SC28-1892
OS/390 UNIX System Services Programming Tools, SC28-1904

OS/390 C/C++ Run-Time Library Reference, SC28-1663

OS/390 C/C++ Language Reference, SC09-2360
OS/390 C/C++ Reference Summary, SX09-1313
OS/390 C/C++ Programming Guide, SC09-2362
OS/390 Language Environment Concepts Guide, GC28-1945
OS/390 Language Environment Programming Guide, SC28-1939
OS/390 Language Environment Programming Reference,
SC28-1940
v OS/390 C/C++ IBM Open Class Library Users Guide, SC09-2363
v OS/390 C/C++ IBM Open Class Library Reference, SC09-2364
OS/390 C/C++ Programming Guide, SC09-2362
OS/390 C/C++ Language Reference, SC09-2360
OS/390 Language Environment Programming Guide, SC28-1939
OS/390 Language Environment Writing Interlanguage Applications,
SC28-1943
v OS/390 DFSMS Program Management, SC27-0806

v
v
v
v

C/C++ Users Guide, SC09-2361

UNIX System Services Users Guide, SC28-1891
UNIX System Services Command Reference, SC28-1892
DFSMS Program Management, SC27-0806

Using shells and utilities in the OS/390 UNIX

environment

v OS/390 C/C++ Users Guide, SC09-2361

v OS/390 UNIX System Services Command Reference, SC28-1892
v OS/390 UNIX System Services Messages and Codes, SC28-1908

Using sockets library functions in the OS/390

UNIX environment

v OS/390 C/C++ Run-Time Library Reference, SC28-1663

Chapter 1. About This Book

Table 2. Publications by Task (continued)

Tasks

Books

Porting a UNIX Application to OS/390

v OS/390 UNIX System Services Porting Guide

This guide contains useful information about supported header files
and C functions, sockets in an OS/390 UNIX environment, process
management, compiler optimization tips, and suggestions for
improving the applications performance after it has been ported.
The Porting Guide is available as a PDF file which you can
download, or as web pages which you can browse, at the following
web address: http://www.ibm.com/s390/unix/bpxa1por.html

Working in the OS/390 UNIX System Services v OS/390 UNIX System Services Parallel Environment: Operation
Parallel Environment
and Use, SC33-6697
v OS/390 UNIX System Services Parallel Environment: MPI
Programming and Subroutine Reference, SC33-6696

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Performing diagnosis and submitting an

Authorized Program Analysis Report (APAR)

v OS/390 C/C++ Users Guide, SC09-2361

v CBC.SCBCDOC(APAR) on OS/390 C/C++ product tape

Tuning Large C/C++ Applications on OS/390

UNIX System Services

v IBM Redbook called Tuning Large C/C++ Applications on OS/390

UNIX System Services, which is available at:
http://www.redbooks.ibm.com/abstracts/sg245606.html

Quick reference

v OS/390 C/C++ Reference Summary, SX09-1313

Note: For information on using the prelinker, see the appendix on prelinking and linking OS/390 C/C++ programs in
OS/390 C/C++ Users Guide. As of Release 4, this appendix contains information that was previously in the chapter on
prelinking and linking OS/390 C/C++ programs in OS/390 C/C++ Users Guide. It also contains prelinker information
that was previously in OS/390 C/C++ Programming Guide.

Hardcopy Books
The following OS/390 C/C++ books are available in hardcopy:
v OS/390 C/C++ Run-Time Library Reference, SC28-1663
v OS/390 C/C++ Users Guide, SC09-2361
v OS/390 C/C++ Programming Guide, SC09-2362
v OS/390 C/C++ Reference Summary, SX09-1313
v OS/390 C/C++ IBM Open Class Library Users Guide, SC09-2363
v OS/390 C Curses, SC28-1907
v OS/390 C/C++ Compiler and Run-Time Migration Guide, SC09-2359
v Debug Tool Users Guide and Reference, SC09-2137
You can purchase these books on their own, or as part of a set. You receive
OS/390 C/C++ Compiler and Run-Time Migration Guide, SC09-2359 at no charge.
Feature code 8009 includes the remaining books.

PDF Books
All of the OS/390 C/C++ publications are supplied in PDF format. The books are
available on a CD-ROM called OS/390 PDF Library Collection, SK2T-6718. They
are also available at the following Web Site:
http://www.ibm.com/software/ad/c390/cmvsdocs.html

To read a PDF file, use the Adobe Acrobat Reader. If you do not have the Adobe
Acrobat Reader, you can download it for free from the Adobe Web Site:
http://www.adobe.com

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

Softcopy Books
All of the OS/390 C/C++ publications (except for OS/390 C/C++ Reference
Summary) are available in softcopy book format. The books are available on the
tape that accompanies the OS/390 product, and on a CD-ROM called IBM Online
Library Omnibus Edition OS/390 Collection, SK2T-6700.
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To read the softcopy books, use BookManager READ/MVS Version 1 Release 3

(5695-046) or the Library Reader for DOS, OS/2 or Windows supplied on the
CD-ROMs containing BookManager books.
If your system has BookManager Read installed, you can enter the command
BOOKMGR to start BookManager and display a list of books available to you. If you
know the name of the book that you want to view, you can use the OPEN
command to open the book directly.
Note: If your workstation does not have graphics capability, BookManager Read
cannot correctly display some characters, such as arrows and brackets.
You can also browse the books on the World Wide Web by clicking on "The Library"
link on the OS/390 home page. The web address for this page is:
http://www.ibm.com/s390/os390

Softcopy Examples
Most of the larger examples in the following books are available in
machine-readable form:
v OS/390 C/C++ Language Reference, SC09-2360
v OS/390 C/C++ Users Guide, SC09-2361
v OS/390 C/C++ Programming Guide, SC09-2362
v OS/390 C/C++ IBM Open Class Library Users Guide, SC09-2363
v OS/390 C/C++ IBM Open Class Library Reference, SC09-2364
In the following books, a label on an example indicates that the example is
distributed in softcopy. The label is the name of a member in the data sets
CBC.SCBCSAM or CBC.SCLBSAM. The labels have the form CBCxyyy or CLBxyyy, where
x refers to a publication:
v R and X refer to OS/390 C/C++ Language Reference, SC09-2360
v G refers to OS/390 C/C++ Programming Guide, SC09-2362
v U refers to OS/390 C/C++ Users Guide, SC09-2361
v A refers to OS/390 C/C++ IBM Open Class Library Users Guide, SC09-2363
Examples labelled as CBCxyyy appear in OS/390 C/C++ Language Reference,
OS/390 C/C++ Programming Guide, and OS/390 C/C++ Users Guide. Examples
labelled as CLBxyyy appear in OS/390 C/C++ IBM Open Class Library Users
Guide.
An exception applies to the example names for the Collection Class Library which
do not follow a naming convention. These examples are in OS/390 C/C++ IBM
Open Class Library Reference, SC09-2364.

Chapter 1. About This Book

OS/390 C/C++ on the World Wide Web

Additional information on OS/390 C/C++ is available on the World Wide Web on the
OS/390 C/C++ home page at:
http://www.ibm.com/software/ad/c390

This page contains late-breaking information about the OS/390 C/C++ product,
including the compiler, the class libraries, and utilities. It also contains a tutorial on
the source level interactive debugger. There are links to other useful information,
such as the OS/390 C/C++ information library and the libraries of other OS/390
elements that are available on the Web. The OS/390 C/C++ home page also
contains samples that you can download, and links to other related Web sites.

How to Read the Syntax Diagrams

This book describes the syntax for commands, directives, and statements, using the
following structure:
v Read the syntax diagrams from left to right, from top to bottom, following the path
of the line.
A double right arrowhead indicates the beginning of a command, directive, or
statement. A single right arrowhead indicates that it is continued on the next line.
In the following diagrams, "statement" represents a command, directive, or
statement.
%% statement

v Required items are on the horizontal line (the main path).

%% statement required_item

v Optional items are below the main path.

%% statement

optional_item

v If you can choose from two or more items, they are vertical in a stack.
If you must choose one of the items, one item of the stack is on the main path.
%% statement

required_choice1
required_choice2

If choosing one of the items is optional, the entire stack is below the main path.
%% statement

optional_choice1
optional_choice2

v An arrow that returns to the left above the main line indicates an item that you
can repeat.

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

%% statement '

repeatable_item

A repeat arrow above a stack indicates that you can make more than one choice
from the stacked items, or repeat a single choice.
v Keywords are not italicized, and should be entered exactly as shown (for
example, pragma). You must spell keywords exactly as shown in the syntax
diagram. Variables are in lowercase italics (in hardcopy), for example, identifier.
They represent user-supplied names or values.
v If the syntax diagram shows punctuation marks, parentheses, arithmetic
operators, or other nonalphanumeric characters, you must enter them as part of
the syntax.
Note: You do not always require the white space between tokens. You should,
however, include at least one blank space between tokens unless otherwise
specified.
The following syntax diagram example shows the syntax for the #pragma comment
directive.
%%

% (

(1)

(5)

(2)

pragma

(6)
compiler
date
timestamp
copyright
user

(3)

comment

(4)

(7)

token_sequence

(9)

(10)

(8)

Notes:
1

This is the start of the syntax diagram.

The symbol # must appear first.

The keyword pragma must follow the # symbol.

The keyword comment must follow the keyword pragma.

An opening parenthesis must follow the keyword comment.

The comment type must be entered only as one of the following: compiler,
date, timestamp, copyright, or user.

If the comment type is copyright or user, and an optional character string is

following, a comma must be present after the comment type.

A character string must follow the comma. The character string must be
enclosed in double quotation marks.

A closing parenthesis is required.

This is the end of the syntax diagram.

The following examples of the #pragma comment directive are syntactically correct
according to the diagram above:
Chapter 1. About This Book

#pragma comment(date)
#pragma comment(user)
#pragma comment(copyright,"This text will appear in the module")

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

Chapter 2. About IBM OS/390 C/C++

The C/C++ feature of the IBM OS/390 licensed program provides support for C and
C++ application development on the OS/390 platform. The C/C++ feature is based
on the C/C++ for MVS/ESA product.
IBM OS/390 C/C++ includes:
v A C compiler (referred to as the OS/390 C compiler)
v A C++ compiler (referred to as the OS/390 C++ compiler)
v Support for a set of C++ class libraries that are available with the base OS/390
operating system
v Application Support Class and Collection Class Library source
v A mainframe interactive Debug Tool (optional)
v Performance Analyzer host component, which supports the C/C++ Productivity
Tools for OS/390 product
v A set of utilities for C/C++ application development
IBM offers the C language on other platforms, such as the AIX, OS/2, OS/400,
VM/ESA, VSE/ESA, and Windows operating systems. The AIX, OS/2, OS/400, and
Windows operating systems also offer the C++ language.
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Changes for Version 2 Release 10

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OS/390 C/C++ has made the following performance and usability enhancements for
this release:

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Extra Performance Linkage (XPLINK)

Extra Performance Linkage (XPLINK) is a new call linkage between
functions that has the potential for a significant performance
increase when used in an environment of frequent calls between
small functions. XPLINK makes subroutine calls more efficient by
removing nonessential instructions from the main path. When all
functions are compiled with the XPLINK option, pointers can be
used without restriction, which makes it easier to port new
applications to S/390.

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GOFF

The Generalized Object File Format (GOFF) is the strategic object

module format for S/390. It extends the capabilities of object
modules to contain more information than current object modules. It
removes the limitations of the previous object module format and
supports future enhancements. GOFF makes re-binding easier and
more efficient. It is required for XPLINK.

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IPA Level 2

Under IPA Level 1, many optimizations such as constant

propagation and pointer analysis are performed at the
intraprocedural (subprogram) level. With IPA Level 2, these
optimizations are performed across the entire program, which can
result in significant improvement in the generated code.

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Addition of @STATIC Map into Compiler Listing

The @STATIC Map displays offset information for file scope
read/write static variables.

This release has introduced the following compiler option:

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COMPACT

Copyright IBM Corp. 1996, 2000

During optimizations performed during code generation, for both

NOIPA and IPA, choices must be made between those

optimizations which tend to result in faster but larger code and

those which tend to result in smaller but slower code. The COMPACT
| NOCOMPACT option controls these choices. When the COMPACT
option is used, the compiler favors those optimizations which tend
to limit the growth of the code. This feature gives you the flexibility
to choose between faster but larger code or slower and smaller
code.

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For details on how to use this compiler option, see the chapter Compiler Options in
OS/390 C/C++ Users Guide.

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The IBM System Object Model (SOM) is no longer supported in the C++ compiler
and the IBM Open Class Library. The SOM-enabled class library DLLs have been
stabilized at the V2R9 level and continue to be shipped as a run-time environment
only. You cannot use the V2R10 Compiler to build SOM applications.

The Model Tool is no longer available.

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The option_override #pragma directive defines function-specific options that

override those specified by the command line options when performing optimization
for code and data in that subprogram. This enables finer control of program
optimization. In V2R10 we have added support for the COMPACT and SPILL options.
The subprogram-specific SPILL option is not a new option, however, the maximum
spill area size has been increased for this release to 1073741823 bytes or 2301
bytes.

OS/390 Language Environment Downward Compatibility

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OS/390 Release 10 Language Environment provides downward compatibility

support. Assuming that you have met the required programming guidelines and
restrictions, described in OS/390 Language Environment Programming Guide, this
support enables you to develop applications on higher release levels of OS/390 for
use on platforms that are running lower release levels of OS/390. In C and C++,
downward compatibility support is provided through the C/C++ TARGET compiler
option. See the OS/390 C/C++ Users Guide for details on this compiler option.

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For example, a company may use OS/390 Release 10 with Language Environment
on a development system where applications are coded, link-edited, and tested,
while using any supported lower release of OS/390 Language Environment on their
production systems where the finished application modules are used.

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Downward compatibility support is not the roll-back of new function to prior releases
of OS/390. Applications developed that exploit the downward compatibility support
must not use any Language Environment function that is unavailable on the lower
release of OS/390 where the application will be used.

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The downward compatibility support includes toleration PTFs for lower releases of
OS/390 to assist in diagnosing applications that do not meet the programming
requirements for this support. (Specific PTF numbers can be found in the PSP
buckets.)

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The downward compatibility support provided by OS/390 Release 10 and by the

toleration PTFs does not change Language Environments upward compatibility.
That is, applications coded and link-edited with one release of OS/390 Language
Environment will continue to run on later releases of OS/390 Language

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

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Environment without the need to recompile or re-link edit the application,

independent of the downward compatibility support.

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Downward compatibility is supported in earlier releases of OS/390 C/C++ (from

Release 6), but in earlier releases of OS/390 the user is required to copy header
files and link-edit syslib datasets from the deployment release of OS/390. With
Release 10, the Release 10 header files and syslib datasets can be used.

The C/C++ Compilers

The following sections describe the C and C++ languages and the OS/390 C/C++
compilers.

The C Language
The C language is a general purpose, versatile, and functional programming
language that allows a programmer to create applications quickly and easily. C
provides high-level control statements and data types as do other structured
programming languages. It also provides many of the benefits of a low-level
language.

The C++ Language

The C++ language is based on the C language, but incorporates support for
object-oriented concepts. Refer to the Appendix A. C and C++ Compatibility on
page 391 for a detailed description of the differences between OS/390 C++ and
OS/390 C.
The C++ language introduces classes, which are user-defined data types that may
contain data definitions and function definitions. You can use classes from
established class libraries, develop your own classes, or derive new classes from
existing classes by adding data descriptions and functions. New classes can inherit
properties from one or more classes. Not only do classes describe the data types
and functions available, but they can also hide (encapsulate) the implementation
details from user programs. An object is an instance of a class.
The C++ language also provides templates and other features that include access
control to data and functions, and better type checking and exception handling. It
also supports polymorphism and the overloading of operators.

Common Features of the OS/390 C and C++ Compilers

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The C and C++ compilers offer many features to help your work:
v Optimization support:
Algorithms to take advantage of S/390 architecture to get better optimization
for speed and use of computer resources through the OPTIMIZE and IPA
compiler options.
The OPTIMIZE compiler option, which instructs the compiler to optimize the
machine instructions it generates to produce faster-running object code to
improve application performance at run time.
Interprocedural Analysis (IPA), to perform optimizations across compilation
units, thereby optimizing application performance at run time.
v DLLs (dynamic link libraries) to share parts among applications or parts of
applications, and dynamically link to exported variables and functions at run time.
DLLs allow a function reference or a variable reference in one executable to use
a definition located in another executable at run time. You can use both
Chapter 2. About IBM OS/390 C/C++

load-on-reference and load-on-demand DLLs. When your program refers to a

function or variable which resides in a DLL, OS/390 C/C++ generates code to
load the DLL and access the functions and variables within it. This is called
load-on-reference. Alternatively, your program can use OS/390 C library functions
to load a DLL and look up the address of functions and variables within it. This is
called load-on-demand. Your application code explicitly controls load-on-demand
DLLs at the source level.
You can use DLLs to split applications into smaller modules and improve system
memory usage. DLLs also offer more flexibility for building, packaging, and
redistributing applications.
v Full program reentrancy.
With reentrancy, many users can simultaneously run a program. A reentrant
program uses less storage if it is stored in the LPA (link pack area) or ELPA
(extended link pack area) and simultaneously run by multiple users. It also
reduces processor I/O when the program starts up, and improves program
performance by reducing the transfer of data to auxiliary storage. OS/390 C
programmers can design programs that are naturally reentrant. For those
programs that are not naturally reentrant, C programmers can use constructed
reentrancy. To do this, compile programs with the RENT option and use the
program management binder supplied with OS/390, or the OS/390 Language
Environment Prelinker (prelinker) and program management binder. The OS/390
C++ compiler always ensures that C++ programs are reentrant.
v Locale-based internationalization support derived from the IEEE POSIX
1003.2-1992 standard. Also derived from the X/Open CAE Specification, System
Interface Definitions, Issue 4 and Issue 4 Version 2. This allows programmers to
use locales to specify language/country characteristics for their applications.
v The ability to call and be called by other languages such as assembler, COBOL,
PL/1, compiled Java, and Fortran, to enable programmers to integrate OS/390
C/C++ code with existing applications.
v Exploitation of OS/390 and OS/390 UNIX technology.
OS/390 UNIX is an IBM implementation of the open operating system
environment, as defined in the XPG4 and POSIX standards.
v When used with OS/390 UNIX and OS/390 Language Environment, support for
the following standards at the system level:
A subset of the extended multibyte and wide character functions as defined by
the Programming Language C Amendment 1. This is ISO/IEC
9899:1990/Amendment 1:1994(E)
ISO/IEC 9945-1:1990(E)/IEEE POSIX 1003.1-1990
A subset of IEEE POSIX 1003.1a, Draft 6, July 1991
IEEE Portable Operating System Interface (POSIX) Part 2, P1003.2
A subset of IEEE POSIX 1003.4a, Draft 6, February 1992 (the IEEE POSIX
committee has renumbered POSIX.4a to POSIX.1c)
X/Open CAE Specification, System Interfaces and Headers, Issue 4 Version 2
A subset of IEEE 754-1985 (R1990) IEEE Standard for Binary Floating-Point
Arithmetic (ANSI), as applicable to the S/390 environment.
X/Open CAE Specification, Network Services, Issue 4
v Year 2000 support
v Support for the Euro currency.

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

OS/390 C Compiler Specific Features

In addition to the features common to OS/390 C and C++, the OS/390 C compiler
provides you with the following capabilities:
v The ability to write portable code that supports the following standards:
All elements of the ISO standard ISO/IEC 9899:1990 (E)
ANSI/ISO 9899:1990[1992] (formerly ANSI X3.159-1989 C)
X/Open Specification Programming Language Issue 3, Common Usage C
FIPS-160
v System programming capabilities, which allow you to use OS/390 C in place of
assembler
v Additional optimization capabilities through the INLINE compile-time option
v Extensions of the standard definitions of the C language to provide programmers
with support for the OS/390 environment, such as fixed-point (packed) decimal
data support

OS/390 C++ Compiler Specific Features

In addition to the features common to OS/390 C and C++, the OS/390 C++
compiler provides you with the following:

v An implementation based on the definition of the language that is contained in

the Draft Proposal International Standard for Information Systems Programming
Language C++ (X3J16/92-00091). The OS/390 C++ compiler also supports a
subset of the International Standard for the C++ Programming Language
(ISO/IEC 14882-1998) specification. The following items in the standard are not
supported by OS/390 C++:
New cast syntax and semantics
- dynamic_cast
- static_cast
- reinterpret_cast

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- const_cast
Explicit specifier
Mutable specifier
Namespace
Run-Time Type Identification (RTTI)

ANSI Template (supports the specification in X3J16/92-00091 as mentioned

above)
The bool built-in boolean data type
Run-time standard exceptions
- bad_alloc
- bad_exception
- bad_cast
Universal Character Names
ANSI C++ Standard Class Library (which includes the Standard Template
Library)
v C++ template support and exception handling.

Chapter 2. About IBM OS/390 C/C++

Utilities
The OS/390 C/C++ compilers provide the following utilities:
v The CXXFILT Utility to map OS/390 C++ mangled names to the original source.
v The localedef Utility to read the locale definition file and produce a locale object
that the locale-specific library functions can use.
v The DSECT Conversion Utility to convert descriptive assembler DSECTs into
OS/390 C/C++ data structures.
OS/390 Language Environment provides the following utilities:
v The Object Library Utility (C370LIB) to update partitioned data set (PDS and
PDS/E) libraries of object modules and Interprocedural Analysis (IPA) object
modules.
v The DLL Rename Utility to make selected DLLs a unique component of the
applications with which they are packaged. The DLL Rename Utility does not
support XPLINK.
v The prelinker which combines object modules that comprise an OS/390 C/C++
application, to produce a single object module. The prelinker supports only object
and extended object format input files, and does not support GOFF.

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Class Libraries
IBM OS/390 C/C++ provides a base set of class libraries, called C/C++ IBM Open
Class, which is consistent with that available in other members of the VisualAge
C++ Version 3.0 product family. These class libraries are:
v The I/O Stream Class Library

The I/O Stream Class Library lets you perform input and output (I/O) operations
independent of physical I/O devices or data types that are used. You can code
sophisticated I/O statements easily and clearly, and define input and output for
your own data types. You can improve the maintainability of programs that use
input and output by using the I/O Stream Class Library.
v The Complex Mathematics Class Library
The Complex Mathematics Class Library lets you manipulate and perform
standard arithmetic on complex numbers. Scientific and technical fields use
complex numbers.
v The Application Support Class Library
The Application Support Class Library provides the basic abstractions that are
needed during the creation of most C++ applications, including String, Date,
Time, and Decimal.
v The Collection Class Library
The Collection Class Library implements a wide variety of classical data
structures such as stack, tree, list, hash table, and so on. Most programs use
collections. You can develop programs without having to define every collection.
Programmers can start programming by using a high level of abstraction, and
later replace an abstract data type with the appropriate concrete implementation.
Each abstract data type has a common interface for all of its implementations.
The Collection Class Library provides programmers with a consistent set of
building blocks from which they can derive application objects. The library design
exploits features of the C++ language such as exception handling and template
support.
All of the libraries that are described above are thread-safe.

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

All of the libraries that are described above are available in both static and DLL
formats. OS/390 C/C++ packages the Application Support Class and Collection
Class libraries together in a single DLL. For compatibility, separate side-decks are
available for the Application Support Class and Collection Class libraries, in addition
to the side-deck available for the combined library.
Note: Retroactive to OS/390 Version 1 Release 3, the IBM Open Class Library is
licensed with the base operating system. This enables applications to use
this library at run time without having to license the OS/390 C/C++ compiler
feature(s) or to use the DLL Rename Utility.
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The DLLs for the Open Class libraries are compiled without XPLINK. If you use
these DLLs with XPLINK applications, the performance gain you realize in your
application code by using XPLINK may be offset partially or completely (depending
on the frequency of use of DLL functions) by the cost of switching to the non-XPLINK
environment when crossing the boundary between your application code and the
class library code in the DLL. If you use these DLLs with XPLINK applications, you
may notice reduced performance. There are two ways to avoid this problem:
v Use the static library instead of the DLL. This static library has both the XPLINK
and NOXPLINK versions of the objects.
v For the Application Support Class Library or Collection Class Library, recompile
the source code that is shipped with OS/390 C/C++. For build instructions, refer
to the CBC.SCLDBLD readme file.

Class Library Source

The Class Library Source consists of the following:
v Application Support Class Library source code

v Collection Class Library source code (C++ native)

v Instructions for building the Application Support Class and Collection Class
Libraries in C++ native (static and DLL) versions
v Class Library Language Environment message file source
v Instructions for building the Class Library Language Environment message files

The Debug Tool

IBM OS/390 C/C++ supports program development by using theDebug Tool. This
optionally available tool allows you to debug applications in their native host
environment, such as CICS/ESA, IMS/ESA, DB2, and so on. The Debug Tool
provides the following support and function:
v Step mode
v Breakpoints
v Monitor
v Frequency analysis
v Dynamic patching
You can record the debug session in a log file, and replay the session. You can also
use the Debug Tool to help capture test cases for future program validation or to
further isolate a problem within an application.

You can specify either data sets or hierarchical file system (HFS) files as source
files.

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Note: You can also use the dbx shell command to debug programs, as described in
OS/390 UNIX System Services Command Reference, SC28-1892.
Chapter 2. About IBM OS/390 C/C++

For further information, see IBM C/C++ Productivity Tools for OS/390.

IBM C/C++ Productivity Tools for OS/390

With the IBM C/C++ Productivity Tools for OS/390 product, you can expand your
OS/390 application development environment out to the workstation, while
remaining close to your familiar host environment. IBM C/C++ Productivity Tools for
OS/390 includes the following workstation-based tools to increase your productivity
and code quality:
v A Performance Analyzer to help you analyze, understand, and tune your C and
C++ applications for improved performance
v A Distributed Debugger that allows you to debug C or C++ programs from the
convenience of the workstation
v A workstation-based editor to improve the productivity of your C and C++ source
entry
v Advanced online help, with full text search and hypertext topics as well as
printable, viewable, and searchable Portable Document Format (PDF) documents
In addition, IBM C/C++ Productivity Tools for OS/390 includes the following host
components:
v Debug Tool
v Host Performance Analyzer
Use the Performance Analyzer on your workstation to graphically display and
analyze a profile of the execution of your host OS/390 C or C++ application. Use
this information to time and tune your code so that you can increase the
performance of your application.
Use the Distributed Debugger to debug your OS/390 C/C++ application remotely
from your workstation. Set a break point with the simple click of the mouse. Use the
windowing capabilities of your workstation to view multiple segments of your source
and your storage, while monitoring a variable at the same time.
Use the workstation-based editor to quickly develop C and C++ application code
that runs on OS/390. Context-sensitive help information is available to you when
you need it.
References to Performance Analyzer in this document refer to the IBM OS/390
Performance Analyzer included in the C/C++ Productivity Tools for OS/390 product.

OS/390 Language Environment

IBM OS/390 C/C++ exploits the C/C++ runtime environment and library of runtime
services available with OS/390 Language Environment (formerly Language
Environment for MVS & VM, Language Environment/370 and LE/370).
OS/390 Language Environment consists of four language-specific runtime libraries,
and Base Routines and Common Services, as shown below. OS/390 Language
Environment establishes a common runtime environment and common runtime
services for language products, user programs, and other products.

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

C/C++
Language
Specific
Library

COBOL
Language
Specific
Library

PL/I
Language
Specific
Library

FORTRAN
Language
Specific
Library

Language Environment Base Routines and Common Services

Figure 1. Libraries in OS/390 Language Environment

The common execution environment is composed of data items and services that
are included in library routines available to an application that runs in the
environment. The OS/390 Language Environment provides a variety of services:
v Services that satisfy basic requirements common to most applications. These
include support for the initialization and termination of applications, allocation of
storage, interlanguage communication (ILC), and condition handling.
v Extended services that are often needed by applications. OS/390 C/C++ contains
these functions within a library of callable routines, and include interfaces to
operating system functions and a variety of other commonly used functions.
v Runtime options that help in the execution, performance, and diagnosis of your
application.
v Access to operating system services; OS/390 UNIX services are available to an
application programmer or program through the OS/390 C/C++ language
bindings.
v Access to language-specific library routines, such as the OS/390 C/C++ library
functions.
For more information, see the Language Environment home page at the following
web address:
http://www.ibm.com/s390/le/

The Program Management Binder

The binder provided with OS/390 combines the object modules, load modules, and
program objects comprising an OS/390 application. It produces a single output
program object or load module that you can load for execution. The binder supports
all C and C++ code, provided that you store the output program in a PDSE
(Partitioned Data Set Extended) member or an HFS file.
If you cannot use a PDSE member or HFS file, and your program contains C++
code, or C code that is compiled with any of the RENT, LONGNAME, DLL or IPA
compile-time options, you must use the prelinker.
Using the binder without using the prelinker has the following advantages:
v Faster rebinds when recompiling and rebinding a few of your source files
v Rebinding at the single compile unit level of granularity (except when you use the
IPA compile-time option)
Chapter 2. About IBM OS/390 C/C++

v Input of object modules, load modules, and program objects

v Improved long name support:
Long names do not get converted into prelinker generated names
Long names appear in the binder maps, enabling full cross-referencing
Variables do not disappear after prelink
Fewer steps in the process of producing your executable program

The prelinker provided with OS/390 Language Environment combines the object
modules comprising an OS/390 C/C++ application and produces a single object
module. You can link-edit the object module into a load module (which is stored in a
PDS), or bind it into a load module or a program object stored in a PDS, PDSE, or
HFS file.

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Note: For further information on the binder, refer to the DFSMS home page at
http://www.ibm.com/storage/software/sms/smshome.htm.

OS/390 UNIX System Services (OS/390 UNIX)

OS/390 UNIX provides capabilities under OS/390 to make it easier to implement or
port applications in an open, distributed environment. OS/390 UNIX Services are
available to OS/390 C/C++ application programs through the C/C++ language
bindings available with OS/390 Language Environment.
Together, the OS/390 UNIX Services, OS/390 Language Environment, and OS/390
C/C++ compilers provide an application programming interface that supports
industry standards.
OS/390 UNIX provides support for both existing OS/390 applications and new
OS/390 UNIX applications:
v C programming language support as defined by ISO/ANSI C
v C++ programming language support
v C language bindings as defined in the IEEE 1003.1 and 1003.2 standards;
subsets of the draft 1003.1a and 1003.4a standards; X/Open CAE Specification:
System Interfaces and Headers, Issue 4, Version 2, which provides standard
interfaces for better source code portability with other conforming systems; and
X/Open CAE Specification, Network Services, Issue 4, which defines the X/Open
UNIX descriptions of sockets and X/Open Transport Interface (XTI)
v OS/390 UNIX Extensions that provide OS/390-specific support beyond the
defined standards
v The OS/390 UNIX Shell and Utilities feature, which provides:
A shell, based on the Korn Shell and compatible with the Bourne Shell
A shell, tcsh, based on the C shell, csh
Tools and utilities that support the X/Open Single UNIX Specification, also
known as X/Open Portability Guide (XPG) Version 4, Issue 2, and provide
OS/390 support. The following is a partial list of utilities that are included:

Creates and maintains library archives

BPXBATCH

Allows you to submit batch jobs that run shell commands,

scripts, or OS/390 C/C++ executable files in HFS files from a
shell session

c89

Compiles, assembles, and binds OS/390 UNIX C applications

dbx

Provides an environment to debug and run programs

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

gencat

Merges the message text source files Messagefile (usually

*.msg) into a formatted message Catalogfile (usually *.cat)

iconv

Converts characters from one code set to another

lex

Automatically writes large parts of a lexical analyzer based on

a description that is supplied by the programmer

localedef

Creates a compiled locale object

make

Helps you manage projects containing a set of interdependent

files, such as a program with many OS/390 C/C++ source and
object files, keeping all such files up to date with one another

yacc

Allows you to write compilers and other programs that parse

input according to strict grammar rules
Support for other utilities such as:
c++

Compiles, assembles, and binds OS/390 UNIX C++

applications

mkcatdefs

Preprocesses a message source file for input to the gencat

utility

runcat

Invokes mkcatdefs and pipes the message catalog source

data (the output from mkcatdefs) to gencat

dspcat

Displays all or part of a message catalog

dspmsg
Displays a selected message from a message catalog
v The OS/390 UNIX Debugger feature, which provides the dbx interactive symbolic
debugger for OS/390 UNIX applications
v OS/390 UNIX, which provides access to a hierarchical file system (HFS), with
support for the POSIX.1 and XPG4 standards
v OS/390 C/C++ I/O routines, which support using HFS files, standard OS/390
data sets, or a mixture of both
v Application threads (with support for a subset of POSIX.4a)
v Support for OS/390 C/C++ DLLs
OS/390 UNIX offers program portability across multivendor operating systems, with
support for POSIX.1, POSIX.1a (draft 6), POSIX.2, POSIX.4a (draft 6), and
XPG4.2.
To application developers who have worked with other UNIX environments, the
OS/390 UNIX Shell and Utilities are a familiar environment for C/C++ application
development. If you are familiar with existing MVS development environments, you
may find that the OS/390 UNIX environment can enhance your productivity. Refer to
OS/390 UNIX System Services Users Guide for more information on the Shell and
Utilities.
For more information, see the OS/390 UNIX home page at the following web
address:
http://www.ibm.com/s390/unix/

Chapter 2. About IBM OS/390 C/C++

OS/390 C/C++ Applications with OS/390 UNIX C/C++ Functions

All OS/390 UNIX C functions are available at all times. In some situations, you must
specify the POSIX(ON) runtime option. This is required for the POSIX.4a threading
functions, and the system() and signal handling functions where the behavior is
different between POSIX/XPG4 and ANSI. Refer to OS/390 C/C++ Run-Time
Library Reference for more information about requirements for each function.
You can invoke an OS/390 C/C++ program that uses OS/390 UNIX C functions
using the following methods:
v Directly from an OS/390 UNIX Shell.
v From another program, or from an OS/390 UNIX Shell, using one of the exec
family of functions, or the BPXBATCH utility from TSO or MVS batch.
v Using the POSIX system() call.
v Directly through TSO or MVS batch without the use of the intermediate
BPXBATCH utility. In some cases, you may require the POSIX(ON) runtime option.

Input and Output

The C/C++ runtime library that supports the OS/390 C/C++ compiler supports
different input and output (I/O) interfaces, file types, and access methods. The C++
I/O Stream Class Library provides additional support.

I/O Interfaces
The C/C++ runtime library supports the following I/O interfaces:
C Stream I/O
This is the default and the ANSI-defined I/O method. This method
processes all input and output by character.
Record I/O
The library can also process your input and output by record. A record is a
set of data that is treated as a unit. It can also process VSAM data sets by
record. Record I/O is an OS/390 C/C++ extension to the ANSI standard.
TCP/IP Sockets I/O
OS/390 UNIX provides support for an enhanced version of an
industry-accepted protocol for client/server communication that is known as
sockets. A set of C language functions provides support for OS/390 UNIX
sockets. OS/390 UNIX sockets correspond closely to the sockets that are
used by UNIX applications that use the Berkeley Software Distribution
(BSD) 4.3 standard (also known as OE sockets). The slightly different
interface of the X/Open CAE Specification, Networking Services, Issue 4, is
supplied as an additional choice. This interface is known as X/Open
Sockets.
The OS/390 UNIX socket application program interface (API) provides
support for both UNIX domain sockets and Internet domain sockets. UNIX
domain sockets, or local sockets, allow interprocess communication within
OS/390 independent of TCP/IP. Local sockets behave like traditional UNIX
sockets and allow processes to communicate with one another on a single
system. With Internet sockets, application programs can communicate with
others in the network using TCP/IP.

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

In addition, the C++ I/O Stream Library supports formatted I/O in C++. You can
code sophisticated I/O statements easily and clearly, and define input and output for
your own data types. This helps improve the maintainability of programs that use
input and output.

File Types
In addition to conventional files, such as sequential files and partitioned data sets,
the C/C++ runtime library supports the following file types:
Virtual Storage Access Method (VSAM) Data Sets
OS/390 C/C++ has native support for three types of VSAM data
organization:
v Key-sequenced data sets (KSDS). Use KSDS to access a record through
a key within the record. A key is one or more consecutive characters that
are taken from a data record that identifies the record.
v Entry-sequenced data sets (ESDS). Use ESDS to access data in the
order it was created (or in the reverse order).
v Relative-record data sets (RRDS). Use RRDS for data in which each
item has a particular number (for example, a telephone system with a
record associated with each number).
For more information on how to perform I/O operations on these VSAM file
types, see OS/390 C/C++ Programming Guide.
Hierarchical File System Files
OS/390 C/C++ recognizes Hierarchical File System (HFS) file names. The
name specified on the fopen() or freopen() call has to conform to certain
rules (described in OS/390 C/C++ Programming Guide). You can create
regular HFS files, special character HFS files, or FIFO HFS files. You can
also create links or directories.
Memory Files
Memory files are temporary files that reside in memory. For improved
performance, you can direct input and output to memory files rather than to
devices. Since memory files reside in main storage and only exist while the
program is executing, you primarily use them as work files. You can access
memory files across load modules through calls to non-POSIX system()
and C fetch(); they exist for the life of the root program. Standard streams
can be redirected to memory files on a non-POSIX system() call using
command line redirection.
Hiperspace Expanded Storage
Large memory files can be placed in Hiperspace expanded storage to free
up some of your home address space for other uses. Hiperspace expanded
storage or high performance space is a range of up to 2 gigabytes of
contiguous virtual storage space. A program can use this storage as a
buffer (1 gigabyte = 230 bytes).

Additional I/O Features

IBM OS/390 C/C++ provides additional I/O support through the following features:
v User error handling for serious I/O failures (SIGIOERR)
v Improved sequential data access performance through enablement of the
DFSMS/MVS support for 31-bit sequential data buffers and sequential data
striping on extended format data sets
v Full support of PDS/Es on OS/390 including support for multiple members
opened for write
Chapter 2. About IBM OS/390 C/C++

v
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v
v

Overlapped I/O support under OS/390 (NCP, BUFNO)

Multibyte character I/O functions
Fixed-point (packed) decimal data type support in formatted I/O functions
Support for multiple volume data sets that span more than one volume of DASD
or tape
v Support for Generation Data Group I/O

The System Programming C Facility

The System Programming C (SPC) facility allows you to build applications that
require no dynamic loading of OS/390 Language Environment libraries. It also
allows you to tailor your application to better utilize the low-level services available
on your operating system. SPC offers a number of advantages:
v You can develop applications that you can execute in a customized environment
rather than with OS/390 Language Environment services. Note that if you do not
use OS/390 Language Environment services, only some built-in functions and a
limited set of C/C++ runtime library functions are available to you.
v You can substitute the OS/390 C language in place of assembler language when
writing system exit routines, by using the interfaces that are provided by SPC.
v SPC lets you develop applications featuring a user-controlled environment, in
which an OS/390 C environment is created once and used repeatedly for C
function execution from other languages.
v You can utilize co-routines, by using a two-stack model to write application
service routines. In this model, the application calls on the service routine to
perform services independently of the user. The application is then suspended
when control is returned to the user application.

Interaction with Other IBM Products

When you use OS/390 C/C++, you can write programs that utilize the power of
other IBM products and subsystems:
v Cross System Product (CSP)
Cross System Product/Application Development (CSP/AD) is an application
generator that provides ways to interactively define, test, and generate
application programs to improve productivity in application development. Cross
System Product/Application Execution (CSP/AE) takes the generated program
and executes it in a production environment.
Note: You cannot compile CSP applications with the OS/390 C++ compiler.
However, your OS/390 C++ program can use interlanguage calls (ILC) to
call OS/390 C programs that access CSP.
v Customer Information Control System (CICS)
You can use the CICS/ESA Command-Level Interface to write C/C++ application
programs. The CICS Command-Level Interface provides data, job, and task
management facilities that are normally provided by the operating system.
Note: Code preprocessed with CICS/ESA versions prior to V4 R1 is not
supported for OS/390 C++ applications. OS/390 C++ code preprocessed
on CICS/ESA V4 R1 cannot run under CICS/ESA V3 R3.
v DB2 Universal Database (UDB) for OS/390

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

DB2 programs manage data that is stored in relational databases. You can
access the data by using a structured set of queries that are written in Structured
Query Language (SQL).
The DB2 program uses SQL statements that are embedded in the program. The
SQL translator (DB2 preprocessor) translates the embedded SQL into host
language statements that perform the requested functions. The OS/390 C/C++
compilers compile the output of the SQL translator. The DB2 program processes
a request, and processing returns to the application.
v Data Window Services (DWS)
The Data Window Services (DWS) part of the Callable Services Library allows
your OS/390 C or OS/390 C++ program to manipulate temporary data objects
that are known as TEMPSPACE and VSAM linear data sets.
v Information Management System (IMS)
The Information Management System/Enterprise Systems Architecture (IMS/ESA)
product provides support for hierarchical databases.
v Interactive System Productivity Facility (ISPF)
OS/390 C/C++ provides access to the Interactive System Productivity Facility
(ISPF) Dialog Management Services. A dialog is the interaction between a
person and a computer. The dialog interface contains display, variable, message,
and dialog services as well as other facilities that are used to write interactive
applications.
v Graphical Data Display Manager (GDDM)
GDDM provides a comprehensive set of functions to display and print
applications most effectively:
A windowing system that the user can tailor to display selected information
Support for presentation and keyboard interaction
Comprehensive graphics support
Fonts including support for double-byte character set (DBCS)
Business image support
Saving and restoring graphic pictures
Support for many types of display terminals, printers, and plotters
v Query Management Facility (QMF)
OS/390 C supports the Query Management Facility (QMF), a query and report
writing facility, which allows you to write applications through a callable interface.
You can create applications to perform a variety of tasks, such as data entry,
query building, administration aids, and report analysis.
v OS/390 Java Support
The Java language supports the Java Native Interface (JNI) for making calls to
and from C/C++. These calls do not use ILC support but rather the Java defined
interface JNI. Java code, which has been compiled using the High Performance
Compiler for Java (HPCJ), will support the JNI interface. There is no distinction
between compiled Java and interpretted Java as far as calls to C or C++.

Additional Features of OS/390 C/C++

Feature

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Multibyte Character Support

Description
The OS/390 C/C++ compiler supports long long as a native data type in
LANGLVL(EXTENDED) mode.
OS/390 C/C++ supports multibyte characters for those national languages such as
Japanese whose characters cannot be represented by a single byte.
Chapter 2. About IBM OS/390 C/C++

Feature

Description

Wide Character Support

Multibyte characters can be normalized by OS/390 C library functions and encoded in

units of one length. These normalized characters are called wide characters.
Conversions between multibyte and wide characters can be performed by string
conversion functions such as wcstombs(), mbstowcs(), wcsrtombs(), and mbsrtowcs(),
as well as the family of wide-character I/O functions. Wide-character data can be
represented by the wchar_t data type.

Extended Precision
Floating-Point Numbers

OS/390 C/C++ provides three S/390 floating-point number data types: single precision
(32 bits), declared as float; double precision (64 bits), declared as double; and
extended precision (128 bits), declared as long double.
Extended precision floating-point numbers give greater accuracy to mathematical
calculations.
As of Release 6, OS/390 C/C++ also supports IEEE 754 floating-point representation.
By default, float, double, and long double values are represented in IBM S/390
floating point format. However, the IEEE 754 floating-point representation is used if you
specify the FLOAT(IEEE754) compile option. For details on this support, see the
description of the FLOAT option in OS/390 C/C++ Users Guide.

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Command Line Redirection

You can redirect the standard streams stdin, stderr, and stdout from the command
line or when calling programs using the system() function.

National Language Support

OS/390 C/C++ provides message text in either American English or Japanese. You can
dynamically switch between the two languages.

Locale Definition Support

OS/390 C/C++ provides a locale definition utility that supports the creation of separate
files of internationalization data, or locales. Locales can be used at run time to
customize the behavior of an application to national language, culture, and coded
character set (code page) requirements. Locale-sensitive library functions, such as
isdigit(), use this information.

Coded Character Set (Code

page) Support

The OS/390 C/C++ compiler can compile C/C++ source written in different EBCDIC
code pages. In addition, the iconv utility converts data or source from one code page to
another.

Selected Built-in Library

Functions

Selected library functions, such as string and character functions, are built into the
compiler to improve performance execution. Built-in functions are compiled into the
executable, and no calls to the library are generated.

Multi-threading

Threads are efficient in applications that allow them to take advantage of any
underlying parallelism available in the host environment. This underlying parallelism in
the host can be exploited either by forking a process and creating a new address
space, or by using multiple threads within a single process. For more information, refer
to the OS/390 C/C++ Programming Guide

Multitasking Facility (MTF)

Multitasking is a mode of operation where your program performs two or more tasks at
the same time. OS/390 C provides a set of library functions that perform multitasking.
These functions are known as the Multitasking Facility (MTF). MTF uses the
multitasking capabilities of OS/390 to allow a single OS/390 C application program to
use more than one processor of a multiprocessing system simultaneously.
Note: XPLINK is not supported in an MTF environment. You can also use threads to
perform multitasking with or without XPLINK, as described in the OS/390 C/C++
Programming Guide.

Packed Structures and

OS/390 C provides support for packed structures and unions. Structures and unions
may be packed to reduce the storage requirements of an OS/390 C program or to
define structures that are laid out according to COBOL or PL/I structure layout rules.

OS/390 C supports fixed-point (packed) decimal as a native data type for use in
business applications. The packed data type is similar to the COBOL data type COMP-3
or the PL/I data type FIXED DEC, with up to 31 digits of precision.
The Application Support Class Library provides the Binary Coded Decimal Class for
C++ programs.

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

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Feature

Description

Long Name Support

For portability, external names can be mixed case and up to 1024 characters in length.
For C++, the limit applies to the mangled version of the name.

System Calls

You can call commands or executable modules using the system() function under
OS/390, OS/390 UNIX, and TSO. You can also use the system() function to call
EXECs on OS/390 and TSO, or Shell scripts using OS/390 UNIX.

Exploitation of ESA

Support for OS/390, IMS/ESA, Hiperspace expanded storage, and CICS/ESA allows
you to exploit the features of the ESA.

Exploitation of hardware

Use the ARCHITECTURE compiler option to select the minimum level of machine
architecture on which your program will run. ARCH(2) instructs the compiler to generate
faster instruction sequences available only on newer machines. ARCH(3) also generates
these faster instruction sequences and enables support for IEEE 754 Binary
Floating-Point instructions. Code compiled with ARCH(2) runs on a G2, G3, G4, and
2003 processor and code compiled with ARCH(3) runs on a G5 or G6 processor, and
follow-on models.
Use the TUNE compiler option to optimize your application for a selected machine
architecture. TUNE impacts performance only; it does not impact the processor model on
which you will be able to run your application. TUNE(3) optimizes your application for the
newer G4, G5, and G6 processors. TUNE(2) optimizes your application for other
architectures. For information on which machines and architectures support the above
options, refer to the ARCHITECTURE and TUNE compiler information in OS/390 C/C++
Users Guide.

Chapter 2. About IBM OS/390 C/C++

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

Part 2. The C and C++ Languages

This part of the Language Reference describes the language elements that are
common to C and C++. It also describes the C++ constructs that support
object-oriented programming.
Chapter 3. Introduction to C and C++
Provides a brief overview of the features of C and C++, including a
description of the C++ constructs that support object-oriented programming.
Chapter 4. Lexical Elements of C and C++
Describes the basic elements of C and C++.
Chapter 5. Declarations
Describes the declarations and declarators. It also describes program
linkage, storage classes, fundamental data types, and initialization of the
fundamental data types.
Chapter 6. Expressions and Operators
Describes the expressions and standard C and C++ operators used in
computation.
Chapter 7. Implicit Type Conversions
Describes the standard conversions performed on the fundamental data
types.
Chapter 8. Functions
Describes the form and use of functions, including function declarations and
definitions.
Chapter 9. Statements
Describes the statements used to control the execution sequence of
programs.
Chapter 10. Preprocessor Directives
Discusses preprocessor directives and OS/390 C/C++ pragmas.

Copyright IBM Corp. 1996, 2000

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

Chapter 3. Introduction to C and C++

This chapter describes the C and C++ programming languages that are
implemented by OS/390 C/C++ and shows you how to structure C and C++ source
programs. It also briefly summarizes the differences between C and C++, and
discusses the principles of object-oriented programming. Specifically, it discusses
the following topics:
v Overview of the C Language
v C Source Programs on page 34
v C Source Files on page 35
v Program Execution on page 36
v Scope in C on page 37
v
v
v
v
v
v

Program Linkage on page 38

Storage Duration on page 40
Name Spaces on page 40
Command-Line Arguments on page 41
Command-Line Arguments on page 41
Overview of the C++ Language on page 43

v C++ Support for Object-Oriented Programming on page 43

v C++ Programs on page 45
v Scope in C++ on page 47
v Simple C++ Input and Output on page 48
v Linkage Specifications Linking to non-C++ Programs on page 50

Overview of the C Language

C is a programming language that is designed for a wide variety of programming
tasks. You can use it for system-level code, text processing, graphics, and many
other application areas.
The C language described here is consistent with the Systems Application
Architecture Common Programming Interface (also known as the SAA C Level 2
interface). It is also consistent and with the International Standard C (ANSI/ISO-IEC
9899-1990[1992]). This standard has officially replaced American National Standard
for Information SystemsProgramming Language C (X3.159-1989) and is
technically equivalent to the ANSI** C standard.
C supports several data types, including character, packed decimal, integer,
floating-point, and pointer each in a variety of forms. In addition, C also supports
arrays, structures (records), unions, and enumerations.
The C language contains a concise set of statements, with functionality that is
added through its library. This division enables C to be both flexible and efficient. An
additional benefit is that the language is consistent across different systems.
The C library contains functions for input and output, mathematics, exception
handling, string and character manipulation, dynamic memory management, as well
as date and time manipulation. Use of this library helps to maintain program
portability, because the underlying implementation details for the various operations
need not concern the programmer.

Copyright IBM Corp. 1996, 2000

Overview of the C Language

The OS/390 C/C++ Run-Time Library Reference describes all of the C library
functions.

C Source Programs
A C source program is a collection of one or more directives, declarations, and
statements that is contained in one or more source files. The contents of the
collection of files processed by a single compilation constitutes a compilation unit.
Refer to Glossary on page 415 for a more detailed definition of a compilation unit.
Statements

Specify the action the program performs.

Directives

Instruct the preprocessor to act on the text of the

program. Pragma directives affect compiler
behavior.

Declarations

Establish names and define characteristics such as

scope, data type, and linkage.

Definitions

Are declarations that allocate storage for data

objects or define a body for functions. An object
definition allocates storage and may optionally
initialize the object.

A function declaration precedes the function body. The function body is a compound
statement that can contain declarations and statements that define what the
function does. The function declaration declares the function name, its parameters,
and the data type of the value it returns.
A program must contain one, and only one, function called main(). The main()
function is the first function that a program calls when you run the program.
Note: This is not the case for C++ programs. If a C++ program instantiates an
object in file scope, OS/390 C/C++ executes the constructor for that object
first.
By convention, main() is the starting point for running a program. It typically calls
other functions. A program usually stops running at:
v The end of the main() function
v A return statement in the main() function
v An exit function call.

CBC3RAAA - example C program

This is the source code of a simple C program:
/**
** This is an example of a simple C program
**/
#include <stdio.h>
/* Standard I/O library header that
contains macros and function declarations
such as printf used below
*/
#include <math.h>

/* Standard math library header that

contains macros and function declarations
such as cos used below
*/

#define NUM 46.0

/* Preprocessor directive

double x = 45.0;

/* External variable definitions

double y = NUM;

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

C Source Programs
int main(void)
{

/* Function definition
for main function

double z;
double w;

/* Local variable definitions

z = cos(x);

/* cos is declared in math.h as

double cos(double arg)

w = cos(y);
printf ("cosine of x is %f\n", z);
printf ("cosine of y is %f\n", w);
}

/* Print cosine of x
/* Print cosine of y

*/
*/

return 0;

This source program defines main() and declares a reference to the functions cos
and printf. The program defines the global variables x and y, initializes them, and
declares two local variables z and w.

C Source Files
A C source file is a text file that contains all or part of a C source program. It can
include any of the functions that the program needs. To create an executable
module or program object, you compile the separate source files individually and
then link or bind them as one program. With the #include directive, you can
combine source files into larger source files. The resulting collection of files that are
seen by the compiler in a single compilation is known as a compilation unit. A
compilation unit does not necessarily constitute the entire program.
A source file contains any combination of directives, declarations, statements, and
definitions. You can split items such as function definitions and large data structures
between source files, but you cannot split them between compiled files. Before you
compile the source file, the preprocessor alters the source file in a predictable way.
The preprocessor directives determine what changes the preprocessor makes to
the source text. As a result of the preprocessing stage, OS/390 C/C++ completes
the preprocessor directives and expands macros. It may create a new source file
that contains C statements, processed directives, declarations, and definitions.
It is sometimes useful to gather variable definitions into one source file and declare
references to those variables in any source files that use them. This procedure
makes definitions easy to find and change, if necessary. You can also organize
constants and macros into separate files and include them into source files as
required.
The following example is a C program in two source files. The main() and max()
functions are in separate files. The program starts by running the main() function.

CBC3RAAB - Source File 1

/************************************************************************
* Source file 1 - main function
*
************************************************************************/
#define ONE
#define TWO
#define THREE

1
2
3

extern int max(int, int);

/* Function declaration */
Chapter 3. Introduction to C and C++

C Source Files
int main(int argc, char * argv[])
{
int u, w, x, y, z;

/* Function definition

u = 5;
z = 2;
w = max(u, ONE);
x = max(w,TWO);
y = max(x,THREE);
z = max(y,z);
return z;

CBC3RMAX - Source file 2

/************************************************************************
* Source file 2 - max function
*
************************************************************************/
int max (int a,int b)
/* Function definition
*/
{
if ( a > b )
return (a);
else
return (b);
}

The first source file declares the function max(), but does not define it. This is an
external declaration, a declaration of a function defined in source file 2. Four
statements in main() are function calls of max().
The lines beginning with a number sign (#) are preprocessor directives. They direct
the preprocessor to replace the identifiers ONE, TWO, and THREE with the digits 1, 2,
and 3. The directives do not apply to the second source file.
The second source file contains the function definition for max(), which the function
main() calls four times. After you compile the source files, you can bind and run
them as a single program.

Program Execution
Every program must have a function called main() and usually contains other
functions.
The main() function is the starting point for running a program. OS/390 C/C++
executes the statements within the main() function sequentially. There may be calls
to other functions. A program usually stops running at the end of the main()
function, although it can stop at other points in the program.
You can make your program modular by creating separate functions to perform a
specific task or set of tasks. The main() function calls these functions to perform
the tasks. When your program makes a function call, it executes statements
sequentially. It starts with the first statement in the function until it encounters a
statement that alters the flow of control. The function returns control to the calling
function at the return statement or at the end of the function.
You can declare any function to have parameters. When you call functions, they
receive values for their parameters from the arguments that you pass in the calling
functions. You can declare parameters for the main() function so you can pass
values to main() from the command line. The command line processor that starts

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

Program Execution
the program can pass such values as described in The main() Function on
page 183 .

Scope in C
An identifier becomes visible with its declaration. The region where an identifier is
visible is the identifiers scope. The four kinds of scope are:
v Block
v Function
v File
v Function prototype.
The location of the identifier determines where the identifier is declared. See
Identifiers on page 58 for more information on identifiers.

Block Scope
The identifiers declaration is located inside a statement block. A block starts with an
opening brace ({) and ends with a matching closing brace (}). An identifier with
block scope is visible from the point where you declare it to the closing brace that
ends the block. You can also refer to block scope as local scope.
You can nest block visibility. A block that is nested inside a block can contain
declarations that reuses names declared in the outer block. The new declaration
applies to the inner block. OS/390 C/C++ restores the original declaration when
program control returns to the outer block. A name from the outer block is visible
inside inner blocks that do not redefine the name.

Function Scope
The only type of identifier with function scope is a label name. You implicitly declare
a label by its appearance in the program text. A label is visible throughout the
function that declares it. A goto statement transfers control to the label that is
specified on the goto statement. The label is visible to any goto statement that
appears in the same function as the label.

File Scope
The identifiers declaration appears outside of any block or parameter list. It is
visible from the point in the program where you declare it to the end of the source
file. If source files are included by #include preprocessor directives, those files are
considered to be part of the source. The identifier will be visible to all included files
that appear after the declaration of the identifier. You can declare the identifier again
as a block-scope variable. The new declaration replaces the file-scope declaration
until the end of the block.

Function Prototype Scope

The identifiers declaration appears within the list of parameters in a function
prototype. It is visible from the point where you declare it to the closing parenthesis
of the prototype declaration.

Example of Scope in C
The following example declares the variable x on line 1, which is different from the
x it declares on line 2. The declared variable on line 2 has function prototype scope

Chapter 3. Introduction to C and C++

Scope in C
and is visible only up to the closing parenthesis of the prototype declaration. The
variable x declared on line 1 resumes visibility after the end of the prototype
declaration.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

int x = 4;
/* variable x defined with file scope */
long myfunc(int x, long y); /* variable x has function
*/
/* prototype scope
*/
int main(void)
{
/* . . . */
}

The following program illustrates blocks, nesting, and scope. The example shows
two kinds of scope: file and block. The main() function prints the values 1, 2, 3,
0, 3, 2, 1 on separate lines. Each instance of i represents a different variable.
#include <stdio.h>
int i = 1;

/* i defined at file scope */

int main(int argc, char * argv[])

{
printf("%d\n", i);
{

int i = 2, j = 3;
printf("%d\n%d\n", i, j);
{

/* Prints 1 */
/* i and j defined at
block scope */
/* Prints 2, 3 */

int i = 0;

/* i is redefined in a nested block

*/
/* previous definitions of i are hidden */
printf("%d\n%d\n", i, j); /* Prints 0, 3 */

printf("%d\n", i);

/* Prints 2 */

}
printf("%d\n", i);

/* Prints 1 */

return 0;
}

Related Information
v
v
v
v
v
v
v

C Source Files on page 35

static Storage Class Specifier on page 83
Chapter 8. Functions on page 173
Labels on page 195
Block on page 196
goto on page 206
Scope in C++ on page 47

Program Linkage
The association, or lack of association, between two identical identifiers is known as
linkage. The kind of linkage that an identifier has depends on the way you declare
it.
A file scope identifier has one of the following kinds of linkage:

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

Program Linkage
Internal

Identical identifiers within a single source file refer to the same data
object or function.

External

Identical identifiers in separately compiled files refer to the same

data object or function.

No linkage

Each identical identifier refers to a unique object.

Note: Program linkage is not the same as a function calling convention, which you
can refer to as linkage. While it relates to program linkage, a calling
convention concerns itself with C++ linkage specifications and the use of
certain keywords. This section only discusses program linkage.
Use linkage specifications to link to non-C++ declarations. In C, the #pragma
linkage directive specifies non-C declarations.
See Linkage Specifications Linking to non-C++ Programs on page 50 for more
information.

Internal Linkage
The following kinds of identifiers have internal linkage:
v All identifiers with file or block scope that have the keyword static in their
declarations. Functions with static storage class are visible only in the source
file in which you define them.
v C++ inline functions.
v C++ identifiers declared at file scope with the specifier const and not explicitly
declared extern. In C, const objects have external linkage by default.
You can define a variable that has static storage class within a block or outside a
function. If the definition occurs within a block, the variable has internal linkage and
is only visible within the block after you can see its declaration. If the definition
occurs outside a function, the variable has internal linkage. It is available from the
point where it is defined to the end of the current source file.
A class is local to its compilation unit if it has no static members or no inline
member functions, and if it has not been used in the declaration of an object,
function, or class.
If the declaration of an identifier has the keyword extern and if a previous
declaration of the identifier is visible at file scope, the identifier has the same
linkage as the first declaration.

External Linkage
The following kinds of identifiers have external linkage:
v Identifiers with file or block scope that have the keyword extern in their
declarations, and the previously visible declaration is not static.
If a previous declaration of the identifier is visible at file scope, the identifier has
the same linkage as the first declaration. For example, a variable or function that
is first declared with the keyword static and later declared with the keyword
extern has internal linkage.
v Function identifiers declared without storage-class specifiers.
v Object identifiers that have file scope declarations without a storage-class
specified. OS/390 C/C++ allocates storage for such object identifiers.
v Static class members and no inline member functions.

Chapter 3. Introduction to C and C++

Program Linkage
You can define identifiers that are declared with the keyword extern in other
compilation units.

No Linkage
The following kinds of identifiers have no linkage:
v Identifiers that do not represent an object or a function, including labels,
enumerators, typedef names, type names, and template names
v Identifiers that represent a function argument
v Identifiers declared inside a block without the keyword extern

Storage Duration
Storage duration determines how long storage for an object exists. An object has
either static storage duration or automatic storage duration, but this depends on its
declaration.
Static storage

OS/390 allocates this storage at initialization and it

remains available until the program ends. Objects
have static storage duration if they:
v Have file scope OR
v Have external or internal linkage OR
v Contain the static storage class specifier.

Automatic storage

OS/390 C/C++ allocates and removes this storage

according to the scope of the identifier. Objects
have automatic storage duration if they are any of
the following:
v Parameters in a function definition
v Declared at block scope and do not have any
storage class specifier
v Declared at block scope, and contain the
register or auto storage class specifier.
For example, storage for an object declared at
block scope is allocated when the identifier is
declared and removed when the closing brace (}) is
reached.

Note: Objects can also have heap storage duration. OS/390 C/C++ creates heap
objects at run time and allocates storage for them by calling a function such
as malloc().

Name Spaces
The compiler sets up name spaces to distinguish among identifiers referring to
different kinds of entities. Identical identifiers in different name spaces do not
interfere with each other, even if they are in the same scope.
You must assign unique names within each name space to avoid conflict. You can
use the same identifier to declare different objects as long as each identifier is
unique within its name space. The syntactic context of an identifier within a program
lets the compiler resolve its name space without ambiguity.
You can redefine identifiers in the same name space but within enclosed program
blocks as described in Scope in C on page 37.

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

Name Spaces
Within each of the following four name spaces, the identifiers must be unique.
v Tags of these types must be unique within a single scope:
Enumerations
Structures and unions
v Members of structures, unions, and classes must be unique within a single
structure, union, or class type.
v Statement labels have function scope and must be unique within a function.
v All other ordinary identifiers must be unique within a single scope:
Function names
Variable names
Names of function parameters
Enumeration constants
typedef names.
Structure tags, structure members, variable names, and statement labels are in four
different name spaces. No conflict occurs among the four items named student in
the following example:
int get_item()
{
struct student
/* structure tag
{
char student[20]; /* structure member
int section;
int id;
} student;
/* structure variable

goto student;
student:;
return 0;

*/
*/
*/

null statement label */

OS/390 C/C++ interprets each occurrence of student by its context in the program.
For example, when student appears after the keyword struct, it is a structure tag.
When student appears after either of the member selection operators . or ->, the
name refers to the structure member. When student appears after the goto
statement, OS/390 C/C++ passes control to the null statement label. In other
contexts, the identifier student refers to the structure variable.

Related Information
v
v
v
v

Scope in C on page 37
Identifiers on page 58
Type Specifiers on page 87
Chapter 6. Expressions and Operators on page 133

Command-Line Arguments
The maximum allowable length of a command-line argument for OS/390 Language
Environment is 64K.
OS/390 C/C++ treats arguments that you enter on the command line differently in
different environments. The following lists how argv and argc are handled.

Under OS/390 Batch

argc

Returns the number of strings in the argument line

argv[0]

Returns the program name in uppercase

Chapter 3. Introduction to C and C++

Command-Line Arguments
argv[1 to n]

Returns the arguments as you enter them

argc

Returns 1

argv[0]

Is a null pointer

argc

Returns 1

argv[0]

Returns the transaction ID

Under IMS

Under CICS

Under TSO Command

argc

Returns the number of strings in the argument line

argv[0]

Returns the program name in uppercase

argv[1 to n]

Returns the arguments exactly as you enter them

Under TSO Call

Without the ASIS option:
argc

Returns the number of strings in the argument line

argv

Returns the program name and arguments in

lowercase

With the ASIS option:

argc

Returns the number of strings in the argument line

argv[0]

Returns the program name in uppercase

argv[1 to n]

Arguments entered in uppercase are returned in

lowercase. Arguments entered in mixed or
lowercase are returned as entered.

Under OS/390 UNIX Shell

argc

Returns the number of strings in the argument line

argv[0]

Returns the program name as you enter it

argv[1 to n]

Returns the arguments exactly as you enter them

The only delimiter for the arguments that are passed to main() is white space.
OS/390 C/C++ uses commas passed to main() by JCL as arguments and not as
delimiters.
The following example appends the comma to the 'one' when passed to main().
//FUNC EXEC PCGO,GPGM='FUNC',
//
PARM.GO=('one',
//
'two')

For more information on restrictions of the command-line arguments, refer to the

OS/390 C/C++ Users Guide.

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

Command-Line Arguments

Related Information
v
v
v
v
v

Calling Functions and Passing Arguments on page 184

Parameter Declaration List Syntax on page 180
Type Specifiers on page 87
Identifiers on page 58
Block on page 196

Overview of the C++ Language

C++ is an object-oriented language based on the C programming language. It can
be viewed as a superset of C. Almost all of the features and constructs available in
C are also available in C++. However, C++ is more than just an extension of C. Its
additional features support the programming style known as object-oriented
programming. Several features that are already available in C, such as input and
output may be implemented differently in C++. In C++ you may use the
conventional C input and output routines or you may use object oriented input and
output by using the I/O Stream class library.
C++ was developed by Bjarne Stroustrup of AT&T Bell Laboratories. It was
originally based on the definition of the C language stated in The C Programming
Language by Brian W. Kernighan and Dennis M. Ritchie. This C language definition
is commonly called K&R C. Since then, the International Standards Organization C
language definition (referred to here as ANSI/ISO C) has been approved. It
specifies many features that K&R left unspecified. Some features of ANSI/ISO C
have been incorporated into the current definition of C++, and some parts of the
ANSI/ISO C definition have been motivated by C++.
While there is currently no C++ standard comparable to the ANSI/ISO C definition,
an ISO committee is working on such a definition. The OS/390 C++ compiler
implementation is based on the definition of the language contained in the Draft
Proposal International Standard for Information Systems-Programming Language
C++ (X3J16/92-00091). The OS/390 C++ compiler also supports a subset of the
C++ ANSI/ISO (Draft) Standard (X3J16/93-0062).

C++ Support for Object-Oriented Programming

Object-oriented programming is based on the concepts of data abstraction,
inheritance, and polymorphism. Unlike procedural programming, it concentrates on
the data objects that are involved in a problem and how they are manipulated, not
on how something is accomplished. Based on the foundation of data abstraction,
object-oriented programming allows you to reuse existing code more efficiently and
increase your productivity.

Data Abstraction
Data abstraction provides the foundation for object-oriented programming. In
addition to providing fundamental data types, object-oriented programming
languages allow you to define your own data types, called user-defined or abstract
data types. In the C programming language, related data items can be organized
into structures. These structures can then be manipulated as units of data. In
addition to providing this type of data structure, object-oriented programming
languages allow you to implement a set of operations that can be applied to the
data elements. The data elements and the set of operations applicable to the data
elements together form the abstract data type.

Chapter 3. Introduction to C and C++

Object-Oriented Programming
To support data abstraction, a programming language must provide a construct that
can be used to encapsulate the data elements and operations that make up an
abstract data type. In C++, this construct is called a class. An instance of a class is
called an object. Classes are composed of data elements called data members and
member functions that define the operations that can be carried out on the object.
Classes also contain typedefs, enums, and other classes.

Encapsulation
Another key feature of object-oriented programming is encapsulation. Encapsulation
means a class can hide the details of:
v The representation of its data members
v The implementation of the operations that can be performed on these data
members
Application programs manipulate objects of a class using a clearly defined interface.
As long as this interface does not change, you can change the implementation of a
class without having to change the application programs that use the class.
Encapsulation provides the following advantages:
v Users of a class do not have to deal with unnecessary implementation details.
v Programs are easier to debug and maintain.
v Permitted alterations are clearly specified.
In C++, encapsulation is accomplished by specifying the level of access for each
member of a class. Both the data members and member functions of a class can
be declared public, protected, or private depending on the kind of access
required.
Note: C++ encapsulation is not a security mechanism. It is possible to circumvent
the class access controls that make encapsulation possible. The language is
not designed to prevent such misuse.

Inheritance
Inheritance lets you reuse existing code and data structures in new applications. In
C++, inheritance is implemented through class derivation. You can extend a library
of existing classes by adding data elements and operations to existing classes to
form derived classes. A derived class has all the members of its parent or base
class, as well as extensions that can provide additional features. When you create a
new derived class, you only have to write the code for the additional features. The
existing features of the base class are already available.
A base class can have more than one class derived from it. In addition, a derived
class can serve as a base class for other derived classes in a hierarchy. Typically, a
derived class is more specialized than its base class.
A derived class can inherit data members and member functions from more than
one base class. Inheritance from more than one base class is called multiple
inheritance.

Dynamic Binding and Polymorphism

Another key concept that allows you to write generic programs is dynamic or late
binding. Dynamic binding allows a member function call to be resolved at run time,
according to the run-time type of an object reference. This permits each
user-defined class in an inheritance hierarchy to have a different implementation of

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

Object-Oriented Programming
a particular function. Application programs can then apply that function to an object
without needing to know the specifics of the class to which the object belongs.
In C++, dynamic binding hides the differences between members of a group of
classes in an inheritance hierarchy from the application program. At run time, the
system determines the specific class of the object and invokes the appropriate
function implementation for that class.
Dynamic binding is distinguished from static or compile-time binding, which involves
compile-time member function resolution according to the static type of an object
reference.

Other Features of C++

C++ provides several other powerful extensions to the C programming language.
Among these are:
v Constructors and destructors, which are used to initialize and destroy class
objects
v Overloaded functions and operators, which let you extend the operations a
function or operator can perform on different data types
v Inline functions, which can make programs more efficient
v References, which allow a function to modify its arguments in the calling function
v Template functions and classes, which allow the definition of generic classes and
functions
v Object-Oriented Exception handling, which provides transfer of control and
recovery from errors and other exceptional circumstances

C++ Programs
C++ programs contain many of the same programming statements and constructs
as C programs:
v C++ has many of the same fundamental types (built-in) data types as C, as well
as some types that are not built-in to C. For example, packed decimal is
supported in C but not C++.
v Like ANSI/ISO C, C++ allows you to declare new names for existing (perhaps
complex) types by using the typedef construct. These new type names are not
new types.
v In general, the scope and storage class rules for C also apply in C++.1
v C and C++ have the same set of arithmetic and logical operators.
A C++ name can identify any of the following:
v An object
v A function
v A set of functions
v An enumerator

1. Note: There are exceptions, for example, the following is legal C but not C++:

typedef int s;
struct s{
int i;
};
void f(structs,s);

Chapter 3. Introduction to C and C++

C++ Programs
v
v
v
v
v

A type
A class member
A template
A value
A label

A declaration introduces a name into a program and can define an area of storage
associated with that name.
An expression can be evaluated and is composed of operations and operands. An
expression ending with a ; (semicolon) is called a statement. A statement is the
smallest independent computational unit. Functions are composed of groups of one
or more statements.
A C++ program is composed of one or more functions. These functions can all
reside in a single file or can be placed in different files that are linked to each other.
In C++, a program must have one and only one non-member function called
main().
The following is a simple C++ program containing declarations, expressions,
statements, and two functions:

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

C++ Programs

CBC3X02D
/**
** A simple C++ program containing declarations,
** expressions, statements, and two functions:
**/
#include <math.h>
// contains definition of fabs()
const double multiplier=2.2;
// variable initialization
const double common_ratio=3.1;
// variable initialization
double geo_series(double a, double r)
// function definition
{
if (r == 1.0)
// if statement
return -1.0;
// return statement
else return -2.0;
};
int main()
// program execution begins here
{
double sum;
// variable declaration
sum = geo_series(multiplier, common_ratio); // function call
// ..
return 0;
}

Scope in C++
The area of the code where an identifier is visible is referred to as the scope of the
identifier. The four kinds of scope are:
v Local
v Function
v File
v Class
The scope of a name is determined by the location of the names declaration.
A type name first declared in a function return type has file scope. In the following
example, Y has file scope:
struct Y { int a; int b } foo(int a) { . }

A type name first declared in a function argument list has local scope. In the
following example, X has local scope:
int foo(struct X { int a; int b; } x, int y) {
.
}

A function name that is first declared as a friend of a class is in the first nonclass
scope that encloses the class.
If the friend function is a member of another class, it has the scope of that class.
The scope of a class name first declared as a friend of a class is the first nonclass
enclosing scope. See Friend Scope on page 303 for more information.

Local Scope
A name has local scope if it is declared in a block. A name with local scope can be
used in that block and in blocks enclosed within that block, but the name must be
declared before it is used. When the block is exited, the names declared in the
block are no longer available.

Chapter 3. Introduction to C and C++

Scope in C++
Formal argument names for a function have the scope of the outermost block of
that function.
If a local variable is a class object with a destructor, the destructor is called when
control passes out of the block in which the class object was constructed.
When one block is nested inside another, the variable names from the outer block
are usually visible in the nested block. However, if an outer block name is redefined
in a nested block, the new declaration is in effect in the inner block. The original
declaration is restored when program control returns to the outer block. This is
called block visibility. See C++ Scope Resolution Operator (::) on page 138 for
infomation on scope resolution.

Function Scope
The only type of identifier with function scope is a label name. A label is implicitly
declared by its appearance in the program text and is visible throughout the
function that declares it.

File Scope
A name has file scope if its declaration appears outside of all blocks and classes. A
name with file scope is visible from the point where it is declared to the end of the
source file. The name is also made accessible for the initialization of global
variables. If a name is declared extern, it is also visible, at link time, in all object
files being linked. Global names are names declared with file scope.

Class Scope
The name of a class member has class scope and can only be used in the
following cases:
v In a member function of that class
v In a member function of a class derived from that class
v After the . (dot) operator applied to an instance of that class
v After the . (dot) operator applied to an instance of a class derived from that class
v After the -> operator applied to a pointer to an instance of that class
v After the -> (arrow) operator applied to a pointer to an instance of a class
derived from that class
v After the :: (scope resolution) operator applied to the name of a class
v After the :: (scope resolution) operator applied to a class derived from that class.
For more information on class scope, see Scope of Class Names on page 282.

Simple C++ Input and Output

Like C, the C++ language has no built-in input and output facilities. Instead, input
and output facilities for C++ are provided by the I/O Stream Library. For
compatibility with C, C++ also supports the standard I/O functions of C. The I/O
Stream Library supports a set of I/O operations, written in the C++ language, for the
built-in types. You can extend these facilities to provide input and output functions
for user-defined data types.
For a complete description of the I/O Stream Library, see the OS/390 C/C++ IBM
Open Class Library Reference.

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

Input and Output

There are four predefined I/O stream objects that you can use to perform standard
I/O:
v cout
v cin
v cerr
v clog
You can use these in conjunction with the overloaded shift operators, << (insertion
or output) and >> (extraction or input). To use streams and operators, you must
include the header file iostream.h. The following example prints Hello World! to
standard output:

CBC3X02F
/**
** Hello World
**/
#include <iostream.h>
void main()
{
cout << "Hello World!" << endl;
}

The manipulator endl acts as a newline character, causing any output following it to
be directed to the next line. Because it also causes any buffered output to be
flushed, endl is preferred over \n to end lines.

Output (cout, cerr, and clog)

The cout stream is associated with standard output. You can use the output
operator in conjunction with cout to direct a value to standard output. The following
example prints out three strings in a row and produces the same result as the
previous example, printing Hello World! to standard output.

CBC3X02G
/**
** Another Hello World, illustrating concatenation with cout
**/
#include <iostream.h>
void main()
{
cout << "Hello "
<< "World"
<< "!"
<< endl;
}

Output operators are defined to accept arguments of any of the fundamental data
types, as well as pointers, references, and array types. You can also overload the
output operator to define output for your own classes.
The cerr and clog streams direct output to standard error. cerr provides unbuffered
output, while clog provides buffered output. The following example checks for a
division by zero condition. If one occurs, a message is sent to standard error.

CBC3X02H
/**
** Check for a division by zero condition.
** If one occurs, a message is sent to standard error.
Chapter 3. Introduction to C and C++

Input and Output

**/
#include <iostream.h>
main()
{
double val1, val2;
cout << "Divide Two Values" << endl;
cout << "Enter two numeric values: " << endl;
cin >> val1 >> val2;
if (val2 == 0 )
{
cerr << "The second value must be non-zero" << endl;
return;
}
cout << "The answer is " << val1 / val2 << endl;
}

Input (cin)
The cin class object is associated with standard input. You can use the input
operator in conjunction with cin to read a value from standard input. By default,
white space (including blanks, tabs, and new lines) is disregarded by the input
operator. For example:

CBC3X02I
/**
** This example illustrates the cin operator
**/
#include <iostream.h>
main()
{
double val1, val2;
cout << "Enter two numeric values:" << endl;
cin >> val1 >> val2;
cout
<< "The first value entered is " << val1
<< " and the second value is "
<< val2 << "." << endl;
}

If the values 1.2 and 3.4 are entered through standard input, the above program
prints the following to standard output:
Enter two numeric values:
1.2
3.4
The first value entered is 1.2 and the second value is 3.4.

Any white space entered between the two numeric values is disregarded by the
input operator.
The input operator is defined to accept arguments of any of the fundamental data
types, as well as pointers, references and array types. You can also overload the
input operator to define input for your own class types.

Linkage Specifications Linking to non-C++ Programs

You can link C++ object modules to object modules produced using other source
languages such as C and Fortran by using a linkage specification.

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

Linkage Specifications
The syntax is:
%% extern string-literal

declaration
{ '

declaration

The string-literal is used to specify the linkage associated with a particular function.
For example:

CBC3X02J
/**
** This example illustrates linkage specifications
**/
extern "C" int printf(const char*,...);
void main()
{
printf("hello\n");
}

Here the string-literal, "C", tells the C++ compiler that the routine printf(const
char*,...) is a C library function. Note that string literals used in linkage
specifications are not case-sensitive.
Some valid values for string-literal are:
"C++"

Default

"C"

C type linkage

For more information on string literals, see String Literals on page 66. For linkage
specification information, see the OS/390 C/C++ Programming Guide.
If the value of string-literal is not recognized, C type linkage is used.

Chapter 3. Introduction to C and C++

Linkage Specifications

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

Chapter 4. Lexical Elements of C and C++

This chapter describes the following lexical elements of C and C++:
v Tokens
v Source Program Character Set
v Comments on page 56
v Identifiers on page 58
v Constants on page 61

Tokens
During preprocessing and compilation, OS/390 C/C++ treats source code as a
sequence of tokens. There are five different types of tokens:
v Identifiers
v Keywords
v Literals
v Operators
v Other separators
You should separate adjacent identifiers, keywords, and literals with white space.
You should separate other tokens by white space to make the source code more
readable. White space includes blanks, horizontal and vertical tabs, new lines, form
feeds, and comments.

Source Program Character Set

The following lists the basic character set that must be available at both compile
and run time:
v The uppercase and lowercase letters of the English alphabet
a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z

v The decimal digits 0 through 9

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

v The following graphic characters:

! " # % & ' ( ) * + , - . / :
; < = > ? [ \ ] _ { }

v The caret (|) character in ASCII (bitwise exclusive OR symbol), which may be
represented by the equivalent not () character on EBCDIC systems
v The split vertical bar () character in ASCII, which you may represent by the
vertical bar (|) character on EBCDIC systems
v The space character
v The control characters that represent new-line, horizontal tab, vertical tab, and
form feed, and end of string (NULL character).
OS/390 C/C++ uses the number sign (#) character for preprocessing only, and
treats the _ (underscore) character as a normal letter.
The execution character set also includes control characters that represent alert,
backspace, carriage return, and new-line.
In a source file, a record contains one line of source text; the end of a record
indicates the end of a source line.
Copyright IBM Corp. 1996, 2000

Character Set
The encoding of the following characters from the basic character set may vary
between the source-code generation environment and the runtime environment:
! # [ ] \ { } | |

The OS/390 C/C++ compiler normalizes the encoding of source files indicated by
the #pragma filetag directive and the LOCALE compile time option to the encoding
defined by code page 1047.
The compiler uses the character set that is specified for the LOCALE option for any
output. This includes:
v Listings that contain identifier names and source code
v String literals and character constants that are emitted in the object code
v Messages generated by the compiler
However, this does not include the source-code annotation in the pseudo-assembly
listings.
Depending on the EBCDIC encoding that your installation uses, you can express
the | and | characters as and respectively. This book refers to the | and |
symbols as the caret and vertical bar, respectively. If you do not specify the
NOLOCALE compile-time option, OS/390 C/C++ does not perform normalization. It
assumes that the character set encoding is the IBM-1047 code page. In this case, it
recognizes both the broken and unbroken vertical bars as the vertical bar. The caret
and logical not sign are recognized as the caret. For a detailed description of the
#pragma filetag directive and the LOCALE option, refer to the description of
internationalization, locales, and character sets in the OS/390 C/C++ Programming
Guide.
The compiler recognizes and supports the additional characters (the extended
character set) which you can meaningfully use in string literals and character
constants. The support for extended characters includes the multibyte character
sets.
OS/390 systems represent multibyte characters by using Shiftout <SO> and Shiftin
<SI> pairs. Strings are of the form:
<SO> x y z <SI>

Or they can be mixed:

<SO> x <SI> y z
x <SO> y <SI> z

In the above, two bytes represent each character between the <SO> and <SI>
pairs. OS/390 C/C++ restricts multibyte characters to character constants, string
constants, and comments.
Refer to the OS/390 C/C++ Run-Time Library Reference for a discussion on strings
that are passed to library routines, and to Character Constants on page 65 of this
book for information on character constants. If you specify a lowercase a as part of
an identifier name, you cannot substitute an uppercase A in its place. You must use
the lowercase letter.

Trigraph Sequences
Some characters from the C character set are not available in all environments. You
can enter these characters into a C source program by using a sequence of three
characters that are called a trigraph. The trigraph sequences are:

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

Character Set
??=
??(
??)
??<
??>
??/
??
??!
??-

#
[
]
{
}
\
|
|

number sign
left bracket
right bracket
left brace
right brace
backslash
caret
vertical bar
tilde

The preprocessor replaces trigraph sequences with the corresponding

single-character representation by using the code page that is indicated by the
LOCALE option. If you do not specify the LOCALE option, the preprocessor uses code
page 1047.
At compile time, the compiler translates the trigraphs found in string literals and
character constants into the appropriate characters they represent. These
characters are in the coded character set you select by using the LOCALE compiler
option.
Note: The OS/390 C/C++ compiler will compile source files that were edited using
different encoding of character sets. However, they might not compile
cleanly. OS/390 C/C++ does not compile source files that you edit with the
following:
v A character set that does not support all the characters that are specified
above, even if the compiler can access those characters by a trigraph.
v A character set for which no one-to-one mapping exists between it and the
character set above.
Note: The exclamation mark (!) is a variant character. Its recognition depends on
whether or not the LOCALE option is active. For more information on variant
characters, refer to the OS/390 C/C++ Programming Guide.

Example
some_array??(i??) = n;

Represents:
some_array[i] = n;

Digraph Characters
|
|
|

You can represent unavailable characters in a C or C++ source program by using a

combination of two keystrokes that are called a digraph character. The
preprocessor reads digraphs as tokens during the preprocessor phase.
The digraph characters are:

%: or %%
<:
:>
<%
%>
%:%: or
%%%%

#
[
]
{
}
##

number sign
left bracket
right bracket
left brace
right brace
preprocessor macro concatenation operator

Chapter 4. Lexical Elements of C and C++

Character Set
You can create digraphs by using macro concatenation. OS/390 C/C++ does not
replace digraphs in string literals or in character literals. For example:
char *s = "<%%>"; // stays "<%%>"
switch (c)
{
case '<%' : { /* ... */ } // stays '<%'
case '%>' : { /* ... */ } // stays '%>'
}

The NODIGRAPH option disables processing of digraphs. The NODIGRAPH option is on

by default.
The DIGRAPH option is described in the OS/390 C/C++ Users Guide.

Additional Keywords (C++ only)

If you use the digraph option, you can represent unavailable characters in a C++
source program by using the following keywords:
Keyword

Symbol

bitand

and

bitor

xor

compl

and_eq

or_eq

xor_eq

not

not_eq

These keywords are only reserved in C++ programs that are compiled with the
DIGRAPH option. OS/390 C/C++ Users Guide describes the DIGRAPH option.

Comments
Comments begin with the /* characters. They end with the */ characters, and can
span more than one line. You can put comments anywhere the language allows
white space.
The preprocessor replaces comments during preprocessing by a single space
character.
Multibyte characters can also be included within a comment.
Note: The /* or */ characters that are found in a character constant or string literal
do not start or end comments.
In the following program, line 6 is a comment:

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

Comments
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

#include <stdio.h>
int main(void)
{
printf("This program has a comment.\n");
/* printf("This is a comment line and will not print.\n"); */
return 0;
}

Because the comment on line 6 is equivalent to a space, the output of this program
is:
This program has a comment.

Because the comment delimiters are inside a string literal, line 5 in the following
program is not a comment.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

#include <stdio.h>
int main(void)
{
printf("This program does not have \
/* NOT A COMMENT */ a comment.\n");
return 0;
}

The output of the program is:

This program does not have /* NOT A COMMENT */ a comment.

You cannot nest comments. Each comment ends at the first occurrence of */.
The following example highlights the comments:
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21

/* A program with nested comments. */

#include <stdio.h>
int main(void)
{
test_function();
return 0;
}
int test_function(void)
{
int number;
char letter;
/*
number = 55;
letter = 'A';
/* number = 44; */
*/
return 999;
}

In test_function, the compiler reads the /* in line 15 through the */ in line 18 as a

comment. It reads the comment at line 19 as C language code which causes errors
at that line. To avoid commenting over comments already in the source code, you
should use conditional compilation preprocessor directives to cause the compiler to
bypass sections of a program. For example, instead of commenting out the above
statements, change line 2 and lines 15 to 19 in the following way:
2

#define TEST_FUNCTION 0
...
16 #if TEST_FUNCTION
Chapter 4. Lexical Elements of C and C++

Comments
17
18
19
20

number = 55;
letter = 'A';
/*number = 44;*/
#endif /*TEST_FUNCTION */

Chapter 10. Preprocessor Directives on page 215 describes conditional

compilation preprocessor directives. You can include multibyte characters with a
comment.

C++ Comments
If the SSCOMM compiler option is in effect when you compile a C program, double
slashes (//) also specify the beginning of a comment. C++ permits double-slash
comments as part of the language definition.
A C++ comment can span more than one physical source line if it is joined into one
logical source line with line-continuation (\) characters. You can represent the
backslash character with a trigraph.

Identifiers
An arbitrary number of letters or digits comprise an identifier. Identifiers provide
names for the following language elements:
v Functions
v Data objects
v Labels
v Tags
v Parameters
v Macros
v Typedefs
v Structure and union members
An identifier has the form:

letter
_
$

letter
digit
_
$

Special Characters in Identifiers

The first character in an identifier must be a letter or the underscore (_) character.
The compiler reserves identifiers beginning with an underscore, however, for
identifiers at file scope.
Identifiers that begin with two underscores or an underscore that is followed by a
capital letter, are reserved in all contexts.
Avoid creating identifiers that begin with an underscore for function names and
variable names.
At the extended and compatible language levels, C++ identifiers can contain the $
character. At the ANSI language level, identifiers can begin with the underscore but
not with a $ (dollar sign).

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

Identifiers
Although the names of system calls and library functions are not reserved words if
you do not include the appropriate headers, avoid using them as identifiers.
Duplication of a predefined name can lead to confusion for the maintainers of your
code and can cause errors at link time or run time. If you include a library in a
program, be aware of the function names in that library to avoid name duplications.
You should always include the appropriate headers when using standard library
functions.

Case Sensitivity in Identifiers

The compiler distinguishes between uppercase and lowercase letters in identifiers.
For example, PROFIT and profit represent different objects.
Note: If you do not use the OS/390 C compiler long name support, you may
receive an error message if you use either STOCKONHOLD and stockonhold as
external identifiers. For more information on long name support, see
longname on page 258. For more information on the binder and the
prelinker, see the OS/390 C/C++ Users Guide. Also see OS/390 C/C++
External Name Mapping on page 60 and OS/390 Long Name Support on
page 60.

Significant Characters in Identifiers

In general, OS/390 C/C++ truncates external and internal identifiers after 1024
characters. However, the C compiler truncates external identifiers after 8 characters
if the NOLONGNAME compile-time option is in effect. Also, the C++ compiler truncates
external identifiers that do not have C++ linkage after 8 characters if the NOLONGNAME
compile-time option is in effect.

Keywords
Keywords are identifiers that are reserved by the language for special use. Although
you can use them for preprocessor macro names, it is poor programming style.
Only the exact spelling of keywords is reserved. For example, auto is reserved , but
AUTO is not. The following table lists the keywords common to both the C and C++
languages. The ANSI/ISO C language definition includes these keywords:
Table 3. Keywords Common to C and C++
auto
break
case
char
const
continue
default
do

double
else
enum
extern
float
for
goto
if

int
long
register
return
short
signed
sizeof
static

struct
switch
typedef
union
unsigned
void
volatile
while

The C++ language also reserves the following keywords:

Table 4. C++ Keywords
asm
__cdecl
catch
class
delete

_Export
friend
inline
new
operator

private
protected
public
template
this

throw
try
virtual
wchar_t

Future versions of the C++ compiler may reserve the following keywords, so you
should avoid using them in your applications:
Chapter 4. Lexical Elements of C and C++

Identifiers
Table 5. C++ Keywords (Future)
bool
const_cast
dynamic_cast
explicit

false
mutable
namespace

reinterpret_cast
static_cast
true

typeid
typename
using

The C compiler reserves the __Packed keyword.

OS/390 C/C++ External Name Mapping

OS/390 C/C++ maps the names of variables or functions that have external
linkages to names that are used in the object module. When you compile an
OS/390 C/C++ program, refer to the following guidance for using names of
variables or functions with external linkage:
v Do not use names of the library functions for user-defined functions.
v Some functions in the C library and C runtime environment begin with two
underscores (_ _). Do not use an underscore as the first letter of an identifier.
v The compiler maps each underscore to an at sign (@) for external names without
C++ linkage, except when you compile a program with the LONGNAME compile-time
option. In that case, the underscore remains as an underscore.
v IBM-provided functions have names that begin with IBM, CEE, and PLI. Avoid
using these names as the OS/390 C/C++ compiler changes these names to
prevent conflicts between runtime functions and user-defined names. It changes
all static or extern variable names that begin with IBM, CEE, and PLI in your
source program to IB$, CE$, and PL$, respectively, in the object module. If you
are using interlanguage calls, avoid using these prefixes. The compiler of the
calling or called language may or may not change these prefixes in the same
manner as the OS/390 C/C++ compiler does. All of this is completely integrated
into the OS/390 C/C++ compiler, Debug Tool, and LE/370.
To call an external program or access an external variable that begins with IBM,
CEE, and PLI, use the #pragma map preprocessor directive. The following is an
example of #pragma map that forces an external name to be IBMENTRY.
#pragma map(ibmentry,"IBMENTRY")

For more information on the #pragma map directive, see map on page 259.

OS/390 Long Name Support

If you do not specify the LONGNAME option when you compile your code with the C
compiler, the compiler maps an underscore to an at sign. It also truncates external
names to 8 characters and changes them to uppercase. The C++ compiler makes
the same changes to external identifiers that do not have C++ linkage if you do not
specify the LONGNAME option.
For example, consider if you compile the following C program and do not specify
the LONGNAME option:
int test_name[4] = { 4, 8, 9, 10 };
int test_namesum;
int main(void) {
int i;
test_namesum = 0;

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

Identifiers

for (i = 0; i < 4; i++)

test_namesum += test_name[i];
printf("sum is %d\n", test_namesum);

In the above example, the C compiler displays the following message:

ERROR

CBC3244 ./sum.c:2

External name TEST_NAM cannot be redefined.

The compiler changes the external names test_namesum and test_name to

uppercase and truncates them to 8 characters. If you specify the CHECKOUT
compile-time option, the compiler will generate two informational messages to this
effect. Because the truncated names are now the same, the compiler produces an
error message and terminates the compilation.
If you compile the previous program with the LONGNAME compile-time option, the
compiler does not produce any warning or error messages. However, if you specify
the LONGNAME option, you must bind your program with the binder to produce a
program object in a PDSE. Otherwise you must use the prelinker.
The LONGNAME compile-time option supports mixed case, external names of up to
1024 characters for OS/390 C/C++ programs.
Object modules that are produced by compiling with LONGNAME have external names
that are mixed case and up to 1024 characters long. Object modules that are
produced by compiling with NOLONGNAME have uppercase external names that are
limited to a length of 8 characters.
To use external C names that are longer than 8 characters or external C++ names
without C++ linkage that are longer than 8 characters, you can, in your source
code:
v Use the #pragma map directive to map long external names in the source code to
8 or less characters in the object module.
#pragma map(verylongname,"sname")

v Use the long name support that is provided by the compile-time option LONGNAME.
To use the long name support, you must do the following:
Use the LONGNAME compile-time option when compiling your program.
Use the binder to produce a program object in a PDSE, or use the prelinker.
For more information on the binder, prelinker, and LONGNAME compile-time
option, see the OS/390 C/C++ Users Guide.

Constants
A constant does not change its value while the program is running. The value of
any constant must be in the range of non-negative representable values for its type.
C/C++ contains the following types of constants (also called literals):
v Integer
v Floating-Point
v Fixed-Point Decimal Constants (C Only)
v Character
v String
v Enumeration

Chapter 4. Lexical Elements of C and C++

Constants
Enumerations on page 91 discusses enumeration constants, which belong to the
lexical class of identifiers. For more information on data types, see Type Specifiers
on page 87.

Integer Constants
Integer constants represent integer values. You can represent integer constants in
decimal, hexadecimal, or octal values.
%%

decimal_constant
octal_constant
hexadecimal_constant

l
L
u
U

%&
l

u
U

L
l
L

l
L

Note that the suffixes in the above syntax diagram are not case-sensitive; that is, l
and L are the same to the compiler.
An integer constant without a suffix cannot have a value greater than ULONG_MAX. An
integer constant with a suffix that contains LL cannot have a value greater than
ULONGLONG_MAX. In these cases, the compiler will issue an out of range error
message. For information on the ULONG_MAX and the ULONGLONG_MAX macros, see the
OS/390 C/C++ Run-Time Library Reference.

Data Types for Integer Constants

OS/390 C/C++ determines the data type of an integer constant by the form, value,
and suffix of the constant. The following lists the integer constants and shows the
possible data types for each constant. The compiler uses the smallest data type
that can represent the constant value to store the constant.
Table 6. Data Types for Integer Constants
Constant

Data Type

unsuffixed decimal

int, long int, unsigned long int

unsuffixed octal

int, unsigned int, long int, unsigned long

int

unsuffixed hexadecimal

int, unsigned int, long int, unsigned long

int

suffixed by u or U

unsigned int, unsigned long int

suffixed by l or L

long int, unsigned long int

suffixed by both u or U, and l or L

unsigned long int

suffixed by ll or LL

long long int

suffixed by both u or U, and ll or LL

unsigned long long int

A plus (+) or minus (-) symbol can precede an integer constant. OS/390 C/C++
treats it as a unary operator rather than as part of the constant value.

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

Constants

Decimal Constants

A decimal constant contains any of the digits 0 through 9. The first digit cannot be 0.

%% digit_1_to_9 '

digit_0_to_9

OS/390 C/C++ interprets integer constants that begin with the digit 0 as an octal
constant, rather than as a decimal constant.
The following are examples of decimal constants:
485976
-433132211
+20
5

Hexadecimal Constants

A hexadecimal constant begins with the 0 digit that is followed by either an x or X.

This is followed by any combination of the digits 0 through 9 and the letters a
through f or A through F. The letters A (or a) through F (or f) represent the values
10 through 15, respectively.

0x
0X

digit_0_to_f
digit_0_to_F

The following are examples of hexadecimal constants:

0x3b24
0XF96
0x21
0x3AA
0X29b
0X4bD

Octal Constants

An octal constant begins with the digit 0 and contains any of the digits 0 through 7.

%% 0 ' digit_0_to_7

The following are examples of octal constants:

0
0125
034673
03245

Floating-Point Constants
A floating-point constant consists of following parts:
v An integral part
v A decimal point
Chapter 4. Lexical Elements of C and C++

Constants
v A fractional part
v An exponent part
v An optional suffix
Both the integral and fractional parts are made up of decimal digits. You can omit
either the integral part or the fractional part, but not both. You can omit either the
decimal point or the exponent part, but not both.

. '

digit
' digit

' digit

digit

exponent

f
F
l
L

exponent

Exponent:

e
E

+
-

' digit

The representation of a floating-point number on a system is unspecified. If a

floating-point constant is too large or too small, the result is undefined by the
language.
The suffix f or F indicates a type of float, and the suffix l or L indicates a type of
long double. If you do not specify a suffix, the floating-point constant has a type
double.
A plus (+) or minus (-) symbol can precede a floating-point constant. The compiler
treats it as a unary operator rather than as part of the constant value.
The following are examples of floating-point constants:

Floating-Point Constant

Value

5.3876e4

53,876

4e-11

0.00000000004

1e+5

100000

7.321E-3

0.007321

3.2E+4

32000

0.5e-6

0.0000005

0.45

6.e10

60000000000

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

Constants

Fixed-Point Decimal Constants (C Only)

Fixed-point decimal constants are an IBM extension to ANSI/ISO C. This type is
available when you specify the LANGLVL(EXTENDED) compile-time option.
A fixed-point decimal constant has a numeric part and a suffix that specifies its
type. The numeric part can include a digit sequence that represents the
whole-number part, followed by a decimal point (.), followed by a digit sequence
that represents the fraction part. Either the integral part or the fractional part, or
both must be present.
A fixed-point constant has the form:

digit_0_to_9

D
d

' digit_0_to_9

digit_0_to_9

' digit_0_to_9

A fixed-point constant has two attributes:

Number of digits (size)
Number of decimal places (precision).
The suffix D or d indicates a fixed-point constant.
The following are examples of fixed-point decimal constants:
Fixed-Point Constant

(size, precision)

1234567890123456D
12345678.12345678D
12345678.d
.1234567890d
12345.99d
000123.990d
0.00D

(16,
(16,
( 8,
(10,
( 7,
( 9,
( 3,

0)
8)
0)
10)
2)
3)
2)

For more information on fixed-point decimal data types, see the OS/390 C/C++
Programming Guide.

Character Constants
A character constant contains a sequence of characters or escape sequences that
are enclosed in single quotation mark symbols.

Chapter 4. Lexical Elements of C and C++

Constants

character
escape_sequence

At least one character or escape sequence must appear in the character constant.
The characters can be any from the source program character set, excluding the
single quotation mark, backslash, and new-line symbols. The prefix L indicates a
wide character constant. A character constant must appear on a single logical
source line.
The value of a character constant that contains a single character is the numeric
representation of the character in the character set that is used at compile time.
The value of a wide character constant containing a single multibyte character is
the code for that character, as defined by the mbtowc() function. If the character
constant contains more than one character, the last 4 bytes represent the character
constant. In C++, a character constant can contain only one character.
In C, a character constant has type int. In C++, a character constant has type
char.
A wide character constant has type wchar_t, and is used to represent multibyte
characters. Multibyte characters represent characters that use more than one byte
for their encoding. Each multibyte character requires up to 4 bytes for its encoding.
You can represent the double quotation mark symbol by itself. You must, however,
use the backslash symbol that is followed by a single quotation mark symbol (\') as
an escape sequence to represent the single quotation mark symbol.
You can represent the new-line character by the \n new-line escape sequence. You
can represent the backslash character by the \\ backslash escape sequence.
The following are examples of character constants:
'a'
'0'
'x'
'7'
'C'

'\''
'('
'\n'
'\117'

String Literals
A string constant or literal contains a sequence of characters or escape sequences
that are enclosed in double quotation mark symbols.
The maximum size of a string literal on OS/390 C/C++ is 32,765 bytes.

character
escape_sequence

The prefix L indicates a wide-character string literal.

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

Constants
OS/390 C/C++ appends a null ('\0') character to each string. For a wide character
string (a string prefixed by the letter L), the value ';\0' of type wchar_t is
appended. By convention, programs recognize the end of a string by finding the null
character.
The compiler retains multiple spaces that are contained within a string constant.
To continue a string on the next line, you can use two or more consecutive strings.
The compiler concatenates adjacent string literals to produce a single string. You
cannot concatenate a wide string constant with a character string constant. For
example:
"hello " "there"
"hello " L"there"
"hello" "there"

/* is equivalent to "hello there"

/* is not valid
/* is equivalent to "hellothere"

*/
*/
*/

Another way to continue a string is to use the line continuation sequence (\ symbol
that is immediately followed by a new-line character). A carriage return must
immediately follow the backslash. In the following example, the string literal second
causes a compile-time error.
char *first = "This string continues onto the next\
line, where it ends.";
/* compiles successfully.
char *second = "The comment makes the \ /* continuation symbol
invisible to the compiler.";
/* compilation error.

*/
*/
*/

Characters in concatenated strings remain distinct. For example, the string \xab
occupies 2 bytes of storage. The first byte contains the value X'ab', and the second
byte contains the value X'00' which is the trailing null character. The string \xa\xb
occupies 3 bytes of storage that contains the values X'0a', X'0b', and X'00'.
Following any concatenation, OS/390 C/C++ appends a '\0' of type char at the
end of each string. C++ library functions find the end of a string by scanning for this
value. For a wide-character string literal, OS/390 C/C++ appends a '\0' of type
wchar_t. For example:
char *first = "Hello ";
char *second = "there";
char *third = "Hello " "there";

/* stored as "Hello \0"

*/
/* stored as "there\0"
*/
/* stored as "Hello there\0" */

A character string constant has type array of char and static storage duration. A
wide character string constant has type array of wchar_t and static storage duration.
You should be careful when modifying string literals because the resulting behavior
depends on whether your strings are stored in read/write static memory. C strings
are read/write by default. C++ strings are readonly by default.
Use the #pragma strings directive to change the default storage for string literals.
strings on page 271 describes the #pragma strings directive.
OS/390 C/C++ stores string literals in static storage which can be modified like any
other storage location. C/C++ has the concept of readonly and writeable strings.
This deals with how C/C++ stores multiple occurrences of strings, rather than
whether or not you can modify the strings.
When a string literal appears more than once in the program source, how that string
is stored depends on whether strings are readonly or writeable. If strings are
readonly, then OS/390 C/C++ allocates only one location for that string. All
occurrences will refer to that one location. If strings are writeable, then each
occurrence of the string will have a separate, distinct storage location.
Chapter 4. Lexical Elements of C and C++

Constants
By default, the C compiler will consider strings to be writeable. Note that for
readonly #pragma strings, the compiler will put literal strings in an area of storage
that is potentially read only. For writable #pragma strings, it will put them in an area
of storage that is always modifiable.
Use the escape sequence \n to represent a new-line character as part of the string.
Use the escape sequence \\ to represent a backslash character as part of the
string. You can represent the single quotation mark symbol by itself ', but you use
the escape sequence \" to represent the double quotation mark symbol.
For example:

CBC3X02K
/**
** This example illustrates escape sequences in string literals
**/
#include <iostream.h>
void main ()
{
char *s ="Hi there! \n";
cout << s;
char *p = "The backslash character \\.";
cout << p << endl;
char *q = "The double quotation mark \".\n";
cout << q ;
}

This program produces the following output:

Hi there!
The backslash character \.
The double quotation mark ".

Escape Sequences
You can represent any member of the execution character set by an escape
sequence. You can use escape sequences to put unprintable characters in
character and string literals. For example, you can use escape sequences to put
such characters as tab, carriage return, and backspace into an output stream.
%% \

escape_sequence_character
x hexadecimal_digits
octal_digits

An escape sequence contains a backslash (\) symbol followed by one of the

escape sequence characters or an octal or hexadecimal number. A hexadecimal
escape sequence contains an x followed by one or more hexadecimal digits (0-9,
A-F, a-f). An octal escape sequence uses up to three octal digits (0-7). The value of
the hexadecimal or octal number specifies the value of the desired character or
wide character.
Note: The line continuation sequence (\ followed by a new-line character) is not an
escape sequence. You can use it in character strings to indicate that the
current line continues on the next line.

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

Constants
The escape sequences and the characters they represent are:
Escape Sequence

Character Represented

Alert (bell, alarm)

Backspace

Form feed (new page)

New-line

Carriage return

Horizontal tab

Vertical tab

Single quotation mark

Double quotation mark

Question mark

Backslash

The value of an escape sequence represents the code point of the code page you
use at run time. OS/390 C/C++ translates escape sequences during preprocessing.
For example, on a system that uses the ASCII character codes, the value of the
escape sequence \x56 is the letter V. On a system that uses EBCDIC character
codes, the value of the escape sequence \xE5 is the letter V.
Use escape sequences only in character constants or in string literals. OS/390
C/C++ issues a message only if it does not recognize an escape sequence.
In string and character sequences, when you want the backslash to represent itself
(rather than the beginning of an escape sequence), you must use a \\ backslash
escape sequence. For example:
cout << "The escape sequence \\n." << endl;

This statement results in the following output:

The escape sequence \n.

The following program prints the character 'a' four times to standard output, and
then prints a new line:

CBC3X02L
/** CBC3X02L
** This example illustrates escape sequences
**/
#include <iostream.h>
void main()
{
char a,b,c,d,e;
a='a';
b=129;
// EBCDIC integer value
c='\201';
// EBCDIC octal value
d='\x81';
// EBCDIC hexadecimal value
e='\n';
cout << a << b << c << d << e;
}

Chapter 4. Lexical Elements of C and C++

Constants

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

Chapter 5. Declarations
A declaration establishes the names and characteristics of data objects and
functions used in a program. A definition allocates storage for data objects or
specifies the body for a function. When you define a type, OS/390 C/C++ does not
allocate storage. This chapter discusses the following topics on declarations:
v Declarations Overview
v Block Scope Data Declarations on page 72
v File Scope Data Declarations on page 73
v
v
v
v
v

Objects on page 74
Storage Class Specifiers on page 74
typedef on page 85
Type Specifiers on page 87
Declarators on page 121

v Initializers on page 129

v C/C++ Data Mapping on page 131
v C++ Function Specifiers on page 131
v C++ References on page 131

Declarations Overview
Declarations determine the following properties of data objects and their identifiers:
v Scope, which describes the visibility of an identifier in a block or source file. For
a complete description of scope, see Scope in C on page 37.
v Linkage, which describes the association between two identical identifiers. See
Program Linkage on page 38 for more information.
v Storage duration, which describes when the system allocates and frees storage
for a data object. See Storage Duration on page 40 for more information.
v Type, which describes the kind of data the object is to represent.
The lexical order of elements when you declare a data object is as follows:
v Storage duration and linkage specification, that are described in Storage Class
Specifiers on page 74
v Type specification, described in Type Specifiers on page 87
v Declarators, which introduce identifiers and make use of type qualifiers and
storage qualifiers, described in Declarators on page 121
v Initializers, which initialize storage with initial values, described in Initializers on
page 129.
Chapter 8. Functions on page 173 describes function declarations.
All data declarations have the form:

Copyright IBM Corp. 1996, 2000

Declarations Overview
,
%% '

storage_class_specifier
type_specifier
type_qualifier

' declarator

initializer

C++ Notes:
1. One of the fundamental differences between C++ and C is the placement of
variable declarations. Although you can declare variables in the same way, in
C++, you can put variable declarations anywhere in the program. In C,
declarations must come before any statements in a block.
In the following C++ example, the variable d is declared in the middle of the
main() function:
#include <iostream.h>
void main()
{
int a, b;
cout << "Please enter two integers" << endl;
cin >> a >> b;
int d = a + b;
cout << "Here is the sum of your two integers:" << d << endl;
}

2. A given function, object, or type can have only one definition. It can have more
than one declaration as long as all of the declarations match. If you never call a
function and never take its address, then you do not have to define it. If you
declare an object, but never use it, or use it only as the operand of sizeof, you
do not have to define it. You can declare a given class or enumerator more than
once.
The following table shows examples of declarations and definitions. The identifiers
that are declared in the first column do not allocate storage; they refer to a
corresponding definition. In the case of a function, the corresponding definition is
the code or body of the function. The identifiers that are declared in the second
column allocate storage; they are both declarations and definitions.
Table 7. Examples of Declarations and Definitions
Declarations

Declarations and Definitions

extern double pi;

double pi = 3.14159265;

float square(float x);

float square(float x) { return x*x; }

struct payroll;

struct payroll {

char *name;
float salary;
} employee;

Block Scope Data Declarations

You can only put a block scope data declaration at the beginning of a block. It
describes a variable and makes that variable accessible to the current block. All
block scope declarations that do not have the extern storage class specifier are
definitions and allocate storage for that object.
You can declare a data object with block scope with any one of the following
storage class specifiers:

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

Block Scope Data Declarations

v
v
v
v

auto
register
static
extern

If you do not specify a storage class specifier in a block-scope data declaration,

OS/390 C/C++ uses the default storage class specifier auto. If you specify a
storage class specifier, you can omit the type specifier. If you omit the type
specifier, all variables in that declaration receive type int.

Initialization
You cannot initialize a variable that is declared in a block scope data declaration
that has the extern storage class specifier.
The types of variables you can initialize and the values that uninitialized variables
receive vary for that storage class specifier. See Storage Class Specifiers on
page 74 for details on the different storage classes.

Storage
The duration and type of storage vary for each storage class specifier.
Declarations with the auto or register storage class specifier result in automatic
storage duration. Declarations with the extern or static storage class specifier
result in static storage duration.

Related Information
v
v
v
v
v
v
v
v

Declarators on page 121

Storage Class Specifiers on page 74
auto Storage Class Specifier on page 75
extern Storage Class Specifier on page 77
register Storage Class Specifier on page 83
static Storage Class Specifier on page 83
Initializers on page 129
Type Specifiers on page 87

File Scope Data Declarations

A file scope data declaration appears outside any function definition. It describes a
variable and makes that variable accessible to all functions that are in the same file
and whose definitions appear after the declaration.
A file scope data definition is a data declaration at file scope that also causes
OS/390 C/C++ to allocate storage for that variable. All objects whose identifiers are
declared at file scope have static storage duration.
Use a file scope data declaration to declare variables that you want to have
external linkage.
The only storage class specifiers you can put in a file scope data declaration are
static and extern. All file scope variables that are defined with static storage
class have internal linkage; other file scope variables have external linkage. If you
specify the storage class, you can omit the type specifier. If you omit the type
specifier, all variables that are defined in that declaration receive the type int.

Chapter 5. Declarations

File Scope Data Declarations

Initialization
You can initialize any object with file scope. If you do not initialize a file scope
variable, its initial value is zero of the appropriate type. If you do initialize it, a
constant expression must describe the initializer. Otherwise, it must reduce to the
address of a previously declared variable at file scope, possibly added to a constant
expression. Initialization of all variables at file scope takes place before the main
function begins running.

Storage
All objects with file scope data declarations have static storage duration. OS/390
C/C++ allocates storage at run time which it frees when the program stops running.

Related Information
v
v
v
v

extern Storage Class Specifier on page 77

static Storage Class Specifier on page 83
Initializers on page 129
Type Specifiers on page 87

Objects
An object is a region of storage that contains a value or group of values. You can
access each value by using its identifier or by using a complex expression that
refers to the object. In addition, each object has a unique data type. OS/390 C/C++
establishes both the identifier and data type of an object in the object declaration.
The data type of an object determines the initial storage allocation for that object
and the interpretation of the values during subsequent access. You can also use it
in any type-checking operations.
C++ has built-in, or standard, data types, and user-defined data types. Standard
data types include signed and unsigned integers, floating-point numbers, and
characters. User-defined types include enumerations, structures, unions, and
classes.
In C++ code, you reference objects by variables or references. A variable also
represents the location in storage that contains the value of an object.
You commonly refer to an instance of a class type as a class object. The individual
data members of an instantiated class object are also called objects. The set of all
member objects comprises a class object.

Storage Class Specifiers

The storage class specifier you use within the declaration determines whether:
v The object has internal, external, or no linkage.
v The object is stored in memory or in a register, if available.
v The object receives the default initial value 0 or an indeterminate default initial
value.
v The object is referenced throughout a program or only within the function, block,
or source file where you have defined the variable.

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

Storage Class Specifiers

v The storage duration for the object is static or automatic. For static, OS/390
C/C++ maintains storage throughout the program run time. For automatic,
OS/390 C/C++ maintains storage only during the execution of the block where
the object is defined.
For a function, the storage class specifier determines the linkage of the function.
Declarations with the auto or register storage-class specifier result in automatic
storage duration. Those with the extern or static storage-class specifier result in
static storage.
Most local declarations that do not include the extern storage-class specifier
allocate storage; however, function declarations and type declarations do not
allocate storage.
The only storage-class specifiers allowed in a global or file scope declaration are
static and extern.
This section describes the following storage class specifiers:
v auto
v extern
v register
v static

auto Storage Class Specifier

The auto storage class specifier lets you define a variable with automatic storage.
OS/390 C/C++ restricts its use and storage to the current or contained block. The
storage class keyword auto is optional in a data declaration. You cannot use it in a
parameter declaration. You must declare a variable that has the auto storage class
specifier within a block. You cannot use it for file scope declarations.
Automatic variables require storage only while the function in which they are
declared is active. Consequently, defining variables with the auto storage class can
decrease the amount of memory that is required to run a program. However, having
many large automatic objects may cause you to run out of stack space.
Declaring variables with the auto storage class can also make code easier to
maintain. A change to an auto variable in one function never affects another
function (unless you pass it as an argument).

Initialization

You can initialize any auto variable except parameters. If you do not initialize an
automatic object, its value is indeterminate. If you provide an initial value, the
expression that represents the initial value can be any valid C or C++ expression.
For structure and union members, the initial value must be a valid constant
expression if you use an initializer list. Each time an objects definition (auto or
register) is encountered during program execution, its initialization, if any, is done.
Note: If you use the goto statement to jump into the middle of a block, automatic
variables defined before the label that is jumped to are not initialized.

Storage

Objects with the auto storage class specifier have automatic storage duration. Each
time a block is entered, storage for auto objects that are defined in that block is
made available. When the block is exited, the objects are no longer available for
use.
Chapter 5. Declarations

Storage Class Specifiers

If you define an auto object within a function that you invoke recursively, OS/390
C/C++ allocates memory for the object at each invocation of the block.

Examples of auto Storage Class

The following program shows the scope and initialization of auto variables. The
function main defines two variables, each named auto_var. The first definition
occurs on line 10. The second definition occurs in a nested block on line 13. While
the nested block is running, only the auto_var that is created by the second
definition is available. During the rest of the program, only the auto_var that is
created by the first definition is available.
CBC3RAAF:
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26

/****************************************************
** Example illustrating the use of auto variables **
****************************************************/
#include <stdio.h>
int main(void)
{
void call_func(int passed_var);
auto int auto_var = 1; /* first definition of auto_var
{

int auto_var = 2;
/* second definition of auto_var */
printf("inner auto_var = %d\n", auto_var);

}
call_func(auto_var);
printf("outer auto_var = %d\n", auto_var);
return 0;

void call_func(int passed_var)

{
printf("passed_var = %d\n", passed_var);
passed_var = 3;
printf("passed_var = %d\n", passed_var);
}

This program produces the following output:

inner auto_var = 2
passed_var = 1
passed_var = 3
outer auto_var = 1

The following example uses an array that has the storage class auto to pass a
character string to the function sort. The function sort receives the address of the
character string, rather than the contents of the array. The address enables sort to
change the values of the elements in the array.
CBC3RAAG:
/*****************************************************************
** Sorted string program -- this example passes an array name **
** to a function
**
*****************************************************************/
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
int main(void)
{
void sort(char *array, int n);

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

Storage Class Specifiers

char string[75];
int length;
printf("Enter letters:\n");
scanf("%74s", string);
length = strlen(string);
sort(string,length);
printf("The sorted string is: %s\n", string);
}

return(0);

void sort(char *array, int n)

{
int gap, i, j, temp;

for (gap = n / 2; gap > 0; gap /= 2)

for (i = gap; i < n; i++)
for (j = i - gap; j >= 0 && array[j] > array[j + gap];
j -= gap)
{
temp = array[j];
array[j] = array[j + gap];
array[j + gap] = temp;
}

When you run the program, interaction with the program could produce:
Output

Enter letters:

Input

zyfab

Output

The sorted string is: abfyz

Related Information

v
v
v
v

Block Scope Data Declarations on page 72

extern Storage Class Specifier

The extern storage class specifier lets you declare objects and functions that
several source files can use. All object declarations that occur outside a function
and that do not contain a storage class specifier declare identifiers with external
linkage. All function definitions that do not specify a storage class define functions
with external linkage.
You can distinguish an extern declaration from an extern definition by the presence
of the keyword extern and the absence of an initial value. If the keyword extern is
absent or if there is an initial value, the declaration is also a definition; otherwise, it
is just a declaration. An extern definition can appear only at file scope.
An extern variable, function definition, or declaration also makes the described
variable or function usable by the succeeding part of the current source file. This
declaration does not replace the definition. The declaration describes the variable
that is externally defined.
If a declaration for an identifier already exists at file scope, any extern declaration
of the same identifier that is found within a block refers to that same object. If no
other declaration for the identifier exists at file scope, the identifier has external
linkage.
Chapter 5. Declarations

Storage Class Specifiers

An extern declaration can appear outside a function or at the beginning of a block.
If the declaration describes a function or appears outside a function and describes
an object with external linkage, the keyword extern is optional.
If you do not specify a storage class specifier, the function has external linkage. It is
an error to include a declaration for the same function with the storage class
specifier static before the declaration with no storage class specifier because of
the incompatible declarations. Including the extern storage class specifier on the
original declaration is valid, and the function has internal linkage.
In OS/390 C++, you can declare functions with the following:
Linkage

By specifying

extern "C"

C++

extern "C++

extern "OS"

PLI

extern "PLI"

builtin

extern "builtin"

COBOL

extern "COBOL"

FORTRAN

extern "FORTRAN"

|
|

OS_DOWNSTACK
extern "OS_DOWNSTACK"

|
|

OS_UPSTACK

|
|

OS_NOSTACK

|
|

OS31_NOSTACK
extern "OS31_NOSTACK"

REFERENCE

extern "OS_UPSTACK"
extern "OS_NOSTACK"

extern "REFERENCE"

There are some limitations to using extern to specify non-C++ linkage for a
function. While the C++ language supports overloading, other languages do not.
The implications of this are:
v You cannot overload a function that has non-C++ linkage:
extern "FORTRAN"{int func(int);}
extern "FORTRAN"{int func(int,int);}

// not allowed-compiler
// will issue an error message

v You cannot declare a function with a linkage specification if you have already
used the same function name in a declaration without a linkage specification:
int func(int);
extern "FORTRAN"{int func(int,int);}

// not allowed-compiler
// will issue an error message

v You can overload a function as long as it has C++ (default) linkage. Therefore,
OS/390 C/C++ allows the following series of statements:
extern "FORTRAN"{int func(int,int);}
int func(int);
// function with C++ linkage
int func(int,int);
// overloaded function with C++ linkage

v You cannot redefine a function that has a linkage specification:

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

Storage Class Specifiers

extern func(int);
extern "FORTRAN"{int func(int,int);}

// not allowed-compiler
// will issue an error message

For more information, see Using Linkage Specifications in C++ in the OS/390
C/C++ Programming Guide, or refer to OS/390 Language Environment Writing
Interlanguage Applications.
The following fragments illustrate the use of extern "C":
extern "C" int cf();

//declare function cf to have C linkage

extern "C" int (*c_fp)(); //declare a pointer to a function,

// called c_fp, which has C linkage
extern "C" {
typedef void(*cfp_T)(); //create a type pointer to function with C
// linkage
void cfn();
//create a function with C linkage
void (*cfp)();
//create a pointer to a function, with C
// linkage
}

Linkage compatibility affects all C library functions that accept a user function
pointer as a parameter. Use the extern "C" linkage specification to ensure that the
declared linkages are the same. An example of these library functions is qsort();
refer to the OS/390 C/C++ Run-Time Library Reference for more information.
The following example fragment uses extern "C" with qsort().
#include <stdlib.h>
// function to compare table elements
extern "C" int TableCmp(const void *, const void *); // C linkage
extern void * GenTable();
// C++ linkage
void main() {
void *table;

table = GenTable();
// generate table
qsort(table, 100, 15, TableCmp); // sort table, using TableCmp
// and C library routine qsort();

C++ Note: In C++, an extern declaration cannot appear in class scope.

Initialization

You can initialize any object with the extern storage class specifier at file scope.
You can initialize an extern object with an initializer that must do either of the
following:
v Appear as part of the definition and the initial value must be described by a
constant expression.
v Reduce to the address of a previously declared object with static storage
duration. You can modify this object by adding or subtracting an integral constant
expression.
If you do not explicitly initialize an extern variable, its initial value is zero of the
appropriate type. Initialization of an extern object is completed by the time the
program starts running.

Chapter 5. Declarations

Storage Class Specifiers

Storage

extern objects have static storage duration. OS/390 C/C++ allocates memory for
extern objects before the main function begins running. When the program finishes
running, OS/390 C/C++ frees the storage.

Controlling External Static

Certain program variables with the extern storage class may be constant and never
be updated. If this is the case, it is not necessary to have a copy of these variables
made for every user of the program. In addition, there may be a need to share
constant program variables between C and another language.

Examples of extern Storage Class

The following program fragment shows how to force an external program variable to
be part of a program that includes executable code and constant data. It uses the
#pragma variable(varname, NORENT) directive:
#pragma variable(rates, NORENT)
extern float rates[5] = { 3.2, 83.3, 13.4, 3.6, 5.0 };
extern float totals[5];
int. main(void) {
.
.
}

In this example, you compile the source file with the RENT option. The executable
code includes the variable rates as you specify the #pragma variable(rates,
NORENT). The writable static includes the variable totals. Each user has a personal
copy of the array totals, and all users of the program share the array rates. This
sharing may yield a performance and storage benefit.
The #pragma variable(varname, NORENT) does not apply to, and has no effect on,
program variables with the static storage class. OS/390 C/C++ always includes
program variables with the static storage class with the writable static. An
informational message appears if you write to a nonreentrant variable when you
specify the C CHECKOUT compile-time option.
When you specify #pragma variable(varname, NORENT) for a variable, ensure that
your program never writes to this variable. Program exceptions or unpredictable
program behavior may result should this be the case. In addition, you must include
#pragma variable(varname, NORENT) in every source file where you reference or
define the variable.
For more information on the RENT and NORENT compile-time options, refer to the
OS/390 C/C++ Users Guide.
The following program shows the linkage of extern objects and functions. It
declares the extern object total on line 12 of File 1 and on line 11 of File 2. The
definition of the external object total appears in File 3. The example defines
extern function tally in File 2. The function tally can be in the same file as main
or in a different file. Because main precedes these definitions and main uses both
total and tally, main declares tally on line 11 and total on line 12.

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

Storage Class Specifiers

CBC3RAH1 (File 1):
1
2
3
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19

/**************************************************************
** The program receives the price of an item, adds the
**
** tax, and prints the total cost of the item.
**
**************************************************************/
#include <stdio.h>
int main(void)
{
void tally(void);
extern float total;

/* begin main
*/
/* declaration of function tally */
/* first declaration of total
*/

printf("Enter the purchase amount: \n");

tally();
printf("\nWith tax, the total is: %.2f\n", total);
}

return(0);

/* end main

CBC3RAH2 (File 2):

1
2
3
4
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16

/**************************************************************
** This file defines the function tally
**
**************************************************************/
#include <stdio.h>
#define tax_rate 0.05
void tally(void)
{
float tax;
extern float total;

/* begin tally */
/* second declaration of total

scanf("%f", &total);
tax = tax_rate * total;
total += tax;

/* end tally */

CBC3RAH3 (File 3):

float total;

When you run this program and interaction with it, it could produce the following:
Output

Enter the purchase amount:

Input

99.95

Output

With tax, the total is: 104.95

The following program shows extern variables that are used by two functions. Both
functions main and sort can access and change the values of the extern variables
string and length. Consequently, main does not have to pass parameters to sort.

Chapter 5. Declarations

Storage Class Specifiers

CBC3RAAI:
/*****************************************************************
** Sorted string program -- this example shows extern
**
** used by two functions
**
*****************************************************************/
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
char string[75];
int length;
int main(void)
{
void sort(void);
printf("Enter letters:\n");
scanf("%s", string);
length = strlen(string);
sort();
printf("The sorted string is: %s\n", string);
}

return(0);

void sort(void)
{
int gap, i, j, temp;

for (gap = length / 2; gap > 0; gap /= 2)

for (i = gap; i < length; i++)
for (j = i - gap;
j >= 0 && string[j] > string[j + gap];
j -= gap)
{
temp = string[j];
string[j] = string[j + gap];
string[j + gap] = temp;
}

When you run this program, interacting with it could produce the following:
Output

Enter letters:

Input

zyfab

Output

The sorted string is: abfyz

The following code fragment shows a static variable var1, which gets defined at
file scope and then declared with the storage class specifier extern. The second
declaration refers to the first definition of var1, and so it has internal linkage.
static
int var1;
.
.
.
extern int var1;

Related Information

v
v
v
v

File Scope Data Declarations on page 73

Constant Expressions on page 139
Function Definitions on page 178
Function Declarator on page 180

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

Storage Class Specifiers

register Storage Class Specifier

The register storage class specifier marks heavily used objects (such as loop
control variables). It indicates that the compiler should try to minimize access time
to the object by placing its value in a machine register, if possible. Because of the
limited size and number of registers available on OS/390 systems, few variables
can actually be put in registers. The object is treated as having the storage class
specifier auto.
OS/390 C/C++ requires the register storage class specifier in a block-scope data
definition. It also requires it in a parameter declaration that describes an object that
has the register storage class. You must define an object that has the register
storage class specifier within a block. Or, you must declare it as a parameter to a
function.

Initialization

You can initialize any register object except parameters. If you do not initialize an
automatic object, its value is indeterminate. If you provide an initial value, the
expression that represents the initial value can be any valid C or C++ expression.
For structure and union members, the initial value must be a valid constant
expression if you use an initializer list. The program then sets the object to that
initial value each time it enters the program block that contains the objects
definition.

Storage

Objects with the register storage class specifier have automatic storage duration.
Each time a block is entered, storage for register objects that are defined in that
block is made available. When the block is exited, the objects are no longer
available for use.
If a register object is defined within a function that you invoke recursively, OS/390
C/C++ allocates the memory for the variable at each invocation of the block.

Restrictions

You cannot use the register storage class specifier in data scope declarations.
C++ Notes: In C programs, you cannot apply the address (&) operator to register
variables. However, C++ lets you take the address of an object with
the register storage class. For example:
register i;
int* b = &i;

// valid in C++, but not in C

Related Information

v
v
v
v

Block Scope Data Declarations on page 72

auto Storage Class Specifier on page 75
Address (&) on page 145
Parameter Declaration List Syntax on page 180

static Storage Class Specifier

The static storage class specifier lets you define objects with static storage
duration and internal linkage, or to define functions with internal linkage.
You can define an object that has the static storage class specifier within a block
or at file scope. If the definition occurs within a block, the object has no linkage. If
the definition occurs at file scope, the object has internal linkage.

Chapter 5. Declarations

Storage Class Specifiers

Initialization

You can initialize any static object with a constant expression or an expression
that reduces to the address of a previously declared extern or static object,
possibly modified by a constant expression. If you do not provide an initial value,
the object receives the value of zero of the appropriate type.

Storage

Objects with the static storage class specifier have static storage duration. OS/390
C/C++ allocates the storage for a static variable when the program begins
running. When the program finishes running, it frees the memory.

Usage

You can use static variables when you need an object that retains its value from
one execution of a block to the next execution of that block. Using the static
storage class specifier keeps the system from reinitializing the object each time the
block where the object is defined runs.
If a local static variable is a class object with constructors and destructors, OS/390
C++ constructs the object when control passes through its definition for the first
time. If a constructor creates a local class object, OS/390 C++ calls its destructor
immediately before, or as part of, the calls of the atexit() function.

Restrictions

You cannot declare a static function at block scope.

Examples of Static Storage Class

The following program shows the linkage of static identifiers at file scope. This
program uses two different external static identifiers named stat_var. The first
definition occurs in file 1. The second definition occurs in file 2. The main()
function references the object defined in file 1. The var_print() function
references the object defined in file 2:
CBC3RAJ1 (File 1):
/************************************************************************
** Program to illustrate file scope static variables
**
************************************************************************/
#include <stdio.h>
extern void var_print(void);
static stat_var = 1;
int main(void)
{
printf("file1 stat_var = %d\n", stat_var);
var_print();
printf("FILE1 stat_var = %d\n", stat_var);
}

return(0);

CBC3RAJ2 (File 2):

/************************************************************************
** This file contains the second definition of stat_var
**
************************************************************************/
#include <stdio.h>
static int stat_var = 2;

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

Storage Class Specifiers

void var_print(void)
{
printf("file2 stat_var = %d\n", stat_var);
}

This program produces the following output:

file1 stat_var = 1
file2 stat_var = 2
FILE1 stat_var = 1

The following program shows the linkage of static identifiers with block scope. The
function test() defines the static variable stat_var. This variable retains its
storage throughout the program, even though test() is the only function that can
refer to stat_var.
CBC3RAAK:
/************************************************************************
** Program to illustrate block scope static variables
**
************************************************************************/
#include <stdio.h>
int main(void)
{
void test(void);
int counter;
for (counter = 1; counter <= 4; ++counter)
test();
}

return(0);

void test(void)
{
static int stat_var = 0;
auto int auto_var = 0;
stat_var++;
auto_var++;
printf("stat_var = %d auto_var = %d\n", stat_var, auto_var);
}

This program produces the following output:

stat_var
stat_var
stat_var
stat_var

=
=
=
=

1
2
3
4

auto_var
auto_var
auto_var
auto_var

=
=
=
=

1
1
1
1

Related Information

v
v
v
v

Block Scope Data Declarations on page 72

File Scope Data Declarations on page 73
Function Definitions on page 178
Function Declarator on page 180

typedef
A typedef declaration lets you define your own identifiers which you can use in
place of type specifiers such as int, float, and double. A typedef declaration does
not reserve storage. The names you define using typedef are not new data types.
They are synonyms for the data types or combinations of data types they represent.
The syntax of a typedef declaration is:
Chapter 5. Declarations

Storage Class Specifiers

%% typedef type_specifier identifier ;

When an object is defined using a typedef identifier, the properties of the defined
object are exactly the same as if the object were defined by explicitly listing the
data type associated with the identifier.
C++ Note: A C++ class defined in a typedef without being named is given a
dummy name and the typedef name for linkage. Such a class cannot
have constructors or destructors. For example:
typedef class {
Trees();
} Trees;

Here the function Trees() is an ordinary member function of a class

whose type name is unspecified. In the above example, Trees is an
alias for the unnamed class, not the class type name itself.
Consequently, Trees() cannot be a constructor for that class.

Examples of typedef Declarations

The following statements declare LENGTH as a synonym for int and then use this
typedef to declare length, width, and height as integral variables:
typedef int LENGTH;
LENGTH length, width, height;

The following declarations are equivalent to the above declaration:

int length, width, height;

Similarly, you can use typedef to define a class type (structure, union, or C++
class). For example:
typedef struct {
int scruples;
int drams;
int grains;
} WEIGHT;

You can then use the structure WEIGHT in the following declarations:
WEIGHT

chicken, cow, horse, whale;

Related Information
v
v
v
v
v
v
v
v
v
v
v

Characters on page 87
Floating-Point Variables on page 88
Integer Variables on page 90
Enumerations on page 91
Pointers on page 95
void Type on page 100
Arrays on page 101
Structures on page 107
Unions on page 114
Chapter 11. C++ Classes on page 277
Constructors and Destructors Overview on page 317

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

Type Specifiers

Type Specifiers
Type specifiers indicate the type of the object or function you are declaring. The
fundamental data types are:
v Characters
v Floating-Point Numbers
v Integers
v Enumerations
v Void
Under the IBM extension (using compiler option LANGLVL(EXTENDED)), the C compiler
also provides the intrinsic type:
v Fixed-point Decimal

|
|
|

From these types, you can derive:

v Pointers
v Arrays
v Structures
v Unions
v Functions
The integral types are char, wchar_t( C++ only), and int of all sizes. Floating-point
numbers can have types float, double, or long double. You can collectively refer to
integral, floating-point, and fixed-point decimal types as arithmetic types. In C++
only, you can also derive the following:
v References
v Classes
v Pointers to Members

In C++, enumerations are not an integral type, but they can be subject to integral
promotion, as described in Integral Promotions on page 167.
You can give names to both fundamental and derived types by using the typedef
specifier.

Characters
There are three character data types: char, signed char, and unsigned char. These
three data types are not compatible. If you specify LANGLVL(ANSI), the C compiler
recognizes char, unsigned char, and signed char as distinct types. They are
always distinct types in C++.
The character data types provide enough storage to hold any member of the
character set you program uses at run time. The amount of storage that is allocated
for a char is implementation-dependent. The OS/390 C/C++ compiler represents a
character by 8 bits, as defined in the CHAR_BIT macro in the <limits.h> header.
The default character type behaves like an unsigned char. To change this default,
use #pragma chars, described in chars on page 243.
If it does not matter whether a char data object is signed or unsigned, you can
declare the object as having the data type char. Otherwise, explicitly declare signed
char or unsigned char. When a char (signed or unsigned) is widened to an int, its
value is preserved.
To declare a data object that has a character type, use a char type specifier. The
char specifier has the form:
Chapter 5. Declarations

Type Specifiers
%%

unsigned
signed

char

The declarator for a simple character declaration is an identifier. You can initialize a
simple character with a character constant or with an expression that evaluates to
an integer.
Use the char specifier in variable definitions to define such variables as follows:
arrays of characters, pointers to characters, and arrays of pointers to characters.
Use signed char or unsigned char to declare numeric variables that occupy a
single byte.
C++ Note: For the purposes of distinguishing overloaded functions, a C++ char is
a distinct type from signed char and unsigned char.

Examples of Character Data Types

The following example defines the identifier end_of_string as a constant object of

type char. It has the initial value \0 (the null character):
const char end_of_string = '\0';

The following example defines the unsigned char variable switches as having the
initial value 3:
unsigned char switches = 3;

The following example defines string_pointer as a pointer to a character:

char *string_pointer;

The following example defines name as a pointer to a character. After initialization,

name points to the first letter in the character string "Johnny":
char *name = "Johnny";

The following example defines a one-dimensional array of pointers to characters.

The array has three elements. Initially they are a pointer to the string "Venus", a
pointer to "Jupiter", and a pointer to "Saturn":
static char *planets[ ] = { "Venus", "Jupiter",
"Saturn" };

Related Information

v
v
v
v

Character Constants on page 65

Pointers on page 95
Arrays on page 101
Assignment Expressions on page 163

Floating-Point Variables
There are three types of floating-point variables: float, double, and long double.
The amount of storage that is allocated for a float, a double, or a long double is
implementation-dependent. On all compilers, the storage size of a float variable is
less than or equal to the storage size of a double variable.
To declare a data object that has a floating-point type, use the float specifier.
The float specifier has the form:

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

Type Specifiers
%%

float
double
long double

The declarator for a simple floating-point declaration is an identifier. Initialize a

simple floating-point variable with a float constant or with a variable or expression
that evaluates to an integer or floating-point number. The storage class of a variable
determines how you initialize the variable.
Note that OS/390 C/C++ supports IEEE binary floating-point variables as well as
IBM S/390 hexadecimal floating-point variables. For details, see Floating-Point on
page 403, or the section on the FLOAT option in the OS/390 C/C++ Users Guide.

Examples of Floating-Point Data Types

The following example defines the identifier pi as an object of type double:

double pi;

The following example defines the float variable real_number with the initial value
100.55:
static float real_number = 100.55f;

The following example defines the float variable float_var with the initial value
0.0143:
float float_var = 1.43e-2f;

The following example declares the long double variable maximum:

extern long double maximum;

The following example defines the array table with 20 elements of type double:
double table[20];

Related Information

v Floating-Point Constants on page 63

v Assignment Expressions on page 163

Fixed-Point Decimal Data Types (C Only)

Use the type specifier decimal(n,p) to declare fixed-point decimal variables and to
initialize them with fixed-point decimal constants. For this type specifier, decimal is a
macro that is defined in <decimal.h>. Remember to include <decimal.h> if you use
fixed-point decimals in your program.
Fixed-point decimal types are classified as arithmetic types. The decimal(n,p) type
specifier designates a decimal number with n digits, and p decimal places. n is the
total number of digits for the integral and decimal parts combined. p is the number
of digits for the decimal part only. For example, decimal(5,2) represents a number,
such as, 123.45 where n=5 and p=2. The value for p is optional. If you leave it out,
the default value is 0.
In the type specifier, n and p have a range of allowed values according to the
following rules:
p <= n
1 <= n <= DEC_DIG
0 <= p <= DEC_PRECISION

Chapter 5. Declarations

Type Specifiers
Note: <decimal.h> defines DEC_DIG (the maximum number of digits n) and
DEC_PRECISION (the maximum precision p). Currently, it uses a maximum of
31 digits for both limits.
The following examples show how to declare a variable as a fixed-point decimal
data type:
decimal(10,2)
decimal(5,0)
decimal(5)
decimal(18,10)
decimal(8,2)

In
v
v
v
v

x;
y;
z;
*ptr;
arr[100];

the previous example:

x can have values between -99999999.99D and +99999999.99D.
y and z can have values between -99999D and +99999D.
ptr is a pointer to type decimal(18,10).
arr is an array of 100 elements, where each element is of type decimal(8,2).

The fixed-point decimal type specifier has the form:

%% decimal ( constant_expression

constant_expression

OS/390 C/C++ evaluates the first constant_expression as a positive integral

constant expression. The second constant_expression is optional. If you leave it
out, the default value is 0. The type specifiers, decimal(n,0) and decimal(n) are
type-compatible.

Related Information

v Fixed-Point Decimal Constants (C Only) on page 65

Integer Variables
Integer variables fall into the following categories:
v short int or short or signed short int or signed short
v signed int or int
v long int or long or signed long int or signed long
v long long int or long long or signed long long int or signed long long
v unsigned short int or unsigned short
v unsigned or unsigned int
v unsigned long int or unsigned long
v unsigned long long int or unsigned long long
Note: OS/390 C/C++ supports the long long data type for language levels other
than ANSI.
The default integer type for a bit field is unsigned. The amount of storage that is
allocated for integer data is implementation-dependent.
OS/390 C/C++ provides three sizes of integer data types. Objects that are of type
short have a length of 2 bytes of storage. Objects that are of type long have a
length of 4 bytes of storage. Objects that are of type long long have a length of 8
bytes of storage. An int data type represents the most efficient data storage size
on the system (the word-size of the machine) and receives 4 bytes of storage.

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

Type Specifiers
The unsigned prefix indicates that the object is a nonnegative integer. Each
unsigned type provides the same size storage as its signed equivalent. For
example, int reserves the same storage as unsigned int. Because a signed type
reserves a sign bit, an unsigned type can hold a larger positive integer than the
equivalent signed type.
To declare a data object that has an integer data type, use an int type specifier.
The int specifier has the form:
%%

unsigned
signed

int
short
long

unsigned

%&
int
long

int

The declarator for a simple integer definition or declaration is an identifier. You can
initialize a simple integer definition with an integer constant or with an expression
that evaluates to a value that you can assign as an integer. The storage class of a
variable determines how you can initialize the variable.
C++ Note: When the arguments in overloaded functions and overloaded operators
are integer types, two integer types that both come from the same
group are not treated as distinct types. For example, you cannot
overload an int argument against a signed int argument. Chapter 13.
C++ Overloading on page 305 describes overloading and argument
matching.

Examples of Integer Data Types

The following example defines the short int variable flag:

short int flag;

The following example defines the int variable result:

int result;

The following example defines the unsigned long int variable ss_number as having
the initial value 438888834:
unsigned long ss_number = 438888834ul;

The following example defines the identifier sum as an object of type int. The initial
value of sum is the result of the expression a + b:
extern int a, b;
auto sum = a + b;

Related Information

v
v
v
v

Integer Constants on page 62

Decimal Constants on page 63
Octal Constants on page 63
Hexadecimal Constants on page 63

Enumerations
An enumeration data type represents a set of values that you declare. You can
define an enumeration data type and all variables that have that enumeration type
Chapter 5. Declarations

Type Specifiers
in one statement. You can also declare an enumeration type separately from the
definition of variables of that type. You refer to the identifier that is associated with
the data type (not an object) as an enumeration tag.
C++ Note: In C, an enumeration has an implementation-defined integral type. This
restriction does not apply to C++. In C++, an enumeration has a distinct
type that does not have to be integral.

Declaring an Enumeration Data Type

An enumeration type declaration contains the enum keyword that is followed by an

optional identifier (the enumeration tag) and a brace-enclosed list of enumerators.
Commas separate each enumerator in the enumerator list.
,
%% enum

identifier

{ ' enumerator

The keyword enum, that is followed by the identifier, names the data type (like the
tag on a struct data type). The list of enumerators provides the data type with a
set of values.
C++ Note: In C, each enumerator represents an integer value. In C++, each
enumerator represents a value that you can convert to an integral
value.
An enumerator has the form:
%% identifier

integral_constant_expression

To conserve space, you can store enumerations in spaces smaller than the storage
required by an int data type.

Enumeration Constants
When you define an enumeration data type, you specify a set of identifiers that the
data type represents. Each identifier in this set is an enumeration constant.
The value of the constant is determined in the following way:
1. An equal sign (=) and a constant expression after the enumeration constant
gives an explicit value to the constant. The identifier represents the value of the
constant expression.
2. If you do not assign an explicit value, the leftmost constant in the list receives
the value zero (0).
3. Identifiers with no explicitly assigned values receive the integer value that is one
greater than the value that is represented by the previous identifier.
In C, enumeration constants have type int.
In C++, each enumeration constant has a value that can be promoted to a signed
or unsigned integer value and a distinct type that does not have to be integral. Use

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

Type Specifiers
an enumeration constant anywhere an integer constant is allowed, or for C++,
anywhere a value of the enumeration type is allowed.
Each enumeration constant must be unique within the scope in which the
enumeration is defined. In the following example, the declarations of average on line
4 and of poor on line 5 cause compiler error messages:
1
2
3
4
5
6

func()
{
enum score { poor, average, good };
enum rating { below, average, above };
int poor;
}

The following data type declarations list oats, wheat, barley, corn, and rice as
enumeration constants. The number under each constant shows the integer value.
enum grain { oats, wheat, barley,
corn, rice };
/*
0
1
2
3

enum grain { oats=1, wheat, barley, corn, rice };

/*
1
2
3
4
5
*/
enum grain { oats, wheat=10, barley, corn=20, rice };
/*
0
10
11
20
21 */

It is possible to associate the same integer with two different enumeration

constants. For example, the following definition is valid. The identifiers suspend and
hold have the same integer value.
enum status { run, clear=5, suspend, resume, hold=6 };
/*
0
5
6
7
6
*/

The following example is a different declaration of the enumeration tag status:

enum status { run, create, clear=5, suspend };
/*
0
1
5
6

Defining Enumeration Variables

An enumeration variable definition contains an optional storage class specifier, a
type specifier, a declarator, and an optional initializer. The type specifier contains
the keyword enum that is followed by the name of the enumeration data type. You
must declare the enumeration data type before you can define a variable that has
that type.
The initializer for an enumeration variable contains the = symbol that is followed by
an expression.
In C, the initializer expression must evaluate to an int value. In C++, the initializer
must behave the same type as the associated enumeration type.
The first line of the following example declares the enumeration tag grain. The
second line defines the variable g_food and gives g_food the initial value of barley
(2).
enum grain { oats, wheat, barley, corn, rice };
enum grain g_food = barley;

In C, the type specifier enum grain indicates that the value of g_food is a member
of the enumerated data type grain. In C++, the value of g_food has the enumerated
data type grain.

Chapter 5. Declarations

Type Specifiers
C++ also makes the enum keyword optional in an initialization expression like the
one in the second line of the preceding example. For example, both of the following
statements are valid C++ code:
enum grain g_food = barley;
grain cob_food = corn;

Defining an Enumeration Type and Enumeration Objects

You can define a type and a variable in one statement by using a declarator and an
optional initializer after the type definition. To specify a storage class specifier for
the variable, you must put the storage class specifier at the beginning of the
declaration. For example:
register enum score { poor=1, average, good } rating = good;

C++ also lets you put the storage class immediately before the declarator. For
example:
enum score { poor=1, average, good } register rating = good;

Either of these examples is equivalent to the following two declarations:

enum score { poor=1, average, good };
register enum score rating = good;

Both examples define the enumeration data type score and the variable rating.
Variable rating has the storage class specifier register, the data type enum score,
and the initial value good.
Combining a data type definition with the definitions of all variables which have that
data type lets you leave the data type unnamed. For example:
enum { Sunday, Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday,
Saturday } weekday;

The above example defines the variable weekday, which you can assign to any of
the specified enumeration constants.

Example Program Using Enumerations

The following program receives an integer as input. The output is a sentence that
gives the French name for the weekday that is associated with the integer. If the
integer does not correspond with a weekday, the program prints "C'est le mauvais
jour."
CBC3RAAN:
/**
** Example program using enumerations
**/
#include <stdio.h>
enum days {

Monday=1, Tuesday, Wednesday,

Thursday, Friday, Saturday, Sunday
} weekday;

void french(enum days);

int main(void)
{
int num;
printf("Enter an integer for the day of the week.
"Mon=1,...,Sun=7\n");

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

Type Specifiers

scanf("%d", &num);
weekday=num;
french(weekday);
return(0);

void french(enum days weekday)

{
switch (weekday)
{
case Monday:
printf("Le jour de la semaine est lundi.\n");
break;
case Tuesday:
printf("Le jour de la semaine est mardi.\n");
break;
case Wednesday:
printf("Le jour de la semaine est mercredi.\n");
break;
case Thursday:
printf("Le jour de la semaine est jeudi.\n");
break;
case Friday:
printf("Le jour de la semaine est vendredi.\n");
break;
case Saturday:
printf("Le jour de la semaine est samedi.\n");
break;
case Sunday:
printf("Le jour de la semaine est dimanche.\n");
break;
default:
printf("C'est le mauvais jour.\n");
}
}

Related Information

v Identifiers on page 58
v Enumeration Constants on page 92
v Constant Expressions on page 139

Pointers
A pointer type variable holds the address of a data object or a function. A pointer
can refer to an object of any one data type except to a bit field or a reference.
Additionally, in C, a pointer cannot point to an object with the register storage
class.
Some common uses for pointers are:
v To access dynamic data structures such as linked lists, trees, and queues.
v To access elements of an array, or members of a structure, or members of a C++
class.
v To access an array of characters as a string.
v To pass the address of a variable to a function. (In C++, you can also use a
reference to do this.) By referencing a variable through its address, a function
can change the contents of that variable. Calling Functions and Passing
Arguments on page 184 describes passing arguments by reference.

Declaring Pointers

The following example declares pcoat as a pointer to an object that has type long:
extern long *pcoat;

Chapter 5. Declarations

Type Specifiers
If the keyword volatile appears before the *, the declarator describes a pointer to
a volatile object. If the keyword volatile comes between the * and the identifier,
the declarator describes a volatile pointer. The keyword const operates in the
same manner as the volatile keyword. In the following example, pvolt is a
constant pointer to an object that has type short:
short * const pvolt;

The following example declares pnut as a pointer to an int object that has the
volatile qualifier:
extern int volatile *pnut;

The following example defines psoup as a volatile pointer to an object that has
type float:
float * volatile psoup;

The following example defines pfowl as a pointer to an enumeration object of type

bird:
enum bird *pfowl;

The next example declares pvish as a pointer to a function that takes no

parameters and returns a char object:
char (*pvish)(void);

Assigning Pointers
When you use pointers in an assignment operation, you must ensure that the types
of the pointers in the operation are compatible.
The following example shows compatible declarations for the assignment operation:
float subtotal;
float * sub_ptr;
.
.
.
sub_ptr = &subtotal;
printf("The subtotal is %f\n", *sub_ptr);

The next example shows incompatible declarations for the assignment operation:
double league;
int * minor;
.
.
.
minor = &league;

/* error */

Initializing Pointers

The initializer is an = (equal sign) followed by the expression that represents the
address that the pointer is to contain. The following example defines the variables
time and speed as having type double and amount as having type pointer to a
double. The example initializes pointer amount to point to total:
double total, speed, *amount = &total;

The compiler converts an unsubscripted array name to a pointer to the first element
in the array. By specifying the name of the array, you can assign the address of the
first element of an array to a pointer. The following two sets of definitions are
equivalent. Both define the pointer student and initialize student to the address of
the first element in section:

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

Type Specifiers
int section[80];
int *student = section;

The above example is equivalent to the following:

int section[80];
int *student = &section[0];

You can assign the address of the first character in a string constant to a pointer by
specifying the string constant in the initializer.
The following example defines the pointer variable string and the string constant
"abcd". The pointer string is initialized to point to the character a in the string
"abcd".
char *string = "abcd";

The following example defines weekdays as an array of pointers to string constants.

Each element points to a different string. The pointer weekdays[2], for example,
points to the string "Tuesday".
static char *weekdays[ ] =
{
"Sunday", "Monday", "Tuesday", "Wednesday",
"Thursday", "Friday", "Saturday"
};

You can also initialize a pointer to NULL by using any integer constant expression
that evaluates to 0. For example, char * a=0;. Such a pointer is a NULL pointer. It
does not point to any object.

Restrictions on C Pointers
The OS/390 C compiler supports only the pointers that are obtained in one of the
following ways:
v Directly from a malloc/calloc/realloc call
v As an address of a data type (that is, &variable)
v From constants
v Received as a parameter from another C function
v Directly from a call to an OS/390 Language Environment service that allocates
storage, such as CEEGTST
|

Any bitwise manipulation of a pointer can result in undefined behavior.

|
|
|
|

Note: For details about receiving the parameter list (argv) in C main, please refer
to the OS/390 Language Environment Programming Guide, SC28-1939,
which includes information on preparing your main routine to receive
parameters, and on C and C++ parameter passing considerations.

You cannot use pointers to reference bit fields or objects that have the register
storage class specifier.
Packed and nonpacked objects have different memory layouts. Consequently, a
pointer to a packed structure or union is incompatible with a pointer to a
corresponding nonpacked structure or union. As a result, comparisons and
assignments between pointers to packed and nonpacked objects are not valid.
You can, however, perform these assignments and comparisons with type casts. In
the following example, the cast operation lets you compare the two pointers, but
you must be aware that ps1 still points to a nonpacked object:

Chapter 5. Declarations

Type Specifiers
int main(void)
{
_Packed struct ss *ps1;
struct ss
*ps2;
.
.
.
ps1 = (_Packed struct ss *)ps2;
.
.
.
}

Using Pointers
You can use two operators when you are working with pointers, the address (&)
operator, and the indirection (*) operator. You can use the & operator to refer to the
address of an object. For example, the following statement assigns the address of x
to the variable p_to_x. It defines the variable p_to_x as a pointer.
int x, *p_to_x;
p_to_x = &x;

The * (indirection) operator lets you access the value of the object a pointer refers
to. The following statement assigns to y the value of the object to which p_to_x
points:
float y, *p_to_x;
.
.
.
y = *p_to_x;

The following statement assigns the value of y to the variable that *p_to_x
references:
char y ,
*p_to_x,
.
.
.
*p_to_x = y;

Pointer Arithmetic
You can perform a limited number of arithmetic operations on pointers. These
operations are:
v Increment and decrement
v Addition and subtraction
v Comparison
v Assignment
The increment (++) operator increases the value of a pointer by the size of the data
object the pointer refers to. For example, if the pointer refers to the second element
in an array, the ++ makes the pointer refer to the third element in the array.
The decrement (--) operator decreases the value of a pointer by the size of the
data object the pointer refers to. For example, if the pointer refers to the second
element in an array, the -- makes the pointer refer to the first element in the array.
You can add a pointer to an integer, but you cannot add a pointer to a pointer.
If the pointer p points to the first element in an array, the following expression
causes the pointer to point to the third element in the same array:

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

Type Specifiers
p = p + 2;

If you have two pointers that point to the same array, you can subtract one pointer
from the other. This operation yields the number of elements in the array that
separate the two addresses to which the pointers refer.
You can compare two pointers with the following operators: ==, !=, <, >, <;;=,
and >=. See Chapter 6. Expressions and Operators on page 133 for more
information on these operators.
You define pointer comparisons only when the pointers point to elements of the
same array. You can perform pointer comparisons that use the == and != operators
even when the pointers point to elements of different arrays.
You can assign to a pointer the address of a data object, the value of another
compatible pointer or the NULL pointer.

Example Program Using Pointers

The following program contains pointer arrays:
CBC3RAAQ:
/********************************************************************
**
Program to search for the first occurrence of a specified
**
**
character string in an array of character strings.
**
********************************************************************/
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <string.h>
#define
#define

SIZE 20
EXIT_FAILURE 999

int main(void)
{
static char *names[ ] = { "Jim", "Amy", "Mark", "Sue", NULL };
char * find_name(char **, char *);
char new_name[SIZE], *name_pointer;
printf("Enter name to be searched.\n");
scanf("%s", new_name);
name_pointer = find_name(names, new_name);
printf("name %s%sfound\n", new_name,
(name_pointer == NULL) ? " not " : " ");
exit(EXIT_FAILURE);
} /* End of main */
/********************************************************************
**
Function find_name. This function searches an array of
**
**
names to see if a given name already exists in the array.
**
**
It returns a pointer to the name or NULL if the name is
**
**
not found.
**
**
**
** char **arry is a pointer to arrays of pointers (existing names) **
** char *strng is a pointer to character array entered (new name) **
********************************************************************/
char * find_name(char **arry, char *strng)
{
for (; *arry != NULL; arry++)
/* for each name
{
if (strcmp(*arry, strng) == 0)
/* if strings match

*/
*/

Chapter 5. Declarations

Type Specifiers
return(*arry);
}
return(*arry);
} /* End of find_name */

/* found it!

/* return the pointer

Interaction with this program could produce the following sessions:

Output

Enter name to be searched.

Input

Mark

Output

name Mark found

OR:
Output

Enter name to be searched.

Input

Deborah

Output

name Deborah not found

Related Information

v
v
v
v
v

Declarators on page 121

volatile and const Qualifiers on page 122
Initializers on page 129
Address (&) on page 145
Indirection (*) on page 145

void Type
The void data type always represents an empty set of values. The only object that
you can declare with the type specifier void is a pointer.
When a function does not return a value, you should use void as the type specifier
in the function definition and declaration. An argument list for a function that takes
no arguments is void.
You cannot declare a variable of type void, but you can explicitly convert any
expression to type void. The resulting expression can only be used as one of the
following:
v An expression statement
v The left operand of a comma expression
v The second or third operand in a conditional expression.

Example of void Type

Line 7 of the following example declares the function find_max() as having type
void. Lines 15 through 26 contain the complete definition of find_max().
Note: The use of the sizeof operator in line 13 is a standard method of
determining the number of elements in an array.
CBC3RAAM:
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

100

/**
** Example of void type
**/
#include <stdio.h>
/* declaration of function find_max */
extern void find_max(int x[ ], int j);
int main(void)
{

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

Type Specifiers
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28

static int numbers[ ] = { 99, 54, -102, 89 };

find_max(numbers, (sizeof(numbers) / sizeof(numbers[0])));
}

return(0);

void find_max(int x[ ], int j)

{ /* begin definition of function find_max */
int i, temp = x[0];
for (i = 1; i < j; i++)
{
if (x[i] > temp)
temp = x[i];
}
printf("max number = %d\n", temp);
} /* end definition of function find_max

Arrays
An array is an ordered group of data objects. Refer to each object as an element.
All elements within an array have the same data type.
Use any type specifier in an array definition or declaration. Array elements can be
of any data type, except function or, in C++, a reference. You can, however, declare
an array of pointers to functions.

Declaring Arrays
The array declarator contains an identifier that is followed by an optional subscript
declarator. An identifier that is preceded by an * (asterisk) is an array of pointers.
A subscript declarator has the form:

%% [

constant_expression

] '

constant_expression ]

The subscript declarator describes the number of dimensions in the array and the
number of elements in each dimension. Each bracketed expression, or subscript,
describes a different dimension and must be a constant expression. Note that the [
and ] characters can be represented by the trigraphs ??( and ??) respectively.
The following example defines a one-dimensional array that contains four elements
that have type char:
char list[4];

The first subscript of each dimension is 0. The array list contains the elements:
list[0]
list[1]
list[2]
list[3]

The following example defines a two-dimensional array that contains six elements
of type int:
int roster[3][2];

Chapter 5. Declarations

101

Type Specifiers
OS/390 C/C++ stores multidimensional arrays in row-major order. When you are
referring to elements in order of increasing storage location, the last subscript varies
the fastest. For example, consider the following elements of array roster:
roster[0][0]
roster[0][1]
roster[1][0]
roster[1][1]
roster[2][0]
roster[2][1]

OS/390 C/C++ stores the elements of roster as:

roster[0][0]

roster[0][1]

roster[1][0] ...

You can leave the first, and only the first, set of subscript brackets empty in the
following instances:
v Array definitions that contain initializations
v extern declarations
v Parameter declarations.
In array definitions that leave the first set of subscript brackets empty, the initializer
determines the number of elements in the first dimension. In a one-dimensional
array, the number of initialized elements becomes the total number of elements. In
a multidimensional array, OS/390 C/C++ compares the initializer to the subscript
declarator to determine the number of elements in the first dimension.
An unsubscripted array name (for example, region instead of region[4]) represents
a pointer whose value is the address of the first element of the array, provided the
array has previously been declared. An unsubscripted array name with square
brackets (for example, region[]) is allowed in the following contexts:
v In arrays that are declared at file scope
v In the argument list of a function declaration
In function declarations and declarations with the extern specifier, the only
dimension you can leave empty is the first one. You must specify the sizes of
additional dimensions.
In extended modes, you can also use unsubscripted array names in the following
contexts:
v In union members
v As the last member of a structure
Whenever an array is used in a context (such as a parameter) where it cannot be
used as an array, the identifier is treated as a pointer. The two exceptions are when
you use an array as an operand of the sizeof or the address (&) operator.

Initializing Arrays

The initializer for an array contains the = symbol that is followed by a

comma-separated list of constant expressions that are enclosed in braces ({ }).
You do not need to initialize all elements in an array. Elements that are not
initialized (in extern and static definitions only) receive the value 0 of the
appropriate type.

102

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

Type Specifiers
Note: Array initializations can be either fully braced (with braces around each
dimension) or unbraced (with only one set of braces that enclose the entire
set of initializers). Avoid placing braces around some dimensions and not
around others.
The following definition shows a completely initialized one-dimensional array:
static int number[3] = { 5, 7, 2 };

The array number contains the following values:

Element

Value

number[0]

number[1]

number[2]

The following definition shows a partially initialized one-dimensional array:

static int number1[3] = { 5, 7 };

The values of number1 are:

Element

Value

number1[0]

number1[1]

number1[2]

Instead of an expression in the subscript declarator that defines the number of

elements, the following one-dimensional array definition defines one element for
each initializer specified:
static int item[ ] = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 };

The compiler gives item the five initialized elements:

Element

Value

item[0]

item[1]

item[2]

item[3]

item[4]

You can initialize a one-dimensional character array by specifying:

v A brace-enclosed, comma-separated, list of constants, each of which can be
contained in a character
v A string constant. (Braces that surround the constant are optional.)
Initializing a string constant places the null character (\0) at the end of the string if
there is room, or if you do not specify the array dimensions.
The following definitions show character array initializations:
static char name1[ ] = { 'J', 'a', 'n' };
static char name2[ ] = { "Jan" };
static char name3[4] = "Jan";
Chapter 5. Declarations

103

Type Specifiers
These definitions create the following elements:
Element

Value

Element

Value

Element

Value

name1[0]
name1[1]
name1[2]

J
a
n

name2[0]
name2[1]
name2[2]
name2[3]

J
a
n
\0

name3[0]
name3[1]
name3[2]
name3[3]

J
a
n
\0

Note that the following definition would result in the null character being lost:
static char name[3]="Jan";

In C, the compiler accepts name[3] with no warning or error messages. In C++, the
compiler generates an error message that states the character array must be at
least 4 characters in size to accept the string literal. To initialize this array in C++,
use character-by-character initialization, for example:
static char name[3]={'J','a','n'};

You can initialize a multidimensional array by the following methods:

v Listing the values of all elements you want to initialize, in the order that the
compiler assigns the values. The compiler assigns values by increasing the
subscript of the last dimension fastest. This form of a multidimensional array
initialization looks like a one-dimensional array initialization. The following
definition completely initializes the array month_days:
static month_days[2][12] =

31, 28, 31, 30, 31, 30, 31, 31, 30, 31, 30, 31,
31, 29, 31, 30, 31, 30, 31, 31, 30, 31, 30, 31
};

v Using braces to group the values of the elements you want initialized. You can
put braces around each element, or around any nesting level of elements. The
following definition contains two elements in the first dimension. (You can
consider these elements as rows.) The initialization contains braces around each
of these two elements:
static int month_days[2][12] =
{
{ 31, 28, 31, 30, 31, 30, 31, 31, 30, 31, 30, 31 },
{ 31, 29, 31, 30, 31, 30, 31, 31, 30, 31, 30, 31 }
};

v Using nested braces to initialize dimensions and elements in a dimension

selectively.
The following definition explicitly initializes six elements in a 12-element array:
static int matrix[3][4] =
{
{1, 2},
{3, 4},
{5, 6}
};

104

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

Type Specifiers
The initial values of matrix are:
Element

Value

Element

Value

matrix[0][0]
matrix[0][1]
matrix[0][2]
matrix[0][3]
matrix[1][0]
matrix[1][1]

1
2
0
0
3
4

matrix[1][2]
matrix[1][3]
matrix[2][0]
matrix[2][1]
matrix[2][2]
matrix[2][3]

0
0
5
6
0
0

You cannot have more initializers than the number of elements in the array.
C++ Notes:
1. In C++, you can use a zero-sized array in a class definition, but it must be
non-static.
2. In a class definition, the zero-sized array must be the last non-static data
member. You can use members such as functions, static data members, and
typedefs after the zero-sized array.
3. You cannot use a class that contains a zero-sized array as a base class.

Example Programs Using Arrays

The following program defines a floating-point array that is called prices.

The first for statement prints the element values of prices. The second for
statement adds five percent to the value of each element of prices. of total.
CBC3RAAO:
/**
** Example of one-dimensional arrays
**/
#include <stdio.h>
#define ARR_SIZE 5
int main(void)
{
static float const prices[ARR_SIZE] = { 1.41, 1.50, 3.75, 5.00, .86 };
auto float total;
int i;
for (i = 0; i < ARR_SIZE; i++)
{
printf("price = $%.2f\n", prices[i]);
}
printf("\n");
for (i = 0; i < ARR_SIZE; i++)
{
total = prices[i] * 1.05;
}
}

printf("total = $%.2f\n", total);

return(0);

Chapter 5. Declarations

105

Type Specifiers
This program produces the following output:
price
price
price
price
price

=
=
=
=
=

$1.41
$1.50
$3.75
$5.00
$0.86

total
total
total
total
total

=
=
=
=
=

$1.48
$1.57
$3.94
$5.25
$0.90

The following program defines the multidimensional array salary_tbl. A for loop
prints the values of salary_tbl.
CBC3RAAP:
/**
** Example of a multidimensional array
**/
#include <stdio.h>
#define ROW_SIZE
3
#define COLUMN_SIZE 5
int main(void)
{
static int salary_tbl[ROW_SIZE][COLUMN_SIZE] =
{
{ 500, 550, 600, 650, 700
},
{ 600, 670, 740, 810, 880
},
{ 740, 840, 940, 1040, 1140
}
};
int grade, step;
for (grade = 0; grade < ROW_SIZE; ++grade)
for (step = 0; step < COLUMN_SIZE; ++step)
{
printf("salary_tbl[%d] [%d] = %d\n", grade, step,
salary_tbl[grade] [step]);
}
}

return(0);

This program produces the following output:

salary_tbl[0]
salary_tbl[0]
salary_tbl[0]
salary_tbl[0]
salary_tbl[0]
salary_tbl[1]
salary_tbl[1]
salary_tbl[1]
salary_tbl[1]
salary_tbl[1]
salary_tbl[2]
salary_tbl[2]
salary_tbl[2]
salary_tbl[2]
salary_tbl[2]

106

[0]
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[0]
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[0]
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]

=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

500
550
600
650
700
600
670
740
810
880
740
840
940
1040
1140

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

Type Specifiers

Related Information

v
v
v
v
v
v

Pointers on page 95
Array Subscript [ ] (Array Element Specification) on page 141
String Literals on page 66
Declarators on page 121
Initializers on page 129
Chapter 7. Implicit Type Conversions on page 167

Structures
A structure contains an ordered group of data objects. Unlike the elements of an
array, the data objects within a structure can have varied data types. Each data
object in a structure is a member or field.
Use structures to group logically related objects. For example, to allocate storage
for the components of one address, define the following variables:
int street_no;
char *street_name;
char *city;
char *prov;
char *postal_code;

To allocate storage for more than one address, group the components of each
address by defining a structure data type and as many variables as you need to
have the structure data type.
In the following example, lines 1 through 7 declare the structure tag address:
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

struct address {

int street_no;
char *street_name;
char *city;
char *prov;
char *postal_code;
};
struct address perm_address;
struct address temp_address;
struct address *p_perm_address = &perm_address;

The variables perm_address and temp_address are instances of the structure data
type address. Both contain the members described in the declaration of address.
The pointer p_perm_address points to a structure of address and is initialized to
point to perm_address.
Refer to a member of a structure by specifying the structure variable name with the
dot operator (.) or a pointer with the arrow operator (->) and the member name.
For example, both of the following assign a pointer to the string "Ontario" to the
pointer prov that is in the structure perm_address:
perm_address.prov = "Ontario";
p_perm_address -> prov = "Ontario";

All references to structures must be fully qualified. In the example, you cannot
reference the fourth field by prov alone. You must reference this field by
perm_address.prov.
Structures with identical members but different names are not compatible and
cannot be assigned to each other. Structures are not intended to conserve storage.

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107

Type Specifiers
If you need direct control of byte mapping, use pointers. Dot Operator (.) on
page 142 and Arrow Operator (>) on page 142 describe structure member
references.
You cannot declare a structure with members of incomplete types. See Incomplete
Types on page 121 for more information.

Declaring a Structure
A structure type declaration describes the members that are part of the structure. It
contains the struct keyword that is followed by an optional identifier (the structure
tag), and a brace-enclosed list of members.
A structure declaration has the form:
%%

_Packed

struct

identifier

%&
{ '

identifier

member ;

The keyword struct followed by the identifier (tag) names the data type. If you do
not provide a tag name to the data type, you must put all variable definitions that
refer to it within the declaration of the data type.
The list of members provides the data type with a description of the values that you
can stored in the structure.
A structure member definition has the form:
,
%% type_specifier '

declarator
.declarator

constant_expression

If a : (colon) and a constant expression follow the member declarator, the member
represents a bit field. A member that does not represent a bit field can be of any
data type and can have the volatile or const qualifier.Declaring and Using Bit
Fields in Structures on page 110 describes bit fields.
You can redefine identifiers that are used as structure or member names to
represent different objects in the same scope without conflicting. You cannot use
the name of a member more than once in a structure type. You can, however, use
the same member name in another structure type that is defined within the same
scope.
You cannot declare a structure type that contains itself as a member. You can,
however, declare a structure type that contains a pointer to itself as a member.

Defining a Structure Variable

A structure variable definition contains an optional storage class keyword, the
struct keyword, a structure tag, a declarator, and an optional identifier. The
structure tag indicates the data type of the structure variable.

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Type Specifiers
C++ Note: The keyword struct is optional in C++.
You can declare structures that have any storage class. Most compilers, however,
treat structures that are declared with the register storage class specifier as
automatic structures.

Initializing Structures
The initializer contains an equal sign (=) followed by a brace-enclosed,
comma-separated, list of values. You do not have to initialize all members of a
structure. However, you need to initialize all members in the structure prior to the
member of interest. For example, if you are interested in initializing the fifth member
of a structure, you must initialize the first four members, as well. You do not have to
initialize the sixth and subsequent members. You cannot initialize unnamed bit
fields.
The following definition shows a completely initialized structure:
struct address {

int street_no;
char *street_name;
char *city;
char *prov;
char *postal_code;
};
static struct address perm_address =
{ 3, "Savona Dr.", "Dundas", "Ontario", "L4B 2A1"};

The values of perm_address are:

Member

Value

perm_address.street_no

perm_address.street_name

address of string "Savona Dr."

perm_address.city

Address of string "Dundas"

perm_address.prov

Address of string "Ontario"

perm_address.postal_code

Address of string "L4B 2A1"

The following definition shows a partially initialized structure:

struct address {

int street_no;
char *street_name;
char *city;
char *prov;
char *postal_code;
};
struct address temp_address =
{ 44, "Knyvet Ave.", "Hamilton", "Ontario" };

Chapter 5. Declarations

109

Type Specifiers
The values of temp_address are:
Member

Value

temp_address.street_no

temp_address.street_name

address of string "Knyvet Ave."

temp_address.city

address of string "Hamilton"

temp_address.prov

address of string "Ontario"

temp_address.postal_code

value depends on the storage class.

Note: The initial value of uninitialized structure members like

temp_address.postal_code depends on the storage class associated with the
member. See Storage Class Specifiers on page 74for details on the
initialization of different storage classes.

Declaring Structure Types and Variables

To define a structure type and a structure variable in one statement, put a
declarator and an optional initializer after the type definition. To specify a storage
class specifier for the variable, you must put the storage class specifier at the
beginning of the statement.
For example:
static struct {

int street_no;
char *street_name;
char *city;
char *prov;
char *postal_code;
} perm_address, temp_address;

Because this example does not name the structure data type, perm_address and
temp_address are the only structure variables that will have this data type. Putting
an identifier after struct, lets you make additional variable definitions of this data
type later in the program.
The structure type (or tag) cannot have the volatile qualifier, but you can define a
member or a structure variable as having the volatile qualifier.
For example:
static struct class1 {

char descript[20];
volatile long code;
short complete;
} volatile file1, file2;
struct class1 subfile;

This example qualifies the structures file1 and file2, and the structure member
subfile.code as volatile.

Declaring and Using Bit Fields in Structures

A structure or a C++ class can contain bit fields that allow you to access individual
bits. You can use bit fields for data that requires just a few bits of storage. A bit field
declaration contains a type specifier followed by an optional declarator, a colon, a
constant expression, and a semicolon. The constant expression specifies how many
bits the field reserves.

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Type Specifiers
Bit fields with a length of 0 must be unnamed. You cannot reference or initialize
unnamed bit fields. A zero-width bit field causes the next field to be aligned on the
next container boundary where the container is the same size as the underlying
type as the bit field. A _Packed structure, a bit field of length 0, causes the next field
to align on the next byte boundary.
The maximum bit-field length is implementation dependent.
For portability, do not use bit fields greater than 32 bits in size.
The following restrictions apply to bit fields. You cannot:
v Define an array of bit fields
v Take the address of a bit field
v Have a pointer to a bit field
v Have a reference to a bit field (C++ only)
In C, you can declare a bit field as type int, signed int, or unsigned int. Bit fields
of the type int are equivalent to those of type unsigned int.
The default integer type for a bit field is unsigned.
A bit field cannot have the const or volatile qualifier.
The following structure has three bit-field members kingdom, phylum, and genus,
occupying 12, 6, and 2 bits respectively:
struct taxonomy {
int kingdom : 12;
int phylum : 6;
int genus : 2;
};

C++ Note: Unlike ANSI/ISO C, C++ bit fields can be any integral type or
enumeration type. When you assign an out-of-range value to a bit field,
OS/390 C/C++ preserves the low-order bit pattern and assigns the
appropriate bits.
If a series of bit fields does not add up to the size of an int, padding can take
place. OS/390 C/C++ determines the amount of padding by the alignment
characteristics of the structure members. In some instances, bit fields can cross
word boundaries.
The following example declares the identifier kitchen to be of type struct on_off:
struct on_off {

unsigned light : 1;
unsigned toaster : 1;
int count;
/* 4 bytes */
unsigned ac : 4;
unsigned : 4;
unsigned clock : 1;
unsigned : 0;
unsigned flag : 1;
} kitchen ;

Chapter 5. Declarations

111

Type Specifiers
The structure kitchen contains eight members that total 16 bytes. The following
table describes the storage that each member occupies:
Member Name

Storage Occupied

light

1 bit

toaster

1 bit

(padding 30 bits)

To next int boundary

count

The size of an int

4 bits

(unnamed field)

4 bits

clock

1 bit

(padding 23 bits)

To next int boundary (unnamed field)

flag

1 bit

(padding 31 bits)

To next int boundary

All references to structure fields must be fully qualified. For instance, you cannot
reference the second field by toaster. You must reference this field by
kitchen.toaster.
The following expression sets the light field to 1:
kitchen.light = 1;

When you assign a value that is out of its range to a bit field, OS/390 C/C++
preserves the bit pattern and assigns the appropriate bits. The following expression
sets the toaster field of the kitchen structure to 0 because it assigns only the least
significant bit to the toaster field:
kitchen.toaster = 2;

Declaring a Packed Structure

To qualify a C structure as packed, use _Packed qualifier on the structure

declaration.
C++ Note: C++ does not support the _Packed qualifier. To change the alignment of
C++ structures, use the #pragma pack directive (supported by both C
and C++). Refer to pack on page 266 for information on this directive.
Packed and nonpacked structures cannot be assigned to each other, regardless of
their type.

Example Program Using Structures

The following program finds the sum of the integer numbers in a linked list:

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Type Specifiers
CBC3RAAS:
/**
** Example program illustrating structures using linked lists
**/
#include <stdio.h>
struct record {

int number;
struct record *next_num;
};

int main(void)
{
struct record name1, name2, name3;
struct record *recd_pointer = &name1;
int sum = 0;
name1.number = 144;
name2.number = 203;
name3.number = 488;
name1.next_num = &name2;
name2.next_num = &name3;
name3.next_num = NULL;
while (recd_pointer != NULL)
{
sum += recd_pointer->number;
recd_pointer = recd_pointer->next_num;
}
printf("Sum = %d\n", sum);
}

return(0);

The structure type record contains two members: the integer number and next_num,
which is a pointer to a structure variable of type record.
The example assigns the following values to the record type variables name1, name2,
and name3:
Member Name

Value

name1.number

144

name1.next_num

The address of name2

name2.number

203

name2.next_num

The address of name3

name3.number

488

name3.next_num

NULL (Indicating the end of the linked list.)

The variable recd_pointer is a pointer to a structure of type record. OS/390 C/C++

initializes it to the address of name1 (the beginning of the linked list).
The while loop causes the linked list to be scanned until recd_pointer equals NULL.
The following statement advances the pointer to the next object in the list:
recd_pointer = recd_pointer->next_num;
Chapter 5. Declarations

113

Type Specifiers
Alignment of Structures: Normal structure alignment aligns the structure
members on their natural boundaries and ends the structure on its natural
boundary. The alignment of the structure is that of its strictest member. The
compiler performs normal alignment when your program meets one of the following
conditions:
v It does not specify the #pragma pack directive
v It specifies #pragma pack() before the structure declaration
v It specifies #pragma pack(full) before the structure declaration
To change the alignment back to what it was before the last #pragma pack, use the
reset option.
Consider if, by default, the compiler packs data types along boundaries smaller than
those specified by #pragma pack. The compiler still aligns them along the smaller
boundaries. For example, the compiler always aligns type char along a 1-byte
boundary, regardless of the value of #pragma pack.
Consider when more than one #pragma pack directive appears in a structure defined
in an inlined function. In that case, the #pragma pack directive that is in effect at the
beginning of the structure takes precedence.
For information on calling C packed structures from C++, see the OS/390 C/C++
Programming Guide. For information on packing C structures, see _Packed
Qualifier (C Only) on page 124. For information on alignment of unions, see
Alignment of Unions on page 119. For information how to use the #pragma pack
directive to change alignment, see pack on page 266.
Alignment of Nested Structures: A nested structure has the alignment that
precedes its declaration, not the alignment of the structure in which it is contained.
#pragma pack ()
struct nested {
int x;
char y;
int z;
};

// full alignment

#pragma pack(1)
struct packedcxx{
char
a;
short b;
struct nested s1;
};

// 1-byte alignment

// full alignment

Related Information

v
v
v
v
v

Declarators on page 121

Initializers on page 129
Incomplete Types on page 121
Dot Operator (.) on page 142
Arrow Operator (>) on page 142

Unions
A union is an object that can hold any one of a set of named members. The
members of the named set can be of any data type. OS/390 C/C++ overlays the
members in storage.
The storage allocated for a union is the storage required for the largest member of
the union (plus any padding that is required so that the union will end at a natural
boundary of its strictest member).

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C++ Notes:
1. In C++, a union can have member functions, including constructors and
destructors, but not virtual member functions. You cannot use a union as a base
class nor derive it from a base class.
2. A C++ union member cannot be a class object that has a constructor,
destructor, or overloaded copy assignment operator. In C++, you cannot declare
a member of a union with the keyword static.

Declaring a Union

A union type declaration contains the union keyword followed by an identifier

(optional) and a brace-enclosed list of members.
A union declaration has the form:

qualifier

union

{ '

identifier

member ;

The identifier is a tag you give to the union that is specified by the member list. If
you specify a tag, you can make any subsequent declaration of the union (in the
same scope) by declaring the tag and omitting the member list. If you do not
specify a tag, you must put all variable definitions that refer to that union within the
statement that defines the data type.
The list of members provides the data type with a description of the objects that you
can store in the union.
A union member definition has the form:
,
%% type_specifier '

declarator
.declarator

constant_expression

You can reference one of the possible union members the same way as you
reference a member of a structure.
For example, the following code assigns '\n' to the first element in the character
array birthday, a member of the union people:
union {
char birthday[9];
int age;
float weight;
} people;
people.birthday[0] = '\n';

A union can represent only one of its members at a time. In the example, the union
people contains either age, birthday, or weight but never more than one of these.
The printf statement in the following example does not give the correct result
because people.age replaces the value that is assigned to people.birthday in the
first line:
Chapter 5. Declarations

115

Type Specifiers
1
2
3

people.birthday = "03/06/56";
people.age = 38;
printf("%s\n", people.birthday);

Defining a Union Variable

A union variable definition contains an optional storage class keyword, the union
keyword, a union tag, and a declarator. The union tag indicates the data type of the
union variable.
Type Specifier: The type specifier contains the keyword union that is followed by
the name of the union type. You must declare the union data type before you can
define a union that has that type.
You can define a union data type and a union of that type in the same statement by
placing the variable declarator after the data type definition.
Declarator: The declarator is an identifier, possibly with the volatile or const
qualifier.
Initializer: You can only initialize the first member of a union.
The following example shows how you would initialize the first union member
birthday of the union variable people:
union {
char birthday[9];
int age;
float weight;
} people = {"23/07/57"};

Defining a Union Type and a Union Variable

To define union type and a union variable in one statement, put a declarator after
the type definition. The storage class specifier for the variable must go at the
beginning of the statement.

Defining Packed Unions

To qualify a C union as packed, use _Packed.

C++ Note: C++ does not support the _Packed qualifier. To change the alignment of
C++ unions, use the #pragma pack directive (which both C and C++
support). For more information on this directive, see pack on
page 266.
Packed and nonpacked unions cannot be assigned to each other, regardless of
their type.
The #pragma pack does not affect the memory layout of the union members. Each
member starts at offset zero. The #pragma pack directive does affect the total
alignment restriction of the whole union.
In the following example, each of the elements in the nonpacked n_array is of type
union uu:
union uu
short
struct
char
char
char
} b;
};

116

a;
{
x;
y;
z;

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

Type Specifiers
union uu
n_array[2];
/* _Packed union is not supported for C++
_Packed union uu
p_array[2];

Because it is not packed, each element in the nonpacked n_array has an alignment
restriction of 2 bytes. (The largest alignment requirement among the union
members is that of short a.) There is 1 byte of padding at the end of each element
to enforce this requirement.
In the packed array, p_array, each element is of type _Packed union uu. Because
every element aligned on the byte boundary, each element has a length of only 3
bytes, instead of the 4 bytes in the previous example.
The following equivalent C++ example uses the #pragma pack directive instead of
the _Packed qualifier:
union uu
short
struct
char
char
char
} b;
};

{
{
x;
y;
z;

union uu
n_array[2];
#pragma pack(pack)
union uu p_array[2];
#pragma pack(reset)

Anonymous Unions in C
You can declare unions without declarators if they are members of another structure
or union. Refer to unions without declarators as anonymous unions. C supports
anonymous unions only when you use the LANGLVL(COMMONC) compiler option.
Members of an anonymous union can be accessed as if they were declared directly
in the containing structure or union. For example, given the following structure:
struct s {
int a;
union {
int b;
float c;
};
/* no declarator */
} kurt;

You can make the following statements:

kurt.a = 5;
kurt.b = 36;

You can also declare an anonymous union:

1. By creating a typedef and using the typedef name without a declarator:
typedef union {
int a;
int b;
} UNION_T;
struct s1 {
UNION_T;
int c;
} dave;
Chapter 5. Declarations

117

Type Specifiers
2. By using an existing union tag without a declarator:
union u1 {
int a;
int b;
};
struct s1 {
union u1;
int c;
} dave;

In both of the examples, you can access the members as dave.a, dave.b, and
dave.c.
An anonymous union must be a member of, or nested within, another anonymous
union that is a member of a named structure or union. If you declare a union at file
scope without a declarator, its members are not available to the surrounding scope.
For example, the following union only declares the union tag tom:
union tom {
int b;
float c;
};

You cannot use the variables b and c from this union at file scope, and so the
following statements generate errors:
b = 5;
c = 2.5;

Anonymous Unions in C++

A C++ anonymous union is a union without a class name. A declarator cannot
follow an anonymous union. An anonymous union is not a type; it defines an
unnamed object and it cannot have member functions.
The member names of an anonymous union must be distinct from other names
within the scope in which the union is declared. You can use member names
directly in the union scope without any additional member access syntax.
For example, in the following code fragment, you can access the data members i
and cptr directly because they are in the scope that contains the anonymous union.
Because i and cptr are union members and have the same address, you should
only use one of them at a time. The assignment to the member cptr will change
the value of the member i.
void f()
{
union { int i; char* cptr ; };
//
.
//
.
//
.
i = 5;
cptr = "string_in_union"; // overrides i
}

An anonymous union cannot have protected or private members. You must declare
a global anonymous union with the keyword static.

Examples of Unions
The following example defines a union data type (not named) and a union variable
(named length). The member of length can be a long int, a float, or a double.

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Type Specifiers
union {

float meters;
double centimeters;
long inches;
} length;

The following example defines the union type data as containing one member. The
member can be named charctr, whole, or real. The second statement defines two
data type variables: input and output.
union data {

char charctr;
int whole;
float real;
};
union data input, output;

The following statement assigns a character to input:

input.charctr = 'h';

The following statement assigns a floating-point number to member output:

output.real = 9.2;

The following example defines an array of structures that is named records. Each
element of records contains three members: the integer id_num, the integer
type_of_input, and the union variable input. The variable input has the union data
type defined in the previous example.
struct {
int id_num;
int type_of_input;
union data input;
} records[10];

The following statement assigns a character to the structure member input of the
first element of records:
records[0].input.charctr = 'g';

Alignment of Unions: You can perform packing in a union. Each member starts
at offset zero, and the entire union spans as many bytes as its largest element. The
#pragma pack affects the total alignment restriction of the whole union. Consider the
following example:
Without Packing:
union uu
short
struct
char
char
char
} b;
};
union uu

{
{
x;
y;
z;

array[2];

First, consider the non-packed array. Each of its elements is of type union uu.
Since it is non-packed, every element has an alignment restriction of 2 bytes. The
largest alignment requirement among the union members is that of short a. There
is one byte of padding at the end of each element to enforce this requirement.

Chapter 5. Declarations

119

Type Specifiers
array[0] array[1]

x y z
x y z

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

With #pragma pack(packed):

#pragma pack(packed)
union uu
short
struct
char
char
char
} b;
};

a;
{
x;
y;
z;

union uu

p1_array[2];

Now consider the packed array p1_array. Since the example specifies #pragma
pack(packed), the alignment restriction of every element is the byte boundary.
Therefore, each element has a length of only 3 bytes, as opposed to the 4 bytes of
the previous case.
p_array[0] p_array[1]

x y z x y z

0
1
2
3
4
5
6

For information on calling unions from C++, see the OS/390 C/C++ Programming
Guide. For information on structure alignment, see Alignment of Structures on
page 114 and Alignment of Nested Structures on page 114. For information how to
use the #pragma pack directive to change alignment, see pack on page 266.
Examples:
In a header file, file.h:
#pragma pack(packed)
struct jeff{
float bill;
int *chris;
}
#pragma pack(reset)

/* this structure is packed */

/*
along 1-byte boundaries

/* reset to previous alignment rule*/

.
.
.

In a source file, file.cxx:

#pragma pack(full)
#include "file.h"

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// inside the header file,

// the alignment rule is set to 1-byte
// and then reset to the system default

Type Specifiers
struct dor{
double stephen;
long alex;
}

// this structure is packed

// using the system default alignment

Related Information:
v Declarators
v Initializers on page 129
v Structures on page 107
v Dot Operator (.) on page 142
v Arrow Operator (>) on page 142

Incomplete Types

Incomplete types are the type void, an array of unknown size, or structure, union,
or enumeration tags that have no member lists. For example, the following are
incomplete types:
void *incomplete_ptr;
struct dimension linear; /* no previous definition of dimension */

In the preceding example, void is an incomplete type that you cannot complete.
You must complete structure or union and enumeration tags before using them to
declare an object. You can, however, define a pointer to an incomplete structure or
union.
Related Information:
v void Type on page 100
v Arrays on page 101
v Structures on page 107
v Unions on page 114

Declarators
A declarator designates a data object or function. Declarators appear in all data
definitions and declarations, and in some type definitions.
In a declarator, you can specify the type of an object to be an array, a pointer, or a
reference. You can specify that the return type of a function is a pointer or a
reference. You can also perform initialization in a declarator.
A declarator has the form:

'
*

identifier
( declarator )

( )
' subscript_declarator
subdeclarator

qualifier
' *

subdeclarator:

Chapter 5. Declarations

121

Declarators
identifier
( subdeclarator )

subscript_declarator

A qualifier is one of:

v const
v volatile
The OS/390 C compiler also implements the _Packed qualifier, and the OS/390 C++
compiler also implements the _Export qualifier.
In C, you cannot declare or define a volatile or const function. C++ class member
functions can be qualified with const or volatile.
A declarator can contain a subdeclarator. A subdeclarator has the form:
%%

identifier
( subdeclarator )
'
volatile
const

subscript_declarator

A subscript declarator describes the number of dimensions in an array and the

number of elements in each dimension. A subscript declarator has the form:
%% [

constant_expression

%&
' [

constant_expression ]

A simple declarator consists of an identifier, which names a data object. For

example, the following block scope data declaration uses initial as the declarator:
auto char initial;

The data object initial has the storage class auto and the data type char.
You can define or declare a structure, union, or array. Use a declarator that
contains an identifier which names the data object, and some combination of
symbols and identifiers which describe the type of data that the object represents.
The following declaration uses compute[5] as the declarator:
extern long int compute[5];

volatile and const Qualifiers

The volatile qualifier maintains consistency of memory access to data objects. It

tells the compiler that the variable should always contain its current value even
when optimized. This is necessary so the variable can be queried when an

122

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Declarators
exception occurs. OS/390 C/C++ reads volatile objects from memory each time it
needs their value, and writes back to memory each time they are changed.
The volatile qualifier is useful for data objects that have values that can change in
ways unknown to your program (such as the system clock). Do not change or move
portions of an expression that reference volatile objects.
The const qualifier explicitly declares a data object as a data item that you cannot
change. OS/390 C/C++ sets its value at initialization. You cannot use const data
objects in expressions that require a modifiable lvalue. For example, a const data
object cannot appear on the left side of an assignment statement. (An lvalue is an
expression whose address you can take; you can examine or change the object
that the lvalue represents. For more information on lvalues, see lvalues on
page 136.)
These type qualifiers are only meaningful in expressions that are lvalues.
For a volatile or const pointer, you must put the keyword between the * and the
identifier. For example:
int * volatile x;
int * const y = &z;

/* x is a volatile pointer to an int */

/* y is a const pointer to the int variable z */

For a pointer to a volatile or const data object, the type specifier, qualifier, and
storage class specifier can be in any order. For example:
volatile int *x;

/* x is a pointer to a volatile int

int volatile *x;

/* x is a pointer to a volatile int

const int *y;

/* y is a pointer to a const int

or
int const *y;

In the following example, the pointer to y is a constant. You can change the value
that y points to, but you cannot change the value of y:
int * const y

In the following example, the value to which y points is a constant integer and you
cannot change it. However, you can change the value of y:
const int * y

For other types of volatile and const variables, the position of the keyword within
the definition (or declaration) is less important. For example:
volatile struct omega {

int limit;
char code;
} group;

The above example provides the same storage as:

struct omega {

int limit;
char code;
} volatile group;

Chapter 5. Declarations

123

Declarators
In both examples, only the structure variable group receives the volatile qualifier.
Similarly, if you specified the const keyword instead of volatile, only the structure
variable group receives the const qualifier. The const and volatile qualifiers when
applied to a structure, union, or class also apply to the members of the structure,
union, or class.
Although enumeration, structure, and union variables can receive the volatile or
const qualifier, enumeration, structure, and union tags do not carry the volatile or
const qualifier. For example, the blue structure does not carry the volatile
qualifier:
volatile struct whale {

struct whale blue;

int weight;
char name[8];
} beluga;

The keywords volatile and const cannot separate the keywords enum, struct, and
union from their tags.
You can declare or define a volatile or const function only if it is a C++ member
function. You can define or declare any function to return a pointer to a volatile or
const function.
You can put more than one qualifier on a declaration, but you cannot specify the
same qualifier more than once on a declaration.

_Packed Qualifier (C Only)

OS/390 C/C++ stores data elements of structure and unions in memory on an
address boundary specific for that data type. For example, a double value is stored
in memory on a doubleword (8-byte) boundary. There may be gaps left in memory
between structure and union elements to align elements on their natural
boundaries. You can reduce the padding of bytes within a structure or union by
packing.
The _Packed qualifier removes padding between members of structures and affects
the alignment of unions whenever possible. However, the storage that is saved
using packed structures and unions may come at the expense of run time
performance. Most machines access data more efficiently if the data aligns on
appropriate boundaries. With packed structures and unions, members are generally
not aligned on natural boundaries. The result is that operations using the
class-member access operators (. and ->) are slower.
Note: OS/390 C/C++ aligns pointers on their natural boundaries, 4 bytes, even in
packed structures and unions.
You can only use _Packed with structures or unions. If you use _Packed with other
types, OS/390 C/C++ generates a warning message, and the qualifier has no effect
on the declarator it qualifies. Packed and nonpacked structures and unions have
different storage layouts.
You cannot perform comparisons between packed and nonpacked structures, or
unions of the same type. Packed and nonpacked structures or unions cannot be
assigned to each other, regardless of their type.
You cannot pass a packed union or packed structure as a function parameter if the
function expects a nonpacked version. If the function expects a packed structure or
a packed union, you cannot pass a nonpacked version as a function parameter.

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If you specify the _Packed qualifier on a structure or union that contains a structure
or union as a member, the qualifier is not passed on to the contained structure or
union. See Pragma Directives (#pragma) on page 238 for more information on
#pragma pack.

__cdecl Keyword (C++ Only)

Use the __cdecl keyword to set linkage conventions for function calls in C++
applications. You can use the __cdecl linkage keyword at any language level. The
__cdecl keyword instructs the compiler to read and write a parameter list by using
C linkage conventions.
To set the __cdecl calling convention for a function, place the linkage keyword
immediately before the function name or at the beginning of the declarator. For
example:
void __cdecl f();
char (__cdecl *fp) (void);

OS/390 C/C++ allows the __cdecl keyword on member functions and nonmember
functions. These functions can be static or non-static. It also allows the keyword on
pointer-to-member function types and the typedef specifier.
Note: The compiler accepts both _cdecl and __cdecl (both single and double
underscore).
Following is an example:
// C++ nonmember functions
void __cdecl f1();
static void __cdecl f2();
// pointer to member function type
char (__cdecl *A::mfp) (void);
// typedef
typedef void (* _cdecl void_fcn)(int);
// C++ member functions
class A {
public:
void __cdecl func();
static void __cdecl func1();
}
// Template member functions
template <class T> X {
public:
void __cdecl func();
static void __cdecl func1();
}
// Template functions
template <class T> T __cdecl foo(T i) {return i+1;}
template <class T> T static _cdecl foo2(T i) {return i+1;}

Semantics of cdecl: The cdecl linkage keyword only affects parameter

passing; it does not prevent function name mangling. Therefore, you can still
overload functions with non-default linkage. Note that you only acquire linkage by
explicitly using the __cdecl keyword. It overrides the linkage that it inherits from an
extern "linkage" specification.
Following is an example:

Chapter 5. Declarations

125

Declarators
void __cdecl foo(int);
void __cdecl foo(char);
void foo(int(*)());
void foo(int (__cdecl *)());

// C linkage with name mangled

// overload foo() with char is OK
// overload on linkage of function
// pointer parameter is OK

extern "C++" {
void __cdecl foo(int);
}

// foo() has C linkage with name mangled

extern "C" {
void __cdecl foo(int);
}

// foo() has C linkage with name mangled

If the function is redeclared, the linkage keyword must appear in the first
declaration, otherwise OS/390 issues an error diagnostic. Following are two
examples:
int c_cf();
int __cdecl c_cf();
int __cdecl c_cf();
int c_cf();

// error 1251, the previous declaration

// did not have a linkage specification
// OK, the linkage is inherited from
// first declaration

Examples of __cdecl Use: Prior to the Version 2 Release 4 OS/390 C/C++

compiler, the C++ function pointer could not pass in the C function parameter list as
the compiler did not support __cdecl linkage. The following examples illustrate how
you can pass in the C parameter list by using the __cdecl linkage:
Example 1
/*--------------------------------------------------------------------*/
/* C++ source file
*/
/*--------------------------------------------------------------------*/
//
// C++ Application: passing a C++ function pointer to a C function
//
#include <stdio.h>
void __cdecl callcxx() {
printf(" I am a C++ function\n");
}

// C++ function declares with

// C calling convention

void (__cdecl *p1)();

// declare a function pointer

// with __cdecl linkage

extern "C" {
void CALLC(void (__cdecl *pp)()); // declare an extern C function
}
// accepting a __cdecl function
// pointer
void main() {
p1 = callcxx;
CALLC(p1);
}

126

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

// assign the function pointer

// to a __cdecl function
// call the C function with
// the __cdecl function pointer

Declarators
Example 2
/*--------------------------------------------------------------------*/
/* C source file
*/
/*--------------------------------------------------------------------*/
/*
*/
/* C Routine: receiving a function pointer with C linkage
*/
/*
*/
#include <stdio.h>
extern void CALLC(void (*pp)()){
printf(" I am a C function\n");
(*pp)();
// call the function passed in
}

_Export Keyword

Use the _Export keyword (in C++ applications only) with a function name or
external variable to declare that it is be exported (made available to other modules).
For example:
int _Export anthony(float);

The above statement exports the function anthony, if you define the function within
the compilation unit. You must define the function in the same compilation unit in
which you use the _Export keyword.
OS/390 C/C++ allows _Export only at file scope. You cannot use it in a typedef. You
cannot apply the _Export keyword to the return type of a function. For example, the
following declaration causes an error :
_Export int * a(); // error

The following declaration, however, would export a().

int * _Export a(); // error

The _Export keyword must immediately precede the function or object name. If the
_Export keyword is repeated in a declaration, OS/390 C/C++ issues a warning
when you specify the info(gen) option.
Since _Export is part of the declarator, it affects only the closest identifier. In the
following declaration, _Export only modifies a:
int _Export a, b;

You can use _Export at any language level.

The _Export keyword is an alternative to the #pragma export() directive. Note
however that their semantics are not equivalent. The _Export keyword can apply to
a class tag, object, or function and is generally easier to use. The #pragma export()
directive only applies to an object or function. If you attempted to export an
overloaded function or a class member function using the #pragma export()
directive as follows, you would recieve a syntax error.
#pragma export(f) // syntax error since f has not been declared
void f();
void f(int);
class C1 { void f(); void f(int); };
class C2 { void f(); void f(int); class C3 { void f(); }; };

In addition, you need to specify the exact identifier that you want exported. For
example, #pragma export(f(int)) would export void f(int) for the above
example.

Chapter 5. Declarations

127

Declarators
To export member functions, you may apply the _Export keyword to the function
declaration, but the function definition must not be inlined. For example:
class X {

public:
...
void _Export Print();
...
};
void X::Print() {
...
}

The above example will cause the function X::Print() to be exported.

C++ Note: It is not possible to export C++ inlined functions even with the #pragma
export() directive.
If the you apply the _Export keyword to a class, then OS/390 C/C++ automatically
exports any static members of that class. The _Export keyword exports the public
interface of a class, so you should export all public methods and data members
using _Export. In the example below, both X::Print() and X::GetNext() will be
exported.
class _Export X {
public:
...
void static Print();
int GetNext();
...
};
void X:: static Print() {
...
}
int X::GetNext() {
...
}

The above examples demonstrate that you can either export specific members of a
class or the entire class itself. Note that the _Export keyword can be applied to
class tags in nested class declarations.
The function main() cannot be exported. For a description of #pragma export, see
export on page 248.
For more information on using DLLs and exporting functions, see the OS/390
C/C++ Programming Guide.

Example Declarators
The following table describes some declarators:

128

Table 8. Example Declarators

Example

Description

int owner
int *node
int names[126]
int *action( )
volatile int min
int * volatile volume

owner is an int data object.

node is a pointer to an int data object.
names is an array of 126 int elements.
action is a function returning a pointer to an int.
min is an int that has the volatile qualifier.
volume is a volatile pointer to an int.

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

Declarators
Table 8. Example Declarators (continued)
Example
Description
volatile int * next
volatile int * sequence[5]

next is a pointer to a volatile int.

sequence is an array of five pointers to volatile int
objects.
op_system_clock is a constant and volatile integer with
static storage duration and external linkage.
s is a packed structure of type struct_type.

extern const volatile int

op_system_clock
_Packed struct struct_type s

Related Information:
v Enumerations on page 91
v Pointers on page 95
v Arrays on page 101
v Structures on page 107
v Unions on page 114

Initializers
An initializer is an optional part of a data declaration that specifies an initial value of
a data object.
An initializer has the form:
,
%%

(
=

' expression
expression
,
{

' expression
,
,
' { '

expression

C++ Note: Only C++ allows the form (expression).

The initializer consists of the = symbol that is followed by an initial expression or a
braced list of initial expressions that are separated by commas. The number of
initializers must not be more than the number of elements you will initialize. An
initializer list with fewer initializers than elements, can end with a comma, indicating
that the rest of the uninitialized elements are initialized to zero. The initial
expression evaluates to the first value of the data object.
To assign a value to a scalar object, use the simple initializer: = expression. For
example, the following data definition uses the initializer = 3 to set the initial value
of group to 3:
int group = 3;

For unions, structures, and aggregate classes, the set of initial expressions must be
enclosed in brace brackets ({ }) unless the initializer is a string literal. Aggregate
classes refer to classes with no constructors, base classes, virtual functions, or
private or protected members.

Chapter 5. Declarations

129

Initializers
If the initializer of a character string is a string literal, the brace brackets are
optional. You must separate individual expressions by using commas. You can
enclose groups of expressions in braces and separate them by using commas.
In an array, structure, or union that you have initialized using a brace-enclosed
initializer list, OS/390 C/C++ implicitly initializes any members or subscripts that are
not initialized to zero of the appropriate data type.
The section for the data type describes the initialization properties of each data
type.
C++ Notes:
1. You can use an initializer of the form (expression) to initialize fundamental
types in C++. For example, the following two initializations are identical:
int group = 3;
int group(3);

2. You can also use the (expression) form to initialize C++ classes. See
Initialization by Constructor on page 327 for more information on initializing
classes.
3. You can initialize variables at file scope with nonconstant expressions. ANSI/ISO
C does not allow this.
4. If your code jumps over declarations that contain initializations, the compiler
generates an error. For example, the following code is not valid in C++:
goto skiplabel;
int i = 3;

// error - jumped over declaration

//
and initialization of i

skiplabel: i = 4;

5. You can initialize classes in external, static, and automatic definitions. The
initializer contains an equal sign (=) that is followed by a brace-enclosed,
comma-separated, list of values. You do not need to initialize all members of a
class.
The following example explicitly initializes the first eight elements of the array grid.
The remaining four elements that are not explicitly initialized are initialized as if they
were explicitly initialized to zero.
static short grid[3] [4] = {0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 1, 1};

The initial values of grid are:

Element
grid[0]
grid[0]
grid[0]
grid[0]
grid[1]
grid[1]

[0]
[1]
[2]
[3]
[0]
[1]

Value

Element

0
0
0
1
0
0

grid[1]
grid[1]
grid[2]
grid[2]
grid[2]
grid[2]

Related Information

v
v
v
v
v
v

130

Block Scope Data Declarations on page 72

File Scope Data Declarations on page 73
Arrays on page 101
Characters on page 87
Enumerations on page 91
Floating-Point Variables on page 88

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

Value
[2]
[3]
[0]
[1]
[2]
[3]

1
1
0
0
0
0

Initializers
v
v
v
v

Integer Variables on page 90

Pointers on page 95
Structures on page 107
Unions on page 114

C/C++ Data Mapping

The System/390 architecture has the following boundaries in its memory mapping:
v Byte
v Halfword
v Fullword
v Doubleword
The code that is produced by the C/C++ compiler places data types on natural
boundaries. Some examples are:
v Byte boundary for char
v Byte boundary for decimal(n,p) (C only)
v Halfword boundary for short int
v Fullword boundary for int
v Fullword boundary for long int
v Fullword boundary for pointers
v Fullword boundary for float
v Doubleword boundary for double
v Doubleword boundary for long double
For each external defined variable, the OS/390 C/C++ compiler defines a writeable
static data instance of the same name. The compiler places other external
variables, such as those in programs that you compiled with the NORENT compiler
option, in separate CSECTs that are based on their names.

C++ Function Specifiers

The function specifiers inline and virtual are used only in C++ function
declarations, which are described in Function Declarations on page 174.
You can use the function specifier inline to suggest to the compiler that it
incorporate the code of a function into your program code at the point of the call.
For more information, see C++ Inline Functions on page 194.
You can only use the function specifier virtual in nonstatic member function
declarations. For more information, see Virtual Functions on page 351.

C++ References
A C++ reference is an alias or an alternative name for an object. All operations that
are applied to a reference act on the object the reference refers to. The address of
a reference is the address of the aliased object.
You can define a reference type by placing the & after the type specifier. You must
initialize all references except function parameters when you define them.
Because you pass arguments of a function by value, a function call does not modify
the actual values of the arguments. If a function needs to modify the actual value of
an argument, you must pass the argument by reference. This is as opposed to
being passed by value. You can pass arguments by reference by using either
references or pointers. In C++, this is transparent. Unlike C, C++ does not force you
to use pointers if you want to pass arguments by reference. For example:
Chapter 5. Declarations

131

C++ References
int f(int&);
void main()
{
extern int i;
f(i);
}

You cannot tell from the function call f(i) that it is passing the argument by
reference.
You cannot refer to NULL.

Initializing References
The object that you use to initialize a reference must be of the same type as the
reference. Otherwise, it must be of a type that is convertible to the reference type. If
you initialize a reference to a constant by using an object that requires conversion,
you create a temporary object. The following example creates a temporary object of
type float:
int i;
const float& f = i; // reference to a constant float

Attempting to initialize a nonconstant reference with an object that requires a

conversion is an error.
Once a reference has been initialized, it cannot be modified to refer to another
object. For example:
int num1 = 10;
int num2 = 20;
int &RefOne = num1;
int &RefOne = num2;
RefOne = num2;
int &RefTwo;
int &RefTwo = num2;

//
//
//
//
//

valid
error, two definitions of RefOne
assign num2 to num1
error, uninitialized reference
valid

Note that the initialization of a reference is not the same as an assignment to a

reference. Initialization operates on the actual reference by initializing the reference
with the object it is an alias for. Assignment operates through the reference on the
object to which it refers.
You can declare a reference without an initializer:
v When you use it as an argument declaration
v In the declaration of a return type for a function call
v In the declaration of class member within its class declaration
v When you explicitly use the extern specifier.
You cannot have references to any of the following:
v Other references
v Bit fields
v Arrays of references
v Pointers to references

Related Information

v
v
v
v
v

132

Passing Arguments by Reference on page 188

Pointers on page 95
Declarators on page 121
Initializers on page 129
Temporary Objects on page 324

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

Chapter 6. Expressions and Operators

Expressions are sequences of operators, operands, and punctuators that specify a
computation. OS/390 C/C++ evaluates expressions based on the operators that the
expressions contain and the context in which they are used.
An expression can result in an lvalue, rvalue, or no value, and can produce side
effects in each case.
C++ Note: You can define C++ operators to behave differently when they are
applied to operands of class type. Refer to this as operator overloading.
This chapter describes the behavior of operators that are not
overloaded. The C language does not permit overloading.
This chapter discusses the following topics:
v Operator Precedence and Associativity
v Operands on page 135
v
v
v
v
v

lvalues on page 136

Primary Expressions on page 137
Unary Expressions on page 142
Binary Expressions on page 152
Conditional Expressions on page 161

v Assignment Expressions on page 163

v Assignment Expressions on page 163
v Comma Expression (,) on page 165
Related Information
v Chapter 5. Declarations on page 71
v Overloading Operators on page 308

Operator Precedence and Associativity

Two operator characteristics determine how operands group with operators:
precedence and associativity. Precedence is the priority for grouping different types
of operators with their operands. Associativity is the left-to-right or right-to-left order
for grouping operands to operators that have the same precedence.
For example, in the following statements, the value of 5 is assigned to both a and b
because of the right-to-left associativity of the = operator. The value of c is assigned
to b first, and then the value of b is assigned to a.
b = 9;
c = 5;
a = b = c;

Because the above example does not specify the order of subexpression
evaluation, you can explicitly force the grouping of operands with operators by using
parentheses.
In the following expression, the * and / operations are performed before + because
of precedence. In addition, b is multiplied by c before it is divided by d because of
associativity:
a + b * c / d
Copyright IBM Corp. 1996, 2000

133

Operator Precedence and Associativity

The following table lists the C and C++ language operators in order of precedence
and shows the direction of associativity for each operator. In C++, the primary
scope resolution operator (::) has the highest precedence, followed by the other
primary operators. In C, because there is no scope resolution operator, the other
primary operators have the highest precedence. The comma operator has the
lowest precedence. Operators that appear in the same group have the same
precedence.
Operator Name

Associativity

Operators

Primary scope resolution

left to right

Primary

left to right

()

Unary

right to left

++ -- + - !
& *
(type_name) sizeof new
delete digitsof2
precisionof2

C++ Pointer-to-Member

left to right

.* >*

Multiplicative

left to right

Additive

left to right

Bitwise Shift

left to right

Relational

left to right

Equality

left to right

Bitwise Logical AND

left to right

Bitwise Exclusive OR

left to right

| or

Bitwise Inclusive OR

left to right

Logical AND

left to right

Logical OR

left to right

Conditional

right to left

? :

Assignment

right to left

= += -= *= /= <<=
>>= %= &= |= |=

Comma

left to right

[ ]

%
>>

Do not specify the order of evaluation for function call arguments or for the
operands of binary operators. Avoid writing ambiguous expressions such as:
z = (x * ++y) / func1(y);
func2(++i, x[i]);

In the example above, all C language implementations may not evaluate ++y and
func1(y) in the same order. If y had the value of 1 before the first statement, you
will not know whether or not the value of 1 or 2 is passed to func1(). In the second
statement, if i had the value of 1, you will not know whether the first or second
array element of x[ ] is passed as the second argument to func2().
The example does not specify the order of grouping operands with operators in an
expression that contains more than one instance of an operator with both
associative and commutative properties. The operators that have the same

2. C only

134

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

Operator Precedence and Associativity

associative and commutative properties are: *, +, &, | (or ), and | (or ). You can
force the grouping of operands by grouping the expression in parentheses.

Examples of Expressions and Precedence

The parentheses in the following expressions explicitly show how the compiler
groups operands and operators. If parentheses do not appear in these expressions,
the compiler groups the operands and operators as indicated by the parentheses.
total = (4 + (5 * 3));
total = (((8 * 5) / 10) / 3);
total = (10 + (5/3));

The above example does not specify the order of grouping operands with operators
that are both associative and commutative. Consequently, the compiler can group
the operands and operators in the following expression:
total = price + prov_tax + city_tax;

It groups them in the following ways:

total = (price + (prov_tax + city_tax));
total = ((price + prov_tax) + city_tax);
total = ((price + city_tax) + prov_tax);

If the values in this expression are integers, the grouping of operands and operators
does not affect the result. Because intermediate values are rounded, different
groupings of floating-point operators may give different results.
In certain expressions, the grouping of operands and operators can affect the result.
For example, in the following expression, each function call might be modifying the
same global variables.
a = b() + c() + d();

This expression can give different results that depend on the order in which the
functions are called.
If the expression contains operators that are both associative and commutative and
the order of grouping operands with operators can affect the result of the
expression, separate the expression into several expressions. For example, the
following expressions could replace the previous expression if the called functions
do not produce any side effects that affect the variable a.
a = b();
a += c();
a += d();

Operands
Most expressions can contain several different, but related, types of operands. The
following type classes describe related types of operands:
Integral

Character objects and constants, objects that have

an enumeration type, and objects that have the
type short, int, long, long long, unsigned short,
unsigned int, unsigned long, or unsigned long
long

Arithmetic

Integral objects and objects that have the type

float, double, and long double.

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Operands
Scalar

Arithmetic objects and pointers to objects of any

type. Also C++ references.

Aggregate

Arrays, structures, and unions. Also C++ classes.

Many operators cause conversions from one data type to another. Chapter 7.
Implicit Type Conversions on page 167 discusses conversions.

lvalues
An lvalue is an expression whose address you can take. You can examine or
change the object that the lvalue represents. A modifiable lvalue is an expression
that represents an object that you can change. It is typically the left operand in an
assignment expression. For example, array names and const objects are not
modifiable lvalues, but static int objects are.
All assignment operators evaluate their right operand and assign that value to their
left operand. The left operand must evaluate to a reference to an object.
The address operator (&) requires an lvalue as an operand while the increment (++)
and the decrement (--) operators require a modifiable lvalue as an operand.

Examples of lvalues
Expression

lvalue

x = 42;

*ptr = newvalue;

*ptr

a++

Type-based Aliasing
The compiler follows the type-based aliasing rule in the ANSI C standard when the
ANSIALIAS option is in effect. This rule states that a pointer can only be
dereferenced to an object of the same type. 3 The common coding practice of

3. The C standard states:

An object shall have its stored value accessed only by an lvalue that has one of the following types:
v the declared type of the object,
v a qualified version of the declared type of the object,
v a type that is the signed or unsigned type corresponding to the declared type of the object,
v a type that is the signed or unsigned type corresponding to a qualified version of the declared type of the object,
v an aggregate or union type that includes one of the aforementioned types among its members (including, recursively, a member
of a subaggregate or contained union), or
v a character type
The C++ standard states that if a program attempts to access the stored value of an object through an lvalue of other than one of
the following types, the behavior is undefined:
v the dynamic type of the object,
v a cv-qualified version of the dynamic type of the object,
v a type that is the signed or unsigned type corresponding to the dynamic type of the object,
v a type that is the signed or unsigned type corresponding to a cv-qualified version of the dynamic type of the object,
v an aggregate or union type that includes one of the aforementioned types among its members (including, recursively, a member
of a subaggregate or contained union),
v a type that is a (possible cv-qualified) base class type of the dynamic type of the object,
v a char or unsigned char type.

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lvalue
casting a pointer to a different type and then dereferencing it violates this rule. Note
that char pointers are an exception to this rule. Refer to the description of the
ANSIALIAS option in OS/390 C/C++ Users Guide for additional information.
The compiler uses the type-based aliasing information to perform optimizations to
the generated code. Contravening the type-based aliasing rule can lead to
unexpected behavior, as demonstrated in the following example:
int *p;
double d = 0.0;
int *faa(double *g);

/* cast operator */

void foo(double f) {
p = faa(&f);
/* turning &f into a int ptr */
f += 1.0;
/* compiler may purge this statement */
printf("f=%x\n", *p);
}
int *faa(double *g) { return (int*) g; }

/* questionable cast; */
/* the function can be
in another compile unit */

void main() {
foo(0.0);
}

In the above printf statement, *p can not be dereferenced to a double under the
ANSI aliasing rule. The compiler determines that the result of f += 1.0; is never
used subsequently. Thus, the optimizer may purge the statement from the
generated code. If you compile the above example with the OPTIMIZE and ANSIALIAS
options, the printf statement may output 0 (zero).

Related Information
v
v
v
v

Dot Operator (.) on page 142

Arrow Operator (>) on page 142
Assignment Expressions on page 163
Address (&) on page 145

Primary Expressions
A primary expression can be:
v An identifier
v A qualified class name
v A string literal
v A parenthesized expression
v A constant expression
v A function call
v An array element specification
v A structure or union member specification
All primary operators have the same precedence and have left-to-right associativity.

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Primary Expressions

C++ Scope Resolution Operator (::)

The scope resolution operator (::) is used to qualify hidden names so that you can
still use them. You can use the unary scope operator if an explicit declaration of the
same name in a block or class hides a file scope name, for example:
int i = 10;
int f(int i)
{
return i ? i : :: i; // return global i if local i is zero
}

You can use the class scope operator to qualify class names or class member
names. You can use a hidden class member name by qualifying it with its class
name and the class scope operator. Whenever you follow a class name by a ::
operator, OS/390 C/C++ interprets the name as a class name.
In the following example, the declaration of the variable X hides the class type X.
However, you can still use the static class member count by qualifying it with the
class type X and the scope resolution operator.
#include <iostream.h>
class X
{
public:
static int count;
};
int X::count = 10;
void main ()
{
int X = 0;
cout << X::count << endl;
}

// define static data member

// hides class type X
// use static member of class X

The scope resolution operator is also discussed in Class Names on page 279 and
in Scope of Class Names on page 282.

Parenthesized Expressions ( )
Use parentheses to explicitly force the order of expression evaluation. The following
expression does not contain any parentheses that are used for grouping operands
and operators. The parentheses that surround weight, zipcode form a function call.
Note how the compiler groups the operands and operators in the expression
according to the rules for operator precedence and associativity:
-discount * item + handling(weight, zipcode) < .10 * item

The following expression is similar to the previous expression, but it contains

parentheses that change the grouping of the operands and operators:
(-discount * (item + handling(weight, zipcode) ) ) < (.10 * item)

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In an expression that contains both associative and commutative operators, you can
use parentheses to specify the grouping of operands with operators. The
parentheses in the following expression guarantee the order of grouping operands
with the operators:
x = f + (g + h);

Constant Expressions
A constant expression is an expression with a value that may be determined during
compilation. It cannot be changed at runtime, it can only be evaluated. You can
compose a constant expression with the following:
v Integer constants
v Character constants
v Floating-point constants
v Enumeration constants
v Address constants
v Other constant expressions
Some constant expressions, such as string literals or address constants, are
lvalues.
The C and C++ languages require integral constant expressions in the following
places:
v In the subscript declarator, as the description of an array bound
v After the keyword case in a switch statement
v In an enumerator, as the numeric value of an enum constant
v In a bit-field width specifier
v In the preprocessor #if statement (enumeration constants, address constants,
and sizeof cannot be specified in the preprocessor #if statement.)
v In the initializer of a file scope data definition.
In all these contexts, except for an initializer of a file scope data definition, the
constant expression can contain integer, character, and enumeration constants,
casts to integral types, and sizeof expressions. You can initialize function-scope
static and extern declarations.
In a file scope data definition, the initializer must evaluate to a constant or to the
address of a static storage (extern or static) object (plus or minus an integer
constant) that is defined or declared earlier in the file. The constant expression in
the initializer can contain the following:
v integer, character, enumeration, and float constants
v casts to any type
v sizeof expressions
v unary address expressions (static objects only)
OS/390 C/C++ does not allow functions, class objects, pointers, and references
unless they occur in sizeof expressions. Comma operators and assignment
operators cannot appear in constant expressions.

Examples of Constant Expressions

The following examples show constants that are used in expressions.
Expression

Constant

x = 42;
extern int cost = 1000;
y = 3 * 29;

42
1000
3 * 29

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Function Calls ( )
A function call is a primary expression that contains a simple type name and a
parenthesized argument list. The argument list can contain any number of
expressions that are separated by commas. It can also be empty.
For example:
stub()
overdue(account, date, amount)
notify(name, date + 5)
report(error, time, date, ++num)

OS/390 C/C++ evaluates the arguments, and initializes each formal parameter with
the value of the corresponding argument. The semantics of argument passing are
identical to those of assignments. Assigning a value to a formal parameter within
the function body changes the value of the parameter within the function, but has
no effect on the argument.
The type of a function call expression is the return type of the function. The return
statement in the function definition determines the return value. The result of a
function call is an lvalue only if the function returns a reference. A function can call
itself.
If you want a function to change the value of a variable, pass a pointer to the
variable you want changed. When a pointer is passed as a parameter, the pointer is
copied; the object pointed to is not copied. (See Pointers on page 95.)
OS/390 C/C++ converts arguments that are arrays and functions to pointers before
passing them as function arguments.
Arguments passed to nonprototyped C functions undergo conversions. OS/390
C/C++ converts short or char parameters to int, and float parameters to double.
Use a cast expression for other conversions. (See Cast Expressions on page 146
for more information.)
An implicit declaration of extern int func(); is assumed. Consequently, in C only,
if a function definition has external linkage and a return type of int, you can make
calls to the function before you explicitly declare it. This is not true in C++.
The compiler compares the data types that are provided by the calling function with
the data types that the called function expects. The compiler also performs type
conversions if the declaration of the function is either:
v In function prototype format and the parameters differ from the prototype
OR
v Visible at the point where you call the function.
For example, the declaration of funct is a prototype. When you call function funct,
OS/390 C/C++ converts parameter f to a double, and parameter c to an int:
char * funct (double d, int i);
/* ... */
void main(void)
{
float f;
char c;
funct(f, c) /* f is a double, c is an int */
}

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The order in which parameters are evaluated is not specified. Avoid such calls as:
method(sample1, batch.process--, batch.process);

In this example, the compiler may evaluate batch.process-- last, causing the last
two arguments to be passed with the same value.
In the following example, main passes func two values: 5 and 7. The function func
receives copies of these values and accesses them by the identifiers: a and b. The
function func changes the value of a. When control passes back to main, the actual
values of x and y are not changed. The called function func only receives copies of
x and y, not the values themselves.

CBC3X06C
/**
** This example illustrates function calls
**/
#include <stdio.h>
void func (int a, int b);
int main(void)
{
int x = 5, y = 7;
func(x, y);
printf("In main, x = %d

}
return(0);

void func (int a, int b)

{
a += b;
printf("In func, a = %d
}

y = %d\n", x, y);

b = %d\n", a, b);

This program produces the following output:

In func, a = 12
In main, x = 5

b = 7
y = 7

See Chapter 8. Functions on page 173 for detailed characteristics of functions.

Array Subscript [ ] (Array Element Specification)

A primary expression followed by an expression in [ ] (square brackets) specifies
an element of an array. You can refer to the expression within the square brackets
as a subscript.
The primary expression must have a pointer type, and the subscript must have
integral type. The result of an array subscript is an lvalue.
The first element of each array has the subscript 0. The expression contract[35]
refers to the 36th element in the array contract.
In a multidimensional array, you can reference each element (in the order of
increasing storage locations) by incrementing the rightmost subscript most
frequently.
For example, the following statement gives the value 100 to each element in the
array code[4][3][6]:

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Primary Expressions
for (first = 0; first <= 3; ++first)
for (second = 0; second <= 2; ++second)
for (third = 0; third <= 5; ++third)
code[first][second][third] = 100;

Consider the following expression:

*((exp1) + (exp2))

By definition, the above expression is identical to the following expression:

exp1[exp2]

The above expression is also identical to the following:

exp2[exp1]

Arrays on page 101 explains how to define and use an array.

Dot Operator (.)

Use the . (dot) operator to access structure or C++ class members that use a
structure object. Specify the member by using a primary expression, followed by a .
(dot) operator, followed by a name. For example:
roster[num].name
roster[num].name[1]

The primary expression must be an object of type class, struct, or union. The
name must be a member of that object.
The value of the expression is the value of the selected member. If the primary
expression and the name are lvalues, the expression value is also an lvalue.
For more information on class members, see Chapter 12. C++ Class Members and
Friends on page 287. See also Unions on page 114 and Structures on page 107.

Arrow Operator (>)

Use the -> (arrow) operator to access structure or C++ class members using a
pointer. A primary expression, that is followed by an -> (arrow) operator, that is
followed by a name, designates a member of the object to which the pointer points.
For example:
roster -> name

The primary expression must be a pointer to an object of type class, struct, or

union. The name must be a member of that object.
The value of the expression is the value of the selected member. If the name is an
lvalue, the expression value is also an lvalue.
For more information on class members, see Chapter 12. C++ Class Members and
Friends on page 287. See also Unions on page 114 and Structures on page 107.

Unary Expressions
A unary expression contains one operand and a unary operator. All unary operators
have the same precedence and have right-to-left associativity.

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As indicated in the following descriptions, you can perform the usual arithmetic
conversions on the operands of most unary expressions. See Arithmetic
Conversions on page 170 for more information.
The following table summarizes the operators for unary expressions:
Increment (++)
Unary Minus (-)
Address (&)
sizeof
new

Decrement (--)
Logical Negation (!)
Indirection (*)
digitsof
delete

Unary Plus (+)

Bitwise Negation ()
Cast (type_name)
precisionof
throw

Increment (++)
The increment operator (++) adds 1 to the value of an operand. If the operand is a
pointer, it increments the operand by the size of the object to which it points. The
operand receives the result of the increment operation. The operand must be a
modifiable lvalue of arithmetic or pointer type.
You can put the ++ before or after the operand. If it appears before the operand,
OS/390 C/C++ increments the operand, and uses the incremented value in the
expression. If you put the ++ after the operand, OS/390 C/C++ uses the value of the
operand in the expression before it increments the operand. For example:
play = ++play1 + play2++;

is equivalent to the following three expressions:

play1 = play1 + 1;
play = play1 + play2;
play2 = play2 + 1;

C++ Note: C++ distinguishes between prefix and postfix forms of the increment
operator: The result of a C++ postfix increment has the same type as
the operand, except for possible integral promotion, but is not an lvalue.
The result of a C++ prefix increment has the same type as the operand,
except for possible integral promotion, and is an lvalue. The C language
makes no such distinction. The result in C has the same type as the
operand, except for possible integral promotion, but is not an lvalue.
You can perform the usual arithmetic conversions on the operand. See Arithmetic
Conversions on page 170.

Decrement ()
The decrement operator (--) subtracts 1 from the value of an operand. If the
operand is a pointer, it decreases the operand by the size of the object to which it
points. The operand receives the result of the decrement operation. The operand
must be a modifiable lvalue.
You can put the decrement operator before or after the operand. If it appears before
the operand, OS/390 C/C++ decrements the operand, and uses the decremented
value in the expression. If the -- appears after the operand, the current value of the
operand is used in the expression and the operand is decremented.
For example:
play = --play1 + play2--;

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Unary Expressions
is equivalent to the following three expressions:
play1 = play1 - 1;
play = play1 + play2;
play2 = play2 - 1;

C++ Note: C++ distinguishes between prefix and postfix forms of the decrement
operator. The result of a C++ postfix decrement has the same type as
the operand, except for possible integral promotion, but is not an lvalue.
The result of a C++ prefix decrement has the same type as the
operand, except for possible integral promotion, and is an lvalue. The C
language makes no such distinction. The result in C has the same type
as the operand, except for possible integral promotion, but is not an
lvalue.
OS/390 C/C++ performs the usual arithmetic conversions on the operand. See
Arithmetic Conversions on page 170.

Unary Plus (+)

The unary plus operator (+) maintains the value of the operand. The operand can
have any arithmetic type. The result is not an lvalue.
The result has the same type as the operand, except for possible integral
promotion.
Note: Any plus sign in front of a constant is not part of the constant.

Unary Minus ()
The unary minus operator (-) negates the value of the operand. The operand can
have any arithmetic type. The result is not an lvalue.
For example, if quality has the value 100, -quality has the value -100.
The result has the same type as the operand, except for possible integral
promotion.
Note: Any minus sign in front of a constant is not part of the constant.

Logical Negation (!)

The logical negation operator (!) determines whether the operand evaluates to 0
(false) or nonzero (true). The expression yields the value 1 (true) if the operand
evaluates to 0. It yields the value 0 (false) if the operand evaluates to a nonzero
value. The operand must have a scalar data type, but the result of the operation
has always type int and is not an lvalue.
The following two expressions are equivalent:
!right;
right == 0;

Bitwise Negation ()
The bitwise negation operator () yields the bitwise complement of the operand. In
the binary representation of the result, every bit has the opposite value of the same
bit in the binary representation of the operand. The operand must have an integral
type. The result has the same type as the operand, but is not an lvalue.

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Suppose a short integer x represents the decimal value 5. The 16-bit binary
representation of x is:
0000000000000101

The expression x yields the following result (that is represented here as a 16-bit
binary number):
1111111111111010

Note that you can represent the character by the trigraph ??-.
The 16-bit binary representation of 0 is:
1111111111111111

Address (&)
The address operator (&) yields a pointer to its operand. The operand must be an
lvalue, a function designator, or a qualified name. It cannot be a bit field, nor can it
have the storage class register.
If the operand is an lvalue or function, the resulting type is a pointer to the
expression type. For example, if the expression has type int, the result is a pointer
to an object that has type int.
If the operand is a qualified name and the member is not static, the result is a
pointer to a member of class. It has the same type as the member. The result is not
an lvalue.
Suppose you define p_to_y as a pointer to an int, and you define y as an int. The
following expression assigns the address of the variable y to the pointer p_to_y:
p_to_y = &y;

Refer to Pointers on page 95 for related information.

C++ Note: You can use the & operator with overloaded functions only in an
initialization or assignment where the left side uniquely determines
which version of the overloaded function is used. For more information,
see Overloading Functions on page 305.

Indirection (*)
The indirection operator (*) determines the value to which the pointer-type operand
points.
The operand cannot be a pointer to an incomplete type. The operation yields an
lvalue or a function designator if the operand points to a function. OS/390 C/C++
converts arrays and functions to pointers.
The type of the operand determines the type of the result. For example, if the
operand is a pointer to an int, the result has type int.
Do not apply the indirection operator to any pointer that contains an address that is
not valid, such as NULL. The result is not defined.
Suppose you define p_to_y as a pointer to an int, and you define y as an int.
Then, following the expressions cause the variable y to receive the value 3:

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Unary Expressions
p_to_y = &y;
*p_to_y = 3;

sizeof (Size of an Object)

The sizeof operator yields the size in bytes of the operand. You cannot use the
sizeof operation on the following:
v A bit field
v A function
v An undefined structure or class
v An incomplete type (such as void)

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The operand can be the parenthesized name of a type or an expression.
The compiler must be able to evaluate the size at compile time. The expression is
not evaluated; there are no side effects. For example, the value of b is 5 from
initialization to the end of program runtime:
#include <stdio.h>
int main(void){
int b = 5;
sizeof(b++);
return(0);
}

The result is an integer constant.

The size of a char object is the size of a byte. For example, if a variable x has type
char, the expression sizeof(x) always evaluates to 1.
The result of a sizeof operation has type size_t. This type is an unsigned integral
type that the <stddef.h> header file defines.
The size of an object is determined on the basis of its definition. The sizeof
operator does not perform any conversions. If the operand contains operators that
perform conversions, the compiler does take these conversions into consideration.
The compiler performs the usual arithmetic conversions due to the following
expression. The result of the expression x + 1 has type int (if x has type char,
short, or int or any enumeration type). It is equivalent to sizeof(int):
sizeof (x + 1);

Except in preprocessor directives, you can use a sizeof expression wherever you
require an integral constant. A very common use for the sizeof operator is to
determine the size of objects that are referred to during storage allocation, input,
and output functions.
Another use of sizeof is in porting code across platforms. You should use the
sizeofoperator to determine the size that a data type represents, for example:
sizeof(int);

Using the sizeof operator with decimal(n,p) results in the total number of bytes
that are occupied by the decimal type. OS/390 C/C++ implements decimal data
types using the native packed decimal format. Each digit occupies half a byte. The
sign occupies an additional half byte. The following example gives you a result of 6
bytes:
sizeof(decimal(10,2));

C++ Notes: The result of a sizeof expression depends on the type to which it is
applied:
An array

The result is the total number of bytes

in the array. For example, in an array
with 10 elements, the size is equal to
10 times the size of a single element.
The compiler does not convert the
array to a pointer before evaluating the
expression.

A class

The result is always nonzero. It is

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Unary Expressions
equal to the number of bytes in an
object of that class including any
padding required for placing class
objects in an array.
A reference

The result is the size of the referenced

object.

digitsof and precisionof (C Only)

The digitsof and precisionof operators yield information about decimal types or
an expressions of the decimal type. The <decimal.h> header file defines the
digitsof and precisionof macros.
The digitsof operator gives the number of significant digits of an object, and
precisionof gives the number of decimal digits. That is,
digitsof(decimal(n,p)) = n
precisionof(decimal(n,p)) = p

The results of the digitsof and precisionof operators are integer constants. See
Fixed-Point Decimal Constants (C Only) on page 65 and Fixed-Point Decimal
Data Types (C Only) on page 89 for more information about decimal types.

C++ new Operator

The new operator provides dynamic storage allocation. The syntax for an allocation
expression that contains the new operator is:
%%

new

( argument_list )

( type )
new_type

initial_value )

If you prefix new with the scope resolution operator (::), your program uses the
global operator new(). If you specify an argument_list, your program uses the
overloaded new operator that corresponds to that argument_list. The type is an
existing built-in or user-defined type. A new_type is a type that you have not already
defined. It can include type specifiers and declarators.
Use an allocation expression that contains the new operator to find storage in free
store for the object you are creating. The new expression returns a pointer to the
object created. You can use it to initialize the object. If the object is an array, it
returns a pointer to the initial element.
You can use the routine set_new_handler() to change the default behavior of new.
See set_new_handler() Set Behavior for new Failure on page 150 for more
information.
You cannot use the new operator to allocate function types, void, or incomplete
class types because these are not object types. However, you can allocate pointers
to functions with the new operator. You cannot create a reference with the new
operator.

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When the created object is an array, only the first dimension can be a general
expression. All subsequent dimensions must be constant integral expressions. The
first dimension can be a general expression even when you are using an existing
type. You can create an array with zero bounds with the new operator. The following
example returns a pointer to a unique object:
char * c = new char[0];

An object created with operator new() or operator new[]() exists until the program
ends, or you call the operator delete() or operator delete[](). These calls
destroy the objects and deallocate the memory pointed to.
If you use parentheses within a new_type, they should also surround the new_type
to prevent syntax errors. In the following example, OS/390 C++ allocates storage
for an array of pointers to functions:
void f();
void g();
void main()
{
void (**p)(), (**q)();
// declare p and q as pointers to pointers to void functions
p = new (void (*[3])());
// p now points to an array of pointers to functions
q = new void(*[3])(); // error
// error - bound as 'q = (new void) (*[3])();'
p[0] = f; // p[0] to point to function f
q[2] = g; // q[2] to point to function g
p[0]();
// call f()
q[2]();
// call g()
}

However, the second new causes an erroneous binding of:

q = (new void) (*[3])()

The type of the created object cannot contain class declarations, enumeration
declarations, or const or volatile types. It can contain pointers to const or
volatile objects.
For example, you can use const char*, but not char* const.
You can supply additional arguments to new by using the argument_list, also called
the placement syntax. If you use placement arguments, a declaration of operator
new() or operator new[]() with these arguments must exist. For example:
#include <stddef.h>
class X
{
public:
void* operator new(size_t,int, int){ /* ... */ }
};
//
.
//
.
//
.
void main ()
{
X* ptr = new(1,2) X;
}

For more information on the class member operator new() and operator new[]()
function, see Overloaded new and delete on page 316 and Free Store on
page 322. For more information on constructing and destructing class objects with
new and delete, see Constructors and Destructors Overview on page 317.
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Unary Expressions

Member Functions and the new() and new[]() operators

When an object of a class type is created with the new operator, the member
operator new() function (for objects that are not arrays) or the member operator
new[]() function (for arrays of any number of dimensions) is implicitly called. The
first argument is the amount of space requested.
The following rules determine the storage allocation function that OS/390 C++ uses:
1. If your own operator new[]() exists, the object is an array, and it does not use
the :: (scope resolution) operator, OS/390 C++ uses your operator new[]().
2. If you have not defined an operator new[]() function, the global ::operator
new[]() function defined in <new.h> is used. The allocation expression of the
form ::operator new[]() ensures that the global new operator is called, rather
than your class member operator.
3. If your own operator new() exists, and the object is not an array, and the ::
operator is not used, your operator new() is used.
4. If you have not defined an operator new() function, the global ::operator
new() function defined in <new.h> is used. The allocation expression of the form
::operator new() ensures that the global new operator is called, rather than
your class member operator.
When a nonclass object is created with the new operator, the global ::operator
new() is used.
The order of evaluation of a call to an operator new() is undefined in the evaluation
of arguments to constructors. If operator new() returns 0, the arguments to a
constructor may or may not have been evaluated.

Initializing Objects Created with the new Operator

You can initialize objects that are created with the new operator in several ways. For
nonclass objects, or for class objects without constructors, a new initializer
expression can be provided in a new expression by specifying (expression) or ().
For example:
double* pi = new double(3.1415926);
int* score = new int(89);
float* unknown = new float();

If a class has a constructor, you must provide the new initializer when you allocate
any object of that class. The arguments of the new initializer must match the
arguments of a class constructor, unless the class has a default constructor.
You cannot specify an initializer for arrays. You can initialize an array of class
objects only if the class has a default constructor. OS/390 C++ calls the constructor
to initialize each array element (class object).
Initialization using the new initializer is performed only if new successfully allocates
storage.
For more information on the class member operator new() and operator new[]()
function, see Overloaded new and delete on page 316 in Special Overloaded
Operators, and Free Store on page 322. For more information on constructing and
destructing class objects with new and delete, see Constructors and Destructors
Overview on page 317.

set_new_handler() Set Behavior for new Failure

When the new operator creates a new object, it calls the operator new() or
operator new[]() function to obtain the needed storage.

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When new cannot allocate storage to create a new object, it calls a new handler
function if one has been installed by a call to set_new_handler(). The
set_new_handler() function is defined in <new.h>. Use it to call a new handler you
have defined or the default new handler.
The set_new_handler() function has the prototype:
typedef void(*PNH)();
PNH set_new_handler(PNH);

set_new_handler() takes as an argument a pointer to a function (the new handler),

which has no arguments and returns void. It returns a pointer to the previous new
handler function.
If you do not specify your own set_new_handler() function, new returns the NULL
pointer.
The following program fragment shows how you could use set_new_handler() to
return a message if the new operator cannot allocate storage:
#include <iostream.h>
#include <new.h>
void no_storage()
{
cerr << "Operator new failed: no storage is available.\n";
exit(1);
}
main()
{
set_new_handler(&no_storage);
// Rest of program ...
}

If the program fails because new cannot allocate storage, the program exits with the
message:
Operator new failed: no storage is available.

C++ delete Operator

The delete operator destroys the object created with new by deallocating the
memory associated with the object.
The delete operator has a void return type. It has the syntax:
%%

delete object_pointer

The operand of delete must be a pointer returned by new, and cannot be a pointer
to constant. If an attempt to create an object with new fails, the pointer returned by
new will have a zero value. However, it can still be used with delete. Deleting a null
pointer has no effect.
The delete[] operator frees storage allocated for array objects created with new[].
The delete operator frees storage allocated for individual objects created with new.
It has the syntax:

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%%

delete [ ] array

The result of deleting an array object with delete is undefined, as is deleting an

individual object with delete[]. You do not need to specify the array dimensions
with delete[].
The results of attempting to access a deleted object are undefined because the
deletion of an object can change its value.
If you have defined a destructor for a class, delete invokes that destructor. Whether
a destructor exists or not, delete frees the storage pointed to by calling the function
operator delete() of the class if one exists.
The global ::operator delete() is used in the following cases:
v The class has no operator delete().
v The object is of a nonclass type.
v The ::delete expression deletes the object.
The global ::operator delete[]() is used in the following cases:
v The class has no operator delete[]()
v The object is of a nonclass type
v The object is deleted with the ::delete[] expression.
The default global operator delete() only frees storage allocated by the default
global operator new(). The default global operator delete[]() only frees storage
allocated for arrays by the default global operator new[]().
For more information on the class member operator new() and operator new[]()
functions, see Overloaded new and delete on page 316 in Special Overloaded
Operators, and Free Store on page 322. For more information on constructing and
destructing class objects with new and delete, see Constructors and Destructors
Overview on page 317.

C++ throw Expressions

A throw expression is used to throw exceptions to C++ exception handlers. It
passes control out of the block enclosing the throw statement to the first C++
exception handler whose catch argument matches the throw expression. A throw
expression is a unary expression of type void.
For more information on the throw expression, see Chapter 17. C++ Exception
Handling.

Binary Expressions
A binary expression contains two operands that are separated by one operator.
Not all binary operators have the same precedence. The table in the section
Operator Precedence and Associativity on page 133 shows the order of
precedence among operators. All binary operators have left-to-right associativity.
The order in which the operands of most binary operators are evaluated is not
specified. To ensure correct results, avoid creating binary expressions that depend
on the order in which the compiler evaluates the operands.

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As indicated in the following descriptions, OS/390 C++ performs the usual
arithmetic conversions on the operands of most binary expressions. See Arithmetic
Conversions on page 170 for more information.
The following table summarizes the operators for binary expressions:
Multiplication (*)
Addition (+)
Relational (< > <= >=)
Bitwise Exclusive OR (|)
Logical OR (||)

Division (/)
Subtraction (-)
Equality (== !=)
Bitwise Inclusive OR (|)
Pointer-to-Member (.* >*)

Remainder (%)
Bitwise Shifts (<< >>)
Bitwise AND (&)
Logical AND (&&)

Multiplication (*)
The multiplication operator (*) yields the product of its operands. The operands
must have an arithmetic type. The result is not an lvalue. OS/390 C/C++ performs
the usual arithmetic conversions on the operands. See Arithmetic Conversions on
page 170.
Because the multiplication operator has both associative and commutative
properties, the compiler can rearrange the operands in an expression that contains
more than one multiplication operator. Consider the following example:
sites * number * cost

The above expression can be interpreted in any of the following ways:

(sites * number) * cost
sites * (number * cost)
(cost * sites) * number

Division (/)
The division operator (/) yields the quotient of its operands. The operands must
have an arithmetic type. The result is not an lvalue.
If both operands are positive integers and the operation produces a remainder,
OS/390 C/C++ ignores the remainder. For example, expression 7 / 4 yields the
value 1 (rather than 1.75 or 2). On all IBM C and C++ compilers, if either operand is
negative, the result is rounded towards zero.
The result is undefined if the second operand evaluates to 0.
OS/390 C/C++ performs the usual arithmetic conversions on the operands. See
Arithmetic Conversions on page 170.

Remainder (%)
The remainder operator (%) yields the remainder from the division of the left
operand by the right operand. For example, the expression 5 % 3 yields 2. The
result is not an lvalue.
Both operands must have an integral type. If the right operand evaluates to 0, the
result is undefined. If either operand has a negative value, the result is such that
the following expression always yields the value of a if b is not 0 and a/b is
representable:
( a / b ) * b + a % b;

The sign of the remainder is the same as the sign of the quotient.
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The usual arithmetic conversions on the operands are performed. See Arithmetic
Conversions on page 170.

Addition (+)
The addition operator (+) yields the sum of its operands. Both operands must have
an arithmetic type, or one operand must be a pointer to an object type and the
other operand must have an integral type.
When both operands have an arithmetic type, OS/390 C/C++ performs the usual
arithmetic conversions on the operands. The result has the type produced by the
conversions on the operands and is not an lvalue.
You can add a pointer to an object in an array to a value that has integral type. The
result is a pointer of the same type as the pointer operand. The result refers to
another element in the array, offset from the original element by the amount that is
specified by the integral value. If the resulting pointer points to storage that is
outside the array, other than the first location outside the array, the result is
undefined. The compiler does not check the boundary of the pointers. For example,
after the addition, ptr points to the third element of the array:
int array[5];
int *ptr;
ptr = array + 2;

See Pointer Conversions on page 168 and Pointer Arithmetic on page 98 for
more information about expressions that contain pointers.

Subtraction ()
The subtraction operator (-) yields the difference of its operands. Both operands
must have an arithmetic type, or the left operand must have a pointer type and the
right operand must have the same pointer type or an integral type. You cannot
subtract a pointer from an integral value.
When both operands have an arithmetic type, OS/390 C/C++ performs the usual
arithmetic conversions on the operands. The result has the type produced by the
conversions on the operands and is not an lvalue.
When the left operand is a pointer and the right operand has an integral type, the
compiler converts the value of the right to an address offset. The result is a pointer
of the same type as the pointer operand.
If both operands are pointers to the same type, the compiler converts the result to
an integral type that represents the number of objects separating the two
addresses. Behavior is undefined if the pointers do not refer to objects in the same
array.
See Pointer Conversions on page 168 and Pointer Arithmetic on page 98 for
more information about expressions that contains pointers.

Bitwise Left and Right Shift (<< >>)

The bitwise shift operators (<< >>) move the bit values of an integral object. The
left operand specifies the value to shift. The right operand specifies the number of
positions that the bits in the value are shifted. The result is not an lvalue. Both
operands have the same precedence and are left-to-right associative.

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Table 9. Bitwise Shift Operators
Operator
Usage
<<
>>

Indicates the bits are to be shifted to the left.

Indicates the bits are to be shifted to the right.

Each operand must have an integral type. The compiler performs integral
promotions on operands with integral type. Then it converts the right operand to
type int. The result has the same type as the left operand (after the arithmetic
conversions).
The right operand should not have a negative value or a value that is greater than
or equal to the width in bits of the expression being shifted. The result of bitwise
shifts on such values is unpredictable.
If the right operand has the value 0, the result is the value of the left operand (after
the usual arithmetic conversions).
The << operator fills vacated bits with zeros. For example, if left_op has the value
4019, the bit pattern (in 16-bit format) of left_op is:
0000111110110011

The expression left_op << 3 yields:

0111110110011000

The following table shows the behavior of the >> operator:

Left Operand Type

Result of >>

unsigned type

The vacated bits are filled with zeros.

Nonnegative signed
type

The integral part of the quotient of the left operand divided by the
quantity 2, raised to the power of the right operand. The vacated bits
of a signed value are filled with a copy of the sign bit of the
unshifted value.

Negative signed type

The language does not specify how the vacated bits produced by
the >> operator are filled.

Relational (< > <= >=)

The relational operators (< > <= >=) compare two operands and determine the
validity of a relationship. If the relationship that is stated by the operator is true, the
value of the result is 1. If false, the value of the result is 0. The result is not an
lvalue.

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The following table describes the four relational operators:
Table 10. Relational Operators
Operator
Usage
<
>
<=
>=

Indicates whether the value

right operand.
Indicates whether the value
the right operand.
Indicates whether the value
value of the right operand.
Indicates whether the value
value of the right operand.

of the left operand is less than the value of the

of the left operand is greater than the value of
of the left operand is less than or equal to the
of the left operand is greater than or equal to the

Both operands must have arithmetic types or be pointers to the same type. The
result has type int.
If the operands have arithmetic types, OS/390 C/C++ performs the usual arithmetic
conversions on the operands.
When the operands are pointers, the locations of the objects to which the pointer
refer determine the result. If the pointers do not refer to objects in the same array,
the result is not defined.
You can compare a pointer to a constant expression that evaluates to 0. You can
also compare a pointer to a pointer of type void*. OS/390 C/C++ converts the
pointer to a pointer of type void*.
If two pointers refer to the same object, you can consider them to be equal. If two
pointers refer to data members of the same union, they have the same address
value.
If two pointers refer to elements of the same array, or to the first element beyond
the last element of an array, the pointer to the element with the higher subscript
value has the higher address value. You can only compare addresses of members
of the same object with relational operators.

|
|

Relational operators have left-to-right associativity. For example, consider the

following expression:
a < b <= c

OS/390 C/C++ interprets the expression as follows:

(a < b) <= c

If the value of a is less than the value of b, the first relationship is true and yields
the value 1. The compiler then compares the value 1 with the value of c.

Equality (== !=)

The equality operators (== !=), like the relational operators, compare two operands
for the validity of a relationship. The equality operators, however, have a lower
precedence than the relational operators. If the relationship that is stated by an
equality operator is true, the value of the result is 1. Otherwise, the value of the
result is 0.

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The following table describes the two equality operators:
Table 11. Equality Operators
Operator
Usage
==
!=

Indicates whether the value of the left operand is equal to the value of the
right operand.
Indicates whether the value of the left operand is not equal to the value of
the right operand.

Both operands must have arithmetic types or be pointers to the same type. Or, one
operand must have a pointer type and the other operand must be a pointer to void
or NULL. The result has type int.
If the operands have arithmetic types, OS/390 C/C++ performs the usual arithmetic
conversions on the operands.
If the operands are pointers, the locations of the objects to which the pointers refer
determines the result.
If one operand is a pointer and the other operand is an integer having the value 0,
the == expression is true only if the pointer operand evaluates to NULL. The !=
operator evaluates to true if the pointer operand does not evaluate to NULL.
You can also use the equality operators to compare pointers to members that are of
the same type but do not belong to the same object. The following expressions
contain examples of equality and relational operators:
time < max_time == status < complete
letter != EOF

Note: Do not confuse the equality operator (==) with the assignment (=) operator.
For example:
if(x == 3)

Evaluates to 1 if x is equal to three. You should code

equality tests like this with spaces between the operator and
the operands to prevent unintentional assignments.
while

if(x = 3)

OS/390 C/C++ takes this to be true, because (x = 3)

evaluates to a non-zero value (3). The expression also
assigns the value 3 to x.

Bitwise AND (&)

The bitwise AND operator (&) compares each bit of its first operand to the
corresponding bit of the second operand. If both bits are 1s, OS/390 C/C++ sets
the corresponding bit of the result to 1. Otherwise, it sets the corresponding result
bit to 0.
Both operands must have an integral type. OS/390 C/C++ performs the usual
arithmetic conversions on each operand. The result has the same type as the
converted operands.
Because the bitwise AND operator has both associative and commutative
properties, the compiler can rearrange the operands in an expression that contains
more than one bitwise AND operator.
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Binary Expressions
The following example shows the values of a, b, and the result of a & b represented
as 16-bit binary numbers:
bit pattern of a
bit pattern of b
bit pattern of a & b

0000000001011100
0000000000101110
0000000000001100

Note: Do not confuse the bitwise AND (&) operator with the logical AND (&&)
operator. For example,
1 & 4 evaluates to 0
while
1 && 4 evaluates to 1

Bitwise Exclusive OR (|)

The bitwise exclusive OR operator (|) compares each bit of its first operand to the
corresponding bit of the second operand. If both bits are 1s or both bits are 0s,
OS/390 C/C++ sets the corresponding bit of the result to 0. Otherwise, it sets the
corresponding result bit to 1.
Both operands must have an integral type. OS/390 C/C++ performs the usual
arithmetic conversions on each operand. The result has the same type as the
converted operands and is not an lvalue.
Because the bitwise exclusive OR operator has both associative and commutative
properties, the compiler can rearrange the operands in an expression that contains
more than one bitwise exclusive OR operator. Note that you can represent the |
character by the trigraph, ??'.
The following example shows the values of a, b, and the result of a | b represented
as 16-bit binary numbers:
bit pattern of a
bit pattern of b
bit pattern of a | b

0000000001011100
0000000000101110
0000000001110010

Note: The bitwise exclusive OR may appear as a on your screen. For more
information on these symbols, refer to the OS/390 C/C++ Programming
Guide.

Bitwise Inclusive OR (|)

The bitwise inclusive OR operator (|) compares the values (in binary format) of
each operand. It yields a value whose bit pattern shows which bits in either of the
operands has the value 1. If both of the bits are 0, the result of that bit is 0;
otherwise, the result is 1.
Both operands must have an integral type. OS/390 C/C++ performs the usual
arithmetic conversions on each operand. The result has the same type as the
converted operands and is not an lvalue.
Because the bitwise inclusive OR operator has both associative and commutative
properties, the compiler can rearrange the operands in an expression that contains
more than one bitwise inclusive OR operator. Note that you can represent the |
character by the trigraph, ??!.

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The following example shows the values of a, b, and the result of a | b represented
as 16-bit binary numbers:
bit pattern of a
bit pattern of b
bit pattern of a | b

0000000001011100
0000000000101110
0000000001111110

Note:
v The bitwise OR may appear as a on your screen. For more information
on these symbols, refer to the OS/390 C/C++ Programming Guide.
v Do not confuse the bitwise OR (|) operator with the logical OR (||)
operator. For example,
1 |
4 evaluates to 5
while
1 || 4 evaluates to 1

Logical AND (&&)

The logical AND operator (&&) indicates whether both operands have a nonzero
value. If both operands have nonzero values, the result has the value 1. Otherwise,
the result has the value 0.
Both operands must have a scalar type. OS/390 C/C++ performs the usual
arithmetic conversions on each operand. The result has type int and is not an
lvalue.
Unlike the & (bitwise AND) operator, the && operator guarantees left-to-right
evaluation of the operands. If the left operand evaluates to 0, OS/390 C/C++ does
not evaluate the right operand.
The following examples show how the expressions that contain the logical AND
operator are evaluated:
Expression

Result

1 && 0
1 && 4
0 && 0

0
1
0

The following example uses the logical AND operator to avoid division by zero:
(y != 0) && (x / y)

The expression x / y is not evaluated when y != 0 evaluates to 0.

Note: The logical AND (&&) should not be confused with the bitwise AND (&)
operator. For example:
1 && 4 evaluates to 1
while
1 & 4 evaluates to 0

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Logical OR (||)
The logical OR operator (||) indicates whether either operand has a nonzero value.
If either operand has a nonzero value, the result has the value 1. Otherwise, the
result has the value 0.
Both operands must have a scalar type. The usual arithmetic conversions on each
operand are performed. The result has type int and is not an lvalue.
Unlike the | (bitwise inclusive OR) operator, the || operator guarantees left-to-right
evaluation of the operands. If the left operand has a nonzero value, OS/390 C/C++
does not evaluate the right operand.
The following examples show how OS/390 C/C++ evaluates expressions that
contain the logical OR operator:
Expression

Result

1 || 0
1 || 4
0 || 0

1
1
0

The following example uses the logical OR operator to conditionally increment y:

++x || ++y;

OS/390 C/C++ does not evaluate the expression ++y when the expression ++x
evaluates to a nonzero quantity.
Note: The logical OR may appear as a on your screen. For more information on
these symbols, refer to the OS/390 C/C++ Programming Guide.
Note: Do not confuse the logical OR (||) with the bitwise OR (|) operator. For
example:
1 || 4 evaluates to 1
while
1 | 4 evaluates to 5

C++ Pointer-to-Member Operators (.* >*)

There are two pointer-to-member operators: .* and >*.
Use the .* operator to dereference pointers to class members. The first operand
must be a class type. If the type of the first operand is class type T, or is a class
that has been derived from class type T, the second operand must be a pointer to a
member of a class type T.
Use the ->* operator to also dereference pointers to class members. The first
operand must be a pointer to a class type. If the type of the first operand is a
pointer to class type T, or is a pointer to a class derived from class type T, the
second operand must be a pointer to a member of class type T.
The .* and ->* operators bind the second operand to the first. This results in an
object or function of the type specified by the second operand.

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If the result of .* or ->* is a function, you can only use the result as the operand for
the ( ) (function call) operator. If the second operand is an lvalue, the result of .*
or ->* is an lvalue.
For more information on pointer-to-member operators, see Pointers to Members
on page 292.

Conditional Expressions
A conditional expression is a compound expression that contains a condition
(operand1), an expression to be evaluated if the condition has a nonzero value
(operand2), and an expression to be evaluated if the condition has the value 0
(operand3).
Conditional expressions have right-to-left associativity. OS/390 C/C++ evaluates the
left operand first, and then evaluates only one of the remaining two operands.
The conditional expression contains one two-part operator. The ? symbol follows the
condition, and the : symbol appears between the two action expressions. OS/390
C/C++ treats all expressions that occur between the ? and : as one expression.
The first operand must have a scalar type. The type of the second and third
operands must be one of the following:
v An arithmetic type
v A compatible pointer, structure, or union type
v void.
The second and third operands can also be a pointer or a null pointer constant.
Two objects are compatible when they have the same type but not necessarily the
same type qualifiers (volatile, or const). Pointer objects are compatible if they
have the same type or are pointers to void.
OS/390 C/C++ evaluates the first operand, and its value determines whether
OS/390 C/C++ evaluates the second or third operand:
v If the value is not equal to 0, it evaluates the second operand.
v If the value is equal to 0, it evaluates the third operand.
The result is the value of the second or third operand.
If the second and third expressions evaluate to arithmetic types, OS/390 C/C++
performs the usual arithmetic conversions on the values. The following tables show
how the types of the second and third operands determine the type of the result.

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Conditional Expressions

Type of Conditional C Expressions

Type of One Operand

Type of Other Operand

Type of Result

Arithmetic

Arithmetic type after usual

arithmetic conversions

Structure or union type

Compatible structure or union Structure or union type with

type
all the qualifiers on both
operands

void

Pointer to compatible type

Pointer to type with all the

qualifiers specified for the
type

Pointer to type

NULL pointer (the constant 0)

Pointer to type

Pointer to object or
incomplete type

Pointer to void

Pointer to void with all the

qualifiers specified for the
type

Type of Conditional C++ Expressions

Type of One Operand

Type of Other Operand

Type of Result

Reference to type

Reference after usual

reference conversions

Class T

Class X

Class type for which a

conversion exists. If more
than one possible conversion
exists, the result is
ambiguous.

throw expression

Other (type, pointer,

reference)

Type of the expression that is

not a throw expression

Examples of Conditional Expressions

The following expression determines which variable has the greater value, y or z,
and assigns the greater value to the variable x:
x = (y > z) ? y : z;

The following is an equivalent statement:

if (y > z)
x = y;
else
x = z;

The following expression calls the function printf, which receives the value of the
variable c, if c evaluates to a digit. Otherwise, printf receives the character
constant 'x'.
printf(" c = %c\n", isdigit(c) ? c : 'x');

If the last operand of a conditional expression contains an assignment operator, use

parentheses to ensure that the expression evaluates properly. For example, the =
operator has higher precedence than the ?: operator in the following expression:

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int i,j,k;
(i == 7) ? j ++ : k = j;

This expression generates an error because OS/390 C/C++ interprets it as if it were

parenthesized this way:
int i,j,k;
((i == 7) ? j ++ : k) = j;

That is, k is treated as the third operand, not the entire assignment expression k =
j. The error arises because a conditional expression is not an lvalue, and the
assignment is not valid.
To make the expression evaluate correctly, enclose the last operand in parentheses:
int i,j,k;
(i == 7) ? j ++ : (k = j);

Assignment Expressions
An assignment expression stores a value in the object that is designated by the left
operand. There are two types of assignment operators: simple assignment and
compound assignment.
The left operand in all assignment expressions must be a modifiable lvalue. The
type of the expression is the type of the left operand. The value of the expression is
the value of the left operand after the assignment has completed.
In C, the result of an assignment expression is not an lvalue. The result of an
assignment expression is an lvalue in C++.
All assignment operators have the same precedence and have right-to-left
associativity.

Simple Assignment (=)

The simple assignment operator (=) stores the value of the right operand in the
object that is designated by the left operand.
Both operands must have arithmetic types, the same structure type, or the same
union type. Otherwise, both operands must be pointers to the same type, or the left
operand must be a pointer and the right operand must be the constant 0 or NULL.
If both operands have arithmetic types, the system converts the type of the right
operand to the type of the left operand before the assignment.
If the right operand is a pointer to a type, the left operand can be a pointer to a
const of the same type. If the right operand is a pointer to a const type, the left
operand must also be a pointer to a const type.
If the right operand is a pointer to a type, the left operand can be a pointer to a
volatile of the same type. If the right operand is a pointer to a volatile type, the
left operand must also be a pointer to a volatile type.
If the left operand is a pointer to a member, the right operand must be a pointer to
a member or a constant expression that evaluates to zero. OS/390 C/C++ converts
the right operand to the type of the left operand before assignment.

Chapter 6. Expressions and Operators

163

Assignment Expressions
If the left operand is an object of reference type, the assignment is to the object that
is denoted by the reference.
If the left operand is a pointer and the right operand is the constant 0, the result is
NULL.
Pointers to void can appear on either side of the simple assignment operator.
A packed structure or union can be assigned to a nonpacked structure or union of
the same type. A nonpacked structure or union can be assigned to a packed
structure or union of the same type.
If one operand is packed and the other is not, OS/390 C/C++ remaps the layout of
the right operand to match the layout of the left. This remapping of structures might
degrade performance. For efficiency, when you perform assignment operations with
structures or unions, you should ensure that both operands are either packed or
nonpacked.
Note: If you assign pointers to structures or unions, the objects they point to must
both be either packed or nonpacked. See Initializing Pointers on page 96
for more information on assignments with pointers.
You can assign values to operands with the type qualifier volatile. You cannot
assign a pointer of an object with the type qualifier const to a pointer of an object
without the const type qualifier. For example:
const int *p1;
int *p2;
p2 = p1; /* this is NOT allowed */
p1 = p2;

/* this IS allowed */

The following example assigns the value of number to the member employee of the
structure payroll:
payroll.employee = number;

The following example assigns in order the value 0 (zero) to strangeness, the value
of strangeness to charm, the value of charm to beauty, and the value of beauty to
truth:
truth = beauty = charm = strangeness = 0;

Note: The assignment (=) operator should not be confused with the equality
comparison (==) operator. For example:
if(x == 3)

Evaluates to 1 if x is equal to three

while

if(x = 3)

Is true because (x = 3) evaluates to a non-zero value (3).

The expression also assigns the value 3 to x.

Compound Assignment
The compound assignment operators consist of a binary operator and the simple
assignment operator. They perform the operation of the binary operator on both
operands and give the result of that operation to the left operand.

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Assignment Expressions
The following table shows the operand types of compound assignment expressions:
Operator

Left Operand

Right Operand

+= or -=

Arithmetic

+= or -=

Pointer

Integral type

*=,/=, and %=

Arithmetic

<<=, >>=, &=, |=, and |=

Integral type

Note that the expression:

a *= b + c

is equivalent to:
a = a * (b + c)

and not:
a = a * b + c

The following table lists the compound assignment operators and shows an
expression that uses each operator:
Operator

Example

Equivalent Expression

index += 2

index = index + 2

*(pointer++) -= 1

*pointer = *(pointer++) - 1

bonus *= increase

bonus = bonus * increase

time /= hours

time = time / hours

allowance %= 1000

allowance = allowance % 1000

<<=

result <<= num

result = result << num

>>=

form >>= 1

form = form >> 1

mask &= 2

mask = mask & 2

test |= pre_test

test = test | pre_test

flag |= ON

flag = flag | ON

Although the equivalent expression column shows the left operands (from the
example column) that OS/390 C/C++ evaluates twice, OS/390 C/C++ evaluates the
left operand only once.

Comma Expression (,)

A comma expression (,) contains two operands that are separated by a comma.
Although the compiler evaluates both operands, the value of the right operand is
the value of the expression. The compiler evaluates the left operand, possibly
producing side effects, and discards the value. The result of a comma expression is
not an lvalue.
Both operands of a comma expression can have any type. All comma expressions
have left-to-right associativity. OS/390 C/C++ fully evaluates the left operand before
the right operand.

Chapter 6. Expressions and Operators

165

Comma Expression
In the following example, if omega has the value 11, the expression increments delta
and assigns the value 3 to alpha:
alpha = (delta++, omega % 4);

Any number of expressions separated by commas can form a single expression.

The compiler evaluates the leftmost expression first. The value of the rightmost
expression becomes the value of the entire expression.
For example, the value of the expression:
intensity++, shade * increment, rotate(direction);

is the value of the expression:

rotate(direction)

The primary use of the comma operator is to produce side effects in the following
situations:
v Calling a function
v Entering or repeating an iteration loop
v Testing a condition
v Other situations where you require a side effect, but not the immediate result of
the expression
To use the comma operator in a context where the comma has other meanings,
such as in a list of function arguments or a list of initializers, you must enclose the
comma operator in parentheses. For example, the following function has only three
arguments: the value of a, the value 5, and the value of c.
f(a, (t = 3, t + 2), c);

The value of the second argument is the result of the comma expression in
parentheses, which has the value 5:
t = 3, t + 2

The following table gives some examples of the uses of the comma operator:

166

Statement

Effects

for (i=0; i<2; ++i, f() );

A for statement in which i is incremented and f()

is called at each iteration.

if ( f(), ++i, i>1 )

{ /* ... */ }

An if statement in which function f() is called,

variable i is incremented, and variable i is tested
against a value. The first two expressions within
this comma expression are evaluated before the
expression i>1. Regardless of the results of the
first two expressions, the third is evaluated and its
result determines whether the if statement is
processed.

func( ( ++a, f(a) ) );

A function call to func() in which a is

incremented, the resulting value is passed to a
function f(), and the return value of f() is passed
to func(). The function func() is passed only a
single argument, because the comma expression
is enclosed in parentheses within the function
argument list.

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

Chapter 7. Implicit Type Conversions

There are two kinds of implicit type conversions: standard conversions and
user-defined conversions. This chapter describes the standard type conversions
that are listed below:
v Integral Promotions
v Standard Type Conversions
v Arithmetic Conversions on page 170
Related Information
v Chapter 6. Expressions and Operators on page 133
v Chapter 8. Functions on page 173
v Cast Expressions on page 146
v User-Defined Conversions on page 325.

Integral Promotions
You can use certain fundamental types wherever you can use an integer. You can
convert the following fundamental types through integral promotion:
v char
v wchar_t
v short int
v enumerators
v objects of enumeration type
v integer bit fields (both signed and unsigned)
Except for wchar_t, if you cannot represent the value by an int, OS/390 C/C++
converts the value to an unsigned int. For wchar_t, if an int can represent all the
values of the original type, OS/390 C/C++ converts the value to the type that can
best represent all the values of the original type. For example, if a long can
represent all the values, the value is converted to a long.

Standard Type Conversions

Many C and C++ operators cause implicit type conversions, which change the type
of a value. When you add values that have different data types, OS/390 C/C++ first
converts both values to the same type. For example, when you add a short int
value and an int value together, the compiler converts the short int value to the
int type.
Implicit type conversions can occur when you:
v Prepare an operand for an arithmetic or logical operation
v Assign an lvalue that has a different type than the assigned value
v Provide a prototyped function that has a different type than the parameter
v Specify a value in the return statement of a function that has a different type
from the defined return type for the function
You can perform explicit type conversions by using the cast operator or the function
style cast. For more information on explicit type conversions, see Cast
Expressions on page 146.

Copyright IBM Corp. 1996, 2000

167

Standard Type Conversions

Signed-Integer Conversions
The compiler converts a signed integer to a shorter integer. It does this by
truncating the high-order bits and converting the variable to a longer signed integer
by sign-extension.
Conversion of signed integers to floating-point values generally takes place without
loss of information. However, when you convert an int, a long int, or a long long
int value to a float, some precision may be lost. When converting a long long
int type to a float, OS/390 C/C++ rounds to the nearest representable number.
When converting a signed integer to an unsigned integer, OS/390 C/C++ converts
the signed integer to the size of the unsigned integer. It interprets the result as an
unsigned value.
When converting a long long int type to packed decimal, the resulting size is
decimal(20,0).

Unsigned-Integer Conversions
You can convert an unsigned integer to a shorter unsigned or signed integer by
truncating the high-order bits. OS/390 C/C++ converts an unsigned integer to a
longer unsigned or signed integer by zero-extending. Zero-extending pads the
leftmost bits of the longer integer with binary zeros.
When you convert an unsigned integer to a signed integer of the same size, no
change in the bit pattern occurs. However, the value changes if you set the sign bit.

Floating-Point Conversions
If you convert a float value to a double, it undergoes no change in value. If you
convert a double to a float OS/390 C/C++ represents it exactly, if possible. If the
compiler cannot exactly represent the double value as a float, the value loses
precision. If the value is too large to fit into a float, the result is undefined.
When OS/390 C/C++ converts a floating-point value to an integer value, it discards
the decimal fraction portion of the floating-point value in the conversion. If the result
is too large for the given integer type, the result of the conversion is undefined.

Pointer Conversions
OS/390 C/C++ performs pointer conversions when you use pointers. These
conversions include pointer assignment, initialization, and comparison.
You can convert a constant expression that evaluates to zero to a pointer. This
pointer will be a null pointer (pointer with a zero value), and is guaranteed not to
point to any object.
You can convert any pointer to an object that is not a const or volatile object to a
void*. You can also convert any pointer to a function to a void*, provided that a
void* has sufficient bits to hold it.
You can generally convert an expression with type array of some type to a pointer
to the initial element of the array. You cannot do this conversion when the
expression is used as the operand of the & (address) operator or the sizeof
operator.

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Standard Type Conversions

Generally, you can convert an expression with a type of function returning T to a
pointer to a function returning T. You cannot perform this conversion when the
expression is used as the operand of the & (address) operator, the () (function call)
operator, or the sizeof operator.
You can convert an integer value to an address offset.
You can convert a pointer to a class A to a pointer to an accessible base class B of
that class, as long as the conversion is not ambiguous. The conversion is
ambiguous if the expression for the accessible base class can refer to more than
one distinct class. The resulting value points to the base class subobject of the
derived class object. A null pointer (pointer with a zero value) is converted into itself.
For more information on pointer conversions, see Pointer Arithmetic on page 98.

Reference Conversions
A reference conversion can be performed wherever a reference initialization occurs,
including reference initialization done in argument passing and function return
values. You can convert a reference to a class to a reference to an accessible base
class of that class, as long as the conversion is not ambiguous. The result of the
conversion is a reference to the base class subobject of the derived class object.
You can perform reference conversion if OS/390 C/C++ allows the corresponding
pointer conversion.

Pointer-to-Member Conversions
Pointer-to-member conversion can occur when you initialize, assign, or compare
pointers to members.
A constant expression that evaluates to zero converts to a distinct pointer to a
member.
Note: A pointer to a member is not the same as a pointer to an object or a pointer
to a function.
You can convert a pointer to a member of a base class to a pointer to a member of
a derived class, if the following conditions are true:
v The conversion is not ambiguous. The conversion is ambiguous if multiple
instances of the base class are in the derived class.
v You can convert a pointer to the derived class to a pointer to the base class. If
this is the case, the base class is accessible. See Derivation Access of Base
Classes on page 342 for more information.
For more information, see Pointers to Members on page 292 and C++
Pointer-to-Member Operators (.* >*) on page 160.

Function Argument Conversions

If no function prototype declaration is visible when you call a function, the compiler
can perform default argument promotions. These promotions consist of the
following:
v Integral promotions.
v Arguments with type float that convert to type double.

Chapter 7. Implicit Type Conversions

169

Standard Type Conversions

Other Conversions
By definition, the void type has no value. Therefore, you cannot convert it to any
other type. No other value can be converted to void by assignment. However, a
value you can explicitly cast to void.
You cannot convert between structure or union types.
When a fixed point decimal type is converted to an integral type, OS/390 C/C++
discards the fractional part. An explicit conversion to a fixed-point decimal type may
cause an overflow exception. To avoid this, use an explicit cast.

|
|
|

In C, when you define a value by using the enum type specifier, OS/390 C/C++
treats the value as an int. Conversions to and from an enum value proceed as for
the int type.
In C++, you can convert from an enum to any integral type but not from an integral
type to an enum.
There are no standard conversions between class types.

Arithmetic Conversions
Most C++ operators perform type conversions to bring the operands of an
expression to a common type. Or, they extend short values to the integer size used
in OS/390 operations. The conversions depend on the specific operator and the
type of the operand or operands. However, many operators perform similar
conversions on operands of integer and floating-point types. These standard
conversions are known as the arithmetic conversions because they apply to the
types of values that are ordinarily used in arithmetic.
You can use arithmetic conversions to match the operands of arithmetic operators.

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Arithmetic Conversions
Arithmetic conversion proceeds in the following order:
Operand Type

Conversion

One operand has long double type

The other operand is converted to long

double type.

One operand has double type

The other operand is converted to double.

One operand has float type

The other operand is converted to float.

One operand has unsigned long long int

type

The other operand is converted to unsigned

long long int.

One operand has long long int type

The other operand is converted to long long

int.

One operand has unsigned long int type

The other operand is converted to unsigned

long int.

One operand has unsigned int type and the

other operand has long int type and the
value of the unsigned int can be
represented in a long int

The operand with unsigned int type is

converted to long int.

One operand has unsigned int type and the

other operand has long int type and the
value of the unsigned int cannot be
represented in a long int

Both operands are converted to unsigned

long int

One operand has long int type

The other operand is converted to long int.

One operand has unsigned int type

The other operand is converted to unsigned

int.

Both operands have int type

The result is type int.

Note: On OS/390 C/C++, an int type and a long type are the same length, so
unsigned int cannot be represented by a signed long.

Chapter 7. Implicit Type Conversions

171

Arithmetic Conversions

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OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

Chapter 8. Functions
This chapter describes the structure and use of functions in C and C++. Specifically,
it discusses the following topics:
v Functions Overview
v C++ Enhancements to C Functions
v Function Declarations on page 174
v The main() Function on page 183
v Calling Functions and Passing Arguments on page 184
v Default Arguments in C++ Functions on page 189
v Function Return Values on page 191
v Pointers to Functions on page 192
v C++ Inline Functions on page 194
Related Information
v Member Functions on page 289
v Inline Member Functions on page 290
v Chapter 13. C++ Overloading on page 305
v Chapter 14. Special C++ Member Functions on page 317
v Virtual Functions on page 351

Functions Overview
Functions specify the logical structure of a program and define how particular
operations are to be implemented. A function declaration consists of a return type, a
name, and an argument list. Use the declaration to declare the format and
existence of a function prior to using the function. A function definition contains a
function declaration and the body of the function. A function can only have one
definition.
Both C++ and ANSI/ISO C use the style of declaration that is called prototyping. A
function prototype refers to the return type, name, and argument list components of
a function. The compiler uses the prototype to check argument types and to convert
arguments. Prototypes can appear several times in a program, if the declarations
are compatible. They allow the C compiler to check for mismatches between the
parameters of a function call and those in the function declaration.
C++ Note: C++ functions must use prototypes. Usually, you place them in header
files, while you place function definitions in source files. Only C allows
functions that do not have prototypes.

C++ Enhancements to C Functions

The C++ language provides many enhancements to C functions. These are:
v Reference arguments, described in Passing Arguments by Reference on
page 188
v Default arguments, described in Default Arguments in C++ Functions on
page 189
v Reference return types, described in Using References as Return Types on
page 192
v Inline functions, described in C++ Inline Functions on page 194
v Member functions, introduced in Member Functions on page 289
Copyright IBM Corp. 1996, 2000

173

C++ Enhancements to C Functions

v Overloaded functions, introduced in Overloading Functions on page 305
v Operator functions, introduced in Overloading Operators on page 308
v Constructor functions and destructor functions, introduced in Constructors and
Destructors Overview on page 317
v Conversion functions, introduced in Conversion Functions on page 326
v Virtual functions, introduced in Virtual Functions on page 351
v Function templates, introduced in Function Templates on page 365

Function Declarations
A function declaration establishes the name and the parameters of the function.
%%

extern
static

linkage_specifier

type_specifier

,
% function_declarator (

'
parameter

const
volatile

A C function is declared implicitly by its appearance in an expression if it has not

been defined or declared previously. The implicit declaration is equivalent to a
declaration of extern int func_name(). The default return type of a function is int.
Implicit declarations are only valid in C.
To indicate that the function does not return a value, declare it with a return type of
void.
C++ Note: Only C++ supports the use of the const and volatile specifiers.

C Function Declarations
A function cannot be declared as returning a data object having a volatile or const
type. It can, however, return a pointer to a volatile or const object. Also, a function
cannot return a value that has a type of array or function.
If the called function returns a value that has a type other than int, you must
declare the function before the function call. Even if a called function returns a type
int, explicitly declaring the function prior to its call is good programming practice.
Some declarations do not have parameter lists; the declarations simply specify the
types of parameters and the return values, such as in the following example:
int func(int,long);

C++ Function Declarations

In C++, you can specify the qualifiers volatile and const in member function
declarations. You can also specify exception specifications in function declarations.
You must declare all C++ functions before you can call them.
You cannot define types in return or argument types. For example, the following
declarations are not valid in C++:

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Function Declaration
void print(struct X { int i; } x);
//error
enum count{one, two, three} counter();

//error

This example attempts to declare a function print() that takes an object x of class
X as its argument. However, you cannot have the class definition within the
argument list. In the attempt to declare counter(), the enumeration type definition
cannot appear in the return type of the function declaration. The two function
declarations and their corresponding type definitions can be rewritten as follows:
struct X { int i; };
void print(X x);
enum count {one, two, three};
count counter();

Multiple Function Declarations

All function declarations for a particular function must have the same number and
type of arguments, and must have the same return type and the same linkage
keywords. These return and argument types are part of the function type, although
the default arguments are not.
For the purposes of argument matching, consider ellipsis and linkage keywords as
a part of the function type. You must use them consistently in all declarations of a
function. If the only difference between the argument types in two declarations is in
the use of typedef names or unspecified argument array bounds, the declarations
are the same. A const or volatile specifier is also part of the function type, but can
only be part of a declaration. Or it can be part of a nonstatic member function
definition.
Declaring two functions that differ only in return type is not valid function
overloading, and the compiler flags it as an error. For example:
void f();
int f();

// error, two definitions differ only in

// return type

int g()
{
return f();
}

Checking Function Calls

The compiler checks C++ function calls by comparing the number and type of the
actual arguments used in the function call with the number and type of the formal
arguments in the function declaration. It performs implicit type conversion when
necessary.

Argument Names in Function Declarations

You can supply argument names in a function declaration, but the compiler ignores
them except in the following two situations:
1. If two argument names have the same name within a single declaration, which
is an error.
2. If an argument name is the same as a name outside the function, the program
hides the name outside the function. You cannot use the name in the argument
declaration.
In the following example, the third argument intersects is meant to have
enumeration type subway_line. The name of the first argument, however, hides this
name. The declaration of the function subway() causes a compile-time error
because subway_line is not a valid type name in the context of the argument
declarations.
Chapter 8. Functions

175

Function Declaration
enum subway_line {yonge, university, spadina, bloor};
int subway(char * subway_line, int stations,
enum subway_line intersects);

|
|
|

Examples of Function Declarations

The following example defines the function absolute() with the return type double.
Because this is a noninteger return type, the example declares absolute prior to the
function call.

CBC3RAAV
/**
** This example shows how a function is declared and defined
**/
#include <stdio.h>
double absolute(double);
int main(void)
{
double f = -3.0;
printf("absolute number = %lf\n", absolute(f));
}

return (0);

double absolute(double number)

{
if (number < 0.0)
number = -number;
}

return (number);

Specifying a return type of void on a function declaration indicates that the function
does not return a value. The following example defines the function absolute() with
the return type void. The function main(), declares absolute() with the return type
void.

CBC3RAAW
/**
** This example uses a function with a void return type
**/
#include <stdio.h>
int main(void)
{
void absolute(float);
float f = -8.7;
absolute(f);
}

return(0);

void absolute(float number)

{
if (number < 0.0)
number = -number;
}

176

printf("absolute number = %f\n", number);

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

Function Declaration
The following code fragments show several function declarations. The first fragment
declares a function f that takes two integer arguments and has a return type of
void:
void f(int, int);

The following code fragment declares a function f1(). f1() takes an integer
argument, and returns a pointer to a function that takes an integer argument and
returns an integer:
int (*f1(int))(int);

Alternatively, you can use a typedef for the complicated return type of function
f1():
typedef int pf1(int);
pf1* f1(int);

The following code fragment declares a pointer p1 to a function that takes a pointer
to a constant character and returns an integer:
int (*p1) (const char*);

The following example declares an external function f2(). f2() takes a constant
integer as its first argument, and can have variable numbers and types of other
arguments. It returns type int:
int extern f2(const int ...);

Function f3() takes an int argument with a default value. This is the value that is
returned from function f2(), and that has a return type of int:
const int j = 5;
int f3( int x = f2(j) );

See Default Arguments in C++ Functions on page 189 for more information about
default function arguments.
Function f6() is a constant class member function of class X with no arguments,
and with an int return type:
class X
{
public:
int f6() const;
};

See const and volatile Member Functions on page 289 for more information about
constant member functions.
Function f4() takes no arguments, has return type void, and can throw class
objects of types X and Y.
class X;
class Y;
//
.
//
.
//
.
void f4() throw(X,Y);

Function f5() takes no arguments, has return type void, and cannot throw an
exception.
void f5() throw();

Chapter 8. Functions

177

Function Declaration
Related Information:
v Declarators on page 121
v extern Storage Class Specifier on page 77

Function Definitions
A function definition contains a function declaration and the body of a function. It
specifies the function name, formal parameters, the return type, and storage class
of the function.
%%

extern
static

linkage_specifier

% function_declarator '

type_specifier

parameter_declaration

block_statement

A function definition (either prototype or nonprototype) contains the following:

v An optional storage class specifier, extern or static, which determines the
scope of the function. If you do not specify a storage class specifier, the function
has external linkage.
v An optional linkage specifier, which determines the linkage of the function. If you
do not specify a linkage specifier, the function has the default linkage.
v An optional type specifier, which determines the type of value that the function
returns. If you do not provide a type specifier, the function has type int.
v A function declarator provides the function with a name. It can further describe
the type of the value that the function returns. The declarator can also list any
parameters that the function expects and their types. It encloses the parameters
that the function expects in parentheses.
v A block statement, which contains data definitions and code.
A nonprototype function definition can also have a list of parameter declarations,
which describe the types of arguments that the function can receive. In
nonprototype functions, parameters that are not declared have type int.
A function can call itself. In addition, other functions can call the function. Unless a
function definition has the storage class specifier static, functions that appear in
other files or modules can also call the function. You can directly invoke functions
with a storage class specifier of static from within the same source file only.
Consider a function that has the storage class specifier static, or a return type
other than int. In this case, the function definition or a declaration for the function
must appear before a call to the function, and must be in the same file as the call.
If a C function definition has external linkage and a return type of int, you can
make calls to the function before it is visible. This is because the compiler assumes
an implicit declaration of extern int func();. This is not true for C++.
All declarations for a given function must be compatible; that is, the return type
must be the same, and the parameters must have the same type.

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Function Definitions
The default type for the return value and parameters of a function is int, and the
default storage class specifier is extern. If the function does not return a value or if
you do not pass any parameters to it, use the keyword void as the type specifier.
A function can return a pointer or reference to a function, array, or to an object with
a volatile or const type. In C, you cannot declare a function as a struct or union
member. (This restriction does not apply to C++.)
A function cannot have a return type of function or array. In C, a function cannot
return any type that has the volatile or const qualifier. (This restriction does not
apply to C++.)
You cannot define an array of functions. You can, however, define an array of
pointers to functions.
In the following example, ary is an array of two function pointers. The example type
casts the values that are assigned to ary for compatibility:

CBC3RAAT
/**
** This example uses an array of pointers to functions
**/
#include <stdio.h>
int func1(void);
void func2(double a);
int main(void)
{
double num;
int retnum;
void (*ary[2]) ();
ary[0] = ((void(*)())func1);
ary[1] = ((void(*)())func2);
retnum=((int (*)())ary[0])();
/* calls func1 */
printf("number returned = %i\n", retnum);
((void (*)(double))ary[1])(num);
/* calls func2 */
}

return(0);

int func1(void)
{
int number=3;
return number;
}
void func2(double a)
{
a=333.3333;
printf("result of func2 = %f\n", a);
}

The following example is a complete definition of the function sum:

int sum(int x,int y)
{
return(x + y);
}

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179

Function Definitions
The function sum has external linkage and returns an object that has type int. It has
two parameters of type int that are declared as x, and y. The function body
contains a single statement that returns the sum of x and y.

Function Declarator
A function declarator contains an identifier that names a function, and a contains a
list of the function parameters. You should always use prototype function
declarators because you can check the function parameters with them. C++
functions must have prototype function declarators.
Function Declarator Syntax:
%% declarator (

parameter_declaration_list
,

' identifier

Parameter Declaration List Syntax:

,
%% '

storage_class_specifier
type_specifier
type_qualifier

declarator

*
abstract_declarator
%&

...

Abstract Declarator Syntax:

%% '

( abstract_declarator )
direct_abstract_declarator

direct_abstract_declarator:
abstract_declarator

[
(

constant_expression

parameter_declaration_list

Prototype Function Declarators: You should declare each parameter within the
function declarator. Any calls to the function must pass the same number of
arguments as there are parameters in the declaration.

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Function Definitions
Nonprototype Function Declarators: You should declare each parameter in a
parameter declaration list following the declarator. If you do not declare a
parameter, it has type int.
The compiler widens char and short parameters to int, and widens float
parameters to double. The compiler performs no type checking between the
argument type and the parameter type for nonprototyped functions. As well, it does
not check to ensure that the number of arguments matches the number of
parameters.
You should declare each value that a function receives in a parameter declaration
list for nonprototype function definitions that follows the declarator.
A parameter declaration determines the storage class specifier and the data type of
the value.
The only storage class specifier that OS/390 C/C++ allows is the register storage
class specifier. It allows any type specifier for a parameter. If you do not specify the
register storage class specifier, the parameter will have the auto storage class
specifier. In C only, if you omit the type specifier and you are not using the
prototype form to define the function, the parameter will have type int, as follows:
int func(i,j)
{
/* i and j have type int
}

In C only, you cannot declare a parameter in the parameter declaration list if it is

not listed within the declarator.

Ellipsis and void

An ellipsis at the end of a parameter declaration indicates that the number of
arguments is equal to, or greater than, the number of specified argument types. At
least one parameter declaration must come before the ellipsis. Where the compiler
permits, an ellipsis that is preceded by a comma is equivalent to a simple ellipsis.
The comma before the ellipsis is optional in C++ only.
int f(int,...);

For information on how to pass multiple arguments, refer to the sections describing
va_arg, va_end(), and va_end() in OS/390 C/C++ Run-Time Library Reference.
The compiler promotes parameters as needed, but does not check the types of the
variable arguments.
You can declare a function with no arguments in two ways:
int f(void);

// ANSI/ISO C Standard

int f();

// C++ enhancement
// Note: In ANSI/ISO C, this declaration means that
// f may take any number or type or parameters

An empty argument declaration list or the argument declaration list of (void)

indicates a function that takes no arguments. You cannot use void as an argument
type, although you can use types that are derived from void (such as pointers to
void).
In the following example, the function f() takes one integer parameter and returns
no value, while g() expects no parameters and returns an integer.
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181

Function Definitions
void f(int);
int g(void);

Function Body
The body of a function is a block statement.
The following function body contains a definition for the integer variable big_num, an
if-else control statement, and a call to the function printf():
void largest(int num1, int num2)
{
int big_num;
if (num1 >= num2)
big_num = num1;
else
big_num = num2;
}

printf("big_num = %d\n", big_num);

Examples of Function Declarators

The following example contains a function declarator sort with table and length.
The example declares table as a pointer to int, and declares length as type int.
Note that the compiler implicitly converts arrays as parameters to a pointer to the
type.

CBC3RAAU
/**
** This example illustrates function declarators.
** Note that arrays as parameters are implicitly
** converted to a pointer to the type.
**/
#include <stdio.h>
void sort(int table[ ], int length);
int main(void)
{
int table[ ]={1,5,8,4};
int length=4;
printf("length is %d\n",length);
sort(table,length);
}
void sort(int table[ ], int length)
{
int i, j, temp;

for (i = 0; i < length -1; i++)

for (j = i + 1; j < length; j++)
if (table[i] > table[j])
{
temp = table[i];
table[i] = table[j];
table[j] = temp;
}

The following examples contain prototype function declarators:

double square(float x);
int area(int x,int y);
static char *search(char);

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Function Definitions
The following example illustrates how you can use a typedef identifier in a function
declarator:
typedef struct tm_fmt { int minutes;
int hours;
char am_pm;
} struct_t;
long time_seconds(struct_t arrival)

The following function, set_date, declares a pointer to a structure of type date as a

parameter. date_ptr has the storage class specifier register.
set_date(register struct date *date_ptr)
{
date_ptr->mon = 12;
date_ptr->day = 25;
date_ptr->year = 87;
}

Related Information
v Block on page 196
v Function Definitions on page 178
v Function Declarations on page 174

The main() Function

When a program begins running, the system automatically calls the function main,
which marks the entry point of the program. Every program must have one function
named main. You cannot call any other function in the program main. A main function
has the form:
%%

void
int

main (

void
parameters

) block_statement

By default, main has the storage class extern and a return type of int. You can
also declare main to return void.
In C++, you cannot declare main as inline or static. You cannot call main from
within a program or take the address of main.

Arguments to main
|
|
|

You can declare the function main with or without parameters. Although you can
give any name to these parameters, common practice is to name them argc and
argv.
The first parameter, argc (argument count), has type int. It indicates how many
arguments you entered on the command line when running the program.
The second parameter, argv (argument vector), has type array of pointers to char
array objects. char array objects are null-terminated strings.
The value of argc indicates the number of pointers in the array argv. If a program
name is available, the first element in argv points to a character array. This array

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183

main()
contains the program name or the invocation name of the program you are running.
If the name cannot be determined, the first element in argv points to a null
character.
The compiler counts this name as one of the arguments to the function main. For
example, if you only enter the program name on the command line, argc has a
value of 1, and argv[0] points to the program name.
Regardless of the number of arguments that are entered on the command line,
argv[argc] always contains NULL.

Example of Arguments to main

The following program backward prints the arguments entered on a command line
such that the last argument is printed first:
#include <stdio.h>
int main(int argc, char *argv[])
{
while (--argc > 0)
printf(%s , argv[argc]);
}

Consider invoking this program from a command line with the following:
backward string1 string2

This gives the following output:

string2 string1

The arguments argc and argv would contain the following values:
Object

Value

argc
argv[0]
argv[1]
argv[2]
argv[3]

3
pointer to string backward
pointer to string string1
pointer to string string2
NULL

Note: Be careful when entering mixed case characters on a command line

because some environments are not case sensitive. Also, the exact format of
the string pointed to by argv[0] is system dependent.

Related Information

v
v
v
v
v

Calling Functions and Passing Arguments

Parameter Declaration List Syntax on page 180
Type Specifiers on page 87
Identifiers on page 58
Block on page 196

Calling Functions and Passing Arguments

A function call specifies a function name and a list of arguments. The calling
function passes the value of each argument to the specified function. The argument
list is surrounded by parentheses, and each argument is separated by a comma.
The argument list can be empty. When you call a function, OS/390 C/C++ uses the
actual arguments to initialize the formal arguments.

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The type of an actual argument is checked against the type of the corresponding
formal argument in the function prototype. All standard and user-defined type
conversions are applied, as necessary.
For example:
#include <iostream.h>
#include <math.h>
extern double root(double, double);
// declaration
double root(double value, double base) // definition
{
double temp = exp(log(value)/base);
return temp;
}
void main()
{
int value = 144;
int base = 2;
// Call function root and print return value
cout << "The root is: " << root(value,base) << endl;
}

The output is The root is: 12

In the above example, the function root is expecting arguments of type double.
Consequently, the two int arguments, value and base, are implicitly converted to
type double when you call the function.
The arguments to a function are evaluated before the function is called. When a
function call passes an argument, the function receives a copy of the argument
value. If the value of the argument is an address, the called function can use
indirection to change the contents to which the address points. In a case like
f(g(x)), a function is used as an argument. Consequently, OS/390 C/C++
evaluates the function g(x), and uses the result of the evaluation as the argument
for function f.
If you pass an array as an argument, OS/390 C/C++ uses a pointer to the array as
the argument.
OS/390 C/C++ converts arguments that are passed to parameters in prototype
declarations to the declared parameter type. For nonprototype function declarations,
OS/390 C/C++ promotes the char and short arguments to int, and float to
double.
You cannot pass a packed structure argument to a function that expects a
nonpacked structure of the same type and vice versa. (The same applies to packed
and nonpacked unions.)
The order in which arguments are evaluated and passed to the function is
implementation-defined.
For example, the following sequence of statements calls the function tester:
int x;
x = 1;
tester(x++, x);

The call to tester in the example may produce different results on different
compilers. Depending on the implementation, OS/390 C/C++ may evaluate x++ first,

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185

Calling Functions and Passing Arguments

or it may evaluate x first. To avoid the ambiguity and have x++ evaluated first,
replace the preceding sequence of statements with the following:
int x, y;
x = 1;
y = x++;
tester(y, x);

Passing Arguments in C++

In C++, if you pass a nonstatic class member function as an argument, OS/390
C/C++ converts the argument to a pointer-to-the-member.
Consider a class that has a destructor or a copy constructor that does more than a
bitwise copy. Passing a class object by value results in the construction of a
temporary constructor that is actually passed by reference.
It is an error when a function argument is a class object and all of the following
properties hold:
v The class needs a copy constructor
v The class does not have a user-defined copy constructor
v You cannot generate a copy constructor for that class
For more information on copy constructors, see Constructors on page 318.

Examples of Calling Functions

The following statement calls the function startup and passes no parameters:
startup();

The following function call causes copies of a and b to be stored in a local area for
the function sum(). The function sum() runs using the copies of a and b.
sum(a, b);

The following function call passes the value 2 and the value of the expression a + b
to sum():
sum(2, a + b);

The following statement calls the functions printf() and sum(). The function
printf() receives a character string and the return value of sum(). The function
sum() receives the values of a and b:
printf("sum = %d\n", sum(a,b));

The following program passes the value of count to the function increment.
increment increases the value of the parameter x by 1.

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CBC3RAAX
/**
** This example shows how an argument is passed to a function
**/
#include <stdio.h>
void increment(int);
int main(void)
{
int count = 5;
/* value of count is passed to the function */
increment(count);
printf("count = %d\n", count);
}

return(0);

void increment(int x)
{
++x;
printf("x = %d\n", x);
}

The output illustrates that the value of count in main remains unchanged:
x = 6
count = 5

In the following example, main passes the address of count to increment. This
example has changed the function increment to handle the pointer. It declares the
parameter x as a pointer. The contents to which x points are then incremented.

CBC3RAAY
/**
** This example shows how an address is passed to a function
**/
#include <stdio.h>
int main(void)
{
void increment(int *x);
int count = 5;
/* address of count is passed to the function */
increment(&count);
printf("count = %d\n", count);
}

return(0);

void increment(int *x)

{
++*x;
printf("*x = %d\n", *x);
}

The output shows that the above example increases the variable count:
*x = 6
count = 6

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187

Calling Functions and Passing Arguments

Passing Arguments by Reference

The term pass-by-reference describes a general method of passing arguments from
a calling routine to a called routine. If you use a reference type as a formal
argument, you can make a pass-by-reference call to a function. In a
pass-by-reference call, you can modify the values of arguments in the calling
function in the called function. In pass-by-value calls, you can only pass copies of
the arguments to the function.
C++ Note: The term reference in the context of C++ refers to a specific way of
declaring objects and functions.
You cannot pass ellipsis arguments as references.
When the actual argument cannot be referenced directly by the formal argument,
the compiler creates a temporary variable that is referenced by the formal
argument. It is initialized using the value of the actual argument. In this case, the
formal argument must be a const reference.
You can use reference arguments declared const to pass large objects efficiently to
functions. You do not need to make a temporary copy of the object that is passed to
the function. Because you declare the reference as const, the function cannot
change the actual arguments, for example:
void printbig (const bigvar&); // Function prototype

When you call the function printbig, it cannot modify the object of type bigvar
because a constant reference passes the object.
The following example shows how arguments are passed by reference. Note that
OS/390 C/C++ initializes the reference formal arguments with the actual arguments,
when you call the function.

CBC3X06A
/**
** This example shows how arguments are passed by reference
**/
#include <iostream.h>
void swapnum(int &i, int &j)
{
int temp = i;
i = j;
j = temp;
}
//
.
//
.
//
.
main()
{
int
a = 10,
// a is 10
b = 20;
// b is 20
swapnum(a,b);
// now a is 20 and b is 10
cout << "A is :" << a
<< "and B is :"
<< b << endl;
}

When the function swapnum() is called, the actual values of the variables a and b
are exchanged because they are passed by reference. The output is:
A is : 20 and B is : 10

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For the values of the actual arguments to be modified by the function swapnum(),
you must define the formal arguments of swapnum() as references.

Default Arguments in C++ Functions

In C++, you can provide default values for function arguments. All default argument
names of a function are bound by declaring the function. OS/390 C/C++ checks the
types of all functions at declaration, and evaluates them at each point of call.

CBC3X06B
/**
** This example illustrates default function arguments
**/
#include <iostream.h>
int a = 1;
int f(int a) {return a;}
int g(int x = f(a)) {return f(a);}
int h()
{
a=2;
{

int a = 3;
return g();

main()
{
cout << h() << endl;
}

In this example, the a referred to in the declaration of g() is the one at file scope. It
has the value 2 when g() is called. Consequently, this example prints 2 to standard
output. The value of a is determined after entry into function h(), but before the call
to g() is resolved.
A default argument can have any type.
A pointer to a function must have the same type as the function. Attempts to take
the address of a function by reference without specifying the type of the function
produce an error. Arguments with default values do not affect the type of a function.
The following example shows that a function with default arguments does not
change its type. The default argument allows you to call a function without
specifying all of the arguments. It does not allow you to create a pointer to the
function that does not specify the types of all the arguments. You can call function f
without an explicit argument, but you cannot define the pointer badpointer without
specifying the type of the argument:
int f(int = 0);
void g()
{
int a = f(1);
int b = f();
}
int (*pointer)(int) = &f;
int (*badpointer)() = &f;

// ok
// ok, default argument used
// ok, type of f() specified (int)
// error, badpointer and f have

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189

Default Arguments in C++ Functions

// different types. badpointer must
// be initialized with a pointer to
// a function taking no arguments.

Restrictions on Default Arguments

Of the operators, only the function call operator and the operator new can have
default arguments when you overloaded them.
Arguments with default values must be the trailing arguments in the function
declaration argument list. For example:
void f(int a, int b = 2, int c = 3); // trailing defaults
void g(int a = 1, int b = 2, int c); // error, leading defaults
void h(int a, int b = 3, int c);
// error, default in middle

Once you provide a default argument in a declaration or definition, you cannot

redefine that argument, even to the same value. However, you can add default
arguments that are not given in previous declarations. For example, the last
declaration below attempts to redefine the default values for a and b:
void
void
void
void

f(int
f(int
f(int
f(int

a, int b, int c=1);

a, int b=1, int c);
a=1, int b, int c);
a=1, int b=1, int c=1);

//
//
//
//

valid
valid, add another default
valid, add another default
error, redefined defaults

You can supply any default argument values in the function declaration or in the
definition. All subsequent arguments must have default arguments supplied in this
declaration, or a previous declaration of the function.
You cannot use local variables in default argument expressions. For example, the
C++ compiler generates errors for both function g() and function h() below:
void f(int a)
{
int b=4;
void g(int c=a); // Local variable "a" inaccessible
void h(int d=b); // Local variable "b" inaccessible
}

Evaluating Default Arguments

When you call a function that is defined with default arguments with the trailing
arguments missing, OS/390 C/C++ evaluates the default expressions, for example:
void f(int a, int b
// ...
int a = 1;
f(a);
//
f(a,10);
//
f(a,10,20);
//

= 2, int c = 3); // declaration

same as call f(a,2,3)
same as call f(a,10,3)
no default arguments

OS/390 C/C++ checks the default arguments against the function declaration and
evaluates them when you call the function. The order of default argument
evaluation is undefined. Default argument expressions cannot use formal arguments
of a function, for example:
int f(int q = 3, int r = q); // error

The value of q may not be known when it is assigned to r. Consequently, the

argument r cannot be initialized with the value of the argument q. Consider
rewriting the above function declaration as follows:
int q=5;
int f(int q = 3, int r = q); // error

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Default Arguments in C++ Functions

In the above example, the value of r in the function declaration still produces an
error because the variable q defined outside of the function is hidden by the
argument q declared for the function. Similarly:
typedef double D;
int f(int D, int z = D(5.3) ); // error

Here, the compiler interprets the type D within the function declaration as the name
of an integer. The example hides the type D in the argument D. The cast D(5.3) is
therefore not interpreted as a cast because D is the name of the argument not a
type.
In the following example, you cannot use the nonstatic member a as an initializer.
The member a does not exist until an object of class X is constructed. You can use
the static member b as an initializer, because OS/390 C++ creates b independently
of any objects of class X. You can declare the member b after you use it as a
default argument. The default values are not analyzed until after the final brace, },
of the class declaration.
class X
{
int a;
f(int z = a) ; // error
g(int z = b) ; // valid
static int b;
};

You must put parentheses around default argument expressions that contain
template references:
class C {
void f(int i = X<int,5>::y);
};

In the above example, the C++ compiler cannot process the default argument
X<int,5>::y until the end of the class. Consequently, it cannot tell that the <
represents the start of a template argument list and not the less than operator.
To avoid error messages, put parentheses around the expression that contains the
default argument:
class C {
void f( int i = (X<int,5>::y) );
};

Function Return Values

A value must be returned from a function unless the function has a return type of
void. A return statement specifies the return value. The following code fragment
shows a function definition, including the return statement:
int add(int i, int j)
{
return i + j; // return statement
}

The function add() can be called, as shown in the following code fragment:
int a = 10,
b = 20;
int answer = add(a, b); // answer is 30

In this example, the return statement initializes a variable of the returned type. The
example initializes the variable answer with the int value 30. The compiler checks
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191

Function Return Values

the type of the returned expression against the returned type. It performs all
standard and user-defined conversions, as necessary.
The following return statements show different ways of returning values to a caller:
return;
return result;
return 1;
return (x * x);

//
//
//
//

Returns
Returns
Returns
Returns

no value
the value of result
the value 1
the value of x * x

Other than main(), if a function that does not have type void returns without a value
(as in the first return statement shown in the example above) the result returned is
undefined. In C++, the compiler issues an error message as well.
If main has a return type of int, and does not contain a return expression, it returns
the value zero.
Each time a function is called, new copies of its local variables are created. You can
reuse the storage for a local variable after the function has terminated.
Consequently, the function should not return a pointer to a local variable, or a
reference to a local variable.
If the function returns a class object, you may create a temporary object if the class
has copy constructors or a destructor. For more information, see Temporary
Objects on page 324.

Using References as Return Types

References can also be used as return types for functions. The reference returns
the lvalue of the object to which it refers. This allows you to place function calls on
the left side of assignment statements. Use referenced return values when
overloading assignment operators and subscripting. This way, you can use the
results of the overloaded operators as actual values.
Note: Returning a reference to an automatic variable gives unpredictable results.
For more information, see Special Overloaded Operators on page 312.

Pointers to Functions
A pointer to a function points to the address of the functions executable code. You
can use pointers to call functions and to pass functions as arguments to other
functions. You cannot perform pointer arithmetic on pointers to functions. Use the
__cdecl keyword to declare a pointer to a function as a C linkage. For more
information, refer to __cdecl Keyword (C++ Only) on page 125.
Both the return type and argument types of the function determine the type of a
pointer to a function.
A declaration of a pointer to a function must have the pointer name in parentheses.
Without them, the compiler interprets the statement as a function that returns a
pointer to a specified return type. For example:
int *f(int a);
int (*g)(int a);

192

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

// function f returning an int*

// pointer g to a function returning an int

Pointers to Functions
In the first declaration, OS/390 C/C++ interprets f as a function that takes an int as
argument. It returns a pointer to an int. In the second declaration, OS/390 C/C++
interprets g as a pointer to a function that takes an int argument and that returns
an int.
Under OS/390 C/C++, if you pass a function pointer to a function, or the function
returns a function pointer, the declared or implied linkages must be the same. Use
the extern keyword with declarations in order to specify different linkages. Refer to
extern Storage Class Specifier on page 77 for more information.
The following example illustrates the correct and incorrect uses of function pointers
under OS/390 C/C++ :
#include <stdlib.h>
extern "C"
int cf();
extern "C++" int cxxf(); // C++ is included here for clarity;
// it is not required; if it is
// omitted, cxxf() will still have
// C++ linkage.
extern "C"
int (*c_fp)();
extern "C++" int (*cxx_fp)();
typedef int (*dft_fp_T)();
typedef int (dft_f_T)();
extern "C" {
typedef void (*cfp_T)();
typedef int (*cf_pT)();
void cfn();
void (*cfp)();
}
extern "C++" {
typedef int (*cxxf_pT)();
void cxxfn();
void (*cxxfp)();
}
extern "C" void f_cprm(int (*f)()) {
int (*s)() = cxxf;
// error, incompatible linkages-cxxf has
// C++ linkage, s has C linkage as it
// is included in the extern "C" wrapper
cxxf_pT j = cxxf;
// valid, both have C++ linkage
int (*i)() = cf;
// valid, both have C linkage
}
extern "C++" void f_cxprm(int (*f)()) {
int (*s)() = cf;
// error, incompatible linkages-cf has C
// linkage, s has C++ linkage as it is
// included in the extern "C++" wrapper
int (*i)() = cxxf;
// valid, both have C++ linkage
cf_pT
j = cf;
// valid, both have C linkage
}
main() {
c_fp

= cxxf;

//
//
cxx_fp = cf;
//
//
dft_fp_T dftfpT1 = cf;
//
//
dft_f_T *dftfT3 = cf;
//
//
dft_fp_T dftfpT5 = cxxf; //

error - c_fp has C linkage and cxxf has

C++ linkage
error - cxx_fp has C++ linkage and
cf has C linkage
error - dftfpT1 has C++ linkage and
cf has C linkage
error - dftfT3 has C++ linkage and
cf has C linkage
valid
Chapter 8. Functions

193

Pointers to Functions
dft_f_T

*dftfT6 = cxxf;

valid

c_fp
= cf;
// valid
cxx_fp = cxxf;
// valid
f_cprm(cf);
// valid
f_cxprm(cxxf);
// valid
// The following errors are due to incompatible linkage of function
// arguments, type conversion not possible
f_cprm(cxxf);
// error - f_cprm expects a parameter with
// C linkage, but cxxf has C++ linkage
f_cxprm(cf);
// error - f_cxprm expects a parameter
// with C++ linkage, but cf has C linkage

For OS/390, linkage compatibility affects all C library functions that accept a
function pointer as a parameter. The qsort() function is an example of these
functions (see extern Storage Class Specifier on page 77 for a sample program).
Refer to the OS/390 C/C++ Run-Time Library Reference for more information.
For more information on pointers, see Pointers on page 95 and Pointer
Conversions on page 168.

C++ Inline Functions

Use inline functions to reduce the overhead of a normal function call. Use the
inline function specifier, or define a member function within a class or structure
definition to declare a function.
The inline specifier is a suggestion to the C++ compiler that it can perform an
inline expansion. Instead of transferring control to and from the function code
segment, you may directly substitute a modified copy of the function body for the
function call.
You can declare and simultaneously define an inline function. If you declared the
function with the keyword inline, you can declare it without a definition. The
following code fragment shows an inline function definition. Note that the definition
includes both the declaration and body of the inline function.
inline int add(int i, int j) { return i + j; }

Both member functions and nonmember functions can be inline, and both have
internal linkage.
The use of the inline specifier does not change the meaning of the function. The
inline expansion of a function may not preserve the evaluation order of the actual
arguments.

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OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

Chapter 9. Statements
This chapter describes the C and C++ language statements that are listed below:
v Labels
v Block on page 196
v break on page 197
v continue on page 199
v
v
v
v
v
v
v

do on page 201
Expression on page 202
for on page 203
goto on page 206
if on page 207
null on page 208
return on page 208

v switch on page 210

v while on page 214
Related Information
v Scope in C on page 37
v Scope in C++ on page 47
v Chapter 5. Declarations on page 71
v Chapter 6. Expressions and Operators on page 133
v Chapter 8. Functions on page 173

Labels
A label is an identifier that allows your program to transfer control to other
statements within the same function. It is the only type of identifier that has function
scope. Control is transferred to the statement following the label by means of the
goto or switch statements.
A labelled statement has the form:
%% identifier :

statement

The label is the identifier and the colon (:) character.

The case and default labels can only appear within the body of a switch
statement.

Examples
comment_complete : ;
/* null statement label */
test_for_null : if (NULL == pointer)

Related Information
v Scope in C on page 37
v Scope in C++ on page 47
v goto on page 206
v switch on page 210
Copyright IBM Corp. 1996, 2000

195

Block

Block
A block statement, or compound statement, lets you group any number of data
definitions, declarations, and statements into one statement. The compiler treats all
definitions, declarations, and statements that are enclosed within a single set of
braces as a single statement. You can use a block wherever a single statement is
allowed.
A block statement has the form:

%% {

'
type_definition
file_scope_data_declaration
block_scope_data_declaration

statement

In C, any definitions and declarations must come before the statements.

Redefining a data object inside a nested block hides the outer object while the inner
block runs. If a data object is usable within a block and your program does not
redefine its identifier, all nested blocks can use that data object.

Initialization within Block Statements

Initialization of an auto or register variable occurs each time the block is run from
the beginning. If you transfer control from one block to the middle of another block,
initializations are not always performed. You cannot initialize an extern variable
within a block.
You only initialize an auto or static local object once, when control passes through
its declaration for the first time. OS/390 C/C++ initializes a static variable that is
initialized with an expression other than a constant expression to 0 before entering
its block for the first time.
C++ Note: Unlike ANSI/ISO C, in C++, jumping over a declaration or definition that
contains an initializer is an error. For example, the following code
produces an error in C++:
goto skiplabel;
int i=3
// error, jumped over declaration of i with initializer
skiplabel: i=4;

When control exits from a block, all objects with destructors that are defined in the
block are destroyed. Your program calls the destructor for an auto or a static local
object, only if it constructed the object. Your program must call the destructor
before, or as part of, the atexit function.
Your program also destroys local variables that are declared in a block on exit. It
destroys automatic variables defined in a loop at each iteration.

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Block

Example
The following program shows how the values of data objects change in nested
blocks:

CBC3RAA1
1 /**
2 ** This example shows how data objects change in nested blocks.
3 **/
4
#include <stdio.h>
5
6
int main(void)
7
{
8
int x = 1;
/* Initialize x to 1 */
9
int y = 3;
10
11
if (y > 0)
12
{
13
int x = 2;
/* Initialize x to 2 */
14
printf("second x = %4d\n", x);
15
}
16
printf("first x = %4d\n", x);
17
18
return(0);
19
}

The program produces the following output:

second x =
first x =

2
1

The function main defines two variables that are named x. The definition of x on line
8 retains storage while main is running. However, because the definition of x on line
13 occurs within a nested block, line 14 recognizes x as the variable defined on line
13. Because line 16 is not part of the nested block, the compiler recognizes x as the
variable defined on line 8.

Related Information
v Block Scope Data Declarations on page 72
v File Scope Data Declarations on page 73
v Storage Class Specifiers on page 74
v Type Specifiers on page 87

break
A break statement lets you end an iterative statement (do, for, while) or a switch
statement, and exit from it at any point other than the logical end.
A break statement has the form:
%% break ;

In an iterative statement, the break statement ends the loop and moves control to
the next statement outside the loop. Within nested statements, the break statement
ends only the smallest enclosing do, for, switch, or while statement.
In a switch body, the break passes control out of the switch body to the next
statement outside the switch body.
Chapter 9. Statements

197

break

Restrictions
A break statement can only appear in the body of an iterative statement or a switch
statement.

Examples
The following example shows a break statement in the action part of a for
statement. If the ith element of the array string is equal to '\0', the break
statement causes the for statement to end.
for (i = 0; i < 5; i++)
{
if (string[i] == '\0')
break;
length++;
}

The following is an equivalent for statement, if string does not contain any
embedded null characters:
for (i = 0; (i < 5)&& (string[i] != '\0'); i++)
{
length++;
}

The following example shows a break statement in a nested iterative statement.

The outer loop goes through an array of pointers to strings. The inner loop
examines each character of the string. When OS/390 C/C++ processes the break
statement, the inner loop ends and control returns to the outer loop.

CBC3RAA2
/**
**
**
**
**
**/

This program counts the characters in the strings that are

part of an array of pointers to characters. The count stops
when one of the digits 0 through 9 is encountered
and resumes at the beginning of the next string.

#include <stdio.h>
#include <ctype.h>
#define SIZE 3
int main(void)
{
static char *strings[SIZE] = { "ab", "c5d", "e5" };
int i;
int letter_count = 0;
char *pointer;
for (i = 0; i < SIZE; i++)

/* for each string

*/
/* for each character */
for (pointer = strings[i]; *pointer != '\0'; ++pointer)
{
/* if a number
if (isnum(*pointer))
break;
letter_count++;
}
printf("letter count = %d\n", letter_count);
}

return(0);

The program produces the following output:

letter count = 4

198

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

break
The following example is a switch statement that contains several break
statements. Each break statement indicates the end of a specific clause and ends
the switch statement.

CBC3RAA
/**
** This example shows a switch statement with break statements.
**/
#include <stdio.h>
enum {morning, afternoon, evening} timeofday = morning;
int main(void) {
switch (timeofday) {
case (morning):
printf("Good Morning\n");
break;
case (evening):
printf("Good Evening\n");
break;

default:
printf("Good Day, eh\n");

Related Information
v do on page 201
v for on page 203
v switch on page 210
v while on page 214

continue
A continue statement lets you end the current iteration of a loop. Program control is
passed from the continue statement to the end of the loop body.
A continue statement has the form:
%% continue ;

The continue statement ends the processing of the action part of an iterative (do,
for, or while) statement. It also moves control to the condition part of the
statement. If the iterative statement is a for statement, control moves to the third
expression in the condition part of the statement. It then moves to the second
expression (the test) in the condition part of the statement.
Within nested statements, the continue statement ends only the current iteration of
the do, for, or while statement immediately enclosing it.

Restrictions
A continue statement can only appear within the body of an iterative statement.

Chapter 9. Statements

199

continue

Examples
The following example shows a continue statement in a for statement. The
continue statement causes processing to skip over those elements of the array
rates that have values less than or equal to 1.

CBC3RAA3
/**
** This example shows a continue statement in a for statement.
**/
#include <stdio.h>
#define SIZE 5
int main(void)
{
int i;
static float rates[SIZE] = { 1.45, 0.05, 1.88, 2.00, 0.75 };
printf("Rates over 1.00\n");
for (i = 0; i < SIZE; i++)
{
if (rates[i] <= 1.00) /* skip rates <= 1.00
continue;
printf("rate = %.2f\n", rates[i]);
}
}

return(0);

The program produces the following output:

Rates over 1.00
rate = 1.45
rate = 1.88
rate = 2.00

The following example shows a continue statement in a nested loop. When the
inner loop encounters a number in the array strings, that iteration of the loop ends.
Processing continues with the third expression of the inner loop. The inner loop
ends when it encounters the \0 escape sequence.

CBC3RAA4
/**
** This program counts the characters in strings that are part
** of an array of pointers to characters. The count excludes
** the digits 0 through 9.
**/
#include <stdio.h>
#include <ctype.h>
#define SIZE 3
int main(void)
{
static char *strings[SIZE] = { "ab", "c5d", "e5" };
int i;
int letter_count = 0;
char *pointer;
for (i = 0; i < SIZE; i++)
/* for each string
/* for each character */
for (pointer = strings[i]; *pointer != '\0'; ++pointer)
{
/* if a number
*/
if (isnum(*pointer))

200

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

continue
continue;
letter_count++;

}
printf("letter count = %d\n", letter_count);
}

return(0);

The program produces the following output:

letter count = 5

Compare this program with the program in 198, which shows the use of the break
statement to perform a similar function.

Related Information
v do
v for on page 203
v while on page 214

do
A do statement repeatedly runs a statement until the test expression evaluates to 0.
Because of the order of processing, OS/390 C/C++ runs the statement at least
once.
A do statement has the form:
%% do statement while ( expression )

The body of the loop is run before the controlling while clause is evaluated. Further
processing of the do statement depends on the value of the while clause. If the
while clause does not evaluate to 0, the statement runs again. When the while
clause evaluates to 0, the statement ends. The controlling expression must be
evaluate to a scalar type.
A break, return, or goto statement can end the processing of a do statement, even
when the while clause does not evaluate to 0.

Example
The following statement prompts the user to enter a 1. If the user enters a 1, the
statement ends. If not, it displays another prompt. The example contains
error-checking code to verify that the user entered an integer value and to clear the
input stream if an error occurs.

CBC3X07E
/**
** This example illustrates the do statement.
**/
#include <iostream.h>
void main()
{
int reply1;
char c;
do
{
Chapter 9. Statements

201

do
cout << "Enter a 1: ";
cin >> reply1;
if (cin.fail())
{
cerr << "Not a valid number." << endl;
// Clear the error flag.
cin.clear(cin.rdstate() & ios::failbit);
cin.ignore(cin.rdbuf()->in_avail());
}

}
while (reply1 != 1);

Related Information
v break on page 197
v continue on page 199
v while on page 214

Expression
An expression statement contains an expression. The expression can be null.
Chapter 6. Expressions and Operators on page 133 describes expressions.
An expression statement has the form:
%%

expression

An expression statement evaluates the given expression. Use it to assign the value
of the expression to a variable or to call a function.

Examples
printf("Account Number: \n");
marks = dollars * exch_rate;
(difference < 0) ? ++losses : ++gain;
switches = flags BIT_MASK;

/*
/*
/*
/*

call to the printf

assignment to marks
conditional increment
assignment to switches

*/
*/
*/
*/

Resolving Ambiguous Statements in C++

There are situations in C++ where a statement can be parsed as both a declaration
and as an expression. Specifically, a declaration can look like a function call in
certain cases. The compiler resolves these ambiguities by applying the following
rules to the whole statement:
v If the compiler can parse the statement as a declaration but there are no
declaration specifiers, and the statement is inside the body of a function. The
compiler assumes the statement is an expression.
The following statement, for example, is a declaration at file scope of the function
f() that returns type int. There is no declaration specifier and int is the default,
but at function scope this is a call to f():
f();

v In every other case, if the compiler can parse the statement as a declaration, it
assumes the statement is a declaration. The following statement, for example, is
a declaration of x with redundant parentheses around the declarator, not a
function-style cast of x to type int:
int(x);

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OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

Expression
In some cases, C++ syntax does not distinguish between expression statements
and declaration statements. The ambiguity arises when an expression statement
has a function-style cast as its leftmost subexpression. (Note that, because C does
not support function-style casts, this ambiguity does not occur in C programs.) If the
compiler can interpret the statement both as a declaration and as an expression, it
interprets the statement as a declaration statement.
Note: The ambiguity is resolved only on a syntactic level. The resolution does not
use the meaning of the names, except to assess whether or not they are
type names.
The compiler resolves the following expressions into expression statements
because the ambiguous subexpression is followed by an assignment or an operator.
In these expressions, type_spec can be any type specifier:
type_spec(i)++;
type_spec(i,3)<<d;
type_spec(i)->l=24;

// expression statement
// expression statement
// expression statement

In the following examples, the ambiguity cannot be resolved syntactically, and the
compiler interprets the statements as declarations. type_spec is any type specifier:
type_spec(*i)(int);
type_spec(j)[5];
type_spec(m) = { 1, 2 };
type_spec(*k) (float(3));

//
//
//
//

declaration
declaration
declaration
declaration

The last statement above causes a compile-time error because you cannot initialize
a pointer with a float value.
Any ambiguous statement that is not resolved by the above rules is by default a
declaration statement. All of the following are declaration statements:
type_spec(a);
type_spec(*b)();
type_spec(c)=23;
type_spec(d),e,f,g=0;
type_spec(h)(e,3);

//
//
//
//
//

declaration
declaration
declaration
declaration
declaration

C++ resolves another ambiguity between expression statements and declaration

statements by requiring an explicit return type for function declarations within a
block:
a();
void func()
{
int a();
int b;
a();
b;
}

// declaration of a function returning int

// and taking no arguments
//
//
//
//

declaration of a function
declaration of a variable
expression-statement calling function a()
expression-statement referring to a variable

The last statement above does not produce any action. It is semantically equivalent
to a null statement. However, it is a valid C++ statement.

for
A for statement lets you do the following:
v Evaluate an expression before the first iteration of the statement (initialization)
v Specify an expression to determine whether or not the statement should be
processed (controlling part)
Chapter 9. Statements

203

for
v Evaluate an expression after each iteration of the statement
v Repeatedly process the statement if the controlling part does not evaluate to
zero.
A for statement has the form:
%% for (

expression1

expression2

expression3

% statement

expression1

Is the initialization expression. OS/390 C/C++

evaluates it only before it processes the statement
for the first time. You can use this expression to
initialize a variable. If you do not want to evaluate
an expression prior to the first iteration of the
statement, you can omit this expression.

expression2

Is the controlling part. OS/390 C/C++ evaluates it

before each iteration of the statement. It must
evaluate to a scalar type.
If it evaluates to 0 (zero), the statement is not
processed and control moves to the next statement
following the for statement. If expression2 does not
evaluate to 0, OS/390 C/C++ processes the
statement. If you omit expression2, it is as if the
expression had been replaced by a nonzero
constant. In addition, the for statement is not
terminated by failure of this condition.

expression3

OS/390 C/C++ evaluates this after each iteration of

the statement. You can use this expression to
increase, decrease, or reinitialize a variable. This
expression is optional.

A break, return, or goto statement can cause a for statement to end, even when
the second expression does not evaluate to 0. If you omit expression2, you must
use a break, return, or goto statement to end the for statement.
C++ Note: In C++ programs, you can also use expression1 to declare a variable
as well as initialize it. If you declare a variable in this expression, the
variable has the same scope as the for statement and is not local to
the for statement.

Examples
The following for statement prints the value of count 20 times. The for statement
initially sets the value of count to 1. After each iteration of the statement, it
increments count.
for (count = 1; count <= 20; count++)
printf("count = %d\n", count);

The following sequence of statements accomplishes the same task. Note the use of
the while statement instead of the for statement.

204

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

for
count = 1;
while (count <= 20)
{
printf("count = %d\n", count);
count++;
}

The following for statement does not contain an initialization expression:

for (; index > 10; --index)
{
list[index] = var1 + var2;
printf("list[%d] = %d\n", index, list[index]);
}

The following for statement will continue running until scanf receives the letter e:
for (;;)
{
scanf("%c", &letter);
if (letter == '\n')
continue;
if (letter == 'e')
break;
printf("You entered the letter %c\n", letter);
}

The following for statement contains multiple initializations and increments. The
comma operator makes this construction possible. The first comma in the for
expression is a punctuator for a declaration. It declares and initializes two integers,
i, and j. The second comma, a comma operator, allows the program to increment
both i and j at each step through the loop.
for (int i = 0, j = 50; i < 10; ++i, j += 50)
{
cout << "i = " << i << "and j = " << j << endl;
}

The following example shows a nested for statement. It prints the values of an
array that has the dimensions [5][3]:
for (row = 0; row < 5; row++)
for (column = 0; column < 3; column++)
printf("%d\n", table[row][column]);

OS/390 C/C++ processes the outer statement as long as the value of row is less
than 5. Each time the outer for statement is executed, the inner for statement sets
the initial value of column to zero. It executes the statement of the inner for
statement 3 times. The inner statement is executed as long as the value of column
is less than 3.

Related Information
v break on page 197
v continue on page 199

Chapter 9. Statements

205

goto

goto
A goto statement causes your program to unconditionally transfer control to the
statement that is associated with the label that is specified on the goto statement.
A goto statement has the form:
%% goto label_identifier ;

Because the goto statement can interfere with the normal sequence of processing,
it makes a program more difficult to read and maintain. Often, a break statement, a
continue statement, or a function call can eliminate the need for a goto statement.
If you use a goto statement to transfer control to a statement inside of a loop or
block, initializations of automatic storage for the loop do not take place. Thus, the
result is undefined. The label must appear in the same function as the goto.
If your program exits an active block by using a goto statement, OS/390 C/C++
destroys any local variables when it transfers control from that block.

Example
The following example shows a goto statement that is used to jump out of a nested
loop. You can write this function without using a goto statement.

CBC3RAA6
/**
** This example shows a goto statement that is used to
** jump out of a nested loop.
**/
#include <stdio.h>
void display(int matrix[3][3]);
int main(void)
{
int matrix[3][3]={1,2,3,4,5,2,8,9,10};
display(matrix);
return(0);
}
void display(int matrix[3][3])
{
int i, j;

206

for (i = 0; i < 3; i++)

for (j = 0; j < 3; j++)
{
if ( (matrix[i][j] < 1) (matrix[i][j] > 6) )
goto out_of_bounds;
printf("matrix[%d][%d] = %d\n", i, j, matrix[i][j]);
}
return;
out_of_bounds: printf("number must be 1 through 6\n");

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

if
An if statement lets you conditionally process a statement when the specified test
expression evaluates to a nonzero value. The expression must evaluate to a scalar
type. You can optionally specify an else clause on the if statement. If the test
expression evaluates to 0 and an else clause exists, the statement associated with
the else clause runs. If the test expression evaluates to a nonzero value, the
statement following the expression runs and the else clause is ignored.
An if statement has the form:
%% if (

expression )

statement

else statement

When if statements are nested and else clauses are present, a given else is
associated with the closest preceding if statement within the same block.

Examples
The following example causes grade to receive the value A if the value of score is
greater than or equal to 90.
if (score >= 90)
grade = 'A';

The following example displays Number is positive if the value of number is greater
than or equal to 0. If the value of number is less than 0, it displays Number is
negative.
if (number >= 0)
printf("Number is positive\n");
else
printf("Number is negative\n");

The following example shows a nested if statement:

if (paygrade == 7)
if (level >= 0 && level <= 8)
salary *= 1.05;
else
salary *= 1.04;
else
salary *= 1.06;
cout << "salary is " << salary << endl;

The following example shows a nested if statement that does not have an else
clause. Because an else clause always associates with the closest if statement,
you may have to use braces. The braces force a particular else clause to associate
with the correct if statement. In this example, omitting the braces causes the else
clause to associate with the nested if statement.
if (kegs > 0) {
if (furlongs > kegs)
fpk = furlongs/kegs;
}
else
fpk = 0;

The following example shows an if statement nested within an else clause. This
example tests multiple conditions. OS/390 C/C++ performs the tests in order of their
Chapter 9. Statements

207

if
appearance. If it evaluates one test to a nonzero value, OS/390 C/C++ runs the
statement, and ends the entire if statement.
if (value > 0)
++increase;
else if (value == 0)
++break_even;
else
++decrease;

null
The null statement performs no operation. It has the form:
%% ;

A null statement can hold the label of a labeled statement or complete the syntax
of an iterative statement.

Example
The following example initializes the elements of the array price. Because the
initializations occur within the for expressions, a statement is only needed to finish
the for syntax; no operations are required.
for (i = 0; i < 3; price[i++] = 0)
;

You can use a null statement when you require a label before the end of a block
statement, for example:
void func(void) {
if (error_detected)
goto depart;
/* further processing */
depart:; /* null statement required */
}

return
A return statement ends the processing of the current function and returns control to
the caller of the function.
A return statement has the form:
%% return

expression

A return statement in a function is optional. The compiler issues a warning if it

does not find a return statement in a function that is declared with a return type. If
the compiler reaches the end of a function without encountering a return
statement, it passes control to the caller. The compiler passes this control as if it
had encountered a return statement without an expression. A function can contain
multiple return statements.

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OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

return

Value of a return Expression and Function Value

If an expression is present on a return statement, OS/390 C/C++ returns the value
of the expression to the caller. If the data type of the expression is different from the
function return type, OS/390 converts the return value. It performs this conversion
as if the value of the expression was assigned to an object with the same function
return type.
If a return statement does not contain an expression, the value of the return
statement is undefined. If a return statement in a function declared with a return
type that is not void does not contain an expression, an error message is issued.
The result of calling the function is unpredictable, for example:
int func1()
{
return;
}
int func2()
{
return (4321);
}
void main() {
int a=func1(); // result is unpredictable!
int b=func2();
}

You cannot use a return statement with an expression when you declare the
function as returning type void.
C++ Note: In C++, if a function returns a class object with constructors, OS/390
C/C++ may construct a temporary class object. The temporary object is
not in the scope of the function that returns the temporary object, but is
local to the caller of the function.
When OS/390 C/C++ returns a function, it destroys all temporary local variables. If
local class objects with destructors exist, OS/390 C/C++ calls destructors. For more
details, see Temporary Objects on page 324.

Examples
return;
return result;
return 1;
return (x * x);

/*
/*
/*
/*

Returns
Returns
Returns
Returns

no value
the value of result
the value 1
the value of x * x

*/
*/
*/
*/

The following function searches through an array of integers to determine if a match

exists for the variable number. If a match exists, the function match returns the value
of i. If a match does not exist, the function match returns the value -1 (negative
one).
int match(int number, int array[ ], int n)
{
int i;

for (i = 0; i < n; i++)

if (number == array[i])
return (i);
return(-1);

Chapter 9. Statements

209

return

Related Information
v Chapter 8. Functions on page 173
v Expression on page 202

switch
A switch statement lets you transfer control to different statements within the switch
body depending on the value of the switch expression. The switch expression must
evaluate to an integral value. The body of the switch statement contains case
clauses that consist of:
v A case label
v An optional default label
v A case expression
v A list of statements
If the value of the switch expression equals one of the case expression values,
OS/390 C/C++ processes the statements that follow that case expression. If not, it
processes any default label statements.
A switch statement has the form:
%% switch ( expression ) switch_body

You enclose the switch body in braces. The switch body can contain definitions,
declarations, case clauses, and a default clause. Each case clause and default
clause can contain statements.

%% {

'
type_definition
file_scope_data_declaration
block_scope_data_declaration

'
default_clause

case_clause

Note: An initializer within a type_definition, file_scope_data_declaration, or

block_scope_data_declaration is ignored.
A case clause contains a case label which is followed by any number of statements.
A case clause has the form:

%% case_label ' statement

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switch
A case label contains the word case, followed by an integral constant expression
and a colon. You can put multiple case labels anywhere that you can put one case
label. A case label has the form:

%% ' case integral_constant_expression :

A default clause contains a default label that is followed by one or more

statements. You can put a case label on either side of the default label. A switch
statement can have only one default label. A default_clause has the form:

case_label

default :

case_label

' statement

The switch statement passes control to the statement following one of the labels or
to the statement following the switch body. The value of the expression that
precedes the switch body determines which statement receives control. You can
refer to this expression as the switch expression.
OS/390 C/C++ compares the value of the switch expression with the value of the
expression in each case label. If it finds a matching value, it passes control to the
statement following the case label that contains the matching value. If there is no
matching value but there is a default label in the switch body, control passes to
the default labelled statement. If it does not find a matching value, and there is no
default label anywhere in the switch body, it does not process any part of the
switch body.
OS/390 C/C++ passes control to a statement in the switch body. It passes control
out of the switch body only when it encounters a break statement, or encounters
the last statement in the switch body.
If necessary, OS/390 C/C++ performs an integral promotion on the controlling
expression. It also converts all expressions in the case statements to the same type
as the controlling expression.

Restrictions
The switch expression and the case expressions must have an integral type. The
value of each case expression must represent a different value and must be a
constant expression.
Only one default label can occur in each switch statement. You cannot have
duplicate case labels in a switch statement.
You can put data definitions at the beginning of the switch body. However, the
compiler does not initialize auto and register variables at the beginning of a
switch body.
C++ Note: You can have declarations in the body of the switch statement. In C++,
you cannot normally transfer control over a declaration containing an
initializer. However, you can transfer control if the declaration is located
Chapter 9. Statements

211

switch
in an inner block that is completely bypassed by the transfer of control.
You must contain all declarations within the body of a switch statement
that contains initializers in an inner block.

Examples
The following switch statement contains several case clauses and one default
clause. Each clause contains a function call and a break statement. The break
statements prevent control from passing down through each statement in the
switch body.
If the switch expression evaluated to '/', the switch statement would call the
function divide. Control would then pass to the statement following the switch
body.
char key;
cout << "Enter an arithmetic operator\n");
cin >> key;
switch (key)
{
case '+':
add();
break;
case '-':
subtract();
break;
case '*':
multiply();
break;
case '/':
divide();
break;

default:
cout << "The key you pressed is not valid\n";
break;

If the switch expression matches a case expression, OS/390 C/C++ processes the
statements following the case expression. It processes these statements until it
encounters a break statement, or reaches the end of the switch body. In the
following example, break statements are not present. If the value of text[i] is
equal to 'A', the compiler increments all three counters. If the value of text[i] is
equal to 'a', lettera and total are increased. Only total is increased if text[i] is
not equal to 'A' or 'a'.
char text[100];
int capa, lettera, total;
for (i=0; i<sizeof(text); i++) {
switch (text[i])
{
case 'A':
capa++;
case 'a':
lettera++;

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switch
}

default:
total++;

The following switch statement performs the same statements for more than one
case label:

CBC3RABI
/**
** This example contains a switch statement that performs
** the same statement for more than one case label.
**/
#include <stdio.h>
int main(void)
{
int month;
/* Read in a month value */
printf("Enter month: ");
scanf("%d", &month);
/* Tell what season it falls into */
switch (month)
{
case 12:
case 1:
case 2:
printf("month %d is a winter month\n", month);
break;
case 3:
case 4:
case 5:
printf("month %d is a spring month\n", month);
break;
case 6:
case 7:
case 8:
printf("month %d is a summer month\n", month);
break;

}
}

case 9:
case 10:
case 11:
printf("month %d is a fall month\n", month);
break;
case 66:
case 99:
default:
printf("month %d is not a valid month\n", month);

return(0);

If the expression month has the value 3, OS/390 C/C++ passes control to the
following statement:
printf("month %d is a spring month\n", month);

The break statement passes control to the statement following the switch body.
Chapter 9. Statements

213

switch

Related Information
v break on page 197.

while
A while statement repeatedly runs the body of a loop until the controlling expression
evaluates to 0.
A while statement has the form:
%% while ( expression )

statement

OS/390 C/C++ evaluates the expression to determine whether or not to process the
body of the loop. The expression must be convertible to a scalar type. If the
expression evaluates to 0, the body of the loop never runs. If the expression does
not evaluate to 0, OS/390 C/C++ processes the loop body. After the body has run,
control passes back to the expression. Further processing depends on the value of
the condition.
A break, return, or goto statement can cause a while statement to end, even when
the condition does not evaluate to 0.

Example
In the following program, item[index] triples each time the value of the expression
++index is less than MAX_INDEX. When ++index evaluates to MAX_INDEX, the while
statement ends.

CBC3RAA7
/**
** This example illustrates the while statement.
**/
#define MAX_INDEX (sizeof(item) / sizeof(item[0]))
#include <stdio.h>
int main(void)
{
static int item[ ] = { 12, 55, 62, 85, 102 };
int index = 0;
while (index < MAX_INDEX)
{
item[index] *= 3;
printf("item[%d] = %d\n", index, item[index]);
++index;
}
}

return(0);

Related Information
v break on page 197
v goto on page 206
v return on page 208

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Chapter 10. Preprocessor Directives

This chapter describes the following topics on C preprocessor directives:
v Preprocessor Overview
v Preprocessor Directive Format on page 216
v Phases of Preprocessing on page 216
v Macro Definition and Expansion (#define) on page 217
v
v
v
v
v
v
v

Scope of Macro Names (#undef) on page 221

Single Number Sign Operator (#) on page 221
Macro Concatenation with the ## Operator on page 222
Preprocessor Error Directive (#error) on page 223
File Inclusion (#include) on page 224
Predefined Macro Names on page 225
Conditional Compilation Directives on page 233

v Line Control (#line) on page 237

v Null Directive (#) on page 238
v Pragma Directives (#pragma) on page 238

Preprocessor Overview
Preprocessing is a step that takes place before compilation that lets you:
v Replace tokens in the current file with specified replacement tokens.
v Imbed files within the current file.
v Conditionally compile sections of the current file.
v Generate diagnostic messages.
v Change the source line number of the next line, and change the file name of the
current file.
A token is a series of characters that are delimited by white space. The only white
space that is allowed on a preprocessor directive is a blank (space), the horizontal
tab, and comments. The new-line character can also separate preprocessor tokens.
The preprocessed source program file must be a valid C or C++ program.
The following directives control the preprocessor:
#define

Defines a preprocessor directive.

#undef

Removes a preprocessor macro definition.

#error

Defines text for a compile-time error message.

#include

Inserts text from another source file.

#if

Conditionally suppresses portions of source code, depending on the

result of a constant expression.

#ifdef

Conditionally includes source text if you define a macro name.

#ifndef

Conditionally includes source text if you do not define a macro

name.

#else

Conditionally includes source text if the previous #if, #ifdef,

#ifndef, or #elif test fails.

Copyright IBM Corp. 1996, 2000

215

Preprocessor Overview
#elif

Conditionally includes source text if the previous #if, #ifdef,

#ifndef, or #elif test fails, depending on the value of a constant
expression.

#endif

Ends conditional text.

#line

Supplies a line number for compiler messages.

#pragma

Specifies implementation-defined instructions to the compiler.

Preprocessor Directive Format defines the format of a preprocessor directive .

Preprocessor Directive Format

Preprocessor directives begin with the # token that is followed by a preprocessor
keyword. The # token must appear as the first character that is not white space on
a line. The # is not part of the directive name and you can separate it from the
name with white spaces.
A preprocessor directive ends at the new-line character unless the last character of
the line is the \ (backslash) character. If the \ character appears as the last
character in the preprocessor line, the preprocessor interprets the \ and the
new-line character as a continuation marker. The preprocessor deletes the \ (and
the following new-line character) and splices the physical source lines into
continuous logical lines.
Except for some #pragma directives, preprocessor directives can appear anywhere
in a program.

Phases of Preprocessing
Preprocessing appears as if it occurs in several phases.
1. It introduces new-line characters as needed to replace system-dependent
end-of-line indicators, and performs any other system-dependent character-set
translations. It replaces trigraph sequences with equivalent single characters.
2. It deletes each \ (backslash) that is followed by a new-line character pair. It
appends the next source line to the line that contained the sequence.
3. It decomposes the source text into preprocessing tokens and sequences of
white space. A single white space replaces each comment. A source file cannot
end with a partial token or comment.
4. It executes preprocessing directives, and expands macros.
5. It replaces escape sequences in character constants and string literals by their
equivalent values.
6. It concatenates adjacent string literals.
The rest of the compilation process operates on the preprocessor output, which is
syntactically and semantically analyzed and translated. The compiler output is then
linked as necessary with other programs and libraries.

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#define

Macro Definition and Expansion (#define)

A preprocessor define directive directs the preprocessor to replace all subsequent
occurrences of a macro with specified replacement tokens.
A preprocessor #define directive has the form:
%% #

define identifier
(

% '

,
'

identifier

identifier
character

The #define directive can contain an object-like definition or a function-like

definition.

Object-Like Macros
An object-like macro definition replaces a single identifier with the specified
replacement tokens. The following object-like definition causes the preprocessor to
replace all subsequent instances of the identifier COUNT with the constant 1000:
#define COUNT 1000

Consider the following statement:

int arry[COUNT];

If the above statement appears after this definition and in the same file as the
definition, the preprocessor changes the statement to the following statement, in the
output of the preprocessor:
int arry[1000];

Other definitions can make reference to the identifier COUNT:

#define MAX_COUNT COUNT + 100

The preprocessor replaces each subsequent occurrence of MAX_COUNT with

COUNT + 100. The preprocessor then replaces COUNT + 100 with 1000 + 100.
If a number that is partially built by a macro expansion is produced, the
preprocessor does not consider the result to be a single value. For example, the
following will not result in the value 10.2 but in a syntax error:
#define a 10
a.2

Using the following also results in a syntax error:

#define a 10
#define b a.11

Chapter 10. Preprocessor Directives

217

#define
Identifiers that are partially built from a macro expansion may not be produced.
Therefore, the following example does not produce the identifier abcdefg, and
results in a syntax error:
#define d efg
abcd

Function-Like Macros
Function-like macro definition:
An identifier followed by a parameter list in parentheses and the
replacement tokens. OS/390 C/C++ imbeds the parameters in the
replacement code. White space cannot separate the identifier (which is the
name of the macro) and the left parenthesis of the parameter list. A comma
must separate each parameter. For portability, you should not have more
than 31 parameters for a macro.
Function-like macro invocation:
An identifier followed by a list of arguments in parentheses. A comma must
separate each argument. Once the preprocessor identifies a function-like
macro invocation, it substitutes an argument. It replaces a parameter in the
replacement code by the corresponding argument. The preprocessor
completely replaces any macro invocations that are contained in the
argument itself, before the argument replaces its corresponding parameter
in the replacement code.
The following line defines the macro SUM as having two parameters a and b and the
replacement tokens (a + b):
#define SUM(a,b) (a + b)

This definition would cause the preprocessor to change the following statements (if
the statements appear after the previous definition):
c = SUM(x,y);
c = d * SUM(x,y);

In the output of the preprocessor, these statements would appear as follows:

c = (x + y);
c = d * (x + y);

Use parentheses to ensure correct evaluation of replacement text. For example,

consider the following definition:
#define SQR(c)

((c) * (c))

The above definition requires parentheses around each parameter c in the

definition. This way, it can correctly evaluate an expression such as the following
one:
y = SQR(a + b);

The preprocessor expands this statement as follows:

y = ((a + b) * (a + b));

Without parentheses in the definition, the preprocessor does not preserve the
correct order of evaluation, and its output is:
y = (a + b * a + b);

See Operator Precedence and Associativity on page 133, and Parenthesized

Expressions ( ) on page 138 for more information about using parentheses.

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#define
The preprocessor converts the arguments of the single number sign operator (#)
and the double number sign operator ## before it replaces parameters in a
function-like macro.
The number of arguments in a macro invocation must be the same as the number
of parameters in the corresponding macro definition.
Commas in the macro invocation argument list do not act as argument separators
when they are:
v In character constants
v In string literals
v Surrounded by parentheses.
Once defined, a preprocessor identifier remains defined and in scope independent
of the scoping rules of the language. The scope of a macro definition begins at the
definition and it does not end until it encounters a corresponding #undef directive. If
there is no corresponding #undef directive, the scope of the macro definition lasts
until the end of the compilation unit.
The preprocessor does not fully expand a recursive macro. For example, consider
the following definition:
#define x(a,b) x(a+1,b+1) + 4

And assume the following macro definition:

x(20,10)

The above macro definition expands to the following, rather than trying to expand
the macro x over and over, within itself:
x(20+1,10+1) + 4

After the preprocessor expands the macro x, the macro is a call to function x().
You do not require a definition to specify replacement tokens. The following
definition removes all instances of the token debug from subsequent lines in the
current file:
#define debug

You can change the definition of a defined identifier or macro with a second
preprocessor #define directive. However, the second preprocessor #define
directive must be preceded by a preprocessor #undef directive. This is described in
Scope of Macro Names (#undef) on page 221. The #undef directive nullifies the
first definition, so that you can use the same identifier in a redefinition.
Within the text of the program, the preprocessor does not scan character constants
or string constants for macro invocations.

Chapter 10. Preprocessor Directives

219

#define

Examples of #define Directives

The following program contains two macro definitions and a macro invocation that
refers to both of the defined macros:
CBC3RAA8:
/**
** This example illustrates #define directives.
** Example CBC3RAA9 shows the effect of preprocessor
** macro replacement on this program.
**/
#include <stdio.h>
#define SQR(s) ((s) * (s))
#define PRNT(a,b) \
printf("value 1 = %d\n", a); \
printf("value 2 = %d\n", b);
int main(void)
{
int x = 2;
int y = 3;
PRNT(SQR(x),y);
}

return(0);

After the preprocessor interprets this program, it is replaced by code that is

equivalent to the following:
CBC3RAA9:
/**
** This example shows the effect of the preprocessor macro
** replacement on the program in example CBC3RAA8.
**/
#include <stdio.h>
int main(void)
{
int x = 2;
int y = 3;
printf("value 1 = %d\n", ( (x) * (x) ) );
printf("value 2 = %d\n", y);
}

return(0);

This program produces the following output:

value 1 = 4
value 2 = 3

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#undef

Scope of Macro Names (#undef)

A preprocessor undef directive causes the preprocessor to end the scope of a
preprocessor definition.
A preprocessor #undef directive has the form:
%% #

undef identifier

If you have not currently defined the identifier as a macro, the preprocessor ignores
#undef.

Examples of #undef Directives

The following directives define BUFFER and SQR:
#define BUFFER 512
#define SQR(x) ((x) * (x))

The following directives nullify these definitions:

#undef BUFFER
#undef SQR

The preprocessor does not replace any occurrences of the identifiers BUFFER and
SQR that follow these #undef directives with any replacement tokens. Once the
definition of a macro has been removed by an #undef directive, the identifier can be
used in a new #define directive.

Single Number Sign Operator (#)

The # (single number sign) operator converts a parameter of a function-like macro
into a character string literal. For example, consider defining the macro ABC by using
the following directive:
#define ABC(x)

The preprocessor expands all subsequent invocations of the macro ABC into a
character string literal that contains the argument that is passed to ABC. For
example:
Invocation

Result of Macro Expansion

ABC(1)
ABC(Hello there)

"1"
"Hello there"

Note that you can represent the single number sign character # by the trigraph ??=.
Do not confuse the # operator with the null directive documented in Null Directive
(#) on page 238.
Use the # operator in a function-like macro definition according to the following
rules:
v The preprocessor converts a parameter that follows the # operator in a
function-like macro into a character string literal that contains the argument that
is passed to the macro.
Chapter 10. Preprocessor Directives

221

# Operator
v The preprocessor deletes white-space characters that appear before or after the
argument that is passed to the macro.
v The preprocessor uses a single space character to replace multiple white-space
characters that are imbedded within the argument that is passed to the macro.
v If the argument that is passed to the macro contains a string literal, and if a \
(backslash) character appears within the literal, the preprocessor inserts a
second \ character before the original one when it expands the macro.
v If the argument passed to the macro contains a " (double quotation mark)
character, a \ character is inserted before the " when the macro is expanded.
v If the argument passed to the macro contains a ' (single quotation mark)
character, a \ character is inserted before the ' when the macro is expanded.
v The conversion of an argument into a string literal occurs before macro
expansion on that argument.
v If more than one ## operator or # operator appears in the replacement list of a
macro definition, the order of evaluation of the operators is not defined.
v If the result of the macro expansion is not a valid character string literal, the
behavior is undefined.
See Function-Like Macros on page 218 for more information about function-like
macros.

Examples of the # Operator

The following examples demonstrate the use of the # operator:
#define STR(x)
#define XSTR(x)
#define ONE

#x
STR(x)
1

Invocation

Result of Macro Expansion

STR(\n "\n" '\n')

STR(ONE)
XSTR(ONE)
XSTR("hello")

"\n \"\\n\" \'\\n\'"

"ONE"
"1"
"\"hello\""

Related Information
v Macro Definition and Expansion (#define) on page 217
v Scope of Macro Names (#undef) on page 221

Macro Concatenation with the ## Operator

The double number sign operator (##) concatenates two tokens in a macro
invocation (text or arguments), that a macro definition contains.
Consider a macro, XY, which is defined using the following directive:
#define XY(x,y)

x##y

The preprocessor concatenates the last token of the argument for x with the first
token of the argument for y.
For example,

222

Invocation

Result of Macro Expansion

XY(1, 2)
XY(Green, house)

12
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OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

## Operator
Note that you can represent the # character by the trigraph ??=.

Double Number Sign Operator (##)

Use the double number sign operator (##) according to the following rules:
v The ## operator cannot be the very first or very last item in the replacement list
of a macro definition.
v The preprocessor concatenates the last token of the item in front of the ##
operator with the first token of the item that follows the ## operator.
v Concatenation takes place before the preprocessor expands any macros in
arguments.
v If the result of a concatenation is a valid macro name, the result is available for
further replacement. It is available even if it appears in a context in which it is not
normally available.
v If more than one ## operator or # operator appears in the replacement list of a
macro definition, the order of evaluation of the operators is not defined.

Examples of the ## Operator

The following examples demonstrate the use of the ## operator:

#define
#define
#define
#define
#define
#define
#define

ArgArg(x, y)
ArgText(x)
TextArg(x)
TextText
Jitter
bug
Jitterbug

x##y
x##TEXT
TEXT##x
TEXT##text
1
2
3

Invocation

Result of Macro Expansion

ArgArg(lady, bug)
ArgText(con)
TextArg(book)
TextText
ArgArg(Jitter, bug)

ladybug
conTEXT
TEXTbook
TEXTtext
3

Related Information

v Macro Definition and Expansion (#define) on page 217

Preprocessor Error Directive (#error)

A preprocessor error directive causes the preprocessor to generate an error
message and causes the compilation to fail.
The #error directive has the form:

%% #

error ' character

Use the #error directive as a safety check during compilation. For example, if your
program uses preprocessor conditional compilation directives, put #error directives
in the source file. The directives prevent code generation if a section of the program
is reached that should be bypassed.

Chapter 10. Preprocessor Directives

223

#error
For example, consider the following directive:
#error Error in TESTPGM1 - This section should not be compiled

The above directive generates the following error message:

Error in TESTPGM1 - This section should not be compiled

Related Information
v Conditional Compilation Directives on page 233

File Inclusion (#include)

A preprocessor include directive causes the preprocessor to replace the directive
with the contents of the specified file.
A preprocessor #include directive has the form:
%% #

include

"
<

//
//

file_name "

file_name >

You can specify an OS/390 data set or an HFS file for filename. Use double
slashes (//) before the filename to indicate that the file is an OS/390 data set. Use
a single slash (/) anywhere in the filename to indicate an HFS file. See the OS/390
C/C++ Users Guide for more information on specifying include file names.
The preprocessor resolves macros that are contained in an #include directive. After
macro replacement, the resulting token sequence must consist of a file name that is
enclosed in either double quotation marks, or the characters < and >.
For example:
#define MONTH <july.h>
#include MONTH

If you enclose the file name in double quotation marks ("), the preprocessor
searches the directories or libraries that contain the user source files. It then
searches a standard or specified sequence of places, until it finds the specified file.
For example:
#include "payroll.h"

If you enclose the file name in the characters < and >, the preprocessor searches
only the standard or specified places for the specified file. For example:
#include <stdio.h>

The new-line and > characters cannot appear in a file name that is delimited by <
and >. The new-line and " (double quotation marks) characters cannot appear in a
file name that is delimited by double quotation marks. However, the > character can
appear in such a file name.
For more information about include file search paths and compiler options, see the
OS/390 C/C++ Users Guide.

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#include
Declarations that are used by several files can be placed in one file and included
with #include in each file that uses them. For example, the following file defs.h
contains several definitions and an inclusion of an additional file of declarations:
/* defs.h */
#define TRUE 1
#define FALSE 0
#define BUFFERSIZE 512
#define MAX_ROW 66
#define MAX_COLUMN 80
int hour;
int min;
int sec;
#include "mydefs.h"

You can embed the definitions that appear in defs.h with the following directive:
#include "defs.h"

In the following example, a #define combines several preprocessor macros to

define a macro. This macro represents the name of the C standard I/O header file.
A #include makes the header file available to the program.
#define IO_HEADER
.
.
.
#include IO_HEADER
.
.
.

<stdio.h>

/* equivalent to specifying #include <stdio.h> */

Predefined Macro Names

OS/390 C/C++ provides the following predefined macro names:
v ANSI/ISO Standard Predefined Macro Names.
v OS/390 C/C++ Predefined Macro Names on page 226.
These predefined names cannot be subject to a #define or #undef preprocessor
directive.

ANSI/ISO Standard Predefined Macro Names

Both C and C++ provide the following predefined macro names as specified in the
ANSI/ISO C language standard:
Macro Name

Description

__DATE__

A character string literal that contains the date when the source file
was compiled.
The value of __DATE__ changes as the compiler processes any
include files that are part of your source program. The date is in the
form:
"Mmm dd yyyy"

where:
Mmm

Represents the month in an abbreviated form (Jan, Feb,

Mar, Apr, May, Jun, Jul, Aug, Sep, Oct, Nov, or Dec).

Represents the day. If the day is less than 10, the first d is
a blank character.

yyyy

Represents the year.

Chapter 10. Preprocessor Directives

225

Predefined Macro Names

__FILE__

A character string literal that contains the name of the source file.
The value of __FILE__ changes as the compiler processes include
files that are part of your source program. You can set it with the
#line directive, described in Line Control (#line) on page 237.

__LINE__

An integer that represents the current source line number.

The value of __LINE__ changes during compilation as the compiler
processes subsequent lines of your source program. You can set it
with the #line directive, described in Line Control (#line) on
page 237.

__STDC__

The integer 1 (one) indicates that the C compiler supports the

ANSI/ISO standard. For C programs, the compiler sets this macro
to the integer 1 (one) to indicate that the C compiler supports the
ANSI/ISO standard. For C++ programs, the compiler does not
define this macro. The macro has the integer value 0 when you use
it in a #if statement. This indicates that the C++ language is not a
proper superset of C, and that the compiler does not conform to
ANSI/ISO C.
For more information on how C++ differs from ANSI/ISO C, see
Appendix A. C and C++ Compatibility on page 391. The integer 0
(zero) indicates that C++ does not support the ANSI/ISO C
language standard.
Note: If you set the language level to anything other than ANSI, this
macro is undefined.

__TIME__

A character string literal that contains the time when the source file
was compiled.
The value of __TIME__ changes as the compiler processes any
include files that are part of your source program. The time is in the
form:
"hh:mm:ss"

where:
hh

Represents the hour.

Represents the minutes.

Represents the seconds.

Note: The MVS command SET DATE does not affect the value
returned by this macro, or the value returned by the time()
function.
__cplusplus

For C++ programs, the preprocessor sets this macro to the integer
1, which indicates that the compiler is a C++ compiler. Note that
this macro name has no trailing underscores.

OS/390 C/C++ Predefined Macro Names

OS/390 C/C++ provides the following predefined macros. It defines the value of all
these macros when you use the corresponding #pragma directive or compiler option.

226

Macro Name

Description

__ANSI__

C Only. This macro allows only language constructs that support

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

Predefined Macro Names

the ANSI/ISO C standard. It is defined as 1 by using the #pragma
langlvl(ansi) directive or LANGLVL(ANSI) compile option.
__BFP__

|
|
|
|

This macro allows Language Environment headers to map functions

such as sin(x) to appropriate Language Environment calls. OS/390
C/C++ sets this macro to 1 when you specify binary floating point
(BFP) mode by using the FLOAT(IEEE) compiler option.

__CHARSET_LIB__
The preprocessor defines the macro __CHARSET_LIB to a value of 0
when you specify the EBCDIC compiler option, and to a value of 1
when you specify the ASCII compiler option.
__CODESET__

A string literal that represents the character code set of the LOCALE
compile option. If you do not use the LOCALE compile option, the
macro is undefined.

__COMMONC__

C Only. Allows language constructs that are defined by XPG. The

__EXTENDED__ macro enables many of the constructs that
__COMMONC__ does. The compiler defines the __COMMONC__ macro as
1 when you use the #pragma langlvl(commonc) directive or the
LANGLVL(COMMONC) compile-time option.

__COMPAT__

C++ Only. The macro is defined as 1 by using the LANGLVL(COMPAT)

compile option or the #pragma langlvl(compat) directive for C++
language files. It indicates that the compiler allows language
constructs that are compatible with earlier versions of the C++
language.

__COMPILER_VER__
The compiler version. The format of the version number that is
provided by the macro is hex PVRRMMMM:
v P represents the compiler product
0 for C/370
1 for AD/Cycle C/370 and C/C++ for MVS/ESA
2 for OS/390 C/C++
v V represents the version number
v RR represents the release number
v MMMM represents the modification number
In OS/390 C/C++ Version 2 Release 10, the value of the macro is
X'220A0000'.

|
|
__DIGRAPHS__

The preprocessor defines the DIGRAPHS macro to a value of 1

when you specify the DIGRAPH compile option. Otherwise, it is
undefined.

__DLL__

This macro allows you to write conditional code that depends upon
whether or not you have compiled your program as DLL code. For
C++, the preprocessor always defines the macro as 1. For C, the
preprocessor defines the macro as 1 if you specify the DLL compiler
option. Otherwise, it is undefined.

__EXTENDED__

This macro allows additional language constructs that are provided

by the OS/390 C/C++ implementation. It is defined by using the
#pragma langlvl(extended) directive or LANGLVL(EXTENDED) compile
option.

__FILETAG__

A string literal that represents the character code set of the filetag
pragma associated with the current file. If no filetag pragma is
present, the macro is undefined.
Chapter 10. Preprocessor Directives

227

Predefined Macro Names

The value of __FILETAG__ changes as the compiler processes
include files that are part of your source program.
__FUNCTION__

A character string that contains the name of the function that the
OS/390 C/C++ is currently compiling.

__HHW_370__

Indicates that the host hardware is System/370. The preprocessor

predefines this macro to a value of 1 for C and C++ compilers on
System/370.

__HOS_MVS__

Indicates that the host operating system is OS/390. OS/390 C/C++

predefines this macro to have a value of 1.

__IBMC__

C only. This macro indicates the version number of the OS/390 C

compiler. The format of the version number that is provided by the
macro is integer PVRRM:
v P represents the compiler product
0 for C/370
1 for AD/Cycle C/370 and C/C++ for MVS/ESA
2 for OS/390 C/C++
v V represents the version number
v RR represents the release number
v M represents the modification number
In OS/390 C/C++ Version 2 Release 10, the value of the macro is
22100.

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|
__IBMCPP__

C++ Only. This macro indicates the version number of the OS/390
C++ compiler. The format of the version number that is provided by
the macro is integer PVRRM:
v P represents the compiler product
0 for C/370
1 for AD/Cycle C/370 and C/C++ for MVS/ESA
2 for OS/390 C/C++
v V represents the version number
v RR represents the release number
v M represents the modification number
In OS/390 C/C++ Version 2 Release 10, the value of the macro is
22100.

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__IGNERRNO__

The preprocessor defines the macro IGNERRNO to a value of 1

when you specify the IGNERRNO compile option. Otherwise, it is not
defined.
You can use this macro in header files to control the use of a
#pragma linkage builtin.

__INITAUTO__

The preprocessor defines the macro INITAUTO to the

hexadecimal constant (0xnnU), including the parentheses, when
you specify the INITAUTO compile option. Otherwise, it is not
defined.
You can use this macro to control source code for memory
debugging. For example, you can detect values of local variables
that are not explicitly set by your program.
See the description of the __INITAUTO_W__ macro below for
information on how the compiler derives the initial byte and word
value.

228

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

Predefined Macro Names

__INITAUTO_W__

The preprocessor defines the macro __INITAUTO_W__ to the

hexadecimal constant (0xnnnnnnnnU), including the parentheses,
when you specify the INITAUTO compile option. Otherwise, it is not
defined.
The compiler derives the effective initial byte and word value as
follows. If you specify a byte initalizer, nn, then nn is the effective
byte initial value. The effective word initial value is nn repeated 4
times. If you specify a word initializer, nnnnnnnn, the last 2
hexadecimal digits are the effective byte initial value. The effective
word initial value is nnnnnnnn. Note that both the __INITAUTO__ and
the __INITAUTO_W__ macros are on and off at the same time,
depending on whether the INITAUTO option is turned on or off.

__LIBREL__

This macro is defined as the return value of the librel() library

function call. The compiler calls librel() to determine the
Language Environment library level under which it is running.

__LOCALE__

This macro contains a string literal that represents the locale of the
LOCALE compile option. If you do not supply a LOCALE compile
option, the macro is undefined.
The following example illustrates how to set the runtime locale to
the compile-time locale:
main()
{
setlocale(LC_ALL, __LOCALE__);
.
.
.

_LONG_LONG

This macro is defined when the compiler is in a mode that permits

long long int and signed long long int data type. OS/390 C/C++
supports long long types on all language levels except ANSI.
When long long is available, OS/390 C/C++ defines the
_LONG_LONG macro to 1. When it is unavailable, as for the ANSI
language level, the macro is undefined. The class libraries require
long long support.

__LONGNAME__

For C, the integer 1 indicates that you have specified the LONGNAME
compile option or pragma. Otherwise the macro is undefined. For
C++, the value of __LONGNAME__ is always 1, even if you specify
NOLONGNAME.

|
|

C++ Note: In C++, long names are always in the compilation unit.
The LONGNAME compile option in C++ controls whether
non-C++ names will be truncated and uppercased, or
left alone. You can use this option to interface with
existing C code that was compiled with NOLONGNAME, so
that the names match.
|
|
|
|
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|

_MI_BUILTIN

This macro is defined to be 0 for language level ANSI, and 1 for all
other language levels. When it is defined as 1, machine instruction
built-in functions can be called. If the machine instruction built-in
functions are required under language level ANSI, the user needs
to define the _MI_BUILTIN macro by specifying the DEFINE compile
time option.

Chapter 10. Preprocessor Directives

229

Predefined Macro Names

__MVS__

For OS/390 C/C++ programs, OS/390 C/C++ sets this macro to 1,

which indicates that you are compiling the program on OS/390.
Note: This macro is the same as __HOS_MVS__.

__SAA__

C Only. This macro allows only language constructs that support

the most recent level of SAA C standards. It is defined as 1 by
using the #pragma langlvl(saa) directive or LANGLVL(SAA) compile
option.

__SAA_L2__

C Only. This macro allows only language constructs that conform to

SAA Level 2 C standards. It is defined as 1 by using the #pragma
langlvl(saal2) directive or LANGLVL(SAAL2) compile option.

__STRING_CODE_SET__
This macro allows you to change the code page that the compiler
uses for character string literals (character data enclosed in double
quotation marks). To use this macro, you must specify it with the
DEFINE compiler option. The following example shows you how to
do this:
DEFINE(__STRING_CODE_SET__="ISO8859-1")

This macro affects all source files that are processed within a
compilation unit, including user header files, and system header
files. All string literals within a compilation unit must use the same
code page. Note that you can also use the CONVLIT compiler option
instead of this macro. For more information on this option, see the
OS/390 C/C++ Users Guide.
The macro does not affect the following types of string literals:
v String literals that are used in #include directives
v String literals that are used in #pragma directives
v String literals that are used to specify linkage, such as extern
"C" (C++ only)
The following restrictions apply to this macro:
v You cannot specify this macro if you have also used predefined
macros (such as __TIMESTAMP__) that return string literals.
__TARGET_LIB__
The target library version. The format of the version number
provided is hex PVRRMMMM:
v P represents the C or C/C++ library product
0 for C/370
1 for Language Environment/370 and Language Environment
for MVS & VM
2 for OS/390 Release 2 and later
v V represents the version number
v RR represents the release number
v MMMM represents the modification number.
The value of the __TARGET_LIB__ macro depends on the setting of
the TARGET compiler option. Refer to the OS/390 C/C++ Users
Guide for more information on the TARGET option. OS/390 C/C++
sets __TARGET_LIB__ as follows:
TARGET Suboption
__TARGET_LIB__ Setting

230

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Predefined Macro Names

OSV2R10

0x220A0000

OSV2R9

0x22090000

OSV2R8

0x22080000

OSV2R7

0x22070000

OSV2R6

0x22060000

OSV2R5

0x22050000

OSV2R4

0x22040000

OSV1R3

0x21030000

OSV1R2

0x21020000

0xnnnnnnnn

0xnnnnnnnnn

__TEMPINC__

C++ Only. This macro indicates that the compiler is using the
template-implementation file method of resolving template functions.
It is defined as 1 if you are using the TEMPINC compile option.

__THW_370__

This macro indicates that the target hardware is System/370.

OS/390 C/C++ predefines this macro to have a value of 1 for C and
C++ compilers targeting System/370.

__TIMESTAMP__ A character string literal that contains the date and time when the
source file was last modified.
The value of __TIMESTAMP__ changes as the compiler processes
any include files that are part of your source program. The date and
time are in the form:
"Day Mmm dd hh:mm:ss yyyy"

where:
Day

Represents the day of the week (Mon, Tue, Wed, Thu, Fri,
Sat, or Sun).

Mmm

Represents the month in an abbreviated form (Jan, Feb,

Mar, Apr, May, Jun, Jul, Aug, Sep, Oct, Nov, or Dec).

Represents the day. If the day is less than 10, the first d is
a blank character.

Represents the hour.

Represents the minutes.

Represents the seconds.

yyyy

Represents the year.

This macro is available for Partitioned Data Sets (PDSs/PDSEs)

and HFS source files only. For PDSE or PDS members, the ISPF
timestamp for the member is used if present. For PDSE/PDS
members with no ISPF timestamp, sequential datasets, or in stream
source in JCL, OS/390 C/C++ returns a dummy timestamp. For
HFS files, OS/390 C/C++ uses the system timestamp on an HFS
source file. Otherwise, it returns a dummy timestamp, "Mon Jan 1
0:00:01 1990".
__TOS_MVS__

This macro indicates that the target operating system is OS/390.

OS/390 C/C++ predefines this macro to a value of 1.
Chapter 10. Preprocessor Directives

231

Predefined Macro Names

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__370__

This macro indicates that the program is compiled or targeted to

run on System/370. OS/390 C/C++ predefines this macro to a value
of 1 for backward compatibility with earlier releases. For current
programs, use __370__.

__XPLINK__

The preprocessor defines the macroXPLINK to a value of 1

when you specify the XPLINK compiler option. Otherwise, it is not
defined.

Examples of Predefined Macros

CBC3X08A
/**
** This example illustrates the __FUNCTION__ predefined macro
** in a C program.
**/
#include <stdio.h>
int foo(int);
main(int argc, char **argv) {
int k = 1;
printf (" In function %s \n",__FUNCTION__);
foo(k);
}
int foo (int i) {
printf (" In function %s \n",__FUNCTION__);
}

The output of this example is:

In function main
In function foo

CBC3X08B
/**
** This example illustrates the __FUNCTION__ predefined macro
** in a C++ program.
**/
#include <stdio.h>
int foo(int);
main(int argc, char **argv) {
int k = 1;
printf (" In function %s \n",__FUNCTION__);
foo(k);
}
int foo (int i) {
printf (" In function %s \n",__FUNCTION__);
}

The output of this example is:

In function main(int, char **)
In function foo (int)

CBC3X08C
/**
** This example illustrates the __FUNCTION__ predefined macro
** in a C++ program with virtual functions.
**/

232

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

Predefined Macro Names

#include <stdio.h>
class X { public: virtual void func() = 0;};
class Y : public X {
public: void func() { printf("In function %s \n", __FUNCTION__);}
};
main() {
Y aaa;
aaa.func();
}

The output of this example is:

In function Y::func()

Related Information

v Macro Definition and Expansion (#define) on page 217

v Scope of Macro Names (#undef) on page 221
v Line Control (#line) on page 237

Conditional Compilation Directives

A preprocessor conditional compilation directive causes the preprocessor to
conditionally suppress portions of the source code compilation. These directives test
a constant expression or an identifier. They determine which tokens the
preprocessor should pass on to the compiler and which tokens it should bypass
during preprocessing. The directives are:
v #if
v #ifdef
v #ifndef
v #else
v #elif
v #endif
The preprocessor conditional compilation directive spans several lines:
v The condition specification line
v Lines containing code that the preprocessor passes on to the compiler if the
condition evaluates to a nonzero value (optional)
v The #else line (optional)
v Lines containing code that the preprocessor passes on to the compiler if the
condition evaluates to zero (optional)
v The preprocessor #endif directive
For each #if, #ifdef, and #ifndef directive, there are zero or more #elif
directives, zero or one #else directive, and one matching #endif directive. You can
consider all the matching directives to be at the same nesting level.
You can nest conditional compilation directives. The following directives match the
first #else with the #if directive.
#ifdef MACNAME
#

if TEST <=10

else

#
endif
#else
#endif

tokens added if MACNAME is defined

/* tokens added if MACNAME is defined and TEST <= 10 */

/* tokens added if MACNAME is defined and TEST >
/*

tokens added if MACNAME is not defined

10 */
*/

Chapter 10. Preprocessor Directives

233

Conditional Compilation Directives

Each directive controls the block immediately following it. A block consists of all the
tokens that start on the line that follows the directive and ends at the next
conditional compilation directive at the same nesting level.
The preprocessor processes directives in the order in which it encounters them. If
an expression evaluates to zero, the preprocessor ignores the block that follows the
directive.
Consider when the preprocessor ignores a block following a preprocessor directive.
In that case, the tokens are examined only to identify preprocessor directives within
that block so that the preprocessor can determine the conditional nesting level. It
ignores all tokens other than the name of the directive.
The preprocessor processes the first block whose expression is nonzero only. It
ignores the remaining blocks at that nesting level. Consider if the preprocessor has
not processed the blocks at that nesting level and there is a #else directive. In that
case, it processes the block following the #else directive. If it has not processed
any of the blocks at that nesting level and there is no #else directive, the
preprocessor ignores the entire nesting level.

#if, #elif
The #if and #elif directives compare the value of the expression to zero.
If the constant expression evaluates to a nonzero value, the preprocessor passes
the tokens that immediately follow the condition to the compiler.
Consider when the expression evaluates to zero and the conditional compilation
directive contains a preprocessor #elif directive. In that case, the preprocessor
passes the source text located between the #elif and the next #elif or
preprocessor #else directive on to the compiler. The #elif directive cannot appear
after the preprocessor #else directive.
All macros are expanded, any defined expressions are processed and all remaining
identifiers are replaced with the token 0.

%% #

if
elif

constant_expression ' token_sequence

The expressions that are tested must be integer constant expressions with the
following properties:
v They must perform arithmetic using long int values.
v The expression can contain defined macros. No other identifiers can appear in
the expression.
v The constant expression can contain the unary operator defined. This operator
can be used only with the preprocessor keyword #if. The following expressions
evaluate to 1 if you have defined the identifier in the preprocessor; otherwise they
evaluate to 0 (zero):
defined identifier
defined(identifier)

For example:
#if defined(TEST1) || defined(TEST2)

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Conditional Compilation Directives

Note: If you have not defined a macro, the preprocessor assigns a value of 0
(zero) to it. In the following example, TEST must be a macro identifier:
#if TEST >= 1
printf("i = %d\n", i);
printf("array[i] = %d\n", array[i]);
#elif TEST < 0
printf("array subscript out of bounds \n");
#endif

#ifdef
The #ifdef directive checks for the existence of macro definitions.
If you have defined the identifier that is specified as a macro, the preprocessor
passes the tokens that immediately follow the condition on to the compiler.
The preprocessor #ifdef directive has the form:

%% #

ifdef identifier '

token_sequence

The following example defines MAX_LEN to be 75 if EXTENDED is defined for the

preprocessor. Otherwise, the example defines MAX_LEN to be 50.
#ifdef EXTENDED
#
define MAX_LEN 75
#else
#
define MAX_LEN 50
#endif

#ifndef
The #ifndef directive checks for the existence of macro definitions.
If you have not defined the identifier that is specified as a macro, the preprocessor
passes on the tokens that immediately follow the condition to the compiler.
The preprocessor #ifndef directive has the form:

%% #

ifndef identifier '

token_sequence

An identifier must follow the #ifndef keyword. The following example defines
MAX_LEN to be 50 if EXTENDED is not defined for the preprocessor. Otherwise, the
example defines MAX_LEN to be 75.
#ifndef EXTENDED
#
define MAX_LEN 50
#else
#
define MAX_LEN 75
#endif

Chapter 10. Preprocessor Directives

235

Conditional Compilation Directives

#else
Consider when the condition specified in the #if, #ifdef, or #ifndef directive
evaluates to 0, and the conditional compilation directive contains a #else directive.
In that case, the preprocessor passes the source text located between the #else
directive and the #endif directive to the compiler.
The preprocessor #else directive has the form:

%% #

else '

token_sequence

#endif
The preprocessor #endif directive ends the conditional compilation directive.
It has the form:
%% #

endif

Examples of Conditional Compilation Directives

The following example shows how you can nest preprocessor conditional
compilation directives:
#if defined(TARGET1)
#
define SIZEOF_INT 16
#
ifdef PHASE2
#
define MAX_PHASE 2
#
else
#
define MAX_PHASE 8
#
endif
#elif defined(TARGET2)
#
define SIZEOF_INT 32
#
define MAX_PHASE 16
#else
#
define SIZEOF_INT 32
#
define MAX_PHASE 32
#endif

The following program contains preprocessor conditional compilation directives:

CBC3RABC
/**
** This example contains preprocessor
** conditional compilation directives.
**/
#include <stdio.h>
int main(void)
{
static int array[ ] = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 };
int i;
for (i = 0; i <= 4; i++)
{
array[i] *= 2;

236

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Conditional Compilation Directives

#if TEST >= 1
printf("i = %d\n", i);
printf("array[i] = %d\n", array[i]);
#endif

}
return(0);

Line Control (#line)

A preprocessor line control directive supplies line numbers for compiler messages.
It causes the compiler to view the line number of the next source line as the
specified number.
A preprocessor #line directive has the form:
%% #

line

decimal_constant
characters

file_name "

In order for the compiler to produce meaningful references to line numbers in

preprocessed source, the preprocessor inserts #line directives where necessary.
For example, it inserts them at the beginning of and at the end of included text.
A file name specification that is enclosed in double quotation marks can follow the
line number. If you specify a file name, the compiler views the next line as part of
the specified file. If you do not specify a file name, the compiler views the next line
as part of the current source file.
The file_name should be:
v A fully qualified sequential dataset
v A fully qualified PDS or PDSE member
v An HFS path name
The entire string is taken unchanged as the alternate source file name for the
compilation unit (for example, for use by the debugger). Consider if you are using it
to redirect the debugger to source lines from this alternate file. In this case, you
must ensure the file exists as specified and the line number on the #line directive
matches the file contents. The compiler does not check this.
The token sequence on a #line directive is subject to macro replacement. After
macro replacement, the resulting character sequence must consist of a decimal
constant, optionally followed by a file name that is enclosed in double quotation
marks.
If you do not specify file_name, the preprocessor takes the line number to refer to
the current source file.
Note: The compiler ignores #line directives when the EVENTS compiler option is in
effect.

Chapter 10. Preprocessor Directives

237

#line

Example of #line Directives

You can use #line control directives to make the compiler provide more meaningful
error messages. The following program uses #line control directives to give each
function an easily recognizable line number:

CBC3RABD
/**
** This example illustrates #line directives.
**/
#include <stdio.h>
#define LINE200 200
int main(void)
{
func_1();
func_2();
}
#line 100
func_1()
{
printf("Func_1 - the current line number is %d\n",_ _LINE_ _);
}
#line LINE200
func_2()
{
printf("Func_2 - the current line number is %d\n",_ _LINE_ _);
}

This program produces the following output:

Func_1 - the current line number is 102
Func_2 - the current line number is 202

Null Directive (#)

The null directive performs no action. It consists of a single # on a line of its own.
Do not confuse the null directive with the # operator or the character that starts a
preprocessor directive.
In the following example, if MINVAL is a defined macro name, the preprocessor takes
no action. If MINVAL is not a defined identifier, the preprocessor defines MINVAL to 1.
#ifdef MINVAL
#
#else
#define MINVAL 1
#endif

Pragma Directives (#pragma)

A pragma is an implementation-defined instruction to the compiler. It has the
general form:

%% #

238

pragma '

character_sequence

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

#pragma
In the above syntax diagram, character_sequence is a series of characters that
gives a specific compiler instruction and arguments, if any.
The character_sequence on a pragma is not subject to macro substitutions, unless
otherwise stated.
You can specify more than one pragma construct on a single #pragma directive. The
compiler ignores unrecognized pragmas.
The OS/390 C/C++ compiler recognizes the following pragmas:
chars

Sets the sign type of character data.

checkout

Controls the diagnostic messages that are

generated by the C compiler CHECKOUT option, and
the C++ compiler INFO option.

comment

Places a comment into the object module. Under

some circumstances it places the comment in the
load module as well. This pragma must appear
before any C or C++ code.

convlit

Provides a means for changing the assumed code

page for character string literals.

csect

Identifies the name for either the code, static, or

test control section (CSECT). The IPA Link step
does not use this name; it uses CSECT names that
are specified in the IPA control file.

define

C++ Only. This pragma forces the definition of a

template class without actually defining an object of
the class.

disjoint

C Only. This pragma lists the identifiers that are not

aliased to each other within the scope of their use.

environment

C Only. Use OS/390 C code as an assembler

substitute.

export

Declares that an external function or variable is to

be exported.

filetag

Specifies the code set in which the source code

was entered.

hdrstop

Manually terminates the initial sequence of

#include directives that are being considered for
precompilation. This pragma must appear before
any code.

implementation

C++ Only. This pragma tells the compiler the name

of the file that contains the function template
definitions. These definitions correspond to the
template declarations in the include file that
contains the pragma.

info

C++ Only. This pragma controls the diagnostic

messages that are generated by the INFO compiler
option.

inline

C Only. This pragma specifies that a C function is

to be inlined.
Chapter 10. Preprocessor Directives

239

#pragma

240

isolated_call

Lists functions that do not alter data objects visible

at the time of the function call.

langlvl

Selects the C or C++ language level for

compilation.

leaves

Specifies that a named function never returns to the

instruction following the call to that function. The
library function longjmp is an example of such a
function. Note that this pragma directive provides
more freedom to the optimizer. Under the right
conditions, it might aggressively optimize the code
following the call site.

linkage

C Only. This pragma identifies the linkage or calling

convention that is used on a function call.

longname

Specifies that the compiler is to generate

not-truncated and mixed case names in the object
module that is produced by the compiler. It must
appear before any code.

map

Tells the compiler to convert all references to an

identifier to a new name.

margins

Specifies the columns in the input line to scan for

input to the compiler.

noinline

Specifies that a C or C++ function is not to be

inlined.

options

C Only. This pragma specifies options to the

compiler in your source program.

option_override

Directs the compiler to optimize functions at

different optimization levels than the one specified
on the command line by the OPTIMIZE option. With
this pragma directive, you can leave specified
functions unoptimized, while optimizing the rest of
your application. This eases the debugging effort of
functions that are problematic under optimization,
by allowing you to isolate those functions.

pack

Specifies the alignment rules to use for the

structures, unions, and classes that follow it.

page

C Only. This pragma skips pages of the generated

source listing.

pagesize

C Only. This pragma sets the number of lines per

page for the generated source listing.

priority

C++ Only. This pragma specifies the order in which

OS/390 C/C++ initializes static objects at run time.

reachable

Specifies that you can reach the instruction after a

specified function from a point in the program other
than the return statement in the named function.
The library function, setjmp, is an example of such
a function.

runopts

Specifies a list of run-time options for OS/390

C/C++ to use at execution time.

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

#pragma
sequence

Defines the section of the input line that is to

contain sequence numbers.

skip

C Only. This pragma skips lines of the generated

source listing.

strings

Sets storage type for strings.

subtitle

C Only. This pragma places text on generated

source listings.

target

C Only. This pragma specifies the operating system

or run-time environment for which OS/390 C/C++
creates the object module. It must appear before
any C code.

title

C Only. This pragma places text on generated

source listings.

variable

Specifies that OS/390 C/C++ is to use the named

object in a reentrant or non-reentrant fashion.

wsizeof

Specifies the behavior of the sizeof operator either

to that prior to the C/C++ Version 1 Release 3
compilers, or to the OS/390 C/C++ compiler.

Restrictions on #pragma Directives

The following table lists the restrictions on using #pragma directives, and shows
whether a directive is valid in C, C++, or both. A blank entry in the table indicates
no restrictions.
Table 12. Restrictions on #pragmas
#pragma

Restriction on Number of
Occurrences

Restriction on Placement

C++

chars

Once.

On the first #pragma directive, and before

any code or directive, except for the
pragmas filetag, longname, langlvl or
target, which may precede this directive.

yes

checkout
comment

The copyright directive can

appear only once.

csect

Three times. Once for code,

once for static data, and once
for debug information.

The copyright directive must appear

before any C or C++ code.

convlit
define

Wherever a declaration is allowed.

disjoint

Wherever a declaration is allowed.

environment
Cannot export the main() function.
Once per file scope.

yes

On the first #pragma directive, and before yes

any code or directive, except for all
conditional compilation directives (such as
#if or #ifdef) which may precede this
directive.

yes

hdrstop
implementation

yes
yes

export
filetag

yes

Wherever a declaration is allowed.

yes

Chapter 10. Preprocessor Directives

241

#pragma
Table 12. Restrictions on #pragmas (continued)
#pragma

Restriction on Number of
Occurrences

Restriction on Placement

info

C++
yes

inline

At file scope.

yes

isolated_call

Wherever a declaration is allowed.

yes

noinline

At file scope.

yes

leaves
linkage

Can appear more than once for

each function, as long as one
#pragma does not contradict
another #pragma.

longname

Once.

yes

On the first #pragma directive, except for

pragmas filetag, chars, langlvl or
target, which may precede this directive.

yes

map

yes

margins

yes

options

Before any C code.

yes

option_override

yes

pack

yes

page

yes

pagesize

yes

priority

yes

reachable

yes

runopts

yes

sequence

yes

skip

yes

strings

Once.

subtitle
target

Before any C or C++ code.

yes

yes
Once.

On the first #pragma directive, and before yes

any code or directive, except for pragmas
filetag, chars, langlvl, or longname,
which may precede this directive.

title

yes

variable

yes

wsizeof

yes

IPA Considerations
Interprocedural Analysis (IPA), through the IPA compiler option, is a mechanism for
performing optimizations across the compilation units of your OS/390 C or C++
program. IPA also performs optimizations not otherwise available with the C/C++
compiler. Refer to the OS/390 C/C++ Programming Guide for an overview of IPA.
Many #pragma directives do not have any special behavior under IPA. They have
the same effect on a program compiled with or without the IPA option.

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OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

#pragma
You may see changes during the IPA Link step, due to the effect of a #pragma
directive. The IPA Link step detects and resolves the conflicting effects of #pragma
directives, and the conflicting effects of #pragma directives and compiler options that
you specified for different compilation units. There may also be conflicting effects
between #pragma directives and equivalent compiler options that you specified for
the IPA Link step.
IPA resolves these conflicts similar to the way it resolves conflicting effects of
compiler options that are specified for the IPA Compile step and the IPA Link step.
The Compiler Options Map section of the IPA Link step listing shows the conflicting
effects between compiler options and #pragma directives, along with the resolutions.
For those #pragma directives where there are special considerations for IPA, the
following #pragma descriptions include IPA-related information.

chars
The #pragma chars directive specifies that the compiler is to treat all char objects as
signed or unsigned.
%% #

pragma chars (

unsigned
signed

This pragma must appear on the first #pragma directive. It must also appear before
any code or directive, except for the pragmas filetag, longname, langlvl or target.
These pragmas may precede this directive. Once specified, it applies to the rest of
the file and you cannot turn it off. If a source file contains any functions that you
want to compile without #pragma chars, place these functions in a different file.
The default character type behaves like an unsigned char.

checkout
The #pragma checkout directive is a OS/390 C/C++ directive and an addition to the
SAA Standard.
This pragma can appear anywhere that a preprocessor directive is valid.
%% #

pragma checkout (

resume
suspend

With #pragma checkout, you can suspend the diagnostics that the CHECKOUT C
compiler option or the INFO C++ compiler option performs during specific portions of
your program. You can then resume the same level of diagnostics later in the file.
Nested #pragma checkout directives are allowed and behave as the following
example demonstrates:

Chapter 10. Preprocessor Directives

243

#pragma
/* Assume CHECKOUT(PPTRACE) had been specified */
#pragma checkout(suspend) /* No CHECKOUT diagnostics are performed */
...
#pragma checkout(suspend) /* No effect */

...

#pragma checkout(resume)
/* No effect */

...
#pragma checkout(resume)
/* CHECKOUT(PPTRACE) diagnostics continue */

comment
The #pragma comment directive places a comment into the object module. This
pragma must appear before any C or C++ code or directive in a source file. The
"token_sequence" field in this pragma has a 1024-byte limit.
%% #

pragma comment

% (

compiler
date
timestamp
copyright
user

%
)

, " token_sequence "

The comment type can be:

compiler

The compiler appends its name and version in an END information

record at the end of the generated object module. OS/390 C/C++
does not include the name and version when it generates an
executable, nor does it load the name and version into memory
when it runs the program. This information can be printed out using
the C370LIB utility with the MAP option.

date

The compiler appends the date and time of compilation in an END

information record at the end of the generated object module.
OS/390 C/C++ does not include the date and time when it
generates an executable nor does it load the date and time into
memory when it runs the program. This information can be printed
out using the C370LIB utility with the MAP option.

timestamp

The compiler appends the date and time of the last modification of
the source in an END information record at the end of the
generated object module. OS/390 C/C++ does not include the date
and time when it generates an executable nor does it load the date
and time into memory when it runs the program. This information
can be printed out using the C370LIB utility with the MAP option.
If OS/390 C/C++ cannot find the timestamp for a source file, the
#pragma comment directive returns Mon Jan 1 0:00:01 1990.

244

The compiler places text that is specified by the token_sequence, if

any, into the generated object module. When OS/390 C/C++
creates an executable, it includes the token_sequence in the load
module. The module is loaded into memory when OS/390 C/C++
runs the program.

user

The compiler places the text that is specified by the

token_sequence, if any, into the generated object module. When
OS/390 C/C++ creates an executable, the token_sequence is

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

#pragma
included in the load module. Note that OS/390 C/C++ does not
necessarily load it into memory when it runs the program. OS/390
C/C++ places the token_sequence on END records in columns 34
to 71.
The characters in the token_sequence field, if specified, must be enclosed in double
quotation marks (").
You can display the object-file comments by using the MAP option for the C370LIB
utility.

IPA Considerations

The #pragma comment directive affects the IPA Compile step only if the OBJECT
suboption of the IPA compile option is in effect.
During the partitioning process in the IPA Link step, the compiler places the text
string information #pragma comment at the beginning of partition 0. Partition 0 is the
initialization partition.

convlit
The #pragma convlit directive allows you to suspend the string literal conversion
that the convlit compiler option performs during specific portions of your program.
You can then resume the conversion at some later point in the file.
%% #

pragma convlit (

resume
suspend

The pragma is effective only when you specify the CONVLIT compile option.
If you select the PPONLY option, OS/390 C/C++ echoes the convlit pragma to the
expanded source file.
You can nest #pragma convlit directives. They behave as the following example
demonstrates:
/* Assume CONVLIT (<codepage>) had been specified */
#pragma convlit(suspend) /* No string literal conversion */
...
#pragma convlit(suspend) /* No effect */

...

#pragma convlit(resume)
/* No effect */

...
#pragma convlit(resume)
/* String literal conversion continues

Macros, user-defined and pre-defined, are replaced before tokenization; therefore,

using #pragma convlit(suspend) and #pragma convlit(resume) around a macro
definition would have no effect.
For example:
/* No effect on macro definition when using #pragma convlit(suspend)
and #pragma convlit(resume)*/
main() {
#pragma convlit (suspend)
#define str "Hello World!"
puts(str);
/* macro str is not converted */
Chapter 10. Preprocessor Directives

245

#pragma
#pragma convlit(resume)
}

puts(str);

/* macro str is converted */

csect
The #pragma csect directive identifies the name for either the code, static, or debug
control section (CSECT).
%% #

pragma csect (

CODE
STATIC
TEST

, " name " )

It is a OS/390 C/C++ specific pragma, and an addition to the SAA Standard.

code

Specifies the CSECT that contains the executable code (C functions) and
constant data.

static Designates the CSECT that contains all program variables with the static
storage class and all character strings.
test

Designates the CSECT that contains debug information. You must specify
the TEST option.

The above syntax encloses the name in double quotation marks. This is the name
that is used for the applicable CSECT (code, static, or test). OS/390 C/C++ does
not map the name in any way, including uppercasing. If the name is greater than 8
characters, you must turn on the LONGNAME option and use the binder. The name
must not conflict with the name of an exposed name (external function or object) in
a source file. In addition, it must not conflict with another #pragma csect directive or
#pragma map directive. For example, the name of the code CSECT must differ from
the name of the static and test CSECTs.
At most, three #pragma csect directives can appear in a source program as follows:
v One for the code CSECT
v One for the static CSECT
v One for the debug CSECT
Consider when there is no #pragma csect directive in the source file and you
specify the CSECT compile option. In this case, OS/390 C/C++ automatically
generates CSECT names from the source file name. For examples that show the
file names that are generated when using either the #pragma csect or the CSECT
compile option, see the section that describes the CSECT option in the OS/390
C/C++ Users Guide.
Private code has a disadvantage. When new code is linked to an executable
containing old code, the new code replaces the old. The old code, however, is not
discarded from the executable. The size of the executable will grow, and you may
get duplicates of functions. Naming the CSECTs with this directive replaces the old
code with the new, and removes the old code from the executable. If you want
replacement and removal, name the code, static, and test CSECT.

246

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

#pragma

IPA Considerations

Use the #pragma csect directive when naming regular objects only if the OBJECT
suboption of the IPA compile option is in effect. Otherwise, the compiler discards
the CSECT names that #pragma csect generated.
Refer to the IPA Link Step chapter in the OS/390 C/C++ Users Guide for
information on how the IPA Link step sets CSECT names.

define (C++ Only)

The #pragma define directive forces the definition of a template class without
actually defining an object of the class.
%% #

pragma define (

template_class_name )

The pragma can appear anywhere that a declaration is allowed. Use the pragma to
organize your program to efficiently or automatically generate template functions.

disjoint (C Only)
The #pragma disjoint directive lists the identifiers that are not aliased to each other
within the scope of their use. In the following syntax diagram, identifier is the name
of a variable:
%% #pragma disjoint

identifier '

% (
'

identifier
'

The directive informs the compiler that none of the identifiers listed shares the same
physical storage, which provides more opportunity for optimizations. If any
identifiers actually share physical storage, the pragma may give incorrect results.
The pragma can appear anywhere in the source program that a declaration is
allowed. An identifier in the directive must be visible at the point in the program
where the pragma appears. The identifiers in the disjoint name list cannot refer to
any of the following:
v A member of a class, structure, or union
v A structure, union, or enumeration tag
v An enumeration constant
v A typedef name
v A label
You must declare the identifiers before using them in the pragma. Your program
must not dereference a pointer in the identifier list nor use it as a function argument
before it appears in the directive.

Chapter 10. Preprocessor Directives

247

#pragma
The following example shows the use of #pragma disjoint.
int a, b, *ptr_a, *ptr_b;
#pragma disjoint(*ptr_a, b)
/* *ptr_a never points to b */
#pragma disjoint(*ptr_b, a)
/* *ptr_b never points to a */
one_function()
{
b = 6;
*ptr_a = 7;
/* Assignment will not change the value of b
}

another_function(b);

/* Argument "b" has the value 6

External pointer ptr_a does not share storage with and never points to the external
variable b. Consequently, assigning 7 to the object to which ptr_a points will not
change the value of b. Likewise, external pointer ptr_b does not share storage with
and never points to the external variable a. The compiler can assume that the
argument to another_function has the value 6 and will not reload the variable from
memory.

environment (C Only)
The #pragma environment directive is an OS/390 C directive, and an addition to the
SAA Standard.
%% #

pragma environment (

function

,nolib

With the #pragma environment directive, you can use OS/390 C code as an
assembler substitute. See the OS/390 C/C++ Programming Guide for more
information on this use. The directive allows you to do the following:
v Specify entry points other than main
v Omit setting up an OS/390 C environment on entry to this function
v Specify several system exits that are written in OS/390 C code in the same
executable
If you specify nolib, the environment is established, and the library is not loaded at
run time. If you do not specify anything, the library is loaded.
Note: If you specify any other value than nolib after the function name, behavior is
not defined.

export
The #pragma export directive declares that a function or variable is to be exported.
It also specifies the name of the function or variable to be referenced outside the
module. You can use this #pragma to export functions or variables from a DLL
module.
%% #

pragma export (

function
variable

#pragma export is an OS/390 C/C++ specific directive and an addition to the SAA
standard.

248

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

#pragma
With the #pragma export directive, you can export specific functions and variables to
the users of your DLL. See the OS/390 C/C++ Programming Guide for more
information on creating and using DLLs.
You can specify this pragma anywhere in the DLL source code, on its own line, or
with other pragmas. You can also specify it before or after the definition of the
variable or function. You must externally define the exported function or variable.
If the specification for a const variable in a #pragma export directive conflicts with
the ROCONST option, the pragma directive takes precedence over the compiler option,
and the compiler issues an informational message. The const variable gets
exported and it is considered re-entrant.
Note: You cannot export the main() function. You can also use the _Export
keyword to export a function.

IPA Considerations

If you specify this #pragma in your source code in the IPA Compile step, you cannot
override the effects of this #pragma on the IPA Link step.

filetag
The #pragma filetag directive specifies the code set in which the source code was
entered.
%% #

pragma filetag ( "code set name" )

Since the # character is variant between code sets, use the trigraph representation
??= instead of # as illustrated below.
The #pragma filetag directive must appear at most once per source file. It must
appear before the first statement or directive, except for all conditional compilation
directives, which may precede this directive. For example:
??=ifdef COMPILER_VER
/* This is allowed. */
??=pragma filetag ("code set")
??=endif

It should not appear in combination with any other #pragma directives. For example,
the directive is incorrect:
??=pragma filetag ("IBM-1047") export (baffle_1)

If there are comments before the pragma, OS/390 C/C++ does not translate them
to the code page that is associated with the LOCALE option.
See the OS/390 C/C++ Programming Guide for details on using this directive with
the LOCALE option.

hdrstop
The #pragma hdrstop directive manually terminates the initial sequence of #include
directives that are being considered for precompilation.

Chapter 10. Preprocessor Directives

249

#pragma
%% #

It
v
v
v

pragma hdrstop

has no effect under the following conditions:

The initial sequence of #include directives has already ended
You do not specify either the GENPCH option or the USEPCH option
It does not appear in the primary source file

The OS/390 C/C++ Users Guide describes how to structure your files so the
compiler can take full advantage of the precompiled headers.

Examples

The following example only precompiles the header h1.h by using the file
default.pch (provided you specify USEPCH or GENPCH). If you specify
USEPCH(dave.pch) GENPCH(john.pch), the compiler will look for the precompiled
headers in john.pch and will regenerate them if they are not found or not usable.
#include "h1.h"
#pragma hdrstop
#include "h2.h"
main () {}

The following example does not use nor does it generate precompiled headers for
the compilation, even if you specify GENPCH or USEPCH.
#pragma hdrstop
#include "h1.h"
#include "h2.h"
main () {}

implementation (C++ Only)

The #pragma implementation directive tells the compiler the name of the file
containing the function-template definitions. These definitions correspond to the
template declarations in the include file which contains the pragma.
%% #

pragma implementation (

string_literal )

This pragma can appear anywhere that a declaration is allowed. Use this pragma to
organize your program to efficiently or automatically generate template functions.
Note: #pragma implementation is only effective if the TEMPINC option is in effect. If
the NOTEMPINC option is in effect, you must test the value of the __TEMPINC__
macro, and conditionally include the required source.

info (C++ Only)

The #pragma info directive controls the diagnostic messages that are generated by
the INFO compile option.
%% #

pragma info (

suspend
resume

You can use this pragma directive in place of the INFO option.

250

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

#pragma
Use #pragma info suspend to suspend the diagnostics that the INFO compiler option
performs during specific portions of your program. You can then use #pragma info
resume to resume the same level of diagnostics later in the file.
You can also use #pragma checkout to suspend or resume diagnostics.
The OS/390 C/C++ Users Guide describes the INFO option.

inline (C Only) - also see noinline

The #pragma inline directive specifies whether or not the function is to be inlined.
The pragma can be anywhere in the source, but must be at file scope. #pragma
inline has no effect if you have not specified the INLINE or the OPT compiler option.
%% #

pragma

inline
noinline

( function )

The #pragma inline directive is an OS/390 C directive and is an addition to the

SAA Standard.
The #pragma noinline directive is an OS/390 C/C++ directive and is an addition to
the SAA Standard.
If you specify #pragma inline, the function is inlined on every call. The function is
inlined in both selective (NOAUTO) and automatic (AUTO) mode. For OS/390 C++, you
can inline functions using the inline keyword.
If you specify #pragma noinline in your C or C++ program, the function is never
inlined when you call it. This pragma has no effect when you specify NOAUTO with
the OS/390 C INLINE compile option.
The default when compiling with the OPTIMIZE option is to inline functions even if
the OS/390 C++ inline keyword has not been specified. The default when
compiling with the NOOPTIMIZE option is to only inline C++ functions that are:
v Implicitly inlined; that is when the code for a member function is included inside a
class definition
v Explicitly inlined; that is when the inline keyword is used when declaring a
function
For OS/390 C++, you can place the #pragma noinline directive anywhere in the
source. For OS/390 C it must be at file scope.
The #pragma noinline directive is the only way to turn off inlining of functions that
have been implicitly or explicitly inlined. It also takes precedence over the OS/390
C++ inline keyword.

IPA Considerations
The compiler uses the IPA Link control file directive in the following cases:
v If you specify both the #pragma noinline directive and the IPA Link control file
inline directive for a function
v If you specify both the #pragma inline directive and the IPA Link control file
noinline directive for a function

Chapter 10. Preprocessor Directives

251

#pragma

Example
CBC3RABE:
/* this example shows how #pragma inline may be used */
#pragma csect(code,"MYCFILE")
#pragma csect(static,"MYSFILE")
#pragma options(INLINE)
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
static int (writerecord) (int, char *);
#pragma inline (writerecord)
int main()
{
int chardigit;
int digit;
printf("Enter a digit\n");
chardigit = getchar();
digit = chardigit - '0';
if (digit < 0 || digit > 9)
{
printf("The digit you entered is not between 1 and 8\n");
exit(99);
}

switch(digit)
{
case 0:
writerecord(0, "entered 0");
break;
case 1:
writerecord(1, "entered 1");
break;
default:
writerecord(9, "entered other");
}

static int writerecord (int digit, char *phrase)

{
switch (digit)
{
case 0:
printf("writerecord 0: ");
printf("%s\n", phrase);
break;
case 1:
printf("writerecord 1: ");
printf("%s\n", phrase);
break;
case 2:
printf("writerecord 2: ");
printf("%s\n", phrase);
break;
case 3:
printf("writerecord 3: ");
printf("%s\n", phrase);
break;
default:
printf("writerecord X: ");
printf("%s\n", phrase);

252

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

#pragma
}
}

return 0;

isolated_call
The #pragma isolated_call directive lists functions that do not alter data objects
visible at the time of the function call. In the following syntax diagram, identifier is a
primary expression that can be an identifier, operator function, conversion function,
or qualified name:
,
%% # pragma isolated_call ( '

identifier

The pragma must appear before calls to the functions in the identifier list. You must
declare the identifiers that are listed before using them in the pragma. They must
be of type function, or a typedef of function. If a name refers to an overloaded
function, all variants of that function declared before the pragma are marked as
isolated calls.
The pragma informs the compiler that none of the functions listed has side effects.
For example:
v Accessing a volatile object
v Modifying an external object
v Modifying a file
Otherwise, you can consider calling a function that does any of the above to be
side effects.
Consider any change in the state of the run-time environment a side effect. Passing
function arguments by reference is one side effect that OS/390 C/C++ allows. In
general, however, functions with side effects can give incorrect results when listed
in #pragma isolated_call directives.
Marking a function as isolated indicates to the optimizer that external and static
variables cannot be changed by the called function. It also indicates that references
to storage can be deleted from the calling function where appropriate. Do not
specify a function that calls itself or relies on local static storage. Listing such
functions in the #pragma isolated_call directive can give unpredictable results.
When a function is marked as isolated, the compiler can make more optimistic
assumptions about what variables the function modifies. The compiler may move
function calls to functions that are flagged as isolated to a different location in the
code or even remove them entirely.

Chapter 10. Preprocessor Directives

253

#pragma
The following example routines shows you when to use the #pragma isolated_call
directive (routine addmult). It also shows you when not to use it (routines same and
check):
#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>
int addmult(int op1, int op2);
#pragma isolated_call(addmult)
/* This routine is a good candidate to be flagged as isolated as its */
/* result is constant with constant input and it has no side effects. */
int addmult(int op1, int op2) {
int rslt;

rslt = op1*op2 + op2;

return rslt;

/* The routine 'same' should not be flagged as isolated as its state */

/* (the static variable delta) can change when it is called.
*/
int same(double op1, double op2) {
static double delta = 1.0;
double temp;

temp = (op1-op2)/op1;
if (fabs(temp) < delta)
return 1;
else {
delta = delta / 2;
return 0;
}

/* The routine 'check' should not be flagged as isolated as it has a */

/* side effect of possibly emitting output.
*/
int check(int op1, int op2) {
if (op1 < op2)
return -1;
if (op1 > op2)
return 1;
printf("Operands are the same.\n");
return 0;
}

IPA Considerations

If you specify this #pragma in your source code in the IPA Compile step, you cannot
override the effects of this #pragma on the IPA Link step.

langlvl
The #pragma langlvl directive selects the C or C++ language level for compilation.
%% #

254

pragma langlvl (

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

ansi
commonc
extended
saa
saal2
compat

#pragma
You can only specify this pragma only once in a source file. It must appear before
any statements in a source file. The compiler uses predefined macros in the header
files to make declarations and definitions available that define the specified
language level.
The default language level is EXTENDED.
ansi

Defines the predefined macros ANSI and STDC and

undefines other langlvl variables. It allows only language
constructs that support the ANSI/ISO C standards.

extended

Defines the predefined macro EXTENDED and undefines other

langlvl variables. The default language level is EXTENDED. OS/390
C/C++ defines the __EXTENDED__ macro as 1. Note that #pragma
langlvl(EXTENDED) has no effect in the OS/390 UNIX environment.
In OS/390 UNIX, you must use the compile option
LANGLVL(EXTENDED) instead of the pragma.

commonc

Defines the predefined macro COMMONC and EXTENDED and

undefines other langlvl variables. This language level allows
compilation of code that contains constructs defined by the X/Open
Portability Guide (XPG) Issue 3 C language (referred to as
Common Usage C). It is roughly equivalent to what is commonly
known as K&R C. See Appendix B. Common Usage C Language
Level on page 397 for more information about the OS/390 C/C++
implementation of Common Usage C.
OS/390 C/C++ does not support this macro for C++.

saa

Defines the predefined macro SAA and undefines other langlvl

variables. OS/390 C/C++ does not support this macro for C++.

saal2

Defines the predefined macro __SAA_L2__ and undefines other

langlvl variables. OS/390 C/C++ does not support this macro for
C++.

compat

Defines the predefined macro COMPAT and undefines other

langlvl variables. This macro is not supported for C. It is provided
for cfront compatibility.

The #pragma langlvl(extended) permits packed decimal types and it issues a

warning message when it detects assignment between integral types and pointer
types.
The #pragma langlvl(ansi) does not permit packed decimal types and issues an
error message when it detects assignment between integral types and pointer
types. Packed decimal applies to C only.
If you specify #pragma langlvl(ansi), OS/390 C/C++ does not allow the NOEXH
compile option, since NOEXH breaks ANSI conformance. The EXH and NOEXH compile
options apply to C++ only.
The LANGLVL compile option has the same effect as this pragma. The OS/390
C/C++ Users Guide describes this option.

Chapter 10. Preprocessor Directives

255

#pragma

leaves
The #pragma leaves directive takes a function name, and specifies that the function
never returns to the instruction following a call to that function.
,
%% #

pragma leaves (

' function_name

When enabled, the leaves pragma provides information to the compiler that enables
it to explore additional opportunities for optimization. Also see reachable on
page 268.
When you specify the LIBANSI compiler option, you tell the compiler that ANSI C
library function names refer to ANSI C library functions. These function names do
not refer to your own version of the library functions, which may have different
semantics. In this case, the compiler checks whether the longjmp family of functions
(longjmp, _longjmp, siglongjmp, and _siglongjmp) contain #pragma leaves. If the
functions do not contain this pragma directive, the compiler will insert this directive
for that function. This is not shown in the listing.

IPA Considerations

If you specify the #pragma leaves directive in your source code in the IPA compile
step, you cannot override the effects of this directive in the IPA link step.

Effect on IPA Link Step

The leave (and reachable) status set by the IPA compile step remains in effect and
cannot be unset by option settings during the IPA Link Step. (For more information,
refer to reachable on page 268 as well.)

linkage
The #pragma linkage directive identifies the entry point of modules that are used in
interlanguage calls.
%% #

pragma linkage (

identifier,

OS
FETCHABLE
PLI
COBOL
FORTRAN

, RETURNCODE
OS_DOWNSTACK
OS_UPSTACK
OS_NOSTACK
OS31_NOSTACK
REFERENCE

The identifier either identifies the name of the function that is to be the entry point
of the module. Or, it identifies a typedef that will be used to define the entry point.
In C++, you accomplish this by using extern "linkage-type" when declaring an
identifier, for example,
extern "FORTRAN" void f();
extern "COBOL"
void g();

256

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

#pragma
The #pragma linkage directive also designates other entry points within a program
that you can use in a fetch operation.
The following are the linkage entry points:
FETCHABLE

Specifies a name, other than main, as an entry point within the

program. This pragma also indicates that this name (identifier in the
syntax diagram) can be used in a fetch() operation. See the
OS/390 C/C++ Run-Time Library Reference for more information on
the use of the fetch() library function.

Designates an entry point (identifier in the syntax diagram) as an OS

linkage entry point. OS linkage is the basic linkage convention that is
used by the operating system. If the caller is compiled with
NOXPLINK, on entry to the called routine it registers 13 points to a
standard Language Environment stack frame, beginning with a
72-byte save area (which is compatible with Language Environment
languages that expect by-reference calling conventions and with the
Language Environment-supplied Assembler prologue macro). If the
caller is compiled with XPLINK, the behavior depends on the
OSCALL suboption of the XPLINK compiler option. This suboption
selects the behavior for linkage OS from among OS_DOWNSTACK,
OS_UPSTACK, and OS_NOSTACK (the default). This means that
applications, which use linkage OS to communicate among C or
C++ functions, will need source changes when recompiled with
XPLINK. See the description that follows for REFERENCE.

PLI

Designates an entry point (identifier in the syntax diagram) as a

PL/I linkage entry point.

COBOL

Designates an entry point (identifier in the syntax diagram) as a

COBOL linkage entry point.

FORTRAN

Designates an entry point (identifier in the syntax diagram) as a

FORTRAN linkage entry point.

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You can specify the RETURNCODE keyword with the FORTRAN keyword
for C programs only. OS/390 C/C++ does not support it for C++.
RETURNCODE indicates to the compiler that the routine named by
identifier is a FORTRAN routine, which returns an alternate return
code. It also indicates that the routine is defined outside the
compilation unit. You can retrieve the return code by using the
fortrc() function (refer to the OS/390 C/C++ Run-Time Library
Reference for more information). If the compiler finds the function
definition inside the compilation unit, it issues an error message.
Note that you can define functions outside the compilation unit,
even if you do not specify the RETURNCODE keyword.
|
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OS_DOWNSTACK

If the function identified by identifier is defined within the

compilation unit and is compiled using the NOXPLINK option, the
compiler issues an error message.

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Designates an entry point (identifier in the syntax diagram) as an

OS linkage entry point in XPLINK mode with a downward growing
stack frame.

OS_UPSTACK

Designates an entry point (identifier in the syntax diagram) as an

OS linkage entry point in XPLINK mode with a traditional upward
growing stack frame.

Chapter 10. Preprocessor Directives

257

#pragma
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This linkage is required for a new XPLINK downward-stack routine to

be able to call a traditional upward-stack OS routine. This linkage
explicitly invokes compatibility code to swap the stack between the
calling and the called routines.

|
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|

If the function identified by identifier is defined within the

compilation unit and is compiled using the XPLINK option, the
compiler issues an error message. Typically, the identifier will not be
defined in a compilation. This is acceptable. In this case, it is a
reference to an external procedure that is separately compiler with
NOXPLINK.

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OS_NOSTACK

Designates an entry point (identifier in the syntax diagram) as an

OS linkage entry point in XPLINK mode with no preallocated stack
frame. An argument list is constructed containing the addresses of
the actual arguments. The last item in this list has its high order bit
set. Register 1 is set to point to this argument list. Register 13
points to a 72-byte save area that may not be followed by OS/390
Language Environment control structures, such as the NAB.
Register 14 contains the return address. Register 15 contains the
entry point of the called function. This is synonymous with
OS31_NOSTACK.

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OS31_NOSTACK

Designates an entry point (identifier in the syntax diagram) as an

OS linkage entry point in XPLINK mode with no preallocated stack
frame.

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|

REFERENCE

This is synonymous with OS_UPSTACK in non-XPLINK mode and

synonymous with OS_DOWNSTACK in XPLINK mode. Unlike the
linkage OS, this is not affected by the OSCALL suboption of XPLINK.
Consider using this OS instead to make the source code portable
between XPLINK and non-XPLINK.

You can use a typedef in a #pragma linkage directive to associate a specific linkage
convention with the typedef of a function.
typedef void func_t(void);
#pragma linkage (func_t,OS)

In the example, the #pragma linkage directive associates the OS linkage convention
with the typedef func_t. This typedef can be used in C declarations wherever a
function type specifies the type function of OS linkage type.
For further information about writing ILC applications and compiling with the
XPLINK option, please refer to the chapter on communicating with XPLINK - ILC
between XPLINK and Assembler in OS/390 Language Environment Writing
Interlanguage Applications.

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longname
The #pragma longname directive specifies that the compiler is to generate
not-truncated and mixed case names in the object module that is produced by the
compiler. These names can be up to 1024 characters in length.
%% #

258

pragma

longname
nolongname

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

#pragma
If you use the #pragma longname directive for an OS/390 C or C++ program, you
must either use the binder to produce a program object in a PDSE, or you must use
the prelinker. The binder, IPA Link step, and prelinker support the long name
directory that is generated by the Object Library utility for autocall.
If you specify the NOLONGNAME compile option, the compiler ignores the #pragma
longname directive. If you specify the LONGNAME compile option, the compiler ignores
the #pragma nolongname.
Note: The OS/390 C compiler defaults to the NOLONGNAME compile option, and the
OS/390 C++ compiler defaults to the LONGNAME compile option.
Under OS/390 C, if you specify the ALIAS compile option, the compiler creates a
NAME control statement, but no ALIAS control statements. You can use the OS/390 C
Object Library Utility to create a library of object modules with a long name directory
which supports autocall of long name symbols.
If you have more than one preprocessor directive, #pragma longname may be
preceded only by #pragma filetag, #pragma chars, #pragma langlvl, and #pragma
target. Some directives, such as #pragma variable and #pragma linkage are
sensitive to the name handling.
For OS/390 C++, you must specify #pragma longname and #pragma nolongname
before any code. Otherwise, the compiler issues a warning message.
If you use #pragma map to associate an external name with an identifier, the external
name is produced in the object module. That is, #pragma map has the same
behavior with or without the #pragma longname directive.
The #pragma nolongname directive directs the compiler to generate truncated and
uppercase names in the object module produced by the compiler. When the
#pragma nolongname directive is specified, only functions that do not have C++
linkage are given truncated and uppercase names. More details on external name
mapping are provided in the section, map. Also, if you have more than one
preprocessor directive, #pragma nolongname must be the first one.
If you specify either #pragma nolongname or the NOLONGNAME option, and this results
in mapping of two different source code names to the same object code name, the
compiler will not issue an error message.

IPA Considerations

You must specify either the LONGNAME compile option or the #pragma longname
preprocessor directive for the IPA Compile step (unless you are using the c89
utility). Otherwise, you receive an unrecoverable compiler error.

map
The #pragma map directive tells the compiler to convert all references to an identifier
to name.
#pragma map is a OS/390 C/C++ directive and an addition to SAA standard. If you
use the #pragma map directive, the C/C++ name in the source file is not visible in the
object deck. The map name represents the object in the object deck.

Chapter 10. Preprocessor Directives

259

#pragma

#pragma map for OS/390 C

For C, #pragma map has the form:
%% #

pragma map ( identifier , name

identifier

A name of a data object or function with external linkage.

name

The external name that the compiler binds to the given object or
function. If the name is longer than 8 characters, you must use the
binder and specify the LONGNAME compile option.

The directive can appear anywhere within a single compilation unit. It can appear
before any declaration or definition of the named object or function.
You should enclose name in double quotation marks. The maximum length for
external names is eight characters, unless the LONGNAME compile option is specified.
The compiler keeps it as specified on the #pragma map directive in mixed case. It
must not conflict with the name in another #pragma map or #pragma csect directive.

|
|

The map name is an external name, thus you must not use it in the source file to
reference the object. If you use the map name in the source file to access the
corresponding object, the compiler treats it as a new identifier.
The compiler produces an error message if you give more than one map name to
an identifier. Two different identifiers can have the same map name.
The compiler resolves the identifiers appearing in the directive, including any type
names used in the prototype argument list. The compiler resolves them as though
the directive had appeared at file scope, independent of its actual point of
occurrence.
For example:
extern "C" int func(int);
#pragma map(func, "funcnam1")

// maps ::func

#pragma map for OS/390 C++

For OS/390 C++, #pragma map has the form:

260

%% #

pragma map

% (

identifier
func_or_op_identifier (

argument_list )

name

identifier

A name of a data object or a nonoverloaded

function with external linkage.

func_or_op_identifier

A name of a function or operator with external

linkage. The name can be qualified.

argument_list

A prototype list for the named function or operator.

name

The external name that is bound to the given

object, function, or operator. If the name is longer
than 8 characters you must use the binder.

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

#pragma

The directive can appear anywhere within a single compilation unit. It can appear
before any declaration or definition of the named object, function, or operator. The
compiler resolves the identifiers appearing in the directive, including any type
names used in the prototype argument list. It resolves them as though the directive
had appeared at file scope, independent of its actual point of occurrence.

Note: The map name is not affected by the CONVLIT or the ASCII compiler options.

For example:
int func(int);
class X
{
public:
void func(void);
#pragma map(func, "funcname1")
// maps ::func
#pragma map(X::func, "funcname2") // maps X::func
};

In
v
v
v
v

C++, you should not use #pragma map to map the following:
C++ Member functions
Overloaded functions
Objects generated from templates
Functions with C++ linkage, or builtin linkage

Such mappings override the compiler-generated names, which could cause IPA Link
or binder errors.

IPA Considerations

The use of the #pragma map directive for variables will inhibit the global coalescing
optimization of these variables during the IPA Link step.

margins
The #pragma margins directive specifies the margins in the source file that are to be
scanned for input to the compiler. You cannot specify columns (m,n) for OS/390
C++. The #pragma nomargins directive specifies that the entire input source record is
to be scanned for input to the compiler.
#pragma margins is a OS/390 C/C++ directive and an addition to the SAA Standard.

#pragma margins for OS/390 C

%% #

pragma

margins ( m
nomargins

#pragma margins for OS/390 C++

%% #

pragma

margins
nomargins

In the syntax diagram, you can specify the following parameters for OS/390 C:
m

The first column of the source input that contains a valid C program. The
value of m must be greater than 0, and less than 32761.
Chapter 10. Preprocessor Directives

261

#pragma
Also, m must be less than or equal to the value of n.
n

The last column of the source input that contains a valid C program. The
value of n must be greater than 0, and less than 32761.
You can assign an asterisk (*) to n. The asterisk indicates the last column
of the input record. For example, if you specify #pragma margins(8,*), the
compiler scans from column 8 to the end of the record for input source
statements.
You can use #pragma margins and #pragma sequence together. If they
reserve the same columns, #pragma sequence has priority and it reserves
the columns for sequence numbers. For example, assume columns 1 to 20
are reserved for the margin, and columns 15 to 25 are reserved for
sequence numbers. In this case, the margin will be from column 1 to 14,
and the columns reserved for sequence numbers will be from 15 to 25.
For more information on the #pragma sequence directive, refer to sequence
on page 270.

The margin setting specified by the #pragma margins directive applies only to the
source file or include file in which it is found. It has no effect on other #include files.
The #pragma margins and the #pragma nomargins directives come into effect on the
line following the directive. They remain in effect until the compiler encounters
another #pragma margins or #pragma nomargins directive, or until the compiler
reaches the end of the file.
If you use the compile options MARGINS or NOMARGINS with the #pragma margins or
#pragma nomargins directives, the #pragma directives override the compile options.
The compile option specified will be in effect up to, and including, the #pragma
margins or #pragma nomargins directive.
For OS/390 C++, the #pragma margins specifies that columns 1 through 72 in the
input record are to be scanned for input to the compiler. The input file can have
fixed or variable record length. The compiler ignores any text in the source input
that does not fall within the range.
For OS/390 C, the default setting is MARGINS(1,72) for fixed-length records, and
NOMARGINS for variable-length records. For OS/390 C++, the default is NOMARGINS.

noinline (C and C++) - also see inline

The #pragma noinline directive is an OS/390 C/C++ directive and is an addition to
the SAA Standard.
The #pragma noinline specifies that the function is never inlined when you call it.
This pragma has no effect when you specify NOAUTO with the OS/390 C INLINE
compile option.
You can place the #pragma noinline directive anywhere in a C++ program. The
directive must be at file scope in a C program.
The #pragma noinline directive is the only way to turn off inlining of functions that
have been implicitly or explicitly inlined at compile time. It also takes precedence
over the OS/390 C/C++ inline keyword.

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OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

#pragma
See inline (C Only) - also see noinline on page 251 for more information. For more
information on how to use #pragma noinline, refer to the section on Optimizing
Code in the OS/390 C/C++ Programming Guide.

IPA Considerations

If you use either the #pragma inline or the #pragma noinline directive in your
source, you can later override them with an appropriate IPA Link control file
directive during the IPA Link step. For example:
v If you specify both the #pragma noinline directive and the IPA Link control file
inline directive for a function.
v If you specify both the #pragma inline directive and the IPA Link control file
noinline directive for a function.

options (C Only)
The #pragma options directive specifies a list of compile options that are to be
processed as if you had typed them on the command line or on the CPARM
parameter of the IBM-supplied cataloged procedures.
,
%% #

pragma options (

' option

Note:

The compiler accepts the HWOPTS|NOHWOPTS option, but you should use the
ARCHITECTURE option instead.
1

For a detailed description of these options refer to the OS/390 C/C++ Users Guide.
If you use a compile option that contradicts the options that are specified on the
#pragma options directive, the compile option overrides the options on the #pragma
options directive.
If you specify an option more than once, the compiler uses the last one you
specified.

IPA Considerations

You cannot specify the IPA compile-time option for #pragma options.
Refer to the OS/390 C/C++ Users Guide for descriptions of how different compile
options affect IPA processing.

Chapter 10. Preprocessor Directives

263

#pragma

option_override
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With the #pragma option_override directive, you can specify optimization with more
granularity in your applications. Specifically, this pragma defines subprogram (C
function, C++ method) specific options that override those specified by the
command line options when performing optimizations for code and data in that
subprogram. This enables finer control of program optimization.

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The subprogram-specific COMPACT option selects optimizations that tend to minimize

code size in these functions while optimizing the rest of your application for
execution speed.

|
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The subprogram-specific OPTIMIZE option leaves specified functions unoptimized,

while optimizing the rest of your application. The LEVEL option performs the same
function as the OPTIMIZE option.

|
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One use of this directive is to isolate coding errors that occur only under
optimization.

|
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|

The subprogram-specific SPILL option allows you to specify large spill values for
specific functions, while allowing the remaining subprograms to have smaller
values.

|
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The subprogram-specific STRICT option allows you to have rigidly controlled

computational operations in some subprograms, while allowing faster operations
where this control is not required.
In addition, you can also override the value of the STRICT option in order to change
the rigour with which OS/390 C/C++ performs numeric computations.
%% #

% (

pragma option_override

function_name '

In the above syntax

option

diagram, option can be one of the following:

4. This pragma directive maintains compatiblity with the AIX platform, even though the compiler options supported on the OS/390 and
AIX platforms are not the same. Thus, the option syntax for this directive is different from the OS/390 C/C++ command line option
syntax for the same option. Within this directive, options are grouped by category. OPT here signifies optimization-related options.
Within the category are the actual options. The optimization-related options are LEVEL (equivalent to the command line option
OPTIMIZE) and STRICT (equivalent to the command line option STRICT). This syntax attempts to be sufficiently platform-neutral such
that this directive is portable between different platforms.

264

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

#pragma
%% OPT (

COMPACT
LEVEL ,
SPILL ,
STRICT

,YES
,NO
0
1
2
size

,YES
,NO

In the above syntax diagram, option translates to the following equivalent OS/390
C/C++ option settings:
option_override Value

Equivalent Option Setting

COMPACT

COMPACT, YES

COMPACT

COMPACT, NO

NOCOMPACT

LEVEL, 0

OPT(0)

LEVEL, 1

OPT(1)

LEVEL, 2

OPT(2)

SPILL, size

SPILL(size)

STRICT

STRICT, YES

STRICT

STRICT, NO

NOSTRICT

To use the LEVEL suboption, you must specify a non-zero optimization level for your
program, otherwise, the compiler ignores it. All other cases are meaningful,
including increasing the optimization level.
The #pragma option_override directive only affects functions that are defined in the
compile unit. The pragma directive can appear anywhere in the compilation unit.
That is, it can appear before or after the function definition, before or after the
function declaration, before or after the function has been referenced, and inside or
outside the function definition.
Specifying this directive only affects the setting of the options you have specified.
Notice that option can be enclosed in double quotation marks, so the options are
not subject to macro expansion.
Following is an example of how you might use this directive. Suppose you compile
the following code fragment containing the functions foo() and faa() using OPT(1).
Since it contains the #pragma option_override(faa, "OPT(LEVEL, 0)"), function
faa() will not be optimized.
foo(){
.
.
.
Chapter 10. Preprocessor Directives

265

#pragma
}
#pragma option_override(faa, "OPT(LEVEL, 0)")
faa(){
.
.
.
}

IPA Considerations

You cannot specify the IPA compile-time option for #pragma option_override.
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During IPA Compile processing, subprogram-specific options will be used to control

IPA Compile-time optimizations.

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During IPA Link processing, subprogram-specific options will be used to control IPA
Link-time optimizations, as well as program partitioning. They will be retained, even
if the related IPA Link command line option is specified.

|
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Refer to the OS/390 C/C++ Programming Guide for descriptions of how different
subprogram-specific compile options affect IPA processing.

pack
The #pragma pack directive specifies the alignment rules to use for the structures,
unions, and classes that follow it. The C compiler performs packing on definitions if
you specify keyword _Packed and on declarations if you specify #pragma pack. The
C++ compiler does not support keyword _Packed, so it can only perform packing on
declarations. This means that the packing applies to type-specifiers and not
declarators. Prior to using this pragma directive, you should understand the
alignment rules for structures in Alignment of Structures on page 114 and
Alignment of Nested Structures on page 114, and for unions in Alignment of
Unions on page 119.
%% #

pragma pack (

1
2
4
full
packed
twobyte
reset

where:
full

Is 4-byte boundary alignment. It is the system default boundary

alignment. This is the same as #pragma pack()and #pragma
pack(4).

packed

Is 1-byte boundary alignment. This is the same as #pragma pack(1).

twobyte

Is 2-byte boundary alignment. This is the same as #pragma pack(2).

reset

Returns the alignment to the previous alignment rule.

The #pragma pack directive packs all structures and unions that follow it in the
program along a boundary specified in the directive. It continues to pack until
another #pragma pack directive changes the packing boundary. The #pragma pack

266

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

#pragma
directive does not apply to forward declarations of structures or unions. For
example, in the following code fragment, the alignment for struct S is full. This is
the rule when the declaration list is declared:
#pragma pack(packed)
struct S;
#pragma pack(full)
struct S { int i, j, k; };

The compiler packs declarations or types. This is different from the _Packed
keyword in OS/390 C, where packing is also performed on definitions. For
portability, you should use #pragma pack instead of the _Packed keyword.
The #pragma pack directive does not have the same effect as declaring a structure
as _Packed. The _Packed keyword removes all padding between structure members,
while the #pragma pack directive only specifies the boundaries to align the members.
If you are porting code from other platforms that contain #pragma pack directives or
packed data, consider using the PORT compiler option to increase the syntax
checking for the #pragma pack directive in your code. This option will allow you to
adjust the error recovery action the compiler takes if the # pragma pack is
incompatible with the OS/390 C/C++ # pragma pack. For more information on using
the PORT option, see the OS/390 C/C++ Users Guide.

page (C Only)
The #pragma page directive skips the number of pages that are specified by pages
of the generated source listing. If you do not specify pages, it starts the next page.
%% #

pragma page (

pages

pagesize (C Only)
The #pragma pagesize directive sets the number of lines per page to n for the
generated source listing.
%% #

pragma pagesize (

The default page size is 60 lines. The minimum page size that you should set is 25.

IPA Considerations

This #pragma has the same effect on the IPA Compile step as it does on a regular
compilation. It has no effect on the IPA Link step.

priority (C++ Only)

The #pragma priority directive specifies the order in which OS/390 C/C++
initializes static objects at run time.
%% #

pragma priority (

Chapter 10. Preprocessor Directives

267

#pragma
n is an integer literal in the range of INT_MIN to INT_MAX. The default value is 0. A
negative value indicates a higher priority; a positive value indicates a lower priority.
OS/390 C/C++ reserves the first 1024 priorities (INT_MIN to INT_MIN + 1023) for use
by the compiler and its libraries. The priority value that is specified applies to all
run-time static initialization in the current compilation unit.
OS/390 C/C++ constructs any global object declared before another object in a file
first. Use #pragma priority to specify the construction order of objects across files.
To ensure that the objects are always constructed from top to bottom in a file, the
compiler enforces a restriction. This restriction ensures that the priority specified for
all objects before and all objects after it is at that priority until the next #pragma.

reachable
The #pragma reachable directive takes a function name, and declares that the point
in the program after that function can be the target of a branch from some unknown
location. That is, you can reach the instruction after the specified function from a
point in your program other than the return statement in the named function.
,
%% #

pragma reachable (

' function_name

When enabled, the reachable pragma provides information to the compiler that
enables it to explore additional opportunities for optimization.
Unlike the leaves pragma, the reachable pragma is required by the compiler
optimizer whenever the instruction following the call may receive control from some
program point other than the return statement of the called function. If this condition
is true and reachable is not specified, then the subprogram containing the call
should not be compiled with OPT(1), OPT(2) or IPA. Also see leaves on page 256.

|
|
|
|
|

When you specify the LIBANSI compiler option, you tell the compiler that that you
are using the system C runtime library, and not your own version of the library. In
this case, the compiler checks whether the setjmp family of functions (setjmp,
_setjmp, sigsetjmp, and _sigsetjmp) contain #pragma reachable. If the functions do
not contain this pragma, the compiler assumes that the pragma is specified.

IPA Considerations

If you specify the #pragma reachable directive in your source code in the IPA
compile step, you cannot override the effects of this directive in the IPA link step.

Effect on IPA Link Step

If you specify the LIBANSI compile option for any compilation unit in the IPA compile
step, the compiler generates information which indicates the setjmp() family of
functions contain the reachable status. If you specify the NOLIBANSI option for the
IPA link step, the attribute remains in effect.

runopts
The #pragma runopts directive specifies a list of runtime options that OS/390 C/C++
uses at execution time.

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OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

#pragma
,
%% #

pragma runopts (

' option

Specify your #pragma runopts directive in the compilation unit that contains main. If
more than one compilation unit contains a #pragma runopts directive, unpredictable
results can occur. The #pragma runopts directive only affects compilation units
containing main().
If a suboption to #pragma runopts is not a valid C token, you can surround the
suboptions to #pragma runopts in double quotes. For example, use:
#pragma runopts ( " RPTSTG(ON) TEST(,,,VADTCPIP&1.2.3.4:*) " )

instead of:
#pragma runopts ( RPTSTG(ON) TEST(,,,VADTCPIP&1.2.4.3:*) )

Refer to target (C Only) on page 272 and the OS/390 C/C++ Users Guide for
information about how #pragma target and the TARGET compile-time option affect
#pragma runopts. Refer to the OS/390 Language Environment Programming Guide
for descriptions of specific run-time options.

IPA Considerations

This #pragma only affects the IPA Compile step if you specify the OBJECT suboption
of the IPA compiler option.
The IPA Compile step passes the effects of this directive to the IPA Link step.
Consider if you specify ARGPARSE|NOARGPARSE, EXECOPS|NOEXECOPS, PLIST, or
REDIR|NOREDIR either on the #pragma runopts directive or as a compile-time option
on the IPA Compile step, and then specify the compile-time option on the IPA Link
step. In this case, you override the value that you specified on the IPA Compile
step.
If you specify the TARGET compile-time option on the IPA Link step, it has the
following effects on #pragma runopts:
v It overrides the value you specified for #pragma runopts(ENV). If you specify
TARGET(LE) or TARGET(), the compiler sets the value of #pragma runopts(ENV) to
MVS. If you specify TARGET(IMS), the compiler sets the value of #pragma
runopts(ENV) to IMS.
v It may override the value you specified for #pragma runopts(PLIST). If you
specify TARGET(LE) or TARGET(), and you specified something other than HOST for
#pragma runopts(PLIST), the compiler sets the value of #pragma runopts(PLIST)
to HOST. If you specify TARGET(IMS), the compiler sets the value of #pragma
runopts(PLIST) to IMS.
For #pragma runopts options other than those that are listed above, the IPA Link
step follows these steps to determine which #pragma runopts value to use:
1. The IPA Link step uses the #pragma runopts specification from the main()
routine, if the routine exists.
2. If no main() routine exists, the IPA Link step follows these steps:

Chapter 10. Preprocessor Directives

269

#pragma
a. If you define the CEEUOPT variable, the IPA Link step uses the #pragma
runopts value from the first compilation unit that it finds that contains
CEEUOPT.
b. If you have not defined the CEEUOPT variable in any compilation unit, the
IPA Link step uses the #pragma runopts value from the first compilation unit
that it processes.
The sequence of compilation unit processing is arbitrary.
To avoid problems, you should specify #pragma runopts only in your main() routine.
If you do not have a main() routine, specify it in only one other module.

sequence
The #pragma sequence directive specifies the section of the input record that is to
contain sequence numbers. The #pragma nosequence directive specifies that the
input record does not contain sequence numbers.
#pragma sequence is an OS/390 C/C++ directive and an addition to the SAA
Standard.

#pragma sequence for OS/390 C

%% #

pragma

sequence ( m ,
nosequence

#pragma sequence for OS/390 C++

%% #

pragma

sequence
nosequence

In the syntax diagram you can specify the following parameters for OS/390 C:
m

The column number of the left-hand margin. The value of m must be

greater than 0, and less than 32761.
Also, m must be less than or equal to the value of n.

The column number of the right-hand margin. The value of n must be

greater than 0, and less than 32761.
You can assign an asterisk (*) to n that indicates the last column of the
input record. For example, SEQUENCE(74,*) indicates that sequence
numbers are between column 74 and the end of the input record.
You can use #pragma sequence and #pragma margins together. If they
reserve the same columns, #pragma sequence has priority, and OS/390
C/C++ reserves the columns for sequence numbers. For example, consider
if the columns reserved for the margin are 1 to 20 and the columns
reserved for sequence numbers are 15 to 25. In this case, the margin will
be from column 1 to 14, and the columns reserved for sequence numbers
will be from 15 to 25. For more information on the #pragma margins directive,
refer to margins on page 261.

The sequence setting specified by the #pragma sequence directive applies only to
the file (source file or include file) that contains it. The setting has no effect on other

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OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

#pragma
#include files in the file. The sequence number area specified on the #pragma
sequence directive comes into effect on the line following the directive. It remains in
effect until it encounters another #pragma sequence or a #pragma nosequence
directive or until it reaches the end of the file.
If you use the compile-time options SEQUENCE|NOSEQUENCE with the #pragma sequence
or #pragma nosequence directives, the #pragma directive overrides the compile
options. The compile option is in effect up to, and including, the #pragma sequence
or the #pragma nosequence directive.
For OS/390 C++, the #pragma sequence directive defines that columns 73 through
80 of the input record (fixed or variable length) contain sequence numbers. You
cannot specify columns (m,n). The default compile option for OS/390 C++ is
NOSEQUENCE.
For OS/390 C, the default setting is SEQUENCE(73,80) for fixed-length records, and
NOSEQUENCE for variable length records.

skip (C Only)
The #pragma skip directive skips the specified number of lines in the generated
source listing. The value of lines must be a positive integer less than 255. If you
omit lines, the compiler skips one line.
%% #

pragma skip (

lines

strings
The #pragma strings directive sets the storage type for strings. It specifies that the
compiler can place strings into read-only memory or must place strings into
read/write memory.
%% #

pragma strings (

writable
writeable
readonly

This pragma must appear before any C or C++ code in a file.

C strings are read/write by default. You can use the ROSTRING compiler option, which
informs the compiler that string literals are read-only, instead of using the #pragma
strings(readonly) directive. C++ strings are read-only by default.

IPA Considerations

During the IPA Link step, the compiler compares the #pragma strings specifications
for individual compilation units. If it finds differences, it treats the strings as if you
specified #pragma strings(writeable) for all compilation units.

subtitle (C Only)
The #pragma subtitle directive places the text that is specified by subtitle on all
subsequent pages of the generated source listing.

Chapter 10. Preprocessor Directives

271

#pragma
%% #

pragma subtitle ( "

subtitle "

target (C Only)
The #pragma target directive specifies the operating system or run-time
environment for which OS/390 C/C++ creates the object.
Note: You cannot specify the release suboptions (that is, OSV1R2 and so on) using
the #pragma target directive as you can with the TARGET compile option. See
the OS/390 C/C++ Users Guide for information on the TARGET option.
%% #

pragma target (

LE
IMS

The compiler generates code to run under these options:

Generates code to run under the OS/390 Language Environment run-time

library. This is the default behavior.

IMS

Generates object code to run under IMS.

If you have more than one preprocessor directive, the only #pragma directives that
can precede #pragma target are #pragma filetag, #pragma chars, #pragma langlvl,
and #pragma longname.
Specifying #pragma target() or #pragma target(LE) has the following effects on
#pragma runopts(ENV) and #pragma runopts(PLIST):
v If you did not specify values for #pragma runopts(ENV) or #pragma
runopts(PLIST), the compiler sets the #pragmas to #pragma runopts(ENV(MVS))
and #pragma runopts(PLIST(HOST)).
v If you did specify values for #pragma runopts(ENV) or #pragma runopts(PLIST),
the values do not change.
Specifying #pragma target(IMS) has the following effects on #pragma runopts(ENV)
and #pragma runopts(PLIST):
v If you did not specify values for #pragma runopts(ENV) or #pragma
runopts(PLIST), the compiler sets the #pragmas to #pragma runopts(ENV(IMS))
and #pragma runopts(PLIST(OS)).
v If you did specify values for #pragma runopts(ENV) or #pragma runopts(PLIST),
the values do not change.

IPA Considerations

This #pragma only affects the IPA Compile step if you specify the OBJECT suboption
of the IPA compiler option.
The IPA Compile step passes the effects of this #pragma directive to the IPA Link
step.
If you specify different #pragma target directives for different compilation units, the
IPA Link step uses the ENV and PLIST information from the compilation unit
containing main(). If there is no main(), it uses information from the first compilation
unit it finds. If you specify the TARGET compile option for the IPA Link step, it
overrules the #pragma target directive.

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#pragma

title (C Only)
The #pragma title directive places the text that is specified by title on all
subsequent pages of the generated source listing.
%% #

pragma title (

title "

variable
The #pragma variable directive specifies that OS/390 C/C++ is to use the named
external object in either a reentrant or non-reentrant fashion. If an object is marked
as RENT, its references or its definition will be in the writable static area that is in
modifiable storage. If an object is marked as NORENT, its references or definition is in
the code area and is in potentially read-only storage.
%% #

pragma variable (

identifier ,

RENT
NORENT

NORENT does not apply to, and has no affect on, program variables with static
storage class. OS/390 C/C++ always includes these variables with the writable
static variables. Variables are reentrant by default for C++ so that RENT has no
affect.
The #pragma variable directive is an OS/390 C/C++ directive and an addition to the
SAA Standard.
You can use the ROCONST and RENT compiler options so that const variables are not
placed into the Writeable Static Area instead of using the #pragma
variable(var_name, NORENT) directive.
If the specification for a const variable in a #pragma variable directive conflicts with
the ROCONST option, the pragma directive takes precedence over the compiler option,
and the compiler issues an informational message.
Refer to the section on Reentrancy in OS/390 C/C++ in the OS/390 C/C++
Programming Guide for more information about reentrancy.

wsizeof
The #pragma wsizeof directive toggles the behavior of the sizeof operator between
that of the C and C++ compilers prior to and including the C/C++ MVS/ESA Version
3 Release 1 product, and the OS/390 C/C++ feature. As explained below, the
difference occurs only when using sizeof on function return types. Other behaviors
of sizeof remain the same.
Specify the pragma as follows:
%% #pragma wsizeof (

ON
RESUME

When using the sizeof operator, the C and C++ compilers prior to and including
C/C++ MVS/ESA Version 3 Release 1, returned the size of the widened type
Chapter 10. Preprocessor Directives

273

#pragma
instead of the original type for function return types. For example, in the following
code fragment, using the older compilers, i has a value of 4.
char foo();
i = sizeof foo();

Using the OS/390 C/C++ compiler, i has a the value of 1, which is the size of the
original type, char.
After a #pragma wsizeof(on) is encountered in a source program, all subsequent
sizeof operators return the widened size for function return types. The behavior
prior to the #pragma wsizeof(on), which can be the old or current behavior, is
saved. OS/390 C/C++ reinstates this saved behavior when it encounters a matching
#pragma wsizeof(resume). The saving action works on a stack. That is, a resume
reinstates the most recently saved state as the following example demonstrates:
/* Normal behavior of sizeof to start with.
/*
... some code here ...

*/
*/

#pragma wsizeof(on)
/* (1) old behavior of sizeof
...
#pragma wsizeof(on)
/* (2) old behavior of sizeof
...
#pragma wsizeof(resume) /* matches (2)
/* still old behavior of sizeof
...
#pragma wsizeof(resume) /* matches (1)
/* normal behavior of sizeof

*/
*/
*/
*/
*/
*/

The compiler will match on and resume throughout the entire compile unit. That is,
the effect of a #pragma wsizeof(on) can extend beyond a header file. Ensure the
on and resume pragmas are matched in your compile unit.
Note: Dangling the resume pragma leads to undefined behavior. The effect of an
unmatched on pragma can extend to the end of the source file.
Use the wsizeof pragma in old header files, where you require the old behavior of
the sizeof operator. By guarding the header file with a #pragma wsizeof(on) at the
start of the header, and a #pragma wsizeof(resume) at the end, you can use the old
header file with new applications.

Using the WSIZEOF compile option and #pragma wsizeof

The WSIZEOF compile option has exactly the same effect as inserting a #pragma
wsizeof(on) at the beginning of the source file. If another #pragma wsizeof exists in
the source code, OS/390 C/C++ toggles the behavior of the sizeof operator, as
described above.
You can use the WSIZEOF compile option to save editing your source when you want
the old behavior of the sizeof operator for your entire source file.
Refer to the OS/390 C/C++ Users Guide for information on the WSIZEOF compile
option.

IPA Considerations
During the IPA Compile step, the size of each function return value is resolved
during source processing. The IPA Compile and Link steps do not alter these sizes.
The IPA object code from compilation units with different wsizeof settings is merged
together during the IPA Link step.

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OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

Part 3. C++ Language Elements

This part of the Language Reference describes the language elements of C++.
Chapter 11. C++ Classes
Describes the concept of classes in C++, including a description of the
different types of classes, how to declare class objects, and the scoping
rules for class objects.
Chapter 12. C++ Class Members and Friends
Describes the scoping rules for class members and member access rules.
Chapter 13. C++ Overloading
Describes the form and use of overloaded functions and overloaded
operators.
Chapter 14. Special C++ Member Functions
Describes the member functions that are used to create, destroy, convert,
initialize, and copy class objects.
Chapter 15. C++ Inheritance
Describes the concept of inheritance, including a description of access
control for derived and base classes.
Chapter 16. C++ Templates
Describes class templates and function templates.
Chapter 17. C++ Exception Handling
Describes the facilities C++ provides for handling errors and other
exceptions.

Copyright IBM Corp. 1996, 2000

275

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OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

Chapter 11. C++ Classes

This chapter discusses the following topics:.
v C++ Classes Overview
v Declaring Class Objects on page 278
v Scope of Class Names on page 282
Related Information
v C++ Support for Object-Oriented Programming on page 43
v Chapter 12. C++ Class Members and Friends on page 287
v Chapter 15. C++ Inheritance on page 335

C++ Classes Overview

A C++ class is a mechanism for creating user-defined data types. It is similar to the
C-language structure data type. A set of data members constitute a structure. In
C++, a class type is like a C structure, except that a set of data members make up
a class. In addition, in C++, you can perform an optional set of operations on the
class.
In C++, you can declare a class type with the keywords union, struct, or class. A
union object can hold any one of a named member set. Structure and class objects
hold a complete set of members. Each class type represents a unique set of class
members that includes data members, member functions, and other type names.
The default access for members depends on the class key:
v The members of a class that is declared with the class key class are private by
default. A class is inherited privately by default.
v The members of a class declared with the class key struct are public by default.
A structure is inherited publicly by default.
v The members of a union that are declared with the class key union are public by
default. You cannot use a union as a base class in derivation. Chapter 15. C++
Inheritance on page 335 describes base classes and derivation.
Once you create a class type, you can declare one or more objects of that class
type.
For example:
class X
{ /* define class members here */ };
void main()
{
X xobject1;
// create an object of class type X
X xobject2;
// create another object of class type X
}

Classes and Structures

The C++ class is an extension of the C-language structure. The only difference
between a structure and a class is that structure members have public access by
default and class members have private access by default. Consequently, you can
use the keywords class or struct to define equivalent classes.
For example, in the following code fragment, the class X is equivalent to the
structure Y:
Copyright IBM Corp. 1996, 2000

277

C++ Classes Overview

CBC3X10C
// In this example, class X is equivalent to struct Y
class X
{
int a; //
public:
int
};
struct Y
{
int f() {
private:
int
};

private by default
f() { return a = 5; }; // public member function

return a = 5; };

// public by default

a; // private data member

If you define a structure and then declare an object of that structure using the
keyword class, the members of the object are still public by default. In the following
example, main() has access to the members of X even though X is declared as
using the keyword class:

CBC3X10D
// This example declares a structure, then declares a class
// that is an object of the structure.
#include <iostream.h>
struct x {
int a;
int b;
} ;
class x X;
void main() {
X.a = 0;
X.b = 1;
cout << "Here are a and b " << X.a << " " << X.b << endl;
}

Aggregate Classes
An aggregate class is a class that has no user-defined constructors, no private or
protected members, no base classes, and no virtual functions.
Initializers on page 129 describes the initialization of aggregate classes.

Declaring Class Objects

A class declaration creates a unique type.
A class specifier is a type specifier that is used to declare a class. Once a class
specifier has been seen and its members declared, a class is considered to be
defined. This is so, even if the member functions of that class are not yet defined. A
class specifier has the following form:
%%

278

class
struct
union

class_name

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

:base_class

member_list

Declaring Class Objects

The member_list is optional. It specifies the class members, both data and
functions, of the class class_name. If the member_list of a class is empty, objects of
that class have a nonzero size. You can use a class_name within the member_list
of the class specifier itself, as long as you do not require the size of the class. For
more information, see Chapter 12. C++ Class Members and Friends on page 287.
The base_class is optional. It specifies the base class or classes from which the
class class_name inherits members. If the base_class is not empty, call the class
class_name a derived class. See Derivation on page 338 for more information
about derived classes.
The declarator for a class variable that is declared with the class, struct, or union
keyword is an identifier. If the symbol * precedes the identifier, the identifier names
a pointer to a class of the specified data type. If ** precedes the identifier, the
identifier names a pointer to a pointer to a class of the specified data type.
If a constant expression enclosed in [ ] (brackets) follows the identifier, the
identifier names an array of classes of the specified data type. Consider if *
precedes the identifier and a constant expression enclosed in [ ] follows the
identifier. In that case, the identifier names an array of pointers to classes of the
specified data type.

Class Names
A class name is a unique identifier that becomes a reserved word within its scope.
Once a class name is declared, it hides other declarations of the same name within
the enclosing scope.
Consider a class name that is declared in the same scope as a function,
enumerator, or object with the same name. You can refer to that class by using an
elaborated type specifier. In the following example, the elaborated type specifier is
used to refer to the class print. This class is hidden by the later definition of the
function print():
class print
{
/* definition of class print */
};
void print (class print*);
// redefine print as a function
//
.
// prefix class-name by class-key
//
.
// to refer to class print
//
.
void main ()
{
class print* paper;
// prefix class-name by class-key
// to refer to class print
print(paper);
// call function print
}

You can use an elaborated type specifier with a class name to declare a class.
For more information on elaborated type specifiers, see Incomplete Class
Declarations on page 282.
You can also qualify type names to refer to hidden type names in the current scope.
You can reduce complex class name syntax by using a typedef to represent a
nested class name.

Chapter 11. C++ Classes

279

Declaring Class Objects

The following example uses a typedef so that it can use the simple name nested in
place of outside::middle::inside.

CBC3X10B
// This example illustrates a typedef used to simplify
// a nested class name.
#include <iostream.h>
class outside {
public:
class middle {
public:
class inside {
private:
int a;
public:
inside(int a_init = 0): a(a_init) {}
void printa();
};
};
};
typedef outside::middle::inside nested;
void nested::printa() {
cout << "Here is a " << this->a << endl;
}
void main() {
nested n(9);
n.printa();
}

For more information on nested classes, see Nested Classes on page 283

Using Class Objects

You can use a class type to create instances or objects of that class type. For
example, you can declare a class, structure, and union with class names X, Y, and Z
respectively:
class X {
struct Y {
union Z {

/* definition of class X */ };
/* definition of struct Y */ };
/* definition of union Z */ };

Then you can declare objects of each class type. Remember that classes,
structures, and unions are all types of C++ classes.
void main()
{
X xobj;
Y yobj;
Z zobj;
}

// declare a class object of class type X

// declare a struct object of class type Y
// declare a union object of class type Z

In C++, unlike C, you do not need to precede declarations of class objects with the
keywords union, struct, and class unless the name of the class is hidden. For
example:
struct Y { /* ... */ };
class X { /* ... */ };
void main ()
{
int X;
// hides the class name X

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Declaring Class Objects

Y yobj;
X xobj;
class X xobj;

// valid
// error, class name X is hidden
// valid

For more information on hidden names, see Scope of Class Names on page 282.
When you declare more than one class object in a declaration, the declarators are
treated as if declared individually. For example, if you declare two objects that are
of class S in a single declaration:
class S { /* ... */ };
//
.
//
.
//
.
void main()
{
S S,T; // declare two objects of class type S
}

The above declaration is equivalent to the following:

class S { /* ... */ };
void main()
{
S S;
class S T;
// keyword class is required
// since variable S hides class type S
}

However, the above declaration is not equivalent to the following declaration:

class S { /* ... */ };
//
.
//
.
//
.
void main()
{
S S;
S T;
// error, S class type is hidden
}

You can also declare references to classes, pointers to classes, and arrays of
classes. For example:
class X { /* ... */ };
struct Y { /* ... */ };
union Z { /* ... */ };
void main()
{
X xobj;
X &xref = xobj;
Y *yptr;
Z zarray[10];
}

// reference to class object of type X

// pointer to struct object of type Y
// array of 10 union objects of type Z

You can assign or pass objects of class types that are not copy restricted as
arguments to functions. Functions can also return these objects. For more
information, see Copy Restrictions on page 331.
For more information on objects, see Objects on page 74. Initialization by
Constructor on page 327 discusses initialization of classes.

Chapter 11. C++ Classes

281

Scope of Class Names

A class declaration introduces the class name into the scope where it is declared.
Any class, object, function or other declaration of that name in an enclosing scope
is hidden. Consider a class name is declared in a scope where an object, function,
or enumerator of the same name is also declared. In this case, you can only refer
to the class by using the elaborated type specifier. The class key (class, struct, or
union) must precede the class name to identify it.
For example:

CBC3X10E
// This example shows the scope of class names.
class x { int a; };

// declare a class type class-name

x xobject;

// declare object of class type x

int x(class x*)

{return 0;}

//
//
//
//

redefine x to be a function
use class-key class to define
a pointer to the class type x
as the function argument

//
//
//
//

use class-key class to define

a pointer to class type x
assign pointer
call function x with pointer to class x

void main()
{
class x* xptr;

xptr = &xobject;
x(xptr);

You can use an elaborated type specifier in the declaration of objects and functions.
See Class Names on page 279 for an example.
You can also use an elaborated type specifier in the incomplete declaration of a
class type to reserve the name for a class type within the current scope.

Incomplete Class Declarations

An incomplete class declaration is a class declaration that does not define any
class members. You cannot declare any objects of the class type or refer to the
members of a class until the declaration is complete. However, an incomplete
declaration allows you to make specific references to a class prior to its definition
as long as you do not require the size of the class.
For example, you can define a pointer to the structure first in the definition of the
structure second. The following example declares the structure first in an
incomplete class declaration prior to the definition of second. The definition of
oneptr in structure second does not require the size of first:
struct first;

// incomplete declaration of struct first

struct second
{
first* oneptr;

// complete declaration of struct second

first one;
int x, y;

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OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

// pointer to struct first refers to

// struct first prior to its complete
// declaration
// error, you cannot declare an object of
// an incompletely declared class type

Scope of Class Names

};
struct first
{
second two;
int z;
};

// complete declaration of struct first

// define an object of class type second

If you declare a class with an empty member list, it is a complete class declaration.
For example:
class X;
class Z {};
class Y
{
public:
X yobj;
};

Z zobj;

// incomplete class declaration

// empty member list

// error, cannot create an object of an

// incomplete class type
// valid

Chapter 12. C++ Class Members and Friends on page 287 describes class
member lists.

Nested Classes
You declare a nested class within the scope of another class. The name of a nested
class is local to its enclosing class. Unless you use explicit pointers, references, or
object names, declarations in a nested class can only use visible constructs. This
includes type names, static members, and enumerators from the enclosing class
and global variables.
Member functions of a nested class follow regular access rules and have no special
access privileges to members of their enclosing classes. Member functions of the
enclosing class have no special access to members of a nested class.
You can define member functions and static data members of a nested class in the
global scope. For example, in the following code fragment, you can access the
static members x and y by using a qualified type name. You can also access
member functions f() and g() of the nested class nested. Qualified type names
allow you to define a typedef to represent a qualified class name. Then you can
use the typedef with the :: (scope resolution) operator to refer to a nested class or
class member.
The following example demonstrates this:
class outside
{
public:
class nested
{
public:
static int x;
static int y;
int f();
int g();
};
};
int outside::nested::x = 5;
int outside::nested::f() { return 0; };

Chapter 11. C++ Classes

283

Scope of Class Names

typedef outside::nested outnest;
int outnest::y = 10;
int outnest::g() { return 0; };//

// define a typedef
// use typedef with ::
. . .

Local Classes
You declare a local class within a function definition. The local class is in the scope
of the enclosing function scope. Declarations in a local class can only use type
names, enumerations, static variables from the enclosing scope, as well as external
variables and functions.
For example:
int x;
void f()
{
static int y;
int x;
extern int g();

// global variable
// function definition
//
//
//
//
//
//

static variable y can be used by

local class
auto variable x cannot be used by
local class
extern function g can be used by
local class

class local
// local class
{
int g() { return x; }
// error, local variable x
// cannot be used by g
int h() { return y; }
// valid,static variable y
int k() { return ::x; }
// valid, global x
int l() { return g(); }
// valid, extern function g
};

void main()
{
local* z;
//
.
//
.
//
.
}

// error, local is undefined

Define member functions of a local class within their class definition. Member
functions of a local class must be inline functions. Like all member functions, those
defined within the scope of a local class do not need the keyword inline.
For more information about inline functions, see Inline Member Functions on
page 290.
A local class cannot have static data members. In the following example, an attempt
to define a static member of a local class causes an error:
void f()
{
class local
{
int f();
int g() {return 0;}
static int a;

}
//

284

};

int b;
. . .

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

//
//
//
//
//
//

error, local class has noinline

member function
valid, inline member function
error, static is not allowed for
local class
valid, nonstatic variable

Scope of Class Names

An enclosing function has no special access to members of the local class.

Local Type Names

Local type names follow the same scope rules as other names. Scope in C++ on
page 47 describes scope rules. Type names that are defined within a class
declaration have class scope. You cannot use them outside their class without
qualification.
Consider if you use a class name, typedef name, or a constant name that is used
in a type name, in a class declaration. You cannot redefine that name after the
class declaration uses it.
For example:
void main ()
{
typedef double db;
struct st
{
db x;
typedef int db; // error
db y;
};
}

The following declarations are valid:

typedef float T;
class s {
typedef int T;
void f(const T);
};

Here, function f() takes an argument of type s::T. However, the following
declarations, which reverse the member order of s, cause an error:
typedef float T;
class s {
void f(const T);
typedef int T;
};

In a class declaration, you cannot redefine a name that is not a class name, or a
typedef name to a class name or typedef name once you have used that name in
the class declaration.

Chapter 11. C++ Classes

285

Scope of Class Names

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The this Pointer on page 293

Static Members on page 295
Member Access on page 299
Friends on page 301

Related Information
v Chapter 11. C++ Classes on page 277
v Chapter 15. C++ Inheritance on page 335
v Chapter 14. Special C++ Member Functions on page 317

Class Member Lists

An optional member list declares sub-objects called class members. Class
members can be data, functions, classes, enumeration, bit fields, and typedef
names. A member list is the only place you can declare class members. Friend
declarations are not class members but must appear in member lists.
The member list follows the class name and is placed between braces. It can
contain access specifiers, member declarations, and member definitions.
You can access members by using the class access . (dot) and -> (arrow)
operators. The class access operators are described in Dot Operator (.) on
page 142 and Arrow Operator (>) on page 142.
A member declaration declares a class member for the class that contains the
declaration. For more information on declarations, see Chapter 5. Declarations on
page 71, and Declaring Class Objects on page 278.
An access specifier is one of the following:
v public
v private
v protected
Member Access on page 299 describes access specifiers.
You can use a member declaration that is a qualified name followed by a ;
(semicolon) to restore access to members of base classes. Access Declarations
on page 343 describes how you do this.
A member declarator declares an object, function, or type within a declaration. It
cannot contain an initializer. You can initialize a member by using a constructor. If
the member belongs to an aggregate class, you can initialize it by using a brace
Copyright IBM Corp. 1996, 2000

287

Class Member Lists

initializer list in the declarator list. A brace initializer list is one that is surrounded by
braces ({ }). You must explicitly initialize a class that contains constant or reference
members with a brace initializer list. Or you can initialize it explicitly with a
constructor.
A member declarator has the following form:
[identifier] : constant-expression

The above form specifies a bit field.

A pure specifier (= 0) indicates that a function has no definition. You can only use it
with virtual member functions. It replaces the function definition of a member
function in the member list. Virtual Functions on page 351 describes pure
specifiers.
You can use the storage-class specifier static (but not extern, auto, or register)
in a member list. For more information, see Static Members on page 295.
The order of class member mapping in a member list depends on the
implementation. For the OS/390 C/C++ compiler, class members are allocated in
the order they are declared.

Data Members
Data members include members that are declared with any of the fundamental
types, as well as other types, including pointer, reference, array types, and
user-defined types. You can declare a data member the same way as a variable.
However, you cannot place explicit initializers inside the class definition.
If you declare an array as a nonstatic class member, you must specify all the array
dimensions.

Class-Type Class Members

A class can have members that are of a class type or are pointers or references to
a class type. Members that are of a class type must be of a class type that is
previously declared. You can use an incomplete class type in a member declaration
as long as you do not require the size of the class. For example, a member can be
declared that is a pointer to an incomplete class type. For more information, see
Incomplete Class Declarations on page 282.
A class X cannot have a member that is of type X. It can, however, contain pointers
to X, references to X, and static objects of X. Member functions of X can take
arguments of type X and have a return type of X. For example:
class X
{
X();
X *xptr;
X &xref;
static X xcount;
X xfunc(X);
};

OS/390 C++ always processes the bodies of member functions after the definition
of their class is complete. Consequently, the body of a member function can refer to
the name of the class that owns it, even if this requires information about the class
definition.

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Class-Type Class Members

The language allows member functions to refer to any class member even if the
member function definition appears before the declaration of that member in the
class member list. For example,
class Y
{
public:
int a;
Y ();
private:
int f() {return sizeof(Y);};
void g(Y yobj);
Y h(int a);
};

In this example, the inline function f() is permitted to make use of the size of class
Y. See Inline Member Functions on page 290 for more information.

Member Functions
Member functions are operators and functions that are declared as members of a
class. Member functions do not include operators and functions that are declared
with the friend specifier. Refer to these as friends of a class. For more information,
see Friends on page 301.
The definition of a member function is within the scope of its enclosing class.
OS/390 C++ analyzes the body of a member function after the class declaration so
that the member function body can use members of that class. When the function
add() is called in the following example, the data variables a, b, and c can be used
in the body of add().
class x
{
public:
int add()
{return a+b+c;};
private:
int a,b,c;
};

// inline member function add

For information on static member functions, see Static Member Functions on

page 299. For more general information on functions, see Chapter 8. Functions on
page 173.

const and volatile Member Functions

You can call a member function that is declared with the const qualifier for constant
and nonconstant objects. You can call a nonconstant member function, but only for
a nonconstant object. Similarly, you can call a member function that is declared with
the volatile qualifier for volatile and nonvolatile objects. You can call a nonvolatile
member function, but only for a nonvolatile object.

Virtual Member Functions

Declare virtual member functions with the keyword virtual. They allow dynamic
binding of member functions. Because all virtual functions must be member
functions, you can refer to virtual member functions as virtual functions.
If the definition of a virtual function is replaced by a pure specifier in the declaration
of the function, the function is said to be declared pure. An abstract class is one
that contains at least one pure virtual function.
Chapter 12. C++ Class Members and Friends

289

Member Functions
Virtual Functions on page 351 describes virtual functions in more detail. Abstract
Classes on page 355 describes pure virtual functions.

Special Member Functions

You can use special member functions to create, destroy, initialize, convert, and
copy class objects. These include:
v Constructors
v Destructors
v Conversion constructors
v Conversion functions
v Copy constructors
Chapter 14. Special C++ Member Functions describes special member functions.

Inline Member Functions

A member function that is both declared and defined in the class member list is
called an inline member function. Usually, you declare member functions that
contain a few lines of code as inline.
An equivalent way to declare an inline member function is to declare it outside of
the class declaration using the keyword inline and the :: (scope resolution)
operator. These operators identify the class to which the member function belongs.
For example consider the following class:
class Y
{
char* a;
public:
char* f() {return a;};
};

The above class is equivalent to the following class:

class Z
{
char* a;
public:
char* f();
};
//
.
//
.
//
.
inline char* Z::f() {return a;}

Consider when you declare an inline function without the inline keyword and do
not define it in the class member list. In this case, you cannot call the function
before you define it. In the above example, you cannot call f() until after its
definition.
Inline member functions have internal linkage. Noinline member functions have
external linkage.
For more information, see C++ Inline Functions on page 194.

Member Function Templates

Any member function (inline or not inline) that is declared within a class template is
implicitly a function template. When you declare a template class, the declaration
implicitly generates template functions for each function that is defined in the class

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Member Functions
template. If instantiating a class template, OS/390 C++ only instantiates the function
templates whose instantiations will be used by the resulting template class.
For more information about member function templates, see Member Function
Templates on page 369.

Member Scope
You can define member functions and static members outside their class
declaration if you have already declared but not defined them in the class member
list. By instantiating the class for nonstatic data members, you define the members.
The declaration of a static data member is not a definition. The declaration of a
member function is a definition if you also provide the body of the function.
Whenever the definition of a class member appears outside of the class declaration,
you must qualify the member name by the class name. Use the :: (scope
resolution) operator.
The following example defines a member function outside of its class declaration.

CBC3X11A
// This example illustrates member scope.
#include <iostream.h>
class X
{
public:
int a, b;
// public data members
int add();
// member function declaration only
};
int a = 10;
// global variable
// define member function outside its class declaration
int X::add() {return a + b;};
//
.
//
.
//
.
void main()
{
int answer;
X xobject;
xobject.a = 1;
xobject.b = 2;
answer = xobject.add();
cout << xobject.a << " + " << xobject.b << " = " << answer<<endl;
}

The output for this example is: 1 + 2 = 3

All member functions are in class scope even if you define them outside their class
declaration. In the above example, the member function add() returns the data
member a, not the global variable a.
The name of a class member is local to its class. The class access operators are .
(dot), -> (arrow), or :: (scope resolution). Unless you use one of the class access
operators, you can only use a class member in a member function of its class and
in nested classes. You can only use types, enumerations, and static members in a
nested class without qualification with the :: operator.
The order of search for a name in a member function body is:
Chapter 12. C++ Class Members and Friends

291

Member Scope
1. Within the member function body itself
2. Within all the enclosing classes, including inherited members of those classes
3. Within the lexical scope of the body declaration
The search of the enclosing classes, including inherited members, is demonstrated
in the following example:
class
class
class
class

A { /* ... */
B { /* ... */
C { /* ... */
Z : A {
class Y : B {
class X
};

};
};
};
: C { int f(); /* ... */ };

};
int Z::Y::X f()
{
//
.
//
.
//
.
j();
//
.
//
.
//
.
}

In this example, the search for the name j in the definition of the function f follows
this order:
1. In the body of the function f
2. In X and in its base class C
3. In Y and in its base class B
4. In Z and in its base class A
5. In the lexical scope of the body of f (in this case, this is global scope)
Note: When OS/390 C++ searches the containing classes, it only searches the
definitions of the containing classes and their base classes. It does not
search the scope that contains the base class definitions (global scope, in
this example).

Pointers to Members
Pointers to members allow you to refer to nonstatic members of class objects. You
cannot use a pointer to member to point to a static class member because the
address of a static member does not associate with any particular object. To point
to a static class member, you must use a normal pointer.
You can use pointers to member functions in the same manner as pointers to
functions. You can compare pointers to member functions, assign values to them,
and use them to call member functions. Note that a member function does not have
the same type as a nonmember function that has the same number and type of
arguments and the same return type.
You can use pointers to members that are used as the following example
demonstrates:

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Pointers to Members

CBC3X11B
// This example illustrates pointers to members.
#include <iostream.h>
class X
{
public:
int a;
void f(int b)
{
cout << "The value of b is "<< b << endl;
}
};
//
.
//
.
//
.
void main ()
{
// declare pointer to data member
int X::*ptiptr = &X::a;
// declare a pointer to member function
void (X::* ptfptr) (int) = &X::f;
X xobject;
// create an object of class type X
xobject.*ptiptr = 10;
// initialize data member

cout << "The value of a is " << xobject.*ptiptr << endl;

(xobject.*ptfptr) (20);
// call member function

The output for this example is:

The value of a is 10
The value of b is 20

To reduce complex syntax, you can declare a typedef to be a pointer to a member.

You can declare and use a pointer to a member as the following code fragment
demonstrates:
typedef void (X::*ptfptr) (int);
// declare typedef
void main ()
{
//
.
//
.
//
.
ptfptr ptf = &X::f;
// use typedef
X xobject; (xobject.*ptf) (20);
// call function
}

Use the pointer to member operators, .* and ->*, to bind a pointer to a member of
a specific class object. Because the precedence of () (function call operator) is
higher than .* and ->*, you must use parentheses to call the function pointed to by
ptf.
For more information, see C++ Pointer-to-Member Operators (.* >*) on page 160.

The this Pointer

The keyword this identifies a special type of pointer. When a nonstatic member
function is called, the this pointer identifies the class object which the member
function is operating on. You cannot declare the this pointer or make assignments
to it.

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293

The this Pointer

The type of the this pointer for a member function of a class type X, is X* const. If
the member function is declared with the constant qualifier, the type of the this
pointer for that member function for class X, is const X* const. If the member
function is declared with the volatile qualifier, the type of the this pointer for that
member function for class X is volatile X* const.
The this pointer is passed as a hidden argument to all nonstatic member function
calls. It is available as a local variable within the body of all nonstatic functions.
For example, you can refer to the particular class object that a member function is
called by using the this pointer in the body of the member function. The following
code example produces the output a = 5:

CBC3X11C
// This example illustrates the this pointer
#include <iostream.h>
class X
{
int a;
public:
// The 'this' pointer is used to retrieve 'xobj.a' hidden by
// the automatic variable 'a'
void Set_a(int a) { this->a = a; }
void Print_a() { cout << "a = " << a << endl; }
};
void main()
{
X xobj;
int a = 5;
xobj.Set_a(a);
xobj.Print_a();
}

Unless a class member name is hidden, using the class member name is
equivalent to using the class member name qualified with the this pointer.
The following example shows code using class members without the this pointer.
The comments on each line show the equivalent code with the hidden use of the
this pointer.

CBC3X11D
// This example uses class members without the this pointer.
#include <string.h>
#include <iostream.h>
#define BUFLN 100
class X
{
int len;
char *ptr;
public:
int GetLen()
{ return len; }
char * GetPtr()
{ return ptr; }
X& Set(char *);
X& Cat(char *);
X& Copy(X&);
void Print();
};

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// length of buffer to hold string

//
//
//
//

int GetLen (X* const this)

{ return this->len; }
char * GetPtr (X* const this)
{ return this->ptr; }

The this Pointer

X& X::Set(char *pc)
// X& X::Set(X* const this, char *pc)
{
len = strlen(pc);
// this->len = strlen(pc);
ptr = new char[BUFLN]; // allocate sufficient storage to hold
//
strings in this example
strcpy(ptr, pc);
// strcpy(this->ptr, pc);
return *this;
}
X& X::Cat(char *pc)
{
len += strlen(pc);
strcat(ptr,pc);
return *this;
}
X& X::Copy(X& x)
{
Set(x.GetPtr());
return *this;
}

// X& X::Cat(X* const this, char *pc)

// this->len += strlen(pc);
// strcat(this->ptr,pc);
// X& X::Copy(X* const this, X& x)
// this->Set(x.GetPtr(&x));

void X::Print()
// void X::Print(X* const this)
{
cout << ptr << endl; // cout << this->ptr << endl;
}
void main()
{
X xobj1;
xobj1.Set("abcd").Cat("efgh");
// xobj1.Set(&xobj1, "abcd").Cat(&xobj1, "efgh");
xobj1.Print();
// xobj1.Print(&xobj1);
X xobj2;
xobj2.Copy(xobj1).Cat("ijkl");
// xobj2.Copy(&xobj2, xobj1).Cat(&xobj2, "ijkl");
}

xobj2.Print();

// xobj2.Print(&xobj2);

This example produces the following output:

abcdefgh
abcdefghijkl

Static Members
You can declare class members by using the storage-class specifier static in the
class member list. All the objects of a class in a program share only one copy of the
static member. When you declare an object of a class that contains a static
member, the static member is not part of the class object.
A typical use of static members is for recording data common to all objects of a
class. For example, you can use a static data member as a counter to store the
number of objects of a particular class type that are created. Each time a new
object is created, this static data member can be incremented to track the total
number of objects.
The declaration of a static member in the member list of a class is not a definition.
The definition of a static member is equivalent to an external variable definition. You
must define the static member outside of the class declaration.
For example:

Chapter 12. C++ Class Members and Friends

295

Static Members
class X
{
public:
static int i;
};
int X::i = 0; // definition outside class declaration
//
.
//
.
//
.

You can access a static member from outside of its class only if you declare it with
the keyword public. You can then access the static member by qualifying the class
name by using the :: (scope resolution) operator. In the following example, you can
refer to the static member f() of class type X as X::f():
class X
{
public:
static int f();
};
//
.
//
.
//
.
void main ()
{
X::f();
}

For more information on the storage-class specifier static, see static Storage
Class Specifier on page 83.

Using the Class Access Operators with Static Members

You can also access a static member from a class object by using the class access
operators . (dot) and -> (arrow).
The following example uses the class access operators to access static members.

CBC3X11E
// This example illustrates access to static
// members with class access operators.
#include <iostream.h>
class X
{
static int cnt;
public:
// The following routines all set X's static variable cnt
// and print its value.
void Set_Show (int i)
{
X::cnt = i;
cout << "X::cnt = " << X::cnt << endl; }
void Set_Show (int i, int j )
{
this->cnt = i+j;
cout << "X::cnt = " << X::cnt << endl; }
void Set_Show (X& x, int i)
{
x.cnt = i;
cout << "X::cnt = " << X::cnt << endl; }
};
int X::cnt;
void main()
{
X xobj1, xobj2;

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Static Members

xobj1.Set_Show(11);
xobj1.Set_Show(11,22);
xobj1.Set_Show(xobj2, 44);

The above example produces the following output:

X::cnt = 11
X::cnt = 33
X::cnt = 44

When you access a static member through a class access operator, OS/390 C++
does not evaluate the expression to the left of the . or -> operator.
You can refer to a static member independently of any association with a class
object because there is only one static member that is shared by all objects of a
class. A static member can exist, even if you have not declared any objects of its
class.
When you access a static member, OS/390 C++ does not evaluate the expression
that you use to access the member. In the following example, the external function
f() returns class type X. The function f() can be used to access the static member
i of class X. The function f() itself is not called.

CBC3X11F
// This example shows that the expression used to
// access a static member is not evaluated.
class X
{
public:
static int i;
};
int X::i = 10;
X f() { /* ... */ }
void main ()
{
int a;
a = f().i;
}

// f().i does not call f()

Static Data Members

Static data members of global classes have external linkage. You can initialize them
in file scope, like other global objects. Static data members follow the usual class
access rules; except that you can initialize them in file scope. Static data members
and their initializers can access other static private and protected members of their
class. The initializer for a static data member is in the scope of the class that
declares the member.
The following example shows how you can initialize static members using other
static members, even though these members are private:
class C {
static
static
static
static
static
static
static
static
static

int
int
int
int
int
int
int
int
int

i;
j;
k;
l;
m;
n;
p;
q;
r;
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297

Static Members
static int s;
static int f() { return 0; }
int a;
public:
C() { a = 0; }
};
int
int
int
int
int
int

C c;
C::i =
C::j =
C::k =
C::l =
C::s =
C::r =

C::f(); // initialize with static member function

C::i; // initialize with another static data member
c.f(); // initialize with member function from an object
c.j; // initialize with data member from an object
c.a; // initialize with nonstatic data member
1; // initialize with a constant value

class Y : private C {} y;
int
int
int
int

C::m
C::n
C::p
C::q

=
=
=
=

Y::f();
Y::r;
y.r; // error
y.f(); // error

The initializations of C::p and C:: cause errors because y is an object of a class
that is derived privately from C. Its members are not accessible to members of C.
You can only have one definition of a static member in a program. If you do not
initialize a static data member, OS/390 C++ assigns a zero default value to it.
Local classes cannot have static data members.
The following example shows the declaration, initialization, use, and scope of the
static data member si and static member functions Set_si(int) and Print_si().

CBC3X11G
// This example shows the declaration, initialization,
// use, and scope of a static data member.
#include <iostream.h>
class X
{
int i;
static int si;
public:
void Set_i(int i) { this->i = i; }
void Print_i() { cout << "i = " <i << endl; }
static void Set_si(int si) { X::si = si; }
static void Print_si()
{
cout << "X::si = " << X::si << endl;
}
// Print_si doesn't have a 'this' pointer

};
int X::si = 77;

// Initialize static data member

void main()
{
X xobj;
// Non-static data members and functions belong to specific
// instances (here xobj) of class X
xobj.Set_i(11);
xobj.Print_i();

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Static Members

// static data members and functions belong to the class and

// can be accessed without using an instance of class X
X::Print_si();
X::Set_si(22);
X::Print_si();

This example produces the following output:

i = 11
X::si = 77
X::si = 22

Static Member Functions

You cannot have static member functions and nonstatic member functions with the
same names and with the same number and type of arguments.
A static member function does not have a this pointer. You can call a static
member function using the this pointer of a nonstatic member function. In the
following example, the nonstatic member function printall() calls the static
member function f() using the this pointer:

CBC3X11H
// This example illustrates a static member function f().
#include <iostream.h>
class c {
static void f() { cout << "Here is i"
<j << endl;
this->f();
}
int c::i = 3;
void main() {
class c C(0);
C.printall();
}

You cannot declare a static member function with the keyword virtual.
A static member function can access only the names of static members,
enumerators, and nested types of the class in which it is declared.

Member Access
Member access determines if a class member is accessible in an expression or
declaration. Note that accessibility and visibility are independent. The scoping rules
of C++ determines visibility. A class member can be visible and inaccessible at the
same time. This section describes how you control the access to the individual
underived class members by using access specifiers when you declare class
members in a member list.

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Member Access

Classes and Access Control

C++ facilitates data abstraction and encapsulation by providing access control for
members of class types.
For example, consider if you declare private data members and public member
functions. As a consequence, a client program can only access the private
members through the public member functions and friends of that class. Such a
class has data hiding because client programs do not have access to
implementation details. They are forced to use a public interface to manipulate
objects of the class.
You can control access to class members by using access specifiers. In the
following example, the class abc has three private data members a, b, and c, and
three public member functions add(), mult(), and the constructor abc(). The main()
function creates an object danforth of the abc class and then attempts to print the
value of the member a for this object:

CBC3X10A
// This example illustrates class member access specifiers
#include <iostream.h>
class abc
{
private:
int a, b, c;
public:
abc(int p1, int p2, int p3): a(p1), b(p2), c(p3) {}
int add() { return a + b + c ; }
int mult() { return a * b * c; }
};
void main() {
abc danforth(1,2,3);
cout << "Here is the value of a " << danforth.a << endl;
// This causes an error because a is not
// a public member and cannot be accessed
// directly
}

Because class members are private by default, you can omit the keyword private
in the definition of abc. Because a is not a public member, the attempt to access its
value directly causes an error.

Access Specifiers
The three class member access specifiers have the following effect:
public class members
You can access them by any function, file, or class.
private class members
You can access them only by member functions and friends of the class in
which the member is declared.
protected class members
You can only access them by member functions and friends of the class in
which they are declared. You can also access them by member functions
and friends of classes derived with public or protected access from the
class in which you have declared the protected members. You can use the
access specifier, protected, for class members that are not base members.

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Member Access
It is, however, equivalent to private unless it is used in a base class
member declaration, or in a base list. For more information, see Protected
Members on page 342.
The default access for an individual class member depends on the class key that is
used in the class declaration. Members of classes that are declared with the
keyword class are private by default. Members of classes that are declared with the
keyword struct or union are public by default.
The access specifier protected is meaningful only in the context of derivation. You
can control the access to inherited members (that is, base class members) by
including access specifiers in the base list of the derived class declaration. You can
also restore the access to an inherited member from a derived class by using an
access declaration.
Inherited Member Access on page 341 describes access for inherited members.
Member lists can include access specifiers as labels. Members that are declared
after these labels have access as specified by the label they follow. An access
specifier determines the access for members until another access specifier is used
or until the end of the class declaration. You can use any number of access
specifiers in any order.
The following example shows access specifiers in member lists.
class X
{
int a;
public:
void f(int);
int b;
private:
int c;
protected:
void g(int);
};
struct Y
{
int a;
public:
int b;
private:
void g(int);
int c;
};

// private data by default

// public function
// public data
// private data
// protected function

// public data by default

// public data
// private function
// private data

Friends
A friend of a class X is a function or class that is granted the same access to X as
the members of X. Refer to functions that are declared with the friend specifier in a
class member list as friend functions of that class. Refer to classes that are
declared with the friend specifier in the member list of another class as friend
classes of that class.
You must define a class Y before you can declare any member of Y as a friend of
another class.
In the following example, the friend function print is a member of class Y. It
accesses the private data members a and b of class X.

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301

Friends

CBC3X11I
// This example illustrates a friend function.
#include <iostream.h>
class X;
class Y
{
public:
void print(X& x);
};
class X
{
public:
X() {a=1; b=2;}
private:
int a, b;
friend void Y::print(X& x);
};
void Y::print(X& x)
{
cout << "A is "<< x.a << endl;
cout << "B is " << x.b << endl;
}
void main ()
{
X xobj;
Y yobj;
yobj.print(xobj);
}

You can declare an entire class as a friend.

In the following example, the friend class F has a member function print that
accesses the private data members a and b of class X. It performs the same task as
the friend function print in the above example. Any other members that are
declared in class F also have access to all members of class X. In the example, you
have not previously declared the friend class F, so the example uses an elaborated
type specifier and a qualified type specifier to specify the class name.

CBC3X11J
// This example illustrates a friend class.
#include <iostream.h>
class X
{
public:
X() {a=1; b=2;}
//
private:
int a, b;
friend class F;
//
};
class F
{
public:
void print(X& x)
{
cout << "A is " << x.a
cout << "B is " << x.b
}
//
.
//
.
//
.

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constructor
friend class

<< endl;
<< endl;

Friends
};
void main ()
{
X xobj;
F fobj;
fobj.print(xobj);
}

Both the above examples produce the following output:

A is 1
B is 2

If the you have not previously declared the class, use an elaborated type specifier
and a qualified type specifier to specify the class name.
If the friend class has been previously declared, you can omit the keyword class,
as shown in the following example:
class F;
class X
{
public:
X() {a=1; b=2;}
private:
int a, b;
friend F; // elaborated-type-specifier not required
};
//
.
//
.
//
.

Friend Scope
The name of a friend function or class first introduced in a friend declaration is not
in the scope of the class granting friendship (also called the enclosing class) and is
not a member of the class granting friendship.
The name of a function first introduced in a friend declaration is in the scope of the
first nonclass scope that contains the enclosing class. The body of a function that is
provided in a friend declaration is handled in the same way as a member function
defined within a class. Processing of the definition does not start until the end of the
outermost enclosing class. In addition, OS/390 C++ searches the body of the
function definition for unqualified names starting from the class that contains the
function definition.
A class that is first declared in a friend declaration is equivalent to an extern
declaration. For example:
class B {};
class A
{
friend class B; // global class B is a friend of A
};

Consider when the name of a friend class has been introduced before the friend
declaration. Then, the compiler searches for a class name that matches the name
of the friend class, beginning at the scope of the friend declaration. When the
declaration of a nested class is followed by the declaration of a friend class with the
same name, the nested class is a friend of the enclosing class.

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303

Friends
The scope of a friend class name is the first nonclass enclosing scope. Consider
the following example:
class A {
class B { // arbitrary nested class definitions
friend class C;
};
};

The above example is equivalent to the following:

class C;
class A {
class B { // arbitrary nested class definitions
friend class C;
};
};

If the friend function is a member of another class, you need to use the class
member access operators. For example:
class A
{
public:
int f() { /* ... */ }
};
class B
{
friend int A::f();
};

Any classes you derive from a base class do not inherit friends of that base class.
For more information about friend scope, see Scope of Class Names on page 282.

Friend Access
A friend of a class can access the private and protected members of that class.
Normally, you can only access the private members of a class through member
functions of that class. In addition, you can only access the protected members of a
class through member functions of a class, or classes that are derived from that
class.
Access specifiers do not affect friend declarations.
For more information on access, see Member Access on page 299.

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Chapter 13. C++ Overloading

Overloading enables you to redefine functions and most standard C++ operators.
Typically, you overload a function or operator if you want to extend the operations
the function or operator performs to different data types. This chapter discusses the
following topics on overloading:
v Overloading Functions
v Argument Matching in Overloaded Functions on page 306
v Overloading Operators on page 308
v Overloading Unary Operators on page 311
v Overloading Binary Operators on page 311
v Special Overloaded Operators on page 312
Related Information
v Chapter 6. Expressions and Operators on page 133
v Chapter 8. Functions on page 173
v Chapter 11. C++ Classes on page 277

Overloading Functions
You can overload a function by having multiple declarations of the same function
name in the same scope. The declarations differ in the type and number of
arguments in the argument list. When you call an overloaded function, OS/390 C++
compares the types of the actual arguments with the types of the formal arguments.
Thus, it selects the correct function.
Consider a function print, which displays an int. The following example
demonstrates that you can overload this function to display other types, for
example, double, and char*. You can have three functions with the same name,
each performing a similar operation on a different data type.

CBC3X12A
// This example illustrates function overloading.
#include <iostream.h>
void print(int i) { cout << " Here is int " << i << endl; }
void print(double f) { cout << " Here is float "
<< f << endl; }
void print(char* c) { cout << " Here is char* " << c << endl; }
void main() {
print(10);
// calls print(int)
print(10.10);
// calls print(double)
print("ten");
// calls print(char*)
}

Declaration Matching
Two function declarations are identical if all of the following are true:
v They have the same function name
v They are declared in the same scope
v They have identical argument lists
When you declare a function name more than once in the same scope, the
compiler interprets the second declaration of the function name as follows:
Copyright IBM Corp. 1996, 2000

305

Overloading Functions
v If the return type, argument types, and number of arguments are identical for the
two declarations, the compiler considers that the second declaration is the same
as the first.
v If only the return types of the two function declarations differ, the second
declaration is an error.
v If either the argument types or number of arguments of the two declarations
differ, the function is an overloaded function.

Restrictions on Overloaded Functions

v Functions that differ only in return type cannot have the same name.
v Two member functions that differ only in that one is declared with the keyword
static cannot have the same name.
v A typedef is a synonym for another type, not a separate type. The following two
declarations of spadina() are declarations of the same function:
typedef int I;
void spadina(float, int);
void spadina(float, I);

v A member function of a derived class is not in the same scope as a member

function in a base class with the same name. A derived class member hides a
base class member with the same name.
v Argument types that differ only in that one is a pointer * and the other is an array
[] are identical. The following two declarations are equivalent:
f(char*);
f(char[10]);

Only the second and subsequent array dimensions are significant.

v The const and volatile type-specifiers on are ignored in distinguishing argument
types when they appear at the outermost level of the argument type specification.
The following declarations are equivalent:
int f (int);
int f (const int);
int f (volatile int);

Pointers and references to types are considered distinct parameter types.

For more information on functions, see Chapter 8. Functions on page 173.

Argument Matching in Overloaded Functions

When you call an overloaded function or overloaded operator, the compiler chooses
the function declaration with the best match. This match is based on all arguments
from all the visible function declarations. The compiler compares the actual
arguments of a function call with the formal arguments of all visible declarations of
the function. For a best match to occur, the compiler must be able to distinguish a
function that:
v Has at least as good a match on all arguments as any other function with the
same name
v Has at least one better argument match than any other function with the same
name
If no such function exists, OS/390 C++ does not allow the call. A call to an
overloaded function has three possible outcomes. The compiler can find:
v An exact match
v No match
v An ambiguous match

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Argument Matching
An ambiguous match occurs when the actual arguments of the function call match
more than one overloaded function.
The matching of arguments includes performing standard and user-defined
conversions on the arguments in order to match the actual arguments with the
formal arguments. OS/390 C++ only performs a single user-defined conversion in a
sequence of conversions on an actual argument. In addition, OS/390 C++ performs
the best-matching sequence of standard conversions on an actual argument. The
best-matching sequence is the shortest sequence of conversions between two
standard types. For example, you can shorten the following conversion:
int -> float -> double

to the best-matching conversion sequence:

int -> double

In the above example, the compiler allows the conversion from int to double.
Trivial conversions, that are described in Trivial Conversions on page 308, do not
affect the choice of conversion sequence.

Sequence of Argument Conversions

Argument-matching conversions occur in the following order:
1. An exact match, in which the actual arguments exactly match the type and
number of formal arguments of one declaration of the overloaded function. This
includes a match with one or more trivial conversions.
2. A match with promotions in which a match is found when one or more of the
actual arguments is promoted
3. A match with standard conversions in which a match is found when one or more
of the actual arguments is converted by a standard conversion
4. A match with user-defined conversions in which a match is found when one or
more of the actual arguments is converted by a user-defined conversion
5. A match with ellipses
A match through promotion follows the rules for Integral Promotions and Standard
Type Conversions on page 167.
You can override an exact match by using an explicit cast. In the following example,
the second call to f() matches with f(void*):
void f(int);
void f(void*);
//
.
//
.
//
.
void main()
{
f(0xaabb);
f((void*) 0xaabb);
}

// matches f(int);
// matches f(void*)

The implicit first argument for a nonstatic member function or operator is the this
pointer. It refers to the class object for which the member function is called. When
you overload a nonstatic member function, the first implicit argument, the this
pointer, is matched with the object or pointer used in the call to the member
function. User-defined conversions are not applied in this type of matching of
arguments for overloaded functions or operators.
Chapter 13. C++ Overloading

307

Argument Matching
When you call an overloaded member function of class X using the . (dot) or ->
(arrow) operator, the this pointer has type X* const. The type of the this pointer
for a constant object is const X* const. The type of the this pointer for a volatile
object is volatile X* const.
See The this Pointer on page 293 for information on the this pointer. See Dot
Operator (.) on page 142 and Arrow Operator (>) on page 142 for information
on the class-member access operators.

Trivial Conversions
The compiler cannot distinguish between functions if they have the same name and
arguments which differ only in that one is declared as a reference to a type, and the
other is that type. You cannot have two functions with the same name and with
arguments that differ only in this respect. Because the following two declarations
cannot be distinguished, the second one causes an error:
double
//
//
//
double

f(double i); // declaration

.
.
.
f(double &i); // error

Functions with the same name and arguments can be distinguished only if they
have following differences::
v One is a pointer or reference, and the other is a pointer to const or const
reference.
v One is a pointer or reference, and the other is a pointer to volatile or volatile
reference.
To find a best match of arguments, functions with a volatile or const match (not
requiring a trivial conversion) are better than those that have a volatile or const
mismatch.
For more information on conversions, see Standard Type Conversions on
page 167 and User-Defined Conversions on page 325.

Overloading Operators
You can overload one of the standard C++ operators by redefining it to perform a
particular operation when you apply it to an object of a particular class. Overloaded
operators must have at least one argument that has class type. OS/390 C++ calls
an overloaded operator an operator function. You declare it with the keyword
operator that precedes the operator itself. Overloaded operators are distinct from
overloaded functions. Like overloaded functions however, you distinguish them by
the number and types of operands you used with the operator.
You can overload any of the following operators:
+
!
|=
<=
( )

=
&=
>=
[ ]

*
<
|=
&&
new

/
>
<<
||
delete

%
+=
>>
++

|
=
<<=

&
*=
>>=
,

|
/=
==
>*

where () is the function call operator and [] is the subscript operator.

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%=
!=
>

Overloading Operators
Consider the standard + (plus) operator. When you use this operator with operands
of different standard types, the operators have slightly different meanings. For
example, C++ does not implement the addition of two integers in the same way as
the addition of two floating-point numbers. C++ allows you to define your own
meanings for the standard C++ operators when you apply them to class types. The
following example defines a class that is called complx to model complex numbers.
The example redefines the + (plus) operator in this class to add two complex
numbers.

CBC3X12B
// This example illustrates overloading the plus (+) operator.
#include <iostream.h>
class complx
{
double real,
imag;
public:
complx( double real = 0., double imag = 0.); // constructor
complx operator+(const complx&) const;
// operator+()
};
// define constructor
complx::complx( double r, double i )
{
real = r; imag = i;
}
// define overloaded + (plus) operator
complx complx::operator+ (const complx& c) const
{
complx result;
result.real = (this->real + c.real);
result.imag = (this->imag + c.imag);
return result;
}
void main()
{
complx x(4,4);
complx y(6,6);
complx z = x + y; // calls complx::operator+()
}

General Rules for Overloading Operators

You can overload both the unary and binary forms of:
+

When an overloaded operator is a member function, C++ matches the first operand
against the class type of the overloaded operator. It matches the second operand, if
one exists, against the argument in the overloaded operator call.
When an overloaded operator is a nonmember function, at least one operand must
have class or enumeration type. OS/390 C++ matches the first operand against the
first argument in the overloaded operator call. It matches the second operand, if
one exists, against the second argument in the overloaded operator call.
The argument-matching conventions and rules that are described in Argument
Matching in Overloaded Functions on page 306 apply to overloaded operators.

Chapter 13. C++ Overloading

309

Overloading Operators

Operands of Overloaded Operators

An overloaded operator must be a member function, or take at least one argument
of class, a reference to a class, an enumeration, or a reference to an enumeration.
The following example demonstrates the operator as a member function:
class X
{
public:
X operator!();
X& operator =(X&);
X operator+(X&);
};
X X::operator!() { /* ... */ }
X& X::operator=(X& x) { /* ... */ }
X X::operator+(X& x) { /* ... */ }

The following example shows the other case:

class Y;
{
//
.
//
.
//
.
};
class Z;
{
//
.
//
.
//
.
};
Y operator!(Y& y);
Z operator+(Z& z, int);

Usually, you invoke overloaded operators by using the normal operator syntax. You
can also call overloaded operators explicitly by qualifying the operator name. For
example, for the class complx, as described above, you can call the overloaded +
(plus) operator either implicitly or explicitly. The following example demonstrates
this:

CBC3X12C
// This example shows implicit and explicit calls
// to an overloaded plus (+) operator.
class complx
{
double real,
imag;
public:
complx( double real = 0., double imag = 0.);
complx operator+(const complx&) const;
};
//
.
//
.
//
.
void main()
{
complx x(4,4);
complx y(6,6);
complx u = x.operator+(y); // explicit call
complx z = x + y;
// implicit call to complx::operator+()
}

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Overloading Operators

Restrictions on Overloaded Operators

v You cannot overload the following C++ operators:
.

v You cannot overload the preprocessing symbols # and ##.

v You cannot change the precedence, grouping, or number of operands of the
standard C++ operators.
v An overloaded operator (except for the function call operator) cannot have default
arguments or an ellipsis in the argument list.
v You must declare the overloaded =, [], (), and > operators as nonstatic
member functions to ensure that they receive lvalues as their first operands.
v The operators new and delete do not follow the general rules described in this
section. Overloading new and delete is described in Overloaded new and delete
on page 316.
v All operators except the = operator are inherited. Copy by Assignment on
page 331 describes the behavior of the assignment operator.
v Unless explicitly mentioned in Special Overloaded Operators on page 312,
overloaded unary, and binary operators follow the rules that are outlined in
Overloading Unary Operators and Overloading Binary Operators.
For more information on standard C and C++ operators, see Overloading Unary
Operators.

Overloading Unary Operators

You can overload a prefix unary operator by declaring a nonmember function that
takes one argument, or a nonstatic member function that takes no arguments.
When you prefix a class object with an overloaded unary operator, you can interpret
the function call !x as: x.operator!() or operator!(x). For example:
class X
{
//
.
//
.
//
.
};
void main ()
{
X x;
!x;
}

// overloaded unary operator

However, this depends on the declarations of the operator function. If you have
declared both forms of the operator function, argument matching determines which
interpretation OS/390 C++ uses.
For more information on standard unary operators, see Unary Expressions on
page 142.

Overloading Binary Operators

You can overload a binary operator by declaring a nonmember function that takes
two arguments, or a nonstatic member function that takes one argument.
When you use a class object with an overloaded binary operator, for example:
class X
{
//
.
Chapter 13. C++ Overloading

311

Overloading Binary Operators

//
.
//
.
};
void main ()
{
X x;
int y=10;
x*y;
// overloaded binary operator
}

you can interpret the operator function call x*y as:

x.operator*(y)

or
operator*(x,y)

depending on the declarations of the operator function. If you have declared both
forms of the operator function, argument matching determines which interpretation
OS/390 C++ uses.
For more information on standard binary operators, see Binary Expressions on
page 152.

Special Overloaded Operators

The following overloaded operators do not fully follow the rules for unary or binary
overloaded operators:
v Assignment
v Function call
v Subscripting
v Class member access
v Increment and decrement
v new and delete

Overloaded Assignment
You can only overload an assignment operator by declaring a nonstatic member
function. The following example shows how you can overload the assignment
operator for a particular class:
class X
{
public:
X();
X& operator=(X&);
X& operator=(int);
//
.
//
.
//
.
};
X& X::operator=(X& x) { /* ... */ }
X& X::operator=(int i) { /* ... */ }
//
.
//
.
//
.
void main()
{
X x1, x2;
x1 = x2;
// call x1.operator=(x2)
x1 = 5;
// call x1.operator=(5)
}

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Special Overloaded Operators

You cannot declare an overloaded assignment operator that is a nonmember
function.
Overloaded assignment operators are not inherited.
If you do not define a copy assignment operator function for a class, OS/390 C++
defines the function by default as a memberwise assignment of the class members.
The compiler uses these operators when it generates default copy assignment
operators, if assignment operator functions exist for the base classes or class
members. See Copy by Assignment on page 331 for more information.
For more information on standard assignment operators, see Assignment
Expressions on page 163.

Overloaded Function Calls

The operands are function_name and an optional expression_list. The operator
function operator() must be defined as a nonstatic member function. You cannot
declare an overloaded function call operator that is a nonmember function.
If you make the following call for the class object x:
x (arg1, arg2, arg3)

OS/390 C++ interprets it as:

x.operator()(arg1, arg2, arg3)

You can provide default arguments and ellipses in the argument list for the function
call operator, unlike all other overloaded operators. For example:
class X
{
public:
X& operator() (int = 5);
};
//
.
//
.
//
.

For more information on the standard function call operator, see Function
Calls ( ) on page 140.

Overloaded Subscripting
An expression that contains the subscripting operator has the following syntax of
the form, and OS/390 C++ considers it a binary operator.:
identifier[ expression ]

The operands are identifier and expression. The operator function operator[] must
be defined as a nonstatic member function. You cannot declare an overloaded
subscript operator that is a nonmember function.
A subscripting expression for the class object x:
x [y]

is interpreted as x.operator[](y). It is not interpreted as operator[](x,y) because

it is defined as a nonstatic member function.

Chapter 13. C++ Overloading

313

Special Overloaded Operators

For more information on the standard subscripting operator, see Array Subscript [ ]
(Array Element Specification) on page 141.

Overloaded Class Member Access

An expression containing the class member access -> (arrow) operator has the
following syntax, and is considered a unary operator:
identifier> name-expression

The operator function operator->() must be defined as a nonstatic member

function.
The following restrictions apply to class member access operators:
v You cannot declare an overloaded arrow operator that is a nonmember function.
v You cannot overload the class member access . (dot) operator.
Consider the following example of overloading the -> (arrow) operator:
class Y
{
public:
void f();
};
class X
{
public:
Y* operator->();
};
X x;
//
.
//
.
//
.
x->f();

Here x->f() is interpreted as:

( x.operator->() )-> f()

x.operator->() must return either a reference to a class object, or a class object

for which the overloaded operator-> function is defined, or a pointer to any class. If
the overloaded operator-> function returns a class type, the class type must not be
the same as the class that declares the function. The class type that is returned
must contain its own definition of an overloaded -> operator function.
For more information on the standard class member access arrow operator, see
Arrow Operator (>) on page 142.

Overloaded Increment and Decrement

You can overload the prefix increment operator (++) for a class type by declaring a
nonmember function operator with one argument of class type or a reference to
class type. You can also overload it by declaring a member function operator with
no arguments.
The following example illustrates both ways of overloading the increment operator:

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Special Overloaded Operators

CBC3X12D
// This example illustrates an overloaded prefix increment operator.
class X
{
int a;
public:
operator++();
// member prefix increment operator
};
class Y { /* ... */ };
operator++(Y& y);
// nonmember prefix increment operator
//
.
//
.
//
.
// Definitions of prefix increment operator functions
//
.
//
.
//
.
void main()
{
X x;
Y y;
++x;
x.operator++();
operator++(y);
++y;
}

//
//
//
//

x.operator++
x.operator++
nonmember operator++
nonmember operator++

You can overload the postfix increment operator ++ for a class type by declaring a
nonmember function operator operator++() with two arguments. The first argument
has class type, and the second has type int. Alternatively, you can declare a
member function operator operator++() with one argument having type int. The
compiler uses the int argument to distinguish between the prefix and postfix
increment operators. For implicit calls, the default value is zero.
For example:

CBC3X12E
// This example illustrates an overloaded postfix increment operator.
class X
{
int a;
public:
operator++(int);
// member postfix increment operator
};
operator++(X x, int i); // nonmember postfix increment operator
//
.
//
.
//
.
// Definitions of postfix increment operator functions
//
.
//
.
//
.
void main()
{
X x;
x++;

x.operator++(0);
operator++(x,0);

//
//
//
//

x.operator++
default zero is supplied by compiler
x.operator++
nonmember operator++

Chapter 13. C++ Overloading

315

Special Overloaded Operators

The prefix and postfix decrement operators follow the same rules as their increment
counterparts.
For more information on the standard postfix and prefix increment operators, see
Increment (++) on page 143. For more information on the standard postfix and
prefix decrement operators, see Decrement () on page 143.

Overloaded new and delete

You can implement your own memory management scheme for a class by
overloading the operators new and delete. The overloaded operator new must return
a void*, and its first argument must have type size_t. The overloaded operator
delete must return a void type, and its first argument must be void*. The second
argument for the overloaded delete operator is optional, and if present, it must
have type size_t. You can only define one delete operator function for a class.
Type size_t is an implementation dependent unsigned integral type defined in
<stddef.h>.
This example requires a size argument because a class can inherit an overloaded
new operator. The derived class can be a different size than the base class. The
size argument ensures that OS/390 C++ allocates or deallocates the correct
amount of storage space for the object.
When new and delete are overloaded within a class declaration, they are static
member functions whether they are declared with the keyword static or not. They
cannot be virtual functions.
You can access the standard, nonoverloaded versions of new and delete within a
class scope containing the overloading new and delete operators by using the ::
(scope resolution) operator to provide global access.
For more information on the class member operators new and delete, see Free
Store on page 322. For more information on the standard new and delete
operators, see C++ new Operator on page 148 and C++ delete Operator on
page 151.

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Chapter 14. Special C++ Member Functions

This chapter introduces the special member functions that are used to create,
destroy, convert, initialize, and copy class objects. It includes the following topics:
v Constructors and Destructors Overview
v Constructors on page 318
v Destructors on page 320
v Free Store on page 322
v Temporary Objects on page 324
v User-Defined Conversions on page 325
v Initialization by Constructor on page 327
v Copying Class Objects on page 331
Related Information
v Chapter 8. Functions on page 173
v Chapter 11. C++ Classes on page 277
v Chapter 12. C++ Class Members and Friends on page 287
v Chapter 13. C++ Overloading on page 305
v Chapter 15. C++ Inheritance on page 335

Constructors and Destructors Overview

Because classes have complicated internal structures, including data and functions,
object initialization, and cleanup for classes is much more complicated than it is for
simple data structures. Constructors and destructors are special member functions
of classes that are used to construct and destroy class objects. Construction may
involve memory allocation and initialization for objects. Destruction may involve
cleanup and deallocation of memory for objects.
Like other member functions, constructors and destructors are declared within a
class declaration. They can be defined inline or external to the class declaration.
Constructors can have default arguments. Constructors can have member
initialization lists, unlike other member functions. The following restrictions apply to
constructors and destructors:
v Constructors and destructors do not have return types nor can they return
values.
v You cannot use references and pointers on constructors and destructors because
you cannot take their addresses.
v You cannot declare constructors with the keyword virtual.
v You cannot declare constructors and destructors as static, const, or volatile.
v Unions cannot contain class objects that have constructors or destructors.
Constructors and destructors obey the same access rules as member functions. For
example, if you declare a constructor with the keyword protected, only derived
classes and friends can use it to create class objects. Member Access on
page 299 describes class member access.
The compiler automatically calls constructors when defining class objects and calls
destructors when class objects go out of scope. A constructor does not allocate
memory for the class object to which its this pointer refers. It may, however,
allocate storage for more objects than its class object refers to. If objects require
memory allocation, constructors can explicitly call the new operator. During cleanup,
a destructor may release objects that are allocated by the corresponding
Copyright IBM Corp. 1996, 2000

317

Constructors and Destructors Overview

constructor. To release objects, use the delete operator. The global new and delete
operators are described in C++ new Operator on page 148 and C++ delete
Operator on page 151.
Derived classes do not inherit constructors or destructors from their base classes,
but they do call the constructor and destructor of base classes. You can declare
destructors with the keyword virtual.
Constructors are also called when local or temporary class objects are created.
Destructors are called when local or temporary objects go out of scope.
You can call member functions from constructors or destructors. You can call a
virtual function, either directly or indirectly, from a constructor or destructor. In this
case, the function that you call is the one defined in the class or base class
containing the constructor (or destructor). However, it is not a function defined in
any class derived from the class you are constructing. Therefore, you cannot
access an object from a constructor or destructor, if that object is not constructed.

Constructors
A constructor is a member function with the same name as its class. For example:
class X
{
public:
X();
//
.
//
.
//
.
};

// constructor for class X

You can use constructors to create and initialize objects of their class type.
Initialization by Constructor on page 327 describes the initialization of class objects
using constructors.

Default Constructors
A default constructor is a constructor that either has no arguments, or, if it has
arguments, all the arguments have default values. If no user-defined constructor
exists for a class and your program needs one, the compiler creates a default
constructor, with public access, for that class. The compiler does not create a
default constructor for a class that has any constant members or reference type
members.
A constructor can have default arguments, like all functions. You can use them to
initialize member objects. If the call to the constructor supplies default values, you
can omit the trailing arguments in the expression list of the constructor. For more
information, see Default Arguments in C++ Functions on page 189. Note that if a
constructor has any arguments that do not have default values, it is not a default
constructor.

Copy Constructors
Use a copy constructor to make a copy of one class object from another class
object of the same class type. You call a copy constructor with a single argument
that is a reference to its own class type. You cannot use a copy constructor with an
argument of the same type as its class; you must use a reference. You can provide
copy constructors with additional default arguments. If a user-defined copy
constructor does not exist for a class and your program needs one, the compiler

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Constructors
creates a copy constructor, with public access, for that class. The compiler does not
create a copy constructor for a class if any of its members or base classes have an
inaccessible copy constructor.
The following code fragment shows two classes with constructors, default
constructors, and copy constructors:
class X
{
public:
X();
// default constructor, no arguments
X(int, int , int = 0);
// constructor
X(const X&);
// copy constructor
X(X);
// error, incorrect argument type
};
class Y
{
public:
Y( int = 0);
// default constructor with one
// default argument
Y(const Y&, int = 0);
// copy constructor
};

Construction Order of Class Objects

If a class contains a base class or members with constructors when it is
constructed, OS/390 C++ calls the constructor for the base class. Next, it calls any
constructors for members. It calls the constructor for the derived class last. The
compiler constructs virtual base classes before nonvirtual base classes. When more
than one base class exists, the compiler calls base class constructors in the order
that their classes appear in the base list, as the following example demonstrates.
class B1 { public: B1(); };
class B2
{
public:
B2();
B1 b1obj;
};
class B3 { public: B3(); };
//
.
//
.
//
.
class D : public B1, public B2, public B3
{
public:
D();
D();
};
//
.
//
.
//
.
void main ()
{
D object;
}

In the above example, the compiler calls constructors for object in the following
order:
B1();
B1();
B2();
B3();
D();

//
//
//
//
//

first base constructor declared

member constructor for B2::b1obj
second base constructor declared
last base constructor declared
derived constructor called last

Chapter 14. Special C++ Member Functions

319

Constructors
Note that the construction of class D involves construction of the base classes B1,
B2, and B3. The construction of base class B2 involves the construction of its class
B1 member object. When OS/390 C++ constructs class B2, it calls the constructor
for class B1 in addition to B2s own constructor.
The second call to the constructor of B1 followed by the call to the constructor of B2
is part of the construction of B2.
For more information, see Construction Order of Derived Class Objects on
page 330.

Explicitly Constructing Objects

You cannot call constructors directly. Use a function style cast to explicitly construct
an object of the specified type. The following example uses a constructor as an
initializer to create a named object.
#include <iostream.h>
class X
{
public:
X (int, int , int = 0); // constructor with default argument
private:
int a, b, c;
int f();
};
X::X (int i, int j, int k) { a = i; b = j; c = k; }
//
.
//
.
//
.
void main ()
{
X xobject = X(1,2,3);
// explicitly create and initialize
// named object with constructor call
}

Destructors
A destructor is a member function with the same name as its class that is prefixed
by a (tilde).
For example:
class X
{
public:
X();
X();
//
.
//
.
//
.
};

// constructor for class X

// destructor for class X

A destructor takes no arguments and has no return type. You cannot take its
address. You cannot declare destructors as const, volatile, or static. You can
declare a destructor as virtual or pure virtual. A union cannot have as a member
an object of a class with a destructor.
Use destructors to deallocate memory and do other cleanup for a class object and
its class members when you destroy the object. OS/390 C++ calls a destructor for a
class object when that object passes out of scope or you explicitly delete it.

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Destructors
Class members that are class types can have their own destructors. Both base and
derived classes can have destructors, although destructors are not inherited.
Consider that a base class or a member of a base class has a destructor and a
class derived from that base class does not declare a destructor. In that case,
OS/390 C++ generates a default destructor. The default destructor calls the
destructors of the base class and the members of the derived class. OS/390 C++
generates default destructors with default public access.
The compiler calls destructors in the reverse order to which it calls constructors:
1. It calls the destructor for a class object before it calls destructors for members
and bases.
2. It calls destructors for nonstatic members before calling destructors for base
classes.
3. It calls destructors for nonvirtual base classes before calling destructors for
virtual base classes.
When your program throws an exception for a class object with a destructor,
OS/390 C++ does not call the destructor for the temporary object that it throws until
your program passes control out of the catch block. For more information, see
Constructors and Destructors in Exception Handling on page 382.
OS/390 C++ calls destructors implicitly when an automatic or temporary object
passes out of scope. It also calls them implicitly at program termination for
constructed external and static objects. Destructors are invoked when you use the
delete operator for objects that are created with the new operator.
For example:
#include <string.h>
class Y
{
private:
char * string;
int number;
public:
Y(const char* n,int a);
// constructor
Y() { delete[] string; } // destructor
};
Y::Y(const char* n, int a)
// define class Y constructor
{
string = strcpy(new char[strlen(n) + 1 ], n);
number = a;
}
void main ()
{
Y yobj = Y("somestring", 10); // create and initialize
// object of class Y
//
.
//
.
//
.
// destructor Y is called before control returns from main()
}

Although you can use a destructor explicitly to destroy objects, you should not use
this method. If an object has been placed at a specific address by the new operator,
you can call the destructor of the object to destroy it. An explicitly called destructor
cannot delete storage.

Chapter 14. Special C++ Member Functions

321

Destructors
Note: You can only call destructors for class types. You cannot call destructors for
simple types. The call to the destructor in the following example causes the
compiler to issue a warning:
int * ptr;
ptr -> int::int(); // warning

Free Store
Use free store to dynamically allocate memory. The new and delete operators are
used to allocate and deallocate free store, respectively. You can define your own
versions of new and delete for a class by overloading them. You can supply the new
and delete operators with additional arguments. When new and delete operate on
class objects, the class member operator functions new and delete are called, if
they have been declared.
If you create a class object with the new operator, one of the operator functions
operator new() or operator new[]() (if they have been declared) is called to create
the object. An operator new() or operator new[]() for a class is always a static
class member, even if it is not declared with the keyword static. It has a return
type void*, and its first argument must be the size of the object type and have type
size_t. It cannot be virtual.
Type size_t is an implementation dependent unsigned integral type defined in
<stddef.h>.
When you overload the new operator, you must declare it as a class member, that
returns type void*, with first argument size_t, as described above. You supply
additional arguments in the declaration of operator new() or operator new[]().
Use the placement syntax to specify values for these arguments in an allocation
expression.
The following example shows how to use the overloaded new and delete operators
and the overloaded new and delete vector operators.
#include <new.h>
#include <stdio.h>
char buff[10000];
char* cur=buff;

322

void* operator new(size_t bytes) {

printf(" In new\n");
char* prv = cur;
cur += bytes;
return(prv);
}

// allocate storage for object

void operator delete(void* ptr) {

printf(" In delete\n");
}

// free storage for object

void* operator new[](size_t bytes) {

printf(" In new[]\n");
char* prv = cur;
cur += bytes;
return(prv);
}

// allocate storage for array

// objects

void operator delete[](void* ptr) {

printf(" In delete[]\n");
}

// free storage for array of

// objects

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

Free Store
class X {
public:
X() { printf("X constructed\n"); }
X() { printf("X destroyed\n"); }
};

// default constructor for X

// default destructor for X

main() {
// create, then delete different types of objects and
// arrays-of-objects
printf("New
int* flat =
printf("New
int* arr =

int\n");
new int;
array-of-int\n");
new int[2];

printf("New X\n");
X* x = new X;
printf("New array-of-X\n");
X* xArr = new X[2];
printf("Delete
delete[] xArr;
printf("Delete
delete x;
printf("Delete
delete[] arr;
printf("Delete
delete flat;
}

array-of-X\n");
X\n");
array-of-int\n");
int\n");

return(0);

The example produces the following output:

New int
In new
New array-of-int
In new[]
New X
In new
X constructed
New array-of-X
In new[]
X constructed
X constructed
Delete array-of-X
X destroyed
X destroyed
In delete[]
Delete X
X destroyed
In delete
Delete array-of-int
In delete[]
Delete int
In delete

The delete operator destroys an object that is created by the new operator. The
operand of delete must be a pointer returned by new. If you call delete for an
object with a destructor, OS/390 C++ invokes the destructor before it deallocates
the object.
If you destroy a class object with the delete operator, the operator function
operator delete() or operator delete[]() (if they have been declared) is called to
destroy the object. An operator delete() or operator delete[]() for a class is
Chapter 14. Special C++ Member Functions

323

Free Store
always a static member, even if it is not declared with the keyword static. Its first
argument must have type void*. Because operator delete() and operator
delete[]() have a return type void, they cannot return a value. They cannot be
virtual.
When you overload the delete operator, you must declare it as a class member,
returning type void. Its first argument must be type void*, as described above. You
can add a second argument of type size_t to the declaration. You can only have
one operator delete() or operator delete[]() for a single class.
Overloading new and delete is described in Overloaded new and delete on
page 316.
The following example shows the declaration and use of the operator functions
operator new() and operator delete():
#include <stddef.h>
class X
{
public:
void* operator new(size_t);
void operator delete(void*);
// single argument
};
class Y
{
public:
void operator delete(void*, size_t); // two arguments
};
//
.
//
.
//
.
void main ()
{
X* ptr = new X;
delete ptr;
// call X::operator delete(void*)
Y* yptr;
//
.
//
.
//
.
delete yptr;
// call Y::operator delete(void*, size_t)
// with size of Y as second argument
}

The result of trying to access a deleted object is undefined because the value of the
object can change after deletion.
Consider if you call new and delete for a class object that does not declare the
operator functions new and delete. Or, consider if you call them for a nonclass
object. In these cases, OS/390 C++ uses the global operators new and delete. The
global operators new and delete are provided in the C++ library.
Note: The C++ operators for allocating and deallocating arrays of class objects are
operator new[ ]()and operator delete[ ](). They are described in C++
new Operator on page 148 and C++ delete Operator on page 151.

Temporary Objects
It is sometimes necessary for the compiler to create temporary objects. It uses
these objects during reference initialization and during evaluation of expressions
that includes standard type conversions, argument passing, function returns, and
evaluation of the throw expression.

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Temporary Objects
When the compiler creates a temporary object to initialize a reference variable, the
name of the temporary object has the same scope as that of the reference variable.
When it creates a temporary object during the evaluation of an expression, the
object exists until there is a break in the control flow of the program. If the compiler
creates a temporary object for a class with constructors, it calls the appropriate
(matching) constructor to create the temporary object.
When it destroys a temporary object and a destructor is available, the compiler calls
the destructor to destroy the temporary object. When you exit from the scope in
which the temporary object was created, the object is destroyed. If a reference is
bound to a temporary object, the temporary object is destroyed when the reference
passes out of scope unless it was destroyed earlier by a break in the flow of
control. For example, a temporary object that is created by a constructor initializer
for a reference member is destroyed on leaving the constructor.
The following example shows two expressions in which temporary objects are
constructed:
class Y
{
public:
Y(int)={ };
Y(Y&)={ };
Y()={ };
};
Y add(Y y) { return y; }
//
.
//
.
//
.
void main ()
{
Y obj1(10);
Y obj2 = add(Y(5));
obj1 = add(obj1);
}

// one temporary created

// two temporaries created

The above example created a temporary object of class type Y to construct Y(5)
before passing it to the function add(). Because obj2 is being constructed, the
function add() can construct its return value directly into obj2, so another temporary
object is not created. OS/390 C++ creates a temporary object of class type Y when
the example passes obj1 to the function add(). Because obj1 has already been
constructed, the function add() constructs its return value into a temporary object.
The example then assigns this second temporary object to obj1 by using an
assignment operator.

Related Information
v
v
v
v
v

Initializing References on page 132

Chapter 6. Expressions and Operators on page 133
Standard Type Conversions on page 167
Chapter 8. Functions on page 173
User-Defined Conversions

User-Defined Conversions
User-defined conversions allow you to specify object conversions with constructors
or with conversion functions. OS/390 C++ implicitly uses user-defined conversions
in addition to standard conversions for conversion of initializers, functions
arguments, function return values, expression operands, expressions controlling
iteration, selection statements, and explicit type conversions.
Chapter 14. Special C++ Member Functions

325

User-Defined Conversions
There are two types of user-defined conversions:
v Conversion by constructor
v Conversion functions.
For more information, see Standard Type Conversions on page 167.

Conversion by Constructor
You can call a class constructor with a single argument to convert from the
argument type to the type of the class.
For example:
class Y
{
int a,b;
char* name;
public:
Y(int i);
Y(const char* n, int j = 0);
};
void add(Y);
//
.
//
.
//
.
void main ()
{
// code
equivalent code
Y obj1 = 2;
// obj1 = Y(2)
Y obj2 = "somestring";
// obj2 = Y("somestring",0)
obj1 = 10;
// obj1 = Y(10)
add(5);
// add(Y(5))
}

OS/390 C++ applies, at most, one user-defined conversion, either a constructor or

conversion function, to a class object. Assume you call a constructor with an
argument, and you have not defined a constructor that accepts that argument type.
OS/390 C++ only uses standard conversions to convert the argument to another
argument type that is acceptable to a constructor for that class. It does not call
other constructors or conversion functions to convert the argument to a type that is
acceptable to a constructor that is defined for that class.

Conversion Functions
You can define a member function of a class that is called a conversion function. A
conversion function converts from the type of its class to another specified type.
%%

class ::

operator

const
volatile

conversion_type

*
&

function_body }

The conversion function specifies a conversion from the class type of which the
conversion function is a member, to the type specified by the name of the
conversion function. Classes, enumerations, and typedef names cannot be
declared or defined as part of the function name.

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User-Defined Conversions
The following code fragment shows a conversion function called operator int():
class Y
{
int b;
public:
operator int();
};
Y::operator int() {return b;}
void f(Y obj )
{
// each value assigned is converted by Y::operator int()
int i = int(obj);
int j = (int)obj;
int k = i + obj;
}

Conversion functions have no arguments, and the return type is implicitly the
conversion type. Conversion functions can be inherited. You can have virtual
conversion functions, but not static ones.
OS/390 C++ implicitly applies only one user-defined conversion to a single value.
User-defined conversions must be unambiguous, or OS/390 C++ does not call
them.
If you declare a conversion function with the keyword const, the keyword does not
affect the function. Except, it does act as a tiebreaker when there is more than one
conversion function that you could apply. Specifically, if more than one conversion
function could be applied, OS/390 C++ compares all of these functions. If you
declare any of these functions with the keyword const, OS/390 C++ ignores const
for the purposes of this comparison. If one of these functions is a best match, it is
applied. If there is no best match, OS/390 C++ compares the functions again, but
this time it does not ignore const.

Initialization by Constructor
You must explicitly initialize a class object with a constructor or it must have a
default constructor. Explicit initialization by using a constructor is the only way,
except for aggregate initialization, to initialize nonstatic constant and reference class
members.
An aggregate is a class object that has no constructors, no virtual functions, no
private or protected members, and no base classes. Structures on page 107 and
Unions on page 114 describes aggregates.

Explicit Initialization
You can initialize class objects with constructors by using a parenthesized
expression list. The call to a constructor uses this list as an argument list to initialize
the class. You can also call a constructor with a single initialization value by using
the = operator. Because this type of expression is an initialization, not an
assignment, OS/390 C++ does not call the assignment operator function if one
exists. It uses this value as a single argument for the call of a constructor. The type
of the single argument must match the type of the first argument to the constructor.
If the constructor has remaining arguments, these arguments must have default
values.
The syntax for an initializer that explicitly initializes a class object with a constructor
is:
Chapter 14. Special C++ Member Functions

327

Initialization by Constructor
%%

(
=

expression )
expression
,
{ '

expression

The following example shows the declaration and use of several constructors that
explicitly initialize class objects:

CBC3X13A
// This example illustrates explicit initialization
// by constructor.
#include <iostream.h>
class complx
{
double re, im;
public:
complx();
// default constructor
complx(const complx& c) {re = c.re; im = c.im;}
// copy constructor
complx( double r, double i = 0.0) {re = r; im = i;}
// constructor with default trailing argument
void display()
{
cout << "re = "<< re << " im = " << im << endl;
}
};
//
.
//
.
//
.
void main ()
{
complx one(1);
complx two = one;

// initialize with complx(double, double)

// initialize with a copy of one
// using complx::complx(const complx&)
complx three = complx(3,4); // construct complx(3,4)
// directly into three
complx four;
// initialize with default constructor
complx five = 5;
// complx(double, double) & construct
// directly into five
one.display();
two.display();
three.display();
four.display();
five.display();

The previous example produces the following output:

re
re
re
re
re

=
=
=
=
=

1
1
3
0
5

im
im
im
im
im

=
=
=
=
=

0
0
4
0
0

Constructors can initialize their members in two ways. A constructor can use the
arguments you pass to it to initialize member variables in the constructor definition:
complx( double r, double i = 0.0) {re = r; im = i;}

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Initialization by Constructor
A constructor can have an initializer list within the definition but prior to the function
body:
complx ( double r, double i = 0) : re(r), im(i) { /* ... */ }

Both methods assign the argument values to the appropriate data members of the
class. You must use the second method to initialize base classes from within a
derived class to initialize constant and reference members, and members with
constructors.

Initializing Base Classes and Members

You can initialize immediate base classes and derived class members that are not
inherited from base classes. To do this, specify initializers in the constructor
definition prior to the function body. The syntax for a constructor initializer is:
,
%% : '

identifier
class_name

( '

assignment_expression

In a constructor that is not inline, include the initialization list as part of the function
definition, not as part of the class declaration.
For example:
class B1
{
int b;
public:
B1();
B1(int i) : b(i) { /* ... */ }
// inline constructor
};
class B2
{
int b;
protected:
B2();
B2(int i);
// noinline constructor
};
// B2 constructor definition including initialization list
B2::B2(int i) : b(i) { /* ...*/ }
//
.
//
.
//
.
class D : public B1, public B2
{
int d1, d2;
public:
D(int i, int j) : B1(i+1), B2(), d1(i) {d2 = j;}
};

If you do not explicitly initialize a base class or member that has constructors by
calling a constructor, the compiler automatically initializes the base class or member
with a default constructor. Consider in the above example, if you leave out the call
B2() in the constructor of class D (as shown below). In that case, a constructor
initializer with an empty expression list is automatically created to initialize B2. The
constructors for class D, that is shown above and below, result in the same
construction of a class D object.
Chapter 14. Special C++ Member Functions

329

Initialization by Constructor
class D : public B1, public B2
{
int d1, d2;
public:
// call B2() generated by compiler
D(int i, int j) : B1(i+1), d1(i) {d2 = j;}
};

Note: You must declare base constructors with the access specifiers public or
protected to enable a derived class to call them.
For example:
class B1
{
int b;
public:
B1();
B1(int i) : b(i)
};
class B2
{
int b;
protected:
B2();
B2(int i);
};
B2::B2(int i) : b(i) {
class B4
{
public:
B4();
//
int b;
private:
B4(int);
//
};
//
.
//
.
//
.

{ /* ... */ }

/* ... */ }

public constructor for B4

private constructor for B4

class D : public B1, public B2, public B4

{
int d1, d2;
public:
D(int i, int j) : B1(i+1), B2(i+2) ,
B4(i) {d1 = i; d2 = j; }
// error, attempt to access private constructor B4()
};

To ensure a valid call, you can change the code as follows:

public:
D(int i, int j) : B1(i+1), B2(i+2) {d1 = i; d2 = j;}
// valid, calls public constructor for B4

Construction Order of Derived Class Objects

When you create a derived class object using constructors, OS/390 C++ creates it
in the following order:
1. It initializes the virtual base classes in the order they appear in the base list.
2. It initializes nonvirtual base classes in the order of declaration.
3. It initializes class members in the order of declaration (regardless of their order
in the initialization list).
4. It executes the body of the constructor.

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Initialization by Constructor
The following code fragment calls the constructor for class B1, before it initializes
the member d1. The value it passes to the constructor for class B1 is undefined.
class B1
{
int b;
public:
B1();
B1(int i) {b = i;}
};
//
.
//
.
//
.
class D : public B1
{
int d1, d2;
public:
D(int i, int j) : d1(i), B1(d1) {d2 = j;}
// d1 is not initialized in call B1::B1(d1)
};

Copying Class Objects

You can copy one class object to another object of the same type by either
assignment or initialization.
Copy by assignment is implemented with an assignment operator function. If you do
not define the assignment operator, the compiler defines it as a memberwise
assignment.
Copy by initialization is implemented with a copy constructor. If you do not define a
copy constructor, OS/390 C++ defines it as a memberwise initialization of its class
members.
Memberwise assignment and memberwise initialization mean the following. If a
class has a member that is a class object, the assignment operator and copy
constructor of that class object are used to implement assignment and initialization
of the member.

Copy Restrictions
You cannot generate a default assignment operator for a class that has the
following:
v A nonstatic constant or a reference data member
v A nonstatic data member or base class whose assignment operator is not
accessible
v A nonstatic data member or base class with no assignment operator and for
which a default assignment operator cannot be generated
You cannot generate a default copy constructor for a class that has:
v A nonstatic data member or base class, whose copy constructor is not accessible
v A nonstatic data member or base class with no copy constructor and for which a
default copy constructor cannot be generated

Copy by Assignment
If you do not define an assignment operator and your code requires one, the
compiler defines a default assignment operator. If you do not define an assignment
operator and your code does not require one, the compiler declares a default

Chapter 14. Special C++ Member Functions

331

Copying Class Objects

assignment operator, but does not define it. If an assignment operator that takes a
single argument of a class type exists for a class, the compiler does not generate a
default assignment operator.
You can use copy by assignment only in an assignment expression.
You can define an assignment operator for a class with a single argument that is a
constant reference to that class type. However, all its base classes and members
must have assignment operators that accept constant arguments.
For example:
class B1
{
public:
B1& operator=(const B1&);
};
class D: public B1
{
public:
D& operator=(const D&);
};
D& D::operator=(const D& dobj) {D dobj2 = dobj;
return dobj2;}

Otherwise, you can define an assignment operator for a class with a single
argument that is a reference to that class type. For example:
class Z
{
public:
Z& operator=( Z&);
};
Z& Z::operator=(Z& zobj) {Z zobj2 = zobj;
return zobj2;}

The default assignment operator for a class is a public class member. The return
type is a reference to which the class type it is a member.
For more information on standard C and C++ assignment operators, see
Assignment Expressions on page 163. For more information on assignment
operator functions, see Overloaded Assignment on page 312.

Copy by Initialization
If you do not define a copy constructor and your program requires one, the compiler
creates a default copy constructor. If you do not define a copy constructor, and your
program does not require one, the compiler declares a default copy constructor but
does not define it. If a class defines a copy constructor, the compiler does not
generate a default copy constructor.
Use copy by initialization only in initialization.
You can define a copy constructor for a class with a single argument that is a
constant reference to a class type. However, all of its base classes and members
must have copy constructors that accept constant arguments, for example:
class B1
{
public:
B1(const B1&) { /* ... */ }
};

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Copying Class Objects

class D: public B1
{
public:
D(const D&);
};
D::D(const D& dobj):B1(dobj) { /* ... */ }

Otherwise, you can define a copy constructor with a single reference to a class type
argument. For example:
class Z
{
public:
Z(Z&);
};
Z::Z(Z&) { /* ...*/ }

The default copy constructor for a class is a public class member. For more
information on copy constructors, see Constructors on page 318, and Initialization
by Constructor on page 327.

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333

Copying Class Objects

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Chapter 15. C++ Inheritance

In C++, you can create classes from existing classes by using the object-oriented
programming technique that is called inheritance. Inheritance allows you to define
an is a relationship between classes. When members are inherited, you can use
them as if they are members of the class that inherits them. This chapter discusses
the following topics on inheritance:
v Inheritance Overview
v Derivation on page 338
v Inherited Member Access on page 341
v Multiple Inheritance on page 347
v Virtual Functions on page 351
v Abstract Classes on page 355
Related Information
v Chapter 8. Functions on page 173
v Chapter 11. C++ Classes on page 277
v Chapter 12. C++ Class Members and Friends on page 287

Inheritance Overview
C++ implements inheritance through the mechanism of derivation. Derivation allows
you to reuse code by creating new classes, called derived classes, that inherit
properties from one or more existing classes, called base classes. A derived class
inherits the properties, that includes data and function members, of its base class.
You can also add new data members and member functions to the derived class.
You can modify the implementation of existing member functions or data by
overriding base class member functions or data in the newly derived class.
Suppose that you have defined a shape class to describe and operate on geometric
shapes. Now suppose that you want to define a circle class. Because you have
existing code that operates on the shape class, you can use inheritance to create
the circle class. You can redefine operations in the derived circle class that were
originally defined in the shape base class. When you manipulate an object of the
circle class, OS/390 C++ uses these redefined function implementations.

335

Inheritance
For example:
class shape
{
char* name;
int xpoint, ypoint;
public:
virtual void rotate(int);
virtual void draw();
void display() const;
};
class circle: public shape
{
int xorigin, yorigin;
int radius;
public:
void rotate(int);
void draw();
void display() const;
};
//
.
//
.
//
.

// derive class circle from class shape

In the above example, class circle inherits the data members name, xpoint, and
ypoint, as well as the member functions display(), rotate(), and draw() from
class shape. The example declares member functions rotate() and draw() in class
shape with the keyword virtual. Consequently, you can provide an alternative
implementation for the member functions in class circle.
You can also provide an alternative implementation for the nonvirtual member
function display() in class circle. Suppose you manipulate an argument of type
circle using a pointer to shape, and you call a virtual member function. The
member function defined in the derived class overrides the base-class member
function. A similar call to a nonvirtual member function calls the member function
that is defined in the base class. In addition to inheriting the members of class
shape, class circle has declared its own data members, xorigin, yorigin, and
radius.
The key difference between virtual and nonvirtual member functions is as follows.
When you treat the circle class as if it were a shape, the program uses the
implementations of the virtual functions rotate() and draw() that are defined in
class circle rather than those originally defined in class shape. Because display()
is a nonvirtual member function, the original implementation of display() defined in
class shape is used.

Multiple Inheritance
Multiple inheritance allows you to create a derived class that inherits properties from
more than one base class.
For example, in addition to the above shape class, you could also have a symbol
class. Because a circle is both a shape and a symbol, you can use multiple
inheritance to reflect this relationship. If your program derives the circle class from
both the shape and symbol classes, the circle class inherits properties from both
classes.

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Inheritance
class symbol
{
char* language;
char letter;
int number;
public:
virtual void write();
virtual void meaning();
};
class shape
{
char* name;
int xpoint, ypoint;
public:
virtual void rotate(int);
virtual void draw();
void display() const;
};
class circle: public symbol, public shape
{
int xorigin, yorigin;
int radius;
public:
void rotate(int);
void draw ();
void write();
void meaning();
void display() const;
};
//
.
//
.
//
.

In the previous example, class circle inherits the members name, xpoint, ypoint,
display(), rotate(), and draw() from class shape. It also inherits the members
language, letter, number, write(), and meaning() from class symbol.
Because a derived class inherits members from all its base classes, ambiguities
can result. For example, if two base classes have a member with the same name,
the derived class cannot implicitly differentiate between the two members. Note
that, when you are using multiple inheritance, the access to names of base classes
may be ambiguous.

The Inheritance Design Process

Multiple inheritance allows you to have more than one base class for a single
derived class. You can create an interconnected inheritance graph of inherited
classes by using derived classes as base classes for other derived classes. You
can build an inheritance graph through the process of specialization in which
derived classes are more specialized than their base classes. You can also work in
the reverse direction and build an inheritance graph through generalization. If you
have a number of related classes that share a group of properties, you can
generalize and build a base class to embody them. The group of related classes
becomes the derived classes of the new base class.

Direct and Indirect Base Classes

A direct base class is a base class that appears directly as a base specifier in the
declaration of its derived class. A direct base class is analogous to a parent in a
hierarchical graph. In the above example, both shape, and symbol, are direct base
classes of class circle.

Chapter 15. C++ Inheritance

337

Inheritance
An indirect base class is a base class that does not appear directly in the
declaration of the derived class but is available to the derived class through one of
its base classes. An indirect base class is analogous to a grandparent or great
grandparent or great-great grandparent in a hierarchical graph. For a given class,
all base classes that are not direct base classes are indirect base classes.

Polymorphism
Polymorphic functions are functions that you can apply to objects of more than one
type. C++ implements polymorphic functions in two ways:
v Overloaded functions are statically bound at compile time, as discussed in
Overloading Functions on page 305.
v C++ provides virtual functions. A virtual function is a function that you can call for
a number of different user-defined types that are related through derivation.
Virtual functions are bound dynamically at run time.
Typically, a base class has several derived classes, each requiring its own
customized version of a particular operation. It is difficult for a base class to
implement member functions that are useful for all of its derived classes. A base
class would have to determine which derived class an object belonged to before it
could execute the applicable code for that object. When you call a virtual function,
the compiler executes the function implementation that is associated with the object
for which you call the function. The implementation of the base class is only a
default that is used when the derived class does not contain its own
implementation.

Derivation
C++ implements inheritance through the mechanism of derivation. Derivation allows
you to derive a class, called a derived class, from another class, called a base
class.
In the declaration of a derived class, you list the base classes of the derived class.
The derived class inherits its members from these base classes. All classes that
appear in the list of base classes must be previously defined classes.
Base lists do not allow incompletely declared classes.
For example:
class X; // incomplete declaration of class X
class Y: public X
// error
{
//
.
//
.
//
.
};

When you derive a class, the derived class inherits class members of the base
class. You can refer to inherited members (base class members) as if they were
members of the derived class.
Consider the following example.

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Derivation

CBC3X14A
// This example illustrates references
// to base class members.
class base
{
public:
int a,b;
};
class derived : public
{
public:
int c;
};
void main()
{
derived d;
d.a = 1;
//
d.b = 2;
//
d.c = 3;
//

base

base::a
base::b
derived::c}

The derived class can also add new class members and redefine existing base
class members. In the above example, the two inherited members, a and b, of the
derived class d, in addition to the derived class member c, are assigned values. If
you redefine base class members in the derived class, you can still refer to the
base class members by using the :: (scope resolution) operator.
Consider the following example.

CBC3X14B
// This example illustrates references to base class
// members with the scope resolution (::) operator.
#include <iostream.h>
class base
{
public:
char* name;
void display(char* i) {cout << i << endl;}
};
class derived : public base
{
public:
char* name;
void display(char* i){cout << i << endl;}
};
void main()
{
derived d;
// create derived class object
d.name = "Derived Class";
// assignment to derived::name
d.base::name = "Base Class"; // assignment to base::name
// call derived::display(derived::name)
d.display(d.name);
// call base::display(base::name)
d.base::display(d.base::name);
}

C++ Scope Resolution Operator (::) on page 138 describes the :: (scope
resolution) operator.

Chapter 15. C++ Inheritance

339

Derivation
You can manipulate a derived class object as if it was a base class object. You can
use a pointer or a reference to a derived class object in place of a pointer or
reference to its base class. For example, you can pass a pointer or reference to a
derived class object D to a function that expects a pointer or reference to the base
class of D. You do not need to use an explicit cast to achieve this; the compiler
performs a standard conversion. You can implicitly convert a pointer to a derived
class to point to a base class. You can also implicitly convert a reference to a
derived class to a reference to a base class.
The following example assigns d, a pointer to a derived class object, to bptr, a
pointer to a base class object. A call is made to display() using bptr. Even though
bptr has a type of pointer to base, in the body of display() the name member of
derived is manipulated.

CBC3X14C
// This example illustrates how to make a pointer
// to a derived class point to a base class.
#include <iostream.h>
class base
{
public:
char* name;
void display(char* i) {cout << i << endl;}
};
class derived : public base
{
public:
char* name;
void display(char* i){cout << i << endl;}
};
void main()
{
derived d;
// standard conversion from derived* to base*
base* bptr = &d;

// call base::display(base::name;)
bptr->display(bptr->name);

You cannot implicitly convert a pointer or a reference to a base class object, to a

pointer or reference to a derived class.
If a member of a derived class and a member of a base class have the same
name, the base class member is hidden in the derived class. If a member of a
derived class has the same name as a base class, the program hides the base
class name in the derived class. In both cases, refer to the name of the derived
class member as the dominant name.

Syntax of a Derived Class Declaration

The syntax for the list of base classes is:
%% derived_class :

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Derivation
,
% '

virtual

qualified_class_specifier

public
private
protected

virtual

The qualified class specifier must be a class that you have previously declared in a
class declaration, as Class Names on page 279 describes. The access specifiers
(public, private, and protected) are described in Member Access on page 299.
You can use the virtual keyword to declare virtual base classes. For more
information, see Virtual Base Classes on page 348.
The following example shows the declaration of the derived class D and the base
classes V, B1, and B2. The class B1 is derived from class V and is a base class for D.
Consequently, it is both a base class and a derived class.
class
class
class
class

V { /* ... */ };
B1 : virtual public V { /* ... */ };
B2 { /* ... */ };
D : public B1, private B2 { /* ... */ };

Inherited Member Access

Access specifiers, as described in Access Specifiers on page 300, control the level
of access to noninherited class members. The access for an inherited member is
controlled in three ways:
v When you declare a member in a base class, you can specify a level of access
using the keywords public, private, and protected.
v When you derive a class, you can specify the access level for the base class in
the base list.
v You can also restore the access level of inherited members. See Derivation
Access of Base Classes on page 342 for an example.
Resolution of member names does not depend on the level of access that is
associated with each class member. Consider the following example:
class A {
private:
int a;
};
class B {
public:
int a;
};
class C : public A, public B {
void f() { a = 0; } // ambiguous - is it A::a or B::a?
};

In this example, class A has a private member a, and class B has a public member
a. The example derives class C from both A and B. C does not have access to A::a,
but a in the body of f() or B:: can still resolve to either A::a or B::a. For this
reason, a is ambiguous in the body of f().
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341

Inherited Member Access

Protected Members
If you publicly derive a class from a base class, members and friends of any
classes that are derived from that class can access a protected static base class
member. Members and friends of any classes derived from that base class can
access a protected nonstatic base class member by using one of the following
items:
v A pointer to a directly or indirectly derived class
v A reference to a directly or indirectly derived class
v An object of a directly or indirectly derived class
If you derive a class privately from a base class, all protected base class members
become private members of the derived class.
The access specifier protected is also described in Access Specifiers on
page 300.

Derivation Access of Base Classes

When you declare a derived class, an access specifier can precede each base
class in the base list of the derived class. This does not alter the access attributes
of the individual members of a base class as seen by the base class. Instead, it but
allows the derived class to restore the access attributes of the members of a base
class.
You can derive classes by using any of the following three access specifiers:
v In a public base class, public and protected members of the base class remain
public and protected members of the derived class.
v In a private base class, public and protected members of the base class
become private members of the derived class.
v In a protected base class, public and protected members of the base class are
protected members of the derived class.
In all cases, private members of the base class remain private. The derived class
cannot use private members of the base class unless friend declarations within the
base class explicitly grant access to them.
The following example derives class d publicly from class b:
class b
{
//
.
//
.
//
.
};
class d : public b // public derivation
{
//
.
//
.
//
.
};

You can use both a structure and a class as base classes in the base list of a
derived class declaration. If you declare the base class with the keyword class, its
default access specifier in the base list of a derived class is private. If you declare
the base class with the keyword struct, its default access specifier in the base list
of a derived class is public.

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Inherited Member Access

The following example uses private derivation by default because it does not use an
access specifier in the base list:
struct bb
{
//
.
//
.
//
.
};
class dd : bb // private derivation
{
//
.
//
.
//
.
};

Members and friends of a class can implicitly convert a pointer to an object of that
class to a pointer to either:
v A direct private base class
v A protected base class (either direct or indirect)

Access Declarations
You can restore access to members of a base class by using an access
declaration. It allows you to change the access to a public member in a private or
protected base class back to public. You can also change the access to a protected
member in a private base class back to protected. Use the base class member
qualified name in the public or protected declarations of the derived class to adjust
access.
You only use access declarations to restore base class access. You cannot use
them to do the following tasks:
v
v
v
v

Give more access to a member than originally declared

Change the access of a private member to public or to protected
Change the access of a protected member to public
Restrict access to a member that is accessible in a base class

Using an access declaration to change the access to a public member of a public

base class to public is redundant. Using an access declaration to change the
access to a protected member of a protected base class to protected is also
redundant.
The following example declares the member b of the base class base as public in
its base class declaration. The example derives the class, derived, privately from
class base. The access declaration in the public section of the class, derived,
restores the access level of the member b back to public.

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343

Inherited Member Access

CBC3X14D
// This example illustrates using access declarations
// to restore base class access.
#include <iostream.h>
class base
{
char a;
public:
char c, b;
void bprint();
};
class derived: private base
{
char d;
public:
char e;
base::b; // restore access to b in derived
void dprint();
derived(char ch) { base::b = ch; }
};
void print(derived& d)
{
cout << " Here is d " << d.b << endl;
}
void main()
{
derived obj('c');
print(obj);
}

The external function print(derived&) can use the member b of base because
OS/390 C++ restores the access of b to public. The external function
print(derived&) can also use the members e and dprint() because they are
declared with the keyword public in the derived class. The derived class member
dprint() can use the members of its own class, d and e. This is in addition to the
inherited members, b, c, and bprint() that the example declares with the keyword
public in the base class. The base class member bprint() can use all the
members of its own class, a, b, and c.
Use access declarations only to adjust the access to a member in a base class.
The derived class can directly or indirectly inherit the base class in which an access
declaration appears.
You can also use an access declaration in a nested class. For example:
class B
{
public:
class N
// nested class
{
public:
int i;
// public member
};
};
class D: private B::N // derive privately
{
public:
B::N::i; // restores access to public
};

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You cannot adjust the access to a base class member if a member with the same
name exists in a class that is derived from that base class.
You cannot convert a pointer to a derived class object to a pointer to a base class
object if the base class is private or protected. For example:
class B { /* ... */ };
class D : private B { /* ... */ };
void main ()
{
D d;
B* ptr;
ptr = &d;
}

// private base class

// error

If you use an access declaration to adjust the access to an overloaded function, the
function adjusts the access for all functions with that name in the base class.

Access Resolution
Access resolution is the process by which the accessibility of a particular class
member is determined. Accessibility is dependent on the context. For example, a
class member can be accessible in a member function but inaccessible at file
scope. The following describes the access resolution procedure that is used by the
compiler.
In general, two scopes must be established before access resolution is applied.
These scopes reduce an expression or declaration into a simplified construct to
which the access rules are applied. Member Access on page 299 describes
access rules. These scopes are:
Call scope

The scope that encloses the expression or

declaration that uses the class member.

Reference scope

The scope that identifies the class.

For example, in the following code the reference scope for member is the type of
aobject, that is class type A:

CBC3X14E
// This example illustrates access resolution.
class B { public: int member; };
class A : B {}
void main()
{
A aobject;
aobject.member = 10;
}

// declaration
// declaration
// declaration
// expression

Choose reference scope by simplifying the expression (or declaration) that contains
the member. An expression can be thought of as being reduced to a simple
expression of the form obj.member where obj is the reference scope. Select
reference scope as follows:
1. Consider if the member is qualified with . (dot) or -> (arrow). If it is, the
reference scope is the type of the object that is immediately to the left of the .
or -> operator closest to the member. OS/390 C++ treats unqualified members
as if they are qualified with this->.

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Inherited Member Access

2. Consider if the member is a type member or a static member and is qualified
with :: (the scope resolution operator). Then, the reference scope is the type
immediately to the left of the :: operator closest to the member.
3. Otherwise, the reference scope is the call scope.
The call scope and the reference scope determine the accessibility of a class
member. Once these scopes are resolved, the effective access of the member is
determined. Effective access is the access of the member as you see it from the
reference scope. You can determine effective access. Take the original access of
the member in its scope as the effective access, and change it as you traverse the
class hierarchy from the members class to the reference scope. Traversing the
class hierarchy for each derivation by the following, alters effective access:
v The derivation access of a base class (see Derivation Access of Base Classes
on page 342)
v Access declarations that are applied to the members (see Access Declarations
on page 343)
v Friendships that are granted to the call scope (see Member Access on
page 299)
After effective access is determined for a member, the access rules are applied as
if the effective access was the original access of the member. A member is only
accessible if the access rules say that it is.
The following example demonstrates the access resolution procedure.
class A
{
public:
int a;
};
class B : private A
{
friend void f (B*);
};
void f(B* b)
{
b->a = 10; // is 'a' accessible to f(B*) ?
}
//
.
//
.
//
.

The following steps occur to determine the accessibility of A::a in f(B*):

1. The call scope and reference scope of the expression b->a are determined:
a. The call scope is the function f(B*).
b. The reference scope is class B.
2. The effective access of member a is determined:
a. Because the original access of the member a is public in class A, the initial
effective access of a is public.
b. Because B inherits from A privately, the effective access of a inside class B is
private.
c. Because class B is the reference scope, the effective access procedure
stops here. The effective access of a is private.
3. The access rules are applied. The rules state that a friend or a member of the
members class can access a private member. Because f(B*) is a friend of
class B, f(B*) can access the private member a.

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Access Summary
The following example demonstrates inherited member access rules.

CBC3X14F
// This example illustrates inherited member access rules.
class B
{
int a;
public:
int b,c;
void f(int) {}
protected:
int d;
void g(int) {}
};
class D1 : public B
{
int a;
public:
int b;
void h(int i )
{
g(i);
B::b = 10;
d = 5 ;
}
};

// valid, protected B::g(int)

// valid, B::b (not local b)
// valid, protected B::d

class D2 : private B
{
int e;
public:
B::c;
void h(int i) { d = 5; }
};

// modify access to B::c

// valid,protected B::d

void main( )
{

int i= 1;
D1 d1;
D2 d2;

// declare and initialize local variable

// create object of class d1
// create object of class d2

d1.a = 5;
d2.b = 10;

//
//
//
//
//
//
//
//
//
//
//

d2.c = 5;
d2.B::c = 5;
d1.c = 5;
d1.d = 5;
d2.e = 10;
d1.g(i);
d1.h(i);
d2.h(i);

error, D1::a is private in class D1

error, B::b is inherited private to
derived class D2
valid, modified access from private to public
valid, public B::c
valid, B::c is inherited publicly
error, B::d is protected in base class
error, private D2::e
error, g(int) is protected in base class
valid
valid

Multiple Inheritance
You can derive a class from more than one base class. Multiple inheritance means
to derive a class from more than one direct base class.
In the following example, classes A, B, and C are direct base classes for the derived
class X:
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347

Multiple Inheritance
B

X
class
class
class
class

A
B
C
X

{
{
{
:

/* ...
/* ...
/* ...
public

*/
*/
*/
A,

};
};
};
private B, public C { /* ... */ };

The order of derivation is relevant only to determine the order of default initialization
by constructors and cleanup by destructors. For more information, see Initialization
by Constructor on page 327.
A direct base class cannot appear in the base list of a derived class more than
once:
class B1 { /* ... */ };
// direct
base class
class D : public B1, private B1 { /* ... */ }; // error

However, a derived class can inherit an indirect base class more than once, as
shown in the following example:

D
class
class
class
class

L { /* ... */ };
// indirect base class
B2 : public L { /* ... */ };
B3 : public L { /* ... */ };
D : public B2, public B3 { /* ... */ }; // valid

In the above example, class D inherits the indirect base class L once through class
B2 and once through class B3. However, this may lead to ambiguities because two
objects of class L exist, and both are accessible through class D. You can avoid this
ambiguity by referring to class L by using a qualified class name, for example,
B2::L or B3::L.
You can also avoid this ambiguity by using the base specifier virtual to declare a
base class.

Virtual Base Classes

If you have an inheritance graph in which two or more derived classes have a
common base class, you can use a virtual base class to ensure that the two
classes share a single instance of the base class.
In the following example, an object of class D has two distinct objects of class L,
one through class B1, and another through class B2. You can use the keyword

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Multiple Inheritance
virtual in front of the base class specifiers in the base lists of classes B1 and B2.
This indicates that only one class L, shared by class B1 and class B2, exists.
For example:
L

D
class
class
class
class

L { /* ... */ }; // indirect base

B1 : virtual public L { /* ... */
B2 : virtual public L { /* ... */
D : public B1, public B2 { /* ...

class
};
};
*/ }; // valid

Using the keyword virtual in this example ensures that an object of class D inherits
only one object of class L.
A derived class can have both virtual and nonvirtual base classes. For example:

B2
B3

D
class
class
class
class
class

V { /* ... */ };
B1 : virtual public V { /* ... */ };
B2 : virtual public V { /* ... */ };
B3 : public V { /* ... */ };
D : public B1, public B2, public B3 { /* ... */ };

In the above example, class D has two objects of class V. One is shared by classes
B1 and B2, and one is shared through class B3.

Multiple Access
If an inheritance graph contains virtual base classes, you can access a name that
can be reached through more than one path, through the path that gives the most
access.
For example:
class
class
class
class
{

L { public: void f(); };

B1 : private virtual L { /* ... */ };
B2 : public virtual L { /* ... */ };
D : public B1, public B2

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349

Multiple Inheritance
public:
void f() {L::f();} // L::f() is accessed through B2 and is public
};

In the above example, the function f() is accessed through class B2. Because class
B2 is inherited publicly and class B1 is inherited privately, class B2 offers more
access.

Accessible Base Classes

An accessible base class is a publicly derived base class that is neither hidden nor
ambiguous in the inheritance hierarchy.

Ambiguous Base Classes

When you derive classes, ambiguities can result if base and derived classes have
members with the same names. Access to a base class member is ambiguous if
you use a name or qualified name that does not refer to a unique function, object,
type, or enumerator. The declaration of a member with an ambiguous name in a
derived class is not an error. OS/390 C++ flags the ambiguity as an error if you use
the ambiguous member name.
For example, if two base classes have a member of the same name, an attempt to
access the member by the derived class is ambiguous. You can resolve ambiguity
by qualifying a member along with its class name by using the :: (scope resolution)
operator.

CBC3X14G
// This example illustrates ambiguous base classes.
class B1
{
public:
int i;
int j;
int g( );
};
class B2
{
public:
int j;
int g( );
};
//
.
//
.
//
.
class D : public B1, public
{
public:
int i;
};
void main ()
{
D dobj;
D *dptr = &dobj;
dptr -> i = 5;
dptr -> j = 10;
dptr->B1::j = 10;
dobj.g( );
dobj.B2::g( );
}

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//
//
//
//
//

valid,
error,
valid,
error,
valid,

D::i
ambiguous reference to j
B1::j
ambiguous reference to g( )
B2::g( )

Multiple Inheritance
The compiler checks for ambiguities at compile time. Because ambiguity checking
occurs before access control or type checking, ambiguities may result even if only
one of several members with the same name is accessible from the derived class.
Conversions (either implicit or explicit) from a derived class pointer or reference to a
base class pointer or reference must refer unambiguously to the same accessible
base class object. For example:
class W { /* ... */ };
class X : public W { /* ... */ };
class Y : public W { /* ... */ };
class Z : public X, public Y { /* ... */ };
void main ()
{
Z z;
X* xptr = &z;
// valid
Y* yptr = &z;
// valid
W* wptr = &z;
// error, ambiguous reference to class W
// X's W or Y's W ?
}

You can use virtual base classes to avoid ambiguous reference. For example:
class W { /* ... */ };
class X : public virtual W { /* ... */ };
class Y : public virtual W { /* ... */ };
class Z : public X, public Y { /* ... */ };
void main ()
{
Z z;
X* xptr = &z;
// valid
Y* yptr = &z;
// valid
W* wptr = &z;
// valid, W is virtual therefore only one
// W subobject exists
}

For more information, see Virtual Base Classes on page 348.

Virtual Functions
In C++, the mechanism of virtual functions supports dynamic binding. Virtual
functions must be members of a class. Use virtual functions when you expect a
class to be used as a base class in a derivation and the derived class may override
the function implementation. You can declare a member function with the keyword
virtual in its class declaration.
For example:
class B
{
int a,b,c;
public:
virtual int f();
};
//
.
//
.
//
.

You can re-implement a virtual member function, like any member function, in any
derived class. When you make a call to a virtual function, the implementation that
OS/390 C++ executes depends on the type of the object for which it is called. If you
call a virtual member function for a derived class object and the function is

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351

Virtual Functions
redefined in the derived class, your program executes the definition in the derived
class. In this case, the redefined derived class function overrides the base class
function.
Overriding occurs even if the access to the function is through a pointer or
reference to the base class. Calling a virtual function with a pointer that has base
class type but points to a derived class object, calls the member function of the
derived class. However, calling a nonvirtual function with a pointer that has base
class type calls the member function of the base class, regardless of whether or not
the pointer points to a derived class object.
For example:
class B
{
public:
virtual int f();
virtual int g();
int h();
};
class D : public B
{
public:
int f();
int g(char*);
int h();
};
//
.
//
.
//
.
void main ()
{
D d;
B* bptr = &d;

bptr->f();
bptr->h();
bptr->g();
d.g();
d.g("string");

// hides B::g()

//
//
//
//
//

calls D::f() because f() is virtual

calls B::h() because h() is nonvirtual
calls B::g()
error, wrong number and type of arguments
calls D::g(char*)

If the argument types or the number of arguments of the two functions are different,
the functions are considered different. In addition, the function in the derived class
does not override the function in the base class. The function in the derived class
hides the function in the base class.
The return type of an overriding virtual function can differ from the return type of the
overridden virtual function. However, the following restrictions apply:
v The return type of the overridden virtual function must be a pointer or a reference
to a class B.
v The return type of the overriding virtual function must be a pointer or a reference
to a class D.
v The return types of the overridden and overriding virtual functions must both be
pointers to classes B and D respectively. Or, they must both be references to
classes B and D respectively.
v Class B must be an accessible base class of class D. Also, with the OS/390 C++
compiler, class D must not have multiple or virtual inheritance.
For more information, see Function Return Values on page 191.

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Virtual Functions
A virtual function cannot be global or static. By definition, a virtual function is a
member function of a base class and relies on a specific object to determine which
implementation of the function is called. You can declare a virtual function to be a
friend of another class. Friends on page 301 describes friends.
If you declare a function as virtual in its base class, you can still access it directly
by using the :: (scope resolution) operator. In this case, OS/390 C++ suppresses
the virtual function call mechanism, and uses the function implementation that is
defined in the base class. If you do not redefine a virtual member function in a
derived class, a call to that function uses the function implementation that is defined
in the base class.
A virtual function must be one of the following:
v Defined
v Declared pure
v Defined and declared pure
A base class that contains one or more pure virtual member functions is an abstract
class. For more information, see Abstract Classes on page 355.

Ambiguous Virtual Function Calls

It is an error to override one virtual function with two or more ambiguous virtual
functions. This can happen in a derived class that inherits from two nonvirtual bases
that are derived from a virtual base class.
For example:
class V
{
public:
virtual void f() { /* ... */ };
};
class A : virtual public V
{
void f() { /* ... */ };
};
class B : virtual public V
{
void f() { /* ... */ };
};
class D : public B, public A { /* ... */ }; // error
void main ()
{
D d;
V* vptr = &d;
vptr->f();
// which f(), A::f() or B::f()?
}

In class A, only A::f() will override V::f(). Similarly, in class B, only B::f() will
override V::f(). However, in class D, both A::f() and B::f() attempt to override
V::f(). The compiler does not allow this attempt because it is not possible to
decide which function to call if a D object is referenced with a pointer to class V. The
above example illustrates this point. The compiler flags this situation as an error, as
only one function can override a virtual function.
A special case occurs when the ambiguous overriding virtual functions come from
separate instances of the same class type. In the following example, there are two
objects (instances) of class L. There are two data members L::count, one in class

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353

Virtual Functions
A and one in class B. If the compiler allows the declaration of class D, incrementing
L::count in a call to L::f() with a pointer to class V is ambiguous.
class V
{
public:
virtual void f();
};
class L : virtual public V
{
int count;
void f();
};
void L::f() {++count;}
class A : public L
{ /* ... */ };
class B : public L
{ /* ... */ };
class D : public A, public B { /* ... */ }; // error
void main ()
{
D d;
V* vptr = &d;
vptr->f();
}

In the above example, the function L::f() is expecting a pointer to an L object; that
is, the this pointer for class L, as its first implicit argument. Because there are two
objects of class L in a D object, there are two this pointers that could be passed to
L::f(). Because the compiler cannot decide which this pointer to pass to L::f(),
the declaration of class D is flagged as an error.

Virtual Function Access

You specify the access for a virtual function when you declare it. The access rules
for the function that later overrides the virtual function do not affect the access rules
for a virtual function. In general, the access of the overriding member function is not
known.
If you call a virtual function with a pointer or reference to a class object, the
compiler does not use the type of the class object to determine the access of the
virtual function. Instead, it uses the type of the pointer or reference to the class
object.
Consider the following example. When you call the function f() using a pointer
having type B*, OS/390 C++ uses bptr to determine the access to the function.
Although the definition of f(), which is defined in class D is executed, the access of
the member function f() in class B is used. When the function f() is called using a
pointer having type D*, dptr is used to determine the access to the function f().
This call produces an error because f() is declared private in class D.
class B
{
public:
virtual void f();
};
class D : public B
{
private:
void f();
};
//
.
//
.
//
.

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Virtual Functions
void main ()
{
D dobj;
B *bptr = &dobj;
D *dptr = &dobj;
bptr->f();
// valid, virtual B::f() is public,
// D::f() is called
dptr->f();
// error, D::f() is private
}

Abstract Classes
An abstract class is a class that is designed to be specifically used as a base class.
An abstract class contains at least one pure virtual function. Pure virtual functions
are inherited. You can declare a function to be pure by using a pure specifier in the
declaration of the member function in the class declaration.
For example:
class AB
// abstract class
{
public:
virtual void f()= 0; // pure virtual member function
};
class D: public AB
{
public:
void f();
};
//
.
//
.
//
.
void main ()
{
D d;
d.f();
// calls D::f()
AB ab;
// error, cannot create an object of an
// abstract class type
}

A function that is declared pure typically has no definition and cannot be executed.
Attempting to call a pure virtual function that has no implementation is undefined;
however, such a call does not cause an error. You cannot create objects of an
abstract class, as the above example demonstrates.
Note: Because destructors are not inherited, a virtual destructor that is declared
pure must have a definition.
Virtual member functions are inherited. Consider if a base class contains a pure
virtual member function and a class derived from that base class does not redefine
that pure virtual member function. In that case, the derived class itself is an abstract
class. Any attempt to create an object of the derived class type produces an error.
For example:
class AB // abstract class
{
public:
virtual void f()= 0; // pure virtual member function
};
class D2: public AB
{
int a,b,c;
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355

Abstract Classes
public:
void g();
};
//
.
//
.
//
.
void main ()
{
D2 d;
// error, cannot declare an object of abstract class D2
}

To avoid the error in the above example, provide a declaration of D2::f().

You cannot use an abstract class as the type of an explicit conversion, as an
argument type, or as the return type for a function. You can declare a pointer or
reference to an abstract class.

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Chapter 16. C++ Templates

This chapter describes the C++ template facility. A template specifies how you can
construct an individual class, function, or static data member by providing a
blueprint description of classes or functions within the template.
Unlike an ordinary class or function definition, a template definition contains the
template keyword. It uses a type argument, instead of a type, in one or more of the
constructs used to define the class or function template. You can then generate
individual classes or functions simply by specifying the template name and by
naming the type for the particular class or function as the type argument of the
template. You can use templates to define a family of types or functions.
See the OS/390 C/C++ Programming Guide for programming hints on using
templates in C++ programs.
This chapter describes the following topics:
v Templates Overview
v Structuring Your Program Using Templates on page 359
v Class Templates on page 360
v Function Templates on page 365
v Differences between Class and Function Templates on page 368
v Member Function Templates on page 369
v Friends and Templates on page 370
v Static Data Members and Templates on page 371
Related Information
v Chapter 8. Functions on page 173
v Chapter 11. C++ Classes on page 277
v Type Specifiers on page 87
v define (C++ Only) on page 247
v implementation (C++ Only) on page 250

Templates Overview
The syntax for a template is:

%% template < '

argument declaration
StaticDataMember

The declaration in a template declaration must define or declare one of the

following:
v A class
v A function
v A static member of a template class
The identifier of a type is a type_name in the scope of the template declaration. A
template declaration can appear as a global declaration only.

357

Templates Overview
The template arguments (within the < and > delimiters) specify the types and the
constants within the template that you must specify when the template is
instantiated.
Given the following template:
template<class L> class Key
{
L k;
L* kptr;
int length;
public:
Key(L);
// ...
};

The following table shows what the classes Key<int>, Key<char*>, and Key<mytype>
look like:
class Key<int> i;

class Key<char*> c;

class Key<mytype> m;

class Key<int>{
int k;
int * kptr;
int length; public:
Key(int);
// ... };

class Key<char*> {
char* k;
char** kptr;
int length;
public:
Key(char*);
// ... };

Class Key<mytype> {
mytype k;
mytype* kptr;
int length; public:
Key(mytype);
// ... };

The declarations create the following objects:

v i of type Key<int>
v c of type Key<char*>
v m of type Key<mytype>
Note that these three classes have different names. The types that are contained
within the angle braces are not arguments to the class names, but part of the class
names themselves. Key<int> and Key<char*> are class names. Within the context
of the example, a class that is called Key (with no template argument list) is
undefined.
OS/390 C++ permits default initializers in template arguments under the following
conditions:
v They only apply to nontype template arguments.
v They only apply to trailing arguments, like functions.
v Subsequent template declarations can add default initializers, but cannot redefine
existing default initializers.
v They only apply to class template declarations, not to function template
declarations.
Note: OS/390 C++ treats a template that defines a member function of a class
template as a function template. Such a template cannot have default
initializers.
The following example shows a valid template declaration with default initializers:

CBC3X15A
// This example shows a template declaration
// with default initializers.

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Templates Overview
#include <stdio.h>
template <class T, int i=1> class X
{
public:
T s;
X(int j=4);
int val(T&)
{
return i;
};
};
template <class T, int i> X<T,i>::X(int j):s(i){
printf("i=%d
j=%d\n",i,j);
}
void main()
{
X<int>
myX(2);
X<int,3> myX2(4);
}

Structuring Your Program Using Templates

You can structure your program three ways, by using templates:
v Include the function template definition (both the .h and .c files) in all files that
may reference the corresponding template functions.
v Include the function template declaration (the .h file only) in all files that may
reference the corresponding template functions. However, include the function
definition (both the .h and .c files) in one file only.
v Include the declaration of the function templates in a header file and the
definition in a source file that has the same name. When you include the header
file in your source, the compiler automatically generates the template functions.
The following examples use two files to illustrate all three methods:

File stack.h
#ifndef _STACK_TPL_H
#define _STACK_TPL_H
template<class T>
class stack
{
private:
T* v;
T* p;
int sz;
public:
stack( int );
stack();
void push( T );
};
#endif

File stackdef.h
#include "stack.h"
template<class T> stack<T>::stack( int s )
{
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359

Structuring Your Program Using Templates

}

v = p = new T[sz=s];

template<class T> stack<T>::stack()

{
delete [] v;
}
template<class T> void stack<T>::push( T a )
{
*p++ = a;
}

To instantiate a stack of 50 ints, you would declare the following in each source file
that requires it:
stack<int> intStack(50);

For method 1, each source file that uses the template should include both stack.h
and stackdef.h.
For method 2, every source file should include stack.h. However, only one of the
files needs to include stackdef.h.
For method 3, every source file should include stack.h. The compiler automatically
generates the template functions in the TEMPINC PDS. You can use the TEMPINC
option to set your own TEMPINC PDS.
You should use the LSEARCH option to include the two PDSs, USR.INCLUDE.C and
USR.INCLUDE.H, which contain the stack.c and stack.h files, respectively. The
syntax for this is:
LSEARCH('USR.INCLUDE.+')

For information about include files, and the TEMPINC and LSEARCH options, see the
OS/390 C/C++ Users Guide.

Class Templates
The relationship between a class template and an individual class is like the
relationship between a class and an individual object. An individual class defines
how a group of objects can be constructed, while a class template defines how a
group of classes can be generated.
Note the distinction between the terms class template and template class:
Class template

Is a template used to generate template classes. A

class template can be only a declaration, or it can
be a definition of the class.

Template class

Is an instance of a class template.

A template definition is identical to any valid class definition that the template might
generate, except for the following:
v The following syntax precedes the class template definition:
template < template-argument-list >

In the above syntax, template-argument-list can include zero or more

type-arguments, and zero or more argument-declarations. The
template-argument-list must contain at least one argument.

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v Types, variables, constants and objects within the class template can be declared
with arguments of user-defined type as well as with explicit types (for example,
int or char).
v The template-argument-list can include argument-declarations (for example, int a
or char* b), which are generally used to define constant values within the created
class.
A class template can declare a class without defining it by using an elaborated type
specifier, for example:
template

<class L,class T> class key;

Using the type specifier reserves the name as a class template name. All template
declarations for a class template must have the same types and number of
template arguments. OS/390 C++ allows only one template declaration that
contains the class definition.
You can instantiate the class template by declaring a template class. If the template
class member function definitions are not inline, you have to define them. When you
instantiate a template class, its argument list must match the argument list in the
class template declaration.
template <class L,class T> class key
{
//
.
//
.
//
.
};
template <class L> class vector
{
//
.
//
.
//
.
};
void main ()
{
class key <int, vector<int> >; // instantiate template
}

Note: When you have nested template argument lists as in the above example,
you must have a separating space between the > at the end of the inner list
and the one at the end of the outer list. Otherwise, there is an ambiguity
between the output operator >> and two template list delimiters >.
Any of the techniques that are used to access ordinary class member objects and
functions can access objects and functions of individual template classes. For
example, assume you have this class template:
template<class T> class vehicle
{
public:
vehicle() { /* ... */ }
// constructor
vehicle() {};
// destructor
T kind[16];
T* drive();
static void roadmap();
// ...
};

And you have the following declaration:

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vehicle<char> bicycle; // instantiates the template

In the above example, the constructor, the constructed object, and the member
function drive() can be accessed with any of the following. (This assumes the
standard header file <string.h> is included in the program file.)
constructor

vehicle<char> bicycle; // constructor

called automatically // object bicycle created

object bicycle

strcpy (bicycle.kind, "10 speed"); bicycle.kind[0]

= '2';

function drive()

char* n = bicycle.drive();

function roadmap()

vehicle<char>::roadmap();

Class Template Declarations and Definitions

You must declare a class template before declaring a corresponding template class.
A class template definition can only appear once in any single compilation unit. You
must define a class template before using a template class that requires the size of
the class, or refers to members of the class.
The following example declares the class template key before defining it. The
declaration of the pointer keyiptr is valid because the example does not need the
size of the class. The declaration of keyi, however, causes an error.
template

<class L> class key;

class key<int> *keyiptr;

class key<int> keyi;
template <class L> class key
{
//
.
//
.
//
.
};

//
//
//
//
//
//
//
//
//

class template declared,

not defined yet
declaration of pointer
error, cannot declare keyi
without knowing size
now class template defined

If you use a template class before defining the corresponding class template, the
compiler issues an error. The compiler considers a class name, with the
appearance of a template class name, to be a template class. In other words, angle
brackets are valid in a class name only if that class is a template class.
The compiler does not compile the definition of a class template until it requires the
definition of a template class. At that point, it compiles the class template definition
by using the argument list of the template class to instantiate the template
arguments. The compiler flags any errors in the class definition at this time. If the
compiler never requires the definition of a class template, it does not compile it. In
this case, the compiler will not flag any errors in the definition.

Reference and Uniqueness

You can only define a class template once within a compilation unit. You cannot
declare the class template name to refer to any other template, class, object,
function, value, or type in the same scope.

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Nontype Template Arguments

A nontype template argument that is provided within a template argument list is an
expression whose value can be determined at compile time. Such arguments must
be constant expressions, addresses of functions, objects with external linkage, or
addresses of static class members. You normally use nontype template arguments
to initialize a class or to specify the sizes of class members.
For nontype integral arguments, the instance argument matches the corresponding
template argument as long as the instance argument has a value and sign
appropriate to the argument type.
For nontype address arguments, the type of the instance argument must be of the
form identifier or &identifier. The type of the instance argument must match the
template argument exactly, except that a function name is changed to a pointer to
function type before matching.
The resulting values of nontype template arguments within a template argument list
form part of the template classs type. If two template class names have the same
template name and if their arguments have identical values, they are the same
class.
In the following example, a class template is defined that requires a nontype
template int argument as well as the type argument:
template<class T, int size> class myfilebuf
{
T* filepos;
static int array[size];
public:
myfilebuf() { /* ... */ }
myfilebuf();
advance(); // function defined elsewhere in program
};

In this example, the template argument size becomes a part of the template class
name. It creates an object of such a template class with both the type arguments of
the class and the values of any additional template arguments.
From this template, you can create an object x and its corresponding template class
with arguments double and size=200. Use a value as the second template
argument:
myfilebuf<double,200> x;

You can also create x by using an arithmetic expression:

myfilebuf<double,10*20> x;

The objects that are created by these expressions are identical because the
template arguments evaluate identically. The value 200 in the first expression could
have been represented by an expression whose result at compile time is known to
be equal to 200, as shown in the second construction.
Note: Arguments that contain the < symbol or the > symbol must be enclosed in
parentheses. This prevents it from being parsed as a template argument list
delimiter when you use it as a relational operator or a nested template
delimiter. For example, the arguments in the following definition are valid:
myfilebuf<double, (20>10)> x;

// valid

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The following definition, however, is not valid because it interprets the
greater than operator (>) as the closing delimiter of the template argument
list:
myfilebuf<double, 20>10> x;

// error

If the template arguments do not evaluate identically, the objects that are created
are of different types:
myfilebuf<double,200> x;
myfilebuf<double,200.0> y;

//
//
//
//

create object x of class

myfilebuf<double,200>
error, 200.0 is a double,
not an int

The instantiation of y fails because the value 200.0 is of type double, and the
template argument is of type int.
Consider the following two objects:
myfilebuf<double, 128> x
myfilebuf<double, 512> y

These two objects belong to separate template classes, and referencing either of
these objects later with myfilebuf<double> is an error.
A class template does not need to have a type argument if it has nontype
arguments. For example, the following template is a valid class template:
template<int i> class C
{
public:
int k;
C() { k = i; }
};

Declarations such as the following can instantiate this class template:

class C<100>;
class C<200>;

Again, these two declarations refer to distinct classes because the values of their
nontype arguments differ.

Explicitly Defined Template Classes

You can override the class template definition of a particular template class by
providing a class definition for the type of class required. For example, the following
class template creates a class for each type that it references, but that class may
be inappropriate for a particular type:
template<class M> class portfolio
{
double capital;
M arr;
// ...
} ;

Using the applicable template class name can define the type for which the
template class is inappropriate. Assuming the inappropriately defined type is stocks,
you can redefine the class portfolio<stocks> as follows:

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class portfolio<stocks>
{
double capital;
stocks yield;
// ...
};

You can define an explicit specialization of a template class before declaring the
class template. In particular, you can define a template class such as
portfolio<stocks> before defining its class template.

Function Templates
A function template allows you to define a group of functions that are the same,
except for the types of one or more of their arguments or objects. You must use all
type arguments in a function template in the argument list, or in the class qualifier
for the function name. You do not need to explicitly specify the type of a template
function argument when you call the template function. In this respect, a template
function differs from a template class.
Note the distinction between the terms function template and template function:
Function template

Is a template used to generate template functions.

A function template can be only a declaration, or it
can define the function.

Template function

Is a function generated by a function template.

Example of a Function Template

If you want to create a function approximate(), which determines whether two
values are within 5% of each other, you can define the following template:
#include <math.h>
template <class T> int approximate (T first, T second)
{
double aptemp=double(first)/double(second);
return int(abs(aptemp-1.0) <= .05);
};

Assuming that you have two values of type float you want to compare. You can
use the approximate function template:
float a=3.24, b=3.35;
if (approximate(a,b))
cout << "a and b are pretty close" << endl;

The above example generates the following template function to resolve the call:
int approximate(float,float)

Overloading Resolution for Template Functions

OS/390 C++ resolves overloaded template functions in the following order:
1. Looks for a function with an exact type match. It does not include template
functions, unless you explicitly declare such functions by using a function
declaration. OS/390 C++ performs trivial conversions if they produce an exact
type match.
2. Looks for a function template that allows generation of a function with an exact
type match. OS/390 C++ performs trivial conversions if they produce an exact
type match.

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3. Tries ordinary overloading resolution for functions already present. This does not
include template functions, unless you have explicitly declared such functions by
using a function declaration.
A call to a template function causes an error, and OS/390 C++ does no overloading
if the following conditions are true:
v The only available functions for a call are template functions.
v These functions would require nontrivial conversions for the call to succeed.
v You have not explicitly declared these functions.
In the case of the approximate() function template, if the two input values are of
different types, overloading resolution does not take place:
float a=3.24;
double b=3.35;
if (approximate(a,b))
{ /* ... */ }

// error, different types

The solution is to force a conversion to one of the available function types by

explicitly declaring the function for the chosen type. To resolve the above example,
include the following function declaration:
int approximate(double a, double b);
// force conversion of the float to double

This declaration creates a function, approximate() that expects two arguments of

type double. When you call approximate(a,b), the overloading is resolved by
converting variable a to type double.
For more information on argument matching and conversions, seeTrivial
Conversions on page 308, Standard Type Conversions on page 167, and Integral
Promotions on page 167.

Defining Template Functions

You can generate template functions in all compilation units that contain function
template definitions. Consequently, you may want to group function template
definitions into one or two compilation units.

Explicitly Defined Template Functions

In some situations, a function template can define a group of functions in which, for
one function type, the function definition would be inappropriate. For instance,
consider the following function template:
template<class T> int approximate(T first, T second);

It is defined in Example of a Function Template on page 365, and determines

whether two values are within 5% of each other. The algorithm used for this
function template is appropriate for numerical values. However, for char* values, it
indicates whether the pointers to two character strings are within 5% of one
another. It does not indicate whether the strings themselves are approximately
equal. Whether two pointers are within 5% of each other is not useful information.
You can define an explicit template function for char* values to compare the two
strings themselves, character by character.
The following explicitly defined template function compares two strings and returns
a value that indicates whether more than 5% of the characters differ between the
two strings:

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#include <string.h>
int approximate(char *first, char *second)
{
if (strcmp(first,second) == 0)
return 1; // strings are identical
double difct=0;
int maxlen=0;
if (strlen(first)>strlen(second))
maxlen=strlen(first);

else maxlen=strlen(second);
for (int i=0; i<=maxlen ; ++i)
if ( first[i] != second[i] ) difct++;
return int((difct / maxlen) <= .05 );

Given this definition, the following function call invokes the above explicitly defined
function, and no template function is generated:
approximate("String A","String B");

Explicit definition has the same effect on template overloading resolution as explicit
declaration. (See Overloading Resolution for Template Functions on page 365 for
more information.) Assume that you explicitly define a template function as follows:
int approximate(double a, double b) { /* ... */ }

Then, consider the following call:

double a=3.54;
float b=3.5;
approximate(a,b);

The above call resolves to the following call:

approximate(double a, double b)

OS/390 C++ converts variable b to type double.

Function Template Declarations and Definitions

When you define a template function explicitly within a compilation unit, the
compiler uses this definition in preference to any instantiation from the function
template. For example, if one compilation unit contains the code:
#include <iostream.h>
template <class T> T f(T i) {return i+1;}
void main()
{
cout << f(2) << endl;
}

And another compilation unit contains the following:

int f(int i) {return i+2;}

When compiled and run, the program prints the number 4 to standard output. This
indicates that the compiler uses the explicitly defined function to resolve the call to
f().
You must define each template, whether of a class or of a function, at most once
within a compilation unit. The same applies to an explicitly defined template class or
function. You can declare function templates and class templates many times.
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You declare a template class by using its name. You declare a template function if
any of the following situations apply:
v A function whose name matches a function templates name you have declared,
and the compiler can generate an appropriate template function.
v A function whose name matches a function templates name you have called,
and the compiler can generate an appropriate template function.
v A function whose name matches a function templates name you have called,
and you have explicitly defined the template function.
v You take the address of a template function in such a way that instantiation can
occur. This means that the pointer to function must supply a return type and
supply argument types that can be used to instantiate the template function.
OS/390 C++ instantiates or generates a template function provided the function is
not explicitly defined elsewhere in the program, if you reference the function in the
following ways:
v Your program declares the function.
v It calls the function.
v It takes the the address of the function.
When your program instantiates a template function, OS/390 C++ compiles the
body of the function template by using the template argument list of the template
class to instantiate the template arguments. The compiler flags any errors in the
function definition at this time. If the function template never generates a template
function, OS/390 C++ does not compile it. In this case, the compiler will not flag any
errors in the function definition.

Differences between Class and Function Templates

The name of a template class is a compound name that consists of the template
name and the full template argument list that is enclosed in angle braces. Any
references to a template class must use this complete name. For example:
template <class T, int
{
T a;
int r;
// ...
};
//...
ex<double,20> obj1;
ex<double> obj2;
ex obj3;

range> class ex

// valid
// error
// error

C++ requires this explicit naming convention to ensure that it can generate the
appropriate class.
A template function chooses the name of its function template, and the particular
function to resolve a given template function call. It determines the name and the
function by the type of the calling arguments. In the following example, the call
min(a,b) is effectively a call to min(int a, int b). The call, min(af, bf), is
effectively a call to min(float a, float b):

CBC3X15B
// This example illustrates a template function.
template<class T> T min(T a, T b)
{
if (a < b)
return a;

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else

return b;
}
void main()
{
int a = 0;
int b = 2;
float af = 3.1;
float bf = 2.9;
cout << "Here is the smaller int " << min(a,b) << endl;
cout << "Here is the smaller float " << min(af, bf) << endl;
}

Member Function Templates

Function Templates on page 365, defines a function template outside of any
template class. However, functions in C++ are often member functions of a class.
Consider if you want to create a class template, and a set of function templates to
go with that class template. If so, you do not have to create the function templates
explicitly as long as the function definitions are contained within the class template.
Any member function (inline or not inline) that is declared within a class template is
implicitly a function template. When you declare a template class, it implicitly
generates template functions for each function that is defined in the class template.
You can define template member functions three ways:
v Explicitly at file scope for each type used to instantiate the template class. For
example:
template <class T> class key
{
public:
void f(T);
};
void key<char>::f(char) { /* ... */ }
void key<int>::f(int ) { /* ... */ }
void main()
{
int i = 9;
key< int> keyobj;
keyobj.f(i);
}

v At file scope with the template arguments. For example:

template <class T> class key
{
public:
void f(T);
};
template <class T> void key <T>::f(T) { /* ... */ }
void main()
{
int i = 9;
key< int> keyobj;
keyobj.f(i);
}

v Inlined in the class template itself. For example:

template <class T> class key
{
public:
void f(T) { /* ... */ }
};

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void main()
{
int i = 9;
key< int> keyobj;
keyobj.f(i);
}

Use member function templates to instantiate any functions that are not explicitly
generated. If you have both a member function template and an explicit definition,
OS/390 C++ uses the explicit definition.
Do not use the template argument in a constructor name. For example:
template<class L> class
{
Key();
Key( L );
Key<L>( L );
};

Key
// default constructor
// constructor taking L by value
// error, <L> implicit within class template

The declaration Key<L>(L) is an error because the constructor does not use the
template argument. Assuming that removing the offending line corrected this class
template, you can define a function template for the class templates constructor:
// Constructor contained in function template:
template<class L>
Key<L>::Key(int) { /* ... */ }
// valid, constructor template argument assumed template<class L>
Key<L>::Key<L>(int) { /* ... */ }
/* error, constructor template argument <L> implicit
in class template argument */

A template function name does not include the template argument. The template
argument does, however, appear in the template class name if a member function
of a template class is defined or declared outside of the class template. Consider
the following definition:
Key<L>::Key(int) { /* ... */ }

The above definition is valid because Key<L> (with template argument) refers to the
class, while Key(int) { /* ... */ } refers to the member function.

Friends and Templates

You can declare a friend function in a class template as a single function shared by
all classes created by the template. Or, you can declare it as a template function
that varies from class to class within the class template. For example:
template<class T> class portfolio
{
//...
friend void taxes();
friend void transact(T);
friend portfolio<T>* invest(portfolio<T>*);
friend portfolio* divest(portfolio*);
//error
// ...
};

In this example, each declaration has the following characteristics:

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taxes()
Is a single function that can access private and protected members of any
template class generated by the class template. Note that taxes() is not a
template function.
transact(T)
Is a function template that declares a distinct function for each class
generated by the class template. The only private and protected members
that functions that are generated from this template can access, are the
private and protected members of their template class.
invest(portfolio<T>*)
Is a function template whose return and argument types are pointers to
objects of type portfolio<T>. Each class that is generated by the class
template will have a friend function of this name. And, each such function
will have a pointer to an object of its own class as both its return type and
its argument type.
divest(portfolio*)
Is an error because portfolio* attempts to point to a class template. A
pointer to a class template is undefined and produces an error. This
statement can be corrected by using the syntax of the invest() function
template instead.
All friend functions in this example are declared but not defined. Consequently, you
could create a set of function templates to define those functions that are implicitly
template functions. (That is, all the valid functions except taxes().) OS/390 C++
then uses the function templates to instantiate the template functions as required.

Static Data Members and Templates

A static declaration within a class template declares a static data member for each
template class generated from the template. The static declaration can be of
template argument type or of any defined type.
Like member function templates, you can explicitly define a static data member of a
template class at file scope for each type used to instantiate a template class. For
example:
template <class T> class key
{
public:
static T x;
};
int key<int>::x;
char key<char>::x;
void main()
{
key<int>::x = 0;
}

You can also define a static data member of a template class using a template
definition at file scope. For example:
template <class T> class key
{
public:
static T x;
};
template <class T> T key<T> ::x; // template definition

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void main()
{
key<int>::x = 0;
}

In the following example:

template<class L> class Key
{
static L k;
static L* kptr;
static int length;
// ...
}

The definitions of static variables and objects must be instantiated at file scope. If
the classes Key<int> and Key<double> are instantiated from this template, and no
template definitions exist, the following static data members must be explicitly
defined at file scope, or an error occurs:
int Key<int>::k, Key<int>::length, Key<double>::length
int* Key<int>::kptr;
double Key<double>::k;
double* Key<double>::kptr = 0;

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Chapter 17. C++ Exception Handling

This chapter describes the OS/390 C/C++ implementation of C++ exception
handling. It discusses the following topics:
v C++ Exception Handling Overview
v Formal and Informal Exception Handling on page 374
v Using Exception Handling on page 374
v Transferring Control on page 376
v Constructors and Destructors in Exception Handling on page 382
v Exception Specifications on page 384
v Special Exception Handling Functions on page 386
Related Information
v Chapter 6. Expressions and Operators on page 133
v Chapter 14. Special C++ Member Functions on page 317

C++ Exception Handling Overview

Exception handling enables a function that encounters an unusual situation to throw
an exception and pass control to a direct or indirect caller of that function. The
caller may or may not be able to handle the exception. A handler is code that
intercepts an exception. Regardless of whether or not the caller can handle an
exception, it may rethrow the exception so it can be intercepted by another handler.
C++ provides three language constructs to implement exception handling:
v Try blocks
v Catch blocks
v Throw expressions
Within a function, a throw expression can flag any unusual situation. The throw
expression is of type void. Your program can throw an object to pass information
back to the caller. It can throw any object, including the object that caused the
exception, or an object that was constructed when the exception occurred.
You should enclose a throw expression, or a call to a function that may throw an
exception, within a try block. If the called function throws an exception and you
have defined an exception handler to catch the type of the object that is thrown,
your program executes the exception handler. In C++, a catch block implements an
exception handler. One or more catch clauses must accompany a try block;
otherwise the compiler flags an error.
A catch block follows immediately after a try statement or immediately after another
catch block. A catch block includes a parenthesized exception declaration that
contains optional qualifiers, a type, and an optional variable name. The declaration
specifies the type of object that the exception handler may catch. Once the
exception handler catches an exception, it executes the body of the catch block. If
no handler catches an exception, OS/390 C/C++ terminates the program.
Exception handling is not strictly synonymous with error handling, because the
implementation allows the passing of an exception whether or not an error actually
occurred. You can use exception handlers for things other than handling errors. For
example, you can transfer control back to the original caller of a function. You might
use this feature if you wanted to process the Quit key in a program and transfer
Copyright IBM Corp. 1996, 2000

373

C++ Exception Handling Overview

control back to the driver program when the user types Quit. To do this, you could
use exception handlers to throw an object back to the driver.

Formal and Informal Exception Handling

While the exception handling features of C++ offer a formal mechanism for handling
exceptions (language implemented), in many situations informal exception handling
(logic implemented) is more appropriate.
Generally, you should implement formal exception handling in libraries, classes, and
functions that are likely to be accessed by several programs or programmers. It
should also be used in classes and functions that are repeatedly accessed within a
program but are not well-suited to handling their exceptions themselves. Formal
exception handling is designed for exceptional circumstances, and it is not
guaranteed to be efficient. Program performance is usually not affected when you
do not invoke formal exception handling, although it can inhibit some optimizations.
Informal exception handling, in which an appropriate action is defined if an error or
exception occurs, is often more suitable for handling errors. For example, you can
easily and clearly handle a simple error by testing the input for validity by entering
incorrect input. You can also request the input again if the original input is incorrect.

Using Exception Handling

The three keywords that are designed for exception handling in C++ are try, catch,
and throw.

%% try { '

statement

} catch {

...

' type specifier

% }

declarator
abstract declarator

{ ' statement

The syntax for the keyword throw is:

%% throw

assignment expression

To implement an exception handler, following these steps:

1. If functions will be used by many programs, code them so that error detection
throws an exception. The throw expression generally throws an object. You may
create the expression explicitly for exception handling, or it may be the object
that causes the exception handler to detect the error. The following example
throws a problem object:

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.
.
.
int input=0;
cout << "Enter a number between 1 and 10:";
cin >> input;
if (input < 1 || input >> 10);
throw(input);
//throw the actual problem object
.
.
.

The following example throws an object for the purpose of exception handling:
.
.
.
int input=0;
cout << "Enter a number between 1 and 10:";
cin >> input;

if (input < 1 || input >> 10)

throw(out_of_range_object); //throw object to tell handler
//what happened

2. Function calls that you anticipate might produce an exception must be enclosed
in braces and preceded by the keyword try. A try statement in a caller
anticipates exceptions.
3. You must code one or more catch blocks immediately following the try block.
Each catch block identifies what type or class of objects it can catch:
a. If the object that is thrown matches the type of a catch expression, OS/390
C/C++ passes control to that catch block.
b. If the object that is thrown does not match the first catch block, OS/390
C/C++ searches subsequent catch blocks for a matching type.
c. If it cannot find a match, OS/390 C/C++ continues the search in all enclosing
try blocks, and then in the code that called the current function.
d. If no match is found after all try blocks are searched, a call to terminate()
is made.
For information on the default handlers of uncaught exceptions, see Special
Exception Handling Functions on page 386.
Notes:
1. You can throw any object if you can copy and destroy it in the function from
which the throw occurs.
2. You should never throw exceptions from a C language signal handler. The result
is undefined, and can cause program termination.
A catch argument causes an error if it is a value argument and if OS/390 C/C++
cannot generate a copy of it. For example:
class B {
public:
B();
B(B&);
};

// the following catch block will cause an error

//
catch(const B x)
{
//
.
//
.
//
.
}

The catch block causes an error because the compiler does not know the type of
the object that is thrown at compile time. It assumes that the type of the thrown
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375

Using Exception Handling

object is the same as the type of the catch argument. In the above example, the
compiler assumes the thrown object is type const B. The compiler uses a copy
constructor on the thrown argument to create the catch argument. Because there is
no copy constructor for class B that accepts const B as an input argument, the
compiler cannot perform the construction, and an error occurs. Similarly, a throw
expression causes an error if OS/390 C/C++ cannot generate a copy of the value of
the expression that the handler throws.

Transferring Control
C++ implements the termination model of exception handling. In the termination
model, when your program throws an exception, control never returns to the throw
point. The throw point is the point in program execution where the exception
occurred.
C++ exception handling does not implement the resumption model of exception
handling, which allows an exception handler to correct the exception and then
return to the throw point.
When your program throws an exception, it passes control ou of the throw
expression, and out of the try block that anticipated the exception. It passes control
to the catch block whose exception type matches the object that is thrown. The
catch block handles the exception as appropriate. If the catch block ends normally,
the flow of control passes over all subsequent catch blocks.
When an exception is not thrown from within a try block, the flow of control
continues normally through the block. It passes over all catch blocks following the
try block.
An exception handler cannot return control to the source of the error by using the
return statement. A return issued in this context returns from the function that
contains the catch block.
Consider if your program throws an exception, and no try block is active, or if a try
block is active and the catch block exception declaration does not match the object
thrown. In this case, OS/390 C/C++ issues a call to terminate(), which in turn calls
abort to terminate the program. The abort C library function is defined in the
standard header file <stdlib.h>.
For more information on terminate(), see Special Exception Handling Functions
on page 386.
The following example illustrates the basic use of try, catch, and throw. The
program prompts for numerical input and determines the inputs reciprocal. Before it
attempts to print the reciprocal to standard output, it checks that the input value is
nonzero to avoid a division by zero. If the input is zero, the program throws an
exception, and the catch block catches the exception. If the input is nonzero, the
reciprocal is printed to standard output.

CBC3X16A
// This example illustrates the basic use of
// try, catch, and throw.
#include <iostream.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
class IsZero { /* ... */ };

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void ZeroCheck( int i )
{
if (i==0)
throw IsZero();
}
void main()
{
double a;

cout << "Enter a number: ";

cin >> a;
try
{
ZeroCheck( a );
cout << "Reciprocal is " << 1.0/a << endl;
}
catch ( IsZero )
{
cout << "Zero input is not valid" << endl;
exit(1);
}
exit(0);

This example provides a simple illustration of formal exception handling. You could
make it more efficient by using informal exception handling.
Another example of exception handling under C++ is shown below. The testeh()
routine is called from the mainfunction. testeh() first throws the integer 6, which is
handled by a catch clause within testeh().
Next, it throws a short int, k. There are no catch clauses in testeh() which can
handle a short int. The testeh() routine ends, and destructors are called for the
objects it created. Control passes back to the main function. It contains a catch
clause which can handle the thrown short int. The example calls destructors for
the remaining objects as the program ends.

CBC3X16F
// This is a more extensive example of
// C++ exception handling.
#include <iostream.h>
int testeh(void);
class A {
int i;
public:
A(int j) { i = j; cout << "A ctor: i=" << i << '\n';}
A() { cout << "A dtor: i=" << i << '\n';}
};
class B {
char c;
public:
B(char d) { c = d; cout << "B ctor: c=" << c << '\n'; }
B() { cout << "B dtor: c=" << c << '\n'; }
};
A globA(1);
B globB('a');
main()
{
int rc = 55;
A a(1001);

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try {
cout << "calling testeh\n";
testeh();
}
catch(char c) { cout << "caught char\n"; }
catch(short s) { cout << "caught short s = " << s << '\n'; }
catch(int i) { cout << "caught int i = " << i << '\n'; }
cout << "rc = " << rc << '\n';
return(rc);

testeh() throw(int,short)
{
A a(2001);
B b('k');
short k=12;

try {
cout << "testeh running\n";
throw (6);
}
catch(char c) { cout << "testeh caught char\n";}
catch(int j) { cout << "testeh caught int j = " << j << '\n';
try {
cout << "testeh throwing a short\n";
throw(k);
}
catch(char d) { cout << "char d caught\n"; }
}
cout << "this line should not be printed\n";
return(0);

The expected output from this program is:

A ctor: i=1
B ctor: c=a
A ctor: i=1001
calling testeh
A ctor: i=2001
B ctor: c=k
testeh running
testeh caught int j = 6
testeh again throwing a short
B dtor: c=k
A dtor: i=2001
caught short s = 12
rc = 55
A dtor: i=1001
B dtor: c=a
A dtor: i=1

Catching Exceptions
You can declare a handler to catch many types of exceptions. You declare the
allowable objects that a function can catch in the parentheses that follow the catch
keyword (the catch argument). You can catch objects of the fundamental types,
base and derived class objects, references, and pointers to all of these types. You
can also catch const and volatile types.
You can also use the catch(...) form of the handler to catch all thrown exceptions
that have not been caught by a previous catch block. The ellipsis in the catch
argument indicates that this handler can handle any exception that is thrown.

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Transferring Control
If an exception is caught by a catch(...) block, there is no direct way to access
the object thrown. Information about an exception caught by catch(...)is very
limited.
You can declare an optional variable name if you want to access the thrown object
in the catch block.
A catch block can only catch accessible objects. The object that is caught must
have an accessible copy constructor. For more information on access, see Member
Access on page 299; on copy constructors, see Copy by Initialization on
page 332.

Matching Exceptions Thrown and Exceptions Caught

An argument in the catch argument of a handler matches an argument in the
expression of the throw expression (throw argument) if any of the following
conditions is met:
v The catch argument type matches the type of the thrown object.
v The catch argument is a public base class of the thrown class object.
v The catch specifies a pointer type, and the thrown object is a pointer type that
OS/390 C/C++ can convert to the pointer type of the catch argument by standard
pointer conversion. Pointer Conversions on page 168 describes pointer
conversion.
Note: If the type of the thrown object is const or volatile, the catch argument
must also be a const or volatile for a match to occur. However, a const,
volatile, or reference type catch argument can match a nonconstant,
nonvolatile, or nonreference object type. A nonreference catch argument type
matches a reference to an object of the same type.

Order of Catching
Always place a catch block that catches a derived class before a catch block that
catches the base class of that derived class (that follows a try block). Consider if a
catch block for objects of a base class is followed by a catch block for objects of a
derived class of that base class. Then, the latter block is flagged as an error.
A catch block of the form catch(...) must be the last catch block following a try
block or an error occurs. This placement ensures that the catch(...) block does
not prevent more specific catch blocks from catching exceptions intended for them.

Nested Try Blocks

Consider when try blocks are nested and a throw occurs in a function called by an
inner try block. In that case, your program transfers control outward through the
nested try blocks until it finds the first catch block whose argument matches the
argument of the throw expression.
For example:
try
{

func1();
try
{
func2();
}
catch (spec_err) { /* ... */ }
func3();

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Transferring Control
}
catch (type_err) { /* ... */ }
// if no throw is issued, control resumes here.

If the above example throws spec_err within the inner try block (in this case, from
func2(), the inner catch block catches the exception. Assuming this catch block
does not transfer control, it calls func3(). If the example throws spec_err after the
inner try block (for instance, by func3()), the handler does not catch it, and OS/390
C/C++ calls the function terminate().
If the exception thrown from func2() in the inner try block is type_err, the program
skips out of both try blocks to the second catch block without invoking func3(). No
appropriate catch block exists following the inner try block.
If the entire try block in the example is in a function that has a throw list and does
not include spec_err on its throw list, OS/390 C/C++ calls unexpected(). The
function unexpected() is discussed in Special Exception Handling Functions on
page 386.
You can also nest a try block within a catch block.

Rethrowing an Exception
If a catch block cannot handle the particular exception it has caught, you can
rethrow the exception. The rethrow expression, throw with no argument, causes the
originally thrown object to be rethrown.
The handler has already caught the exception at the scope in which the rethrow
expression occurs. Consequently, the exception is rethrown to the next dynamically
enclosing try block. Therefore, catch blocks at the scope in which the rethrow
expression occurred cannot handle it. Any catch blocks following the dynamically
enclosing try block have an opportunity to catch the exception.
In the following example, catch(FileIO) catches any object of type FileIO, and any
objects that are public base classes of the FileIO class. The example then checks
for those exceptions it can handle. For any exception it cannot handle, it issues a
rethrow expression to rethrow the exception. This allows another handler in a
dynamically enclosing try block to handle the exception.

CBC3X16B
// This example illustrates rethrowing an exception.
#include <iostream.h>
class FileIO
{
public:
int notfound;
int endfile;
FileIO(); // initialize data members
// the following member functions throw an exception
// if an input error occurs
void advance(int x);
void clear();
void put(int x, int y);
};
//
.
//
.
//
.
void f()
{

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FileIO fio;
try
{
// call member functions of FileIO class
fio.advance (1);
fio.clear();
fio.put(1,-1);
}
catch(FileIO fexc)
{
if (fexc.notfound)
cout << "File not Found" << endl;
else if (fexc.endfile)
cout << "End of File" << endl;
else
throw;
// rethrow to outer handler
}
catch(...) { /* ... */ }
// catch other exceptions

}
main()
{
try
{

f();
}
catch(FileIO) { cout << "Outer Handler" << endl; }

The rethrow expression can be caught by any catch whose argument matches the
argument of the exception originally thrown. Note that in this example, the
catch(...) will not catch the rethrow expression. When the example issues a
rethrow expression, it passes control out of the scope of the function f() into the
next dynamically enclosing block.

Using a Conditional Expression in a Throw Expression

You can use a conditional expression as a throw expression, as the following
example demonstrates:

CBC3X16C
// This example illustrates a conditional expression
// used as a throw expression.
#include <iostream.h>
void main() {
int doit = 1;
int dont = 0;
float f = 8.9;
int i = 7;
int j = 6;
try { throw(doit ? i : f); }
catch (int x)
{
cout << "Caught int " << x << endl;
}
catch (float x)
{
cout << "Caught float " << x << endl;
}
catch (double x)
{
cout << "Caught double " << x << endl;
}
catch (...)
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381

Transferring Control
{
}

cout << "Caught something " << endl;

This example produces the following output because i is of type int:

Caught float 7

At first glance, it looks as if the block that catches integer values should do the
catch. However, the example converts i to a float value in the try block because it
is in a conditional expression with the float value f. Consider replacing the try block
in the example with the following try block:
try { throw doit ? i : j; }

The following output is produced:

Caught int 7

Constructors and Destructors in Exception Handling

Suppose your program throws an exception and passes control to a catch block
that follows a try block. Then, OS/390 C/C++ calls destructors for all automatic
objects constructed since the beginning of the try block that is directly associated
with that catch block. Suppose your program throws an exception during
construction of an object that consists of subobjects or array elements. Then,
OS/390 C/C++ calls destructors only for those subobjects or array elements that are
successfully constructed before the program throws the exception. OS/390 C/C++
calls a destructor for a local static object only if your program has successfully
constructed the object.
For more information on constructors and destructors, see Constructors and
Destructors Overview on page 317.
Suppose a destructor detects and then throws an exception. You can catch the
exception if the caller of the destructor is contained within a try block and you have
coded an appropriate catch.
Suppose a function that is called from an inner try block throws an exception that is
caught by an outer try block, because the inner try block did not have an
appropriate handler. All objects constructed within the outer and all inner try blocks
are destroyed. If the thrown object has a destructor, OS/390 C/C++ does not call
the destructor until the handler catches and handles the exception.
A throw expression throws an object, and a catch statement can catch an object.
Consequently, the object that is thrown enables error-related information to be
transferred from the point at which an exception is detected to the exceptions
handler. If you throw an object with a constructor, you can construct an object that
contains information relevant to the catch expression.
In the following example, the function divide() throws an object of class
DivideByZero. The constructor copies the string "Division by zero" into the char
array errname. Because DivideByZero is a derived class of class Matherr, the catch
block for Matherr catches the thrown exception. The catch block can then access
information that is provided by the thrown object, (in this case, the text of an error
message).

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CBC3X16D
// This example illustrates constructors and
// destructors in exception handling.
#include <string.h>
// needed for strcpy
#include <iostream.h>
class Matherr { public: char errname[30]; };
class DivideByZero : public Matherr
{
public:
DivideByZero() {strcpy (errname, "Division by zero");}
};
double divide(double a, double b)
{
if (b == 0) throw DivideByZero();
return a/b;
}
void main()
{
double a=7,b=0;
try {divide (a,b);}
catch (Matherr xx)
{
cout << xx.errname << endl;
}
}

You can use exception handling in conjunction with constructors and destructors to
provide resource management. This resource management ensures that all locked
resources are unlocked when your program throws an exception.
class data
{
public:
void lock();
void unlock();
};
void q(data&), bar(data&);
//
.
//
.
//
.
main()
{
data important;
important.lock();
q(important);
bar(important);
important.unlock();
}

//
//
//
//

prevent other users from

changing the object
allow other users to change
the object

If q() or bar() throw an exception, important.unlock() will not be called and the
data will stay locked. Use a helper class to write an exception-aware program for
resource management to correct this problem.
class data
{
public:
void lock();
void unlock();
};
class locked_data

//
//
//
//

prevent other users from

changing the object
allow other users to change
the object

// helper class
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383

Constructors and Destructors

{

data& real_data;
public:
locked_data(data& d) : real_data(d)
{real_data.lock();}
locked_data() {real_data.unlock();}

};
void q(data&), bar(data&);
//
.
//
.
//
.
main()
{
data important;
locked_data my_lock(important);
q(important);
bar(important);
}

In this case, if q() or bar() throws an exception, the destructor for my_lock will be
called, and the data will be unlocked.

Exception Specifications
C++ provides a mechanism that limits a given function to throwing only a specified
list of exceptions. An exception specification at the beginning of any function acts as
a guarantee to the functions caller that the function will not directly or indirectly
throw any exception not contained in the exception specification. For example,
consider the following function:
void translate() throw(unknown_word,bad_grammar) { /* ... */ }

The above function explicitly states that it will not throw any exception other than
unknown_word or bad_grammar. The function translate() must handle any
exceptions thrown by functions it might call, unless those exceptions are specified
in the exception specification of translate(). Consider if an exception is thrown by
a function called by translate() and the exception is not handled by translate()
or contained in the exception specification of translate(). Then, OS/390 C/C++
calls unexpected(). The function unexpected() is discussed in Special Exception
Handling Functions on page 386.
There are qualifications to the rule about throwing only a specified list of exceptions.
If a class A is included in the exception specification of a function, the function will
also allow exception objects of any classes that are publicly derived from class A.
Also, if a pointer type B* is included in the exception specification of a function, the
function will allow exceptions of type B* or of pointers to any type publicly derived
from B*.

Exception Specification Syntax

The syntax of the exception specification is:
,
%% throw ( '

type

The syntax of a function definition that includes an exception specification is:

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Exception Specifications
,
%% return_type function_name ( '

) throw

argument

,
% (

'
type

) {

function_body }

An exception specification is not part of a functions type. If an exception is thrown

from a function that has not specified the thrown exception in its exception
specification, the result is a call to the function unexpected(), which is discussed in
Special Exception Handling Functions on page 386.

Empty Exception Specifications

A function with an empty throw() specification guarantees that the function will not
throw any exceptions.

Functions without an Exception Specification

A function without an exception specification allows any object to be thrown from
the function.

Other Exception Specifications

The compiler does not prevent an exception specification from defining more valid
exceptions than the set of exceptions the function may actually throw. Such an error
is detected only at run time, and only if the unspecified exception is thrown.
In the following example, NameTooShort is thrown from within a function that
explicitly states that it will only throw NameTooLong. This is a valid function, although
at run time, if NameTooShort is thrown, a call to unexpected() will be made.
#include <string.h>
class NameTooLong {};
class NameTooShort {};

// needed for strlen

void check(char* fname) throw (NameTooLong)

{
if ( strlen(fname)<4 ) throw NameTooShort();
}

If a function with an exception specification calls a subfunction with a less restrictive

exception specification (one that contains more objects than the calling functions
exception specification), any thrown objects from within the subfunction that are not
handled by the subfunction, and that are not part of the outer functions
specification list, must be handled within the outer function. If the outer function fails
to handle an exception not in its exception specification, a call to unexpected() is
made.

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Special Exception Handling Functions

Not all thrown errors can be caught and successfully dealt with by a catch block. In
some situations, the best way to handle an exception is to terminate the program.
Two special library functions are implemented in C++ to process exceptions not
properly handled by catch blocks or exceptions thrown outside of a valid try block.
These functions are unexpected() and terminate().

unexpected()
When a function with an exception specification throws an exception that is not
listed in its exception specification, the function void unexpected() is called. Next,
unexpected() calls a function specified by the set_unexpected() function. By
default, unexpected() calls the function terminate(). In turn, terminate() calls
abort by default, terminating the program.
Although unexpected() cannot return, it may throw an exception. The search for a
handler starts at the call of the function whose exception specification was violated.
For more information, see set_unexpected() and set_terminate().

terminate()
In some cases, the exception handling mechanism fails and a call to void
terminate() is made. This terminate() call occurs in any of the following
situations:
v When terminate() is explicitly called
v When no catch can be matched to a thrown object
v When the stack becomes corrupted during the exception-handling process
v When a system defined unexpected() is called
The terminate() function calls a function specified by the set_terminate() function.
By default, terminate calls abort, which exits from the program.
A terminate function cannot return to its caller, either by using return or by throwing
an exception.

set_unexpected() and set_terminate()

When invoked, the function unexpected() calls the function most recently supplied
as an argument to set_unexpected(). If set_unexpected() has not been called yet,
unexpected() calls terminate().
The function terminate(), when invoked, calls the function most recently supplied
as an argument to set_terminate(). If set_terminate() has not yet been called,
terminate() calls abort, which ends the program.
You can use set_unexpected() and set_terminate() to register functions you
define to be called by unexpected() and terminate(). set_unexpected() and
set_terminate() are included in the standard header files <terminate.h> and
<unexpect.h>. Each of these functions has as its return type and its argument type
a pointer to function with a void return type and no arguments. The pointer to
function you supply as the argument becomes the function called by the
corresponding special function: the argument to set_unexpected() becomes the
function called by unexpected(), and the argument to set_terminate() becomes
the function called by terminate().

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Special Exception Handling Functions

Both set_unexpected() and set_terminate() return a pointer to the function that
was previously called by their respective special functions (unexpected() and
terminate()). By saving the return values, you can restore the original special
functions later so that unexpected() and terminate() will once again call
terminate() and abort.
If you use set_terminate() to register your own function, the final action of that
program should be to exit from the program. If you attempt to return from the
function called by terminate(), abort is called instead and the program ends.
Note: Providing a call to longjmp() inside a user-defined terminate function can
transfer execution control to some other desired point. When you call
longjmp, objects existing at the time of a setjmp call will still exist, but some
objects constructed after the call to setjmp might not be destructed.
The longjmp and setjmp functions are described in the OS/390 C/C++ Run-Time
Library Reference.

Example of Using the Exception Handling Functions

The following example shows the flow of control and special functions used in
exception handling:
#include <terminate.h>
#include <unexpect.h>
#include <iostream.h>
class X { /* ... */ };
class Y { /* ... */ };
class A { /* ... */ };
// pfv type is pointer to function returning void
typedef void (*pfv)();
void my_terminate()
{
cout << "Call to my terminate" << endl; }
void my_unexpected()
{
cout << "Call to my unexpected" << endl; }
void f() throw(X,Y)
// f() is permitted to throw objects of class
// types X and Y only
{
A aobj;
throw(aobj); // error, f() throws a class A object
}
main()
{
pfv old_term = set_terminate(my_terminate);
pfv old_unex = set_unexpected(my_unexpected);
try{ f(); }
catch(X)
{ /* ... */ }
catch(Y)
{ /* ... */ }
catch (...)
{ /* ... */ }

set_unexpected(old_unex);
try { f();}
catch(X)
{ /* ... */ }
catch(Y)
{ /* ... */ }
catch (...)
{ /* ... */ }

At run time, this program behaves as follows:

1. The call to set_terminate() assigns to old_term the address of the function last
passed to set_terminate() when set_terminate() was previously called.
2. The call to set_unexpected() assigns to old_unex the address of the function
last passed to set_unexpected() when set_unexpected() was previously called.
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3. Within a try block, function f() is called. Because f() throws an unexpected
exception, a call to unexpected() is made. unexpected() in turn calls
my_unexpected(), which prints a message to standard output and returns.
4. The second call to set_unexpected() replaces the user-defined function
my_unexpected() with the saved pointer to the original function (terminate())
called by unexpected().
5. Within a second try block, function f() is called once more. Because f() throws
an unexpected exception, a call to unexpected() is again made. unexpected()
automatically calls terminate(), which calls the function my_terminate().
6. my_terminate() displays a message. It returns, and the system calls abort,
which terminates the program.
At run time, the following information is displayed, and the program ends:
Call to my_unexpected
Call to my_terminate

Note: The catch blocks following the try block are not entered, because the
exception was handled by my_unexpected()as an unexpected throw, not as a
valid exception.

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389

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Appendix A. C and C++ Compatibility

The differences between ANSI/ISO C and C++ fall into three categories:
v Constructs found in C++ but not in ANSI/ISO C
v Constructs found in both C++ and ANSI/ISO C, but treated differently in the two
languages
v Interactions with other products that do not support C++

C++ Constructs Not Found in ANSI/ISO C

C++ contains many constructs that are not found in ANSI/ISO C:
v Single-line comments beginning with // (See Comments on page 56)
v Scope operator (See C++ Scope Resolution Operator (::) on page 138)
v Free store management using the operators new and delete (See C++ new
Operator on page 148 and C++ delete Operator on page 151)
v Linkage specification for functions (See Linkage Specifications Linking to
non-C++ Programs on page 50)
v Reference types (See C++ References on page 131)
v Default arguments for functions (See Default Arguments in C++ Functions on
page 189)
v Inline functions (See C++ Inline Functions on page 194)
v Classes (See Chapter 11. C++ Classes on page 277)
v Anonymous unions (See Anonymous Unions in C++ on page 118)
v Overloaded operators and functions (See Chapter 13. C++ Overloading on
page 305)
v Class templates and function templates (See Class Templates on page 360 and
Function Templates on page 365)
v Exception handling (See Chapter 17. C++ Exception Handling on page 373)
Note: The OS/390 C/C++ compiler also supports anonymous unions in C, but the
implementation is slightly different from C++. For more information, see
Anonymous Unions in C on page 117.

Constructs Found in Both C++ and ANSI/ISO C

Because C++ is based on ANSI/ISO C, the two languages have many constructs in
common. The use of some of these shared constructs differs, as shown here.

Character Array Initialization

In C++, when you initialize character arrays, a trailing '\0' (zero of type char) is
appended to the string initializer. You cannot initialize a character array with more
initializers than there are array elements.
In ANSI/ISO C, space for the trailing '\0' can be omitted in this type of initialization.
The following initialization, for instance, is not valid in C++:
char v[3] = "asd"; // not valid in C++, valid in ANSI/ISO C

because four elements are required. This initialization produces an error because
there is no space for the implied trailing '\0' (zero of type char).
For more information, see Initializing Arrays on page 102.

391

Constructs Found in Both C++ and ISO/ANSI C

Character Constants
A character constant has type char in C++ and int in ANSI/ISO C.
For more information, see Character Constants on page 65.

Class and typedef Names

In C++, a class and a typedef cannot both use the same name to refer to a
different type within the same scope (unless the typedef is a synonym for the class
name). In C, a typedef name and a struct tag name declared in the same scope
can have the same name because they have different name spaces. For example:
void main ()
{
typedef double db;
struct db; // error in C++, valid in ANSI/ISO C
}

typedef struct st st; // valid ANSI/ISO C and C++

For more information on typedef, see typedef on page 85. For information on
class types, see Chapter 11. C++ Classes on page 277. For information on
structures, see Structures on page 107.

Class and Scope Declarations

In C++, a class declaration introduces the class name into the scope where it is
declared and hides any object, function, or other declaration of that name in an
enclosing scope. In ANSI/ISO C, an inner scope declaration of a struct name does
not hide an object or function of that name in an outer scope. For example:
double db;
void main ()
{
struct db
{ char* str; };
int x = sizeof(db);
}

// hides double object db in C++

// size of struct in C++
// size of double in ANSI/ISO C

For more information, see Scope of Class Names on page 282. For general
information about scope, see Scope in C++ on page 47.

const Object Initialization

In C++, const objects must be initialized. In ANSI/ISO C, they can be left
uninitialized.
For more information, see volatile and const Qualifiers on page 122.

Definitions
An object declaration is a definition in C++. In ANSI/ISO C, it is a tentative
definition. For example:
int i;

In C++, a global data object must be defined only once. In ANSI/ISO C, a global
data object can be declared several times without using the extern keyword.
In C++, multiple definitions for a single variable cause an error. A C compilation unit
can contain many identical tentative definitions for a variable.

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Constructs Found in Both C++ and ISO/ANSI C

For more information, see Chapter 5. Declarations on page 71.

Definitions within Return or Argument Types

In C++, types may not be defined in return or argument types. ANSI/ISO C allows
such definitions. For example, the following declarations produce errors in C++, but
are valid declarations in ANSI/ISO C:
void print(struct X { int i;} x);
// error in C++
enum count{one, two, three} counter(); // error in C++

For more information, see Function Declarations on page 174 and Calling
Functions and Passing Arguments on page 184.

Enumerator Type
An enumerator has the same type as its enumeration in C++. In ANSI/ISO C, an
enumeration has type int.
For more information on enumerators, see Enumerations on page 91.

Enumeration Type
The assignment to an object of enumeration type with a value that is not of that
enumeration type produces an error in C++. In ANSI/ISO C, an object of
enumeration type can be assigned values of any integral type.
For more information, see Enumerations on page 91.

Function Declarations
In C++, all declarations of a function must match the unique definition of a function.
ANSI/ISO C has no such restriction.
For more information, see Function Declarations on page 174.

Functions with an Empty Argument List

Consider the following function declaration:
int f();

In C++, this function declaration means that the function takes no arguments. In
ANSI/ISO C, it could take any number of arguments, of any type.
For more information, see Function Declarations on page 174.

Global Constant Linkage

In C++, an object declared const has internal linkage, unless it has previously been
given external linkage. In ANSI/ISO C, it has external linkage.
For more information, see Program Linkage on page 38.

Jump Statements
C++ does not allow you to jump over declarations containing initializations.
ANSI/ISO C does allow you to use jump statements for this purpose.
For more information, see Initializers on page 129.

Appendix A. C and C++ Compatibility

393

Constructs Found in Both C++ and ISO/ANSI C

Keywords
C++ contains some additional keywords not found in ANSI/ISO C. C programs that
use these keywords as identifiers are not valid C++ programs:
Table 13. C++ Keywords
asm
inline
catch
new
class
operator
delete
friend
protected
throw

public
template
this
private
try

virtual
wchar_t

For more information, see Keywords on page 59.

main() Recursion
In C++, main() cannot be called recursively and cannot have its address taken.
ANSI/ISO C allows recursive calls and allows pointers to hold the address of
main().
For more information, see The main() Function on page 183.

Names of Nested Classes

In C++, the name of a nested class is local to its enclosing class. In ANSI/ISO C,
the name of the nested structure belongs to the same scope as the name of the
outermost enclosing structure.
For more information, see Nested Classes on page 283.

Pointers to void
C++ allows void pointers to be assigned only to other void pointers. In ANSI/ISO C,
a pointer to void can be assigned to a pointer of any other type without an explicit
cast.
For more information, see void Type on page 100 and Pointers on page 95.

Prototype Declarations
C++ requires full prototype declarations. ANSI/ISO C allows nonprototyped
functions.
For more information, see Function Declarator on page 180.

Return without Declared Value

In C++, a return (either explicit or implicit) from main() that is declared to return a
value results in an error if no value is returned. A return (either explicit or implicit)
from all other functions that is declared to return a value must return a value. In
ANSI/ISO C, a function that is declared to return a value can return with no value,
with unspecified results.
For more information, see Function Return Values on page 191.

__STDC__ Macro
The predefined macro variable __STDC__ is not defined for C++. It has the integer
value 0 when it is used a #if statement, indicating that the C++ language is not a

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Constructs Found in Both C++ and ISO/ANSI C

proper superset of C, and that the compiler does not conform to ANSI/ISO C. In
ANSI/ISO C, __STDC__ has the integer value 1.
For more information on macros, see Predefined Macro Names on page 225.

typedefs in Class Declarations

In C++, a typedef name may not be redefined in a class declaration after being
used in the declaration. ANSI/ISO C allows such a declaration. For example:
void main ()
{
typedef double db;
struct st
{
db x;
double db; // error in C++, valid in ANSI/ISO C
};
}

For more information, see typedef on page 85.

Interactions with Other Products

You cannot write a C++ program that includes interfaces to Cross-System Product
(CSP). However, you can write a C program to access CSP and call the C program
from a C++ program.
In general, application libraries that provide C interfaces may not support
applications written in C++ if their header files do not conform to C++ syntax.
Not all OS/390 C pragmas are supported by OS/390 C++. If you have any OS/390
C pragmas in C source to be compiled with C++, you should add conditional
compilation directives around the pragmas that are not recognized for C++.
For example, the following directive is not supported in OS/390 C++, and would
generate an error message because the C++ compiler interprets the K as an integer
constants suffix:
#pragma runopts(stack(100K))

To avoid the error, place conditional compilation directives around the unsupported
pragma:
#ifndef __cplusplus
#
pragma runopts(stack(100K))
#endif

Appendix A. C and C++ Compatibility

395

Interactions with Other Products

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OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

Appendix B. Common Usage C Language Level

The X/Open Portability Guide (XPG) Issue 3 describes a C language definition
referred to as Common Usage C. This language definition is roughly equivalent to
K&R C, and differs from the ANSI/ISO C language definition. It is based on various
C implementations that predate the ANSI/ISO standard.
Common Usage C is supported with the LANGLVL(COMMONC) compiler option or the
#pragma langlvl(commonc) directive. These cause the compiler to accept C source
code containing Common Usage C constructs.
Many of the Common Usage C constructs are already supported by #pragma
langlvl(extended). The following language elements are different from those
accepted by #pragma langlvl(extended).
v Standard integral promotions preserve sign. For example, unsigned char or
unsigned short are promoted to unsigned int. This is functionally equivalent to
specifying the UPCONV compiler option.
v Trigraphs are not processed in string or character literals. For example, consider
the following source line:
??=define STR "??= not processed"

The above line gets preprocessed to:

#define STR "??= not processed"

v The sizeof operator is permitted on bitfields. The result is the size of an

unsigned int (4).
v Bitfields other than type int are permitted. The compiler issues a warning and
changes the type to unsigned int.
v Macro parameters found within single or double quotation marks are expanded.
For example, consider the following source lines:
#define STR(AAA) "String is: AAA"
#define ST STR(BBB)

The above lines are preprocessed to:

#define STR(AAA) "String is: AAA"
#define ST "String is: BBB"

v Macros can be redefined without first being undefined (that is, without an
intervening #undef). An informational message is issued saying that the second
definition is used.
v The empty comment (/**/) in a function-like macro is equivalent to the ANSI/ISO
token concatenation operator ##.
The LANGLVL compiler option is described in the OS/390 C/C++ Users Guide.
#pragma langlvl is described in langlvl on page 254.

397

398

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

Appendix C. Conforming to POSIX 1003.1

The implementation resulting from the combination of OS/390 UNIX and the OS/390
Language Environment supports the ISO/IEC 9945-1:1990/IEEE POSIX
1003.1-1990 standard. POSIX stands for Portable Operating System Interface.
See the OpenEdition POSIX.1 Conformance Document for POSIX on MVS/ESA:
IEEE Standard 1003.1-1990, GC23-3011, for a description of how the OS/390 UNIX
implementation meets the criteria.

399

400

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

Appendix D. Supporting ANSI/ISO Standards

This appendix describes changes made to the OS/390 C/C++ Compiler and Library
to support the American National Standard for Information Systems - Programming
Language C standard. It also describes implementation-defined behavior of the
OS/390 C/C++ compiler which is not defined by ANSI/ISO.

Implementation-Defined Behavior
The following sections describe how the OS/390 C compiler defines some of the
implementation-defined behavior from the ANSI/ISO C Standard.
v Identifiers
v Characters on page 402
v String Conversion on page 402
v Integers on page 403
v Floating-Point on page 403
v Arrays and Pointers on page 404
v Registers on page 404
v Structures, Unions, Enumerations, Bit Fields on page 404
v Declarators on page 405
v Statements on page 405
v Preprocessing Directives on page 405
v Library Functions on page 405
v Error Handling on page 406
v Signals on page 407
v Translation Limits on page 407
v Streams, Records, and Files on page 408
v Memory Management on page 409
v Environment on page 409
v Localization on page 410
v Time on page 410

Identifiers
The number of significant characters in an identifier with no external linkage:
v 1024
The number of significant characters in an identifier with external linkage:
v 1024 with the compile-time option LONGNAME specified
v 8 otherwise
The C++ compiler truncates external identifiers without C++ linkage after 8
characters if the NOLONGNAME compiler option or #pragma is in effect.
Case sensitivity of external identifiers:
v The linkage editor accepts all external names up to 8 characters, and may not be
case sensitive. The binder accepts all external names up to 1024 characters, and
is optionally case sensitive. The linkage editor accepts all external names up to 8
characters, and may not be case sensitive, depending on whether you use the
NOLONGNAME compiler option or #pragma. When using the OS/390 C compiler with
the NOLONGNAME option, all external names are truncated to 8 characters. As an
aid to portability, identifiers that differ only in case after truncation are flagged as
an error.

401

Implementation-Defined Behavior

Characters
Source and execution characters which are not specified by the ANSI/ISO standard:
v The caret (|) character in ASCII (bitwise exclusive OR symbol) or the equivalent
not () character in EBCDIC.
v The vertical broken line () character in ASCII which may be represented by the
vertical line (|) character on EBCDIC systems.
Shift states used for the encoding of multibyte characters:
v The shift states are indicated with the SHIFTOUT (hex value \x0E) characters and
SHIFTIN (hex value \x0F). Refer to the OS/390 C/C++ Run-Time Library
Reference for more information on wide character strings.
The number of bits that represent a character:
v 8 bits
The mapping of members of the source character set (characters and strings) to the
execution character set:
v The same code page is used for the source and execution character set.
The value of an integer character constant that contains a character/escape
sequence not represented in the basic execution character set:
v A warning is issued for an unknown character/escape sequence and the char is
assigned the character following the back slash.
The value of a wide character constant that contains a character/escape sequence
not represented in the extended execution character set:
v A warning is issued for the unknown character/escape sequence and the wchar_t
is assigned the wide character following the back slash.
The value of an integer character constant that contains more than one character:
v The lowest four bytes represent the character constant.
The value of a wide character constant that contains more than one multibyte
character:
v The lowest four bytes of the multibyte characters are converted to represent the
wide character constant.
Equivalent type of char: signed char, unsigned char, or user-defined:
v The default for char is unsigned
Is each sequence of white-space characters (excluding the new-line) retained or
replaced by one space character?
v Any spaces or comments in your source program will be interpreted as one
space.

String Conversion
Additional implementation-defined sequence forms that can be accepted by
strtod(), strtol() and strtoul() functions in other than the C locale:
v None

402

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

Implementation-Defined Behavior

Integers
Table 14. Integers
Type

Amount of
Storage

Range (in limits.h)

signed short

2 bytes

-32,768 to 32,767

unsigned short

2 bytes

0 to 65,535

signed int

4 bytes

-2,147,483,647 minus 1 to 2,147,483,647

unsigned int

4 bytes

0 to 4,294,967,295

signed long

4 bytes

-2,147,483,647 minus 1 to 2,147,483,647

unsigned long

4 bytes

0 to 4,294,967,295

signed long long

8 bytes

-9,223,372,036,854,775,807 minus 1 to
9,223,372,036,854,775,807

unsigned long long

8 bytes

0 to 18,446,744,073,709,551,615

The result of converting an integer to a signed char:

v The lowest 1 byte of the integer is used to represent the char. See the OS/390
C/C++ Run-Time Library Reference for more information on data conversions.
The result of converting an integer to a shorter signed integer:
v The lowest 2 bytes of the integer are used to represent the short int.
The result of converting an unsigned integer to a signed integer of equal length, if
the value cannot be represented:
v The bit pattern is preserved and the sign bit has no significance.
The result of bitwise operations (|, &, |) on signed int:
v The representation is treated as a bit pattern and 2s complement arithmetic is
performed.
The sign of the remainder of integer division if either operand is negative:
v The remainder is negative if exactly one operand is negative.
The result of a right shift of a negative-valued signed integral type:
v The result is sign extended and the sign is propagated.

Floating-Point
Table 15. Floating Point
Type

Amount of
Storage

Range (approximate)
IBM S/390 Hexadecimal
Format

IEEE Binary Format

float

4 bytes

5.5x10-79 to 7.2x1075

1.2x10-38 to 3.4x1038

double

8 bytes

5.5x10-79 to 7.2x1075

2.2x10-308 to 1.8x10308

long double

16 bytes

5.5x10-79 to 7.2x1075

3.4x10-4932 to 1.2x104932

The following is the direction of truncation (or rounding) when you convert an
integer number to an IBM S/390 hexadecimal floating-point number, or to an IEEE
binary floating-point number:
v IBM S/390 hexadecimal format:
Appendix D. Supporting ANSI/ISO Standards

403

Implementation-Defined Behavior
When the floating-point cannot exactly represent the original value, the value is
truncated.
When a floating-point number is converted to a narrower floating-point number,
the floating-point number is truncated.
v IEEE binary format:
The rounding direction is determined by the ROUND compiler option. The ROUND
option only affects the rounding of floating-point values that the OS/390 C/C++
compiler can evaluate at compile time. It has no effect on rounding at run time.

Arrays and Pointers

The type of size_t:
v unsigned int
The type of ptrdiff_t:
v int
The result of casting a pointer to an integer:
v The bit patterns are preserved.
The result of casting an integer to a pointer:
v The bit patterns are preserved.

Registers
The effect of the register storage class specifier on the storage of objects in
registers:
v The register storage class indicates to the compiler that a variable in a block
scope data definition or a parameter declaration is heavily used (such as a loop
control variable). It is equivalent to auto, except that the compiler might, if
possible, place the variable into a machine register for faster access.

|
|
|
|

Structures, Unions, Enumerations, Bit Fields

The result when a member of a union object is accessed using a member of a
different type:
v The result is undefined.
The alignment/padding of structure members:
v If the structure is not packed, then padding is added to align the structure
members on their natural boundaries. If the structure is packed, no padding is
added. Refer to C/C++ Data Mapping on page 131 for more information on C
data mapping.
The padding at the end of structure/union:
v Padding is added to end the structure on its natural boundary. The alignment of
the struct or union is that of its strictest member. Refer to C/C++ Data
Mapping on page 131 for more information on C data mapping.
The type of an int bit field (signed int, unsigned int, user defined):
v The default is unsigned.
The order of allocation of bit fields within an int:
v Bit fields are allocated from low memory to high memory. For example,
0x12345678 would be stored with byte 0 containing 0x12, and byte 3 containing
0x78.

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OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

Implementation-Defined Behavior
The rule for bit fields crossing a storage unit boundary:
v Bit fields can cross storage unit boundaries.
The integral type that represents the values of an enumeration type:
v Enumerations can have the type char, short, or long and be either signed or
unsigned depending on their smallest and largest values.

Declarators
The maximum number of declarators (pointer, array, function) that can modify an
arithmetic, structure, or union type:
v The only constraint is the availability of system resources.

Statements
The maximum number of case values in a switch statement:
v Because the case values must be integers and cannot be duplicated, the limit is
INT_MAX.

Preprocessing Directives
Does the value of a single-character constant in a constant expression that controls
conditional inclusion match the value of the character constant in the execution
character set?
v Yes
Can such a constant have a negative value?
v Yes
The method of searching include source files (< >):
v See the OS/390 C/C++ Users Guide.
Is the search for quoted source file names supported (...)?
v User include files can be specified in double quotes. See the OS/390 C/C++
Users Guide.
The mapping between the name specified in the include directive and the external
source file name:
v See the OS/390 C/C++ Users Guide.
The behavior of each pragma directive:
v See Pragma Directives (#pragma) on page 238.
The definitions of __DATE__ and __TIME__ when date and time of translation is not
available:
v For OS/390 C/C++, the date and time of translation are always available.

Library Functions
The definition of NULL macro:
v NULL is defined to be a ((void *)0).
The format of diagnostic printed by the assert macro, and the termination behavior
(abort behavior):
v When assert is executed, if the expression is false, the diagnostic message
written by the assert macro has the format:
Assertion failed: expression, file filename, line line-number

Appendix D. Supporting ANSI/ISO Standards

405

Implementation-Defined Behavior
Set of characters tested by the isxxxx functions:
v To create a table of the characters set up by the ctype functions use the program
in the following example.

CBC3RABG
/* this example prints out ctest characters */
#include <stdio.h>
#include <ctype.h>
int main(void)
{
int ch;
for (ch = 0; ch <= 0xff; ch++)
{
printf("%#04X ", ch);
printf("%3s ", isalnum(ch)
printf("%2s ", isalpha(ch)
printf("%2s", iscntrl(ch)
printf("%2s", isdigit(ch)
printf("%2s", isgraph(ch)
printf("%2s", islower(ch)
printf("%c",
isprint(ch)
printf("%3s", ispunct(ch)
printf("%2s", isspace(ch)
printf("%3s", isprint(ch)
printf("%2s", isupper(ch)
printf("%2s", isxdigit(ch)

?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?

"AN"
"A"
"C"
"D"
"G"
"L"
ch
"PU"
"S"
"PR"
"U"
"X"

:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:

"
"
"
"
"
"
'
"
"
"
"
"

");
");
");
");
");
");
');
");
");
");
");
");

putchar('\n');
}

The result of calling fmod() function with the second argument zero (return zero,
domain error):
v fmod() returns a 0.

Error Handling
The format of the message generated by the perror() and strerror() functions:
v See the OS/390 Language Environment Debugging Guide and Run-Time
Messages for the messages emitted for perror() and strerror().
Note: errno is not emitted with the message.
How diagnostic messages are recognized:
v Refer to the OS/390 C/C++ Users Guide and the OS/390 Language Environment
Debugging Guide and Run-Time Messages for the lists of OS/390 C/C++
messages provided.
The different classes of messages:
v In general, messages are classified as shown by the following table.

406

Type of Message

Numeric Severity Level

Return Code

Information

Warning

Error

Severe error

> 30

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

Implementation-Defined Behavior
How the level of diagnostics can be controlled:
v Use the compile-time option FLAG to control the level of diagnostics. There is also
a compile-time option CHECKOUT which provides programming style diagnostics to
aid you in determining possible programming errors.

Signals
The set of signals for the signal() function:
v See the OS/390 C/C++ Users Guide.
The parameters and the usage of each signal recognized by the signal() function:
v See the OS/390 C/C++ Programming Guide.
The default handling and the handling at program start-up for each signal
recognized by signal() function:
v SIG_DFL is the default signal. See the OS/390 C/C++ Programming Guide for
more information on signal handling.
The signal blocking performed if the equivalent of signal(sig, SIG_DFL) is not
executed at the beginning of signal handler:
v See the OS/390 C/C++ Programming Guide.
Is the default handling reset if a SIGKILL is received by a signal handler?
v Whenever you enter the signal handler, SIG_DFL becomes the default.

Translation Limits
System-determined means that the limit is determined by your system resources.
Table 16. Translation Limits
Nesting levels of:
v Compound statements
v Iteration control
v Selection control
v Conditional inclusion
v Parenthesized declarators
v Parenthesized expression
Number of pointer, array and function declarators modifying an arithmetic a
structure, a union, and incomplete type declaration

Significant initial characters in:

v Internal identifiers
v Macro names
v C external identifiers (without LONGNAME)
v C external identifiers (with LONGNAME)
v C++ external identifiers
Number of:
v External identifiers in a translation unit
v Identifiers with block scope in one block
v Macro identifiers simultaneously declared in a translation unit
v Parameters in one function definition
v Arguments in a function call
v Parameters in a macro definition
v Parameters in a macro invocation
v Characters in a logical source line
v Characters in a string literal
v Bytes in an object
v Nested include files
v Enumeration constants in an enumeration
v Levels in nested structure or union

v
v
v
v
v
v
v

System-determined
System-determined
System-determined
System-determined
System-determined
System-determined
System-determined

v
v
v
v
v

1024
1024
8
1024
1024

v
v
v
v
v
v
v
v
v
v
v
v
v

System-determined
System-determined
System-determined
System-determined
System-determined
System-determined
System-determined
32760 under MVS
32K minus 1
LONG_MAX (See 1)
SHRT_MAX
System-determined
System-determined

Appendix D. Supporting ANSI/ISO Standards

407

Implementation-Defined Behavior
Table 16. Translation Limits (continued)
Note:
1

LONG_MAX is the limit for automatic variables only. For all other variables,
the limit is 16 Megabytes.

Streams, Records, and Files

Does the last line of a text stream require a terminating new-line character?
v No, the last new-line character is defaulted.
Do space characters, that are written out to a text stream immediately before a
new-line character, appear when read?
v White space characters written to fixed record format text streams before a
new-line do not appear when read. However, white space characters written to
variable record format text streams before a new-line character appear when
read.
The number of null characters that can be appended to the end of the binary
stream:
v No limit
Where is the file position indicator of an append-mode stream initially positioned?
v The file position indicator is positioned at the end of the file.
Does a write on a text stream cause the associated file to be truncated?
v Yes
Does a file of zero length exist?
v Yes
The rules for composing a valid file name:
v See the OS/390 C/C++ Programming Guide.
Can the same file be simultaneously opened multiple times?
v For reading, the file can be opened multiple times; for writing/appending, the file
can be opened once. Once a file is opened for reading, it cannot be opened for
writing.
The effect of the remove() function on an open file:
v remove() fails.
The effect of the rename() function on file to a name that exists prior to the function
call:
v The rename() fails.
Are temporary files removed if the program terminates abnormally?
v Yes
The effect of calling the tmpnam() function more than TMP_MAX times:
v tmpnam() fails and returns NULL.
The output of %p conversion in the fprintf() function:
v It is equivalent to %X.

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Implementation-Defined Behavior
The input of %p conversion in the fscanf() function:
v The value is treated as an integer.
The interpretation of a - character that is neither the first nor the last in the scanlist
for %[ conversion in the fscanf() function:
v The sequence of characters on either side of the - are used as delimiters. For
example, %[a-f] will read in characters between 'a' and 'f'.
The value of errno on failure of fgetpos() and ftell() functions:
v This depends on the failure. For a list of the messages associated with errno,
see the OS/390 Language Environment Debugging Guide and Run-Time
Messages.

Memory Management
The behavior of calloc(), malloc() and realloc() functions if the size requested
is zero:
v Nothing is performed for calloc() and malloc(); realloc() frees the storage.

Environment
The arguments of main function:
v You can pass arguments to main through argv and argc.
What happens with open files when the abort() function is called?
v The files are closed.
What is returned to the host environment when the abort() function is called?
v The return code of 2000 is returned.
The form of successful termination when the exit function is called with argument
zero or EXIT_SUCCESS:
v All files are closed, all storage is released and the return code of 0 is returned.
The form of unsuccessful termination when the exit function is called with argument
EXIT_FAILURE:
v All files are closed, all storage is released and the return code of EXIT_FAILURE is
returned.
What status is returned by the exit function if the argument is other than zero,
EXIT_FAILURE and EXIT_SUCCESS?
v The return code 4096 is returned.
The set of environmental names:
v There are no environmental names.
The method of altering the environment list obtained by a call to the getenv()
function:
v See how to execute a command in the OS/390 C/C++ Run-Time Library
Reference.
The format and a mode of execution of a string on a call to the system() function:
v See the OS/390 C/C++ Run-Time Library Reference.

Appendix D. Supporting ANSI/ISO Standards

409

Implementation-Defined Behavior

Localization
The environment specified by the "" locale on a setlocale() call:
v EDC$SAAC
The supported locales:
v See the OS/390 C/C++ Programming Guide.

Time
The local time zone and Daylight Saving Time:
v This is specified in the locale.
The era for the clock() function:
v The era starts when the program is started by either a call from the operating
system, or a call to system(). Under TSO, the era starts when you log on to the
system. To measure the time spent in a program, call the clock() function at the
start of the program, and subtract its return value from the value returned by
subsequent calls to clock().

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Notices
This information was developed for products and services offered in the U.S.A.
IBM may not offer the products, services, or features discussed in this document in
other countries. Consult your local IBM representative for information on the
products and services currently available in your area. Any reference to an IBM
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used instead. However, it is the users responsibility to evaluate and verify the
operation of any non-IBM product, program, or service.
IBM may have patents or pending patent applications covering subject matter
described in this document. The furnishing of this document does not give you any
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IBM Director of Licensing
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Licensing
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The following paragraph does not apply to the United Kingdom or any other
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changes in the product(s) and/or the program(s) described in this publication at any
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Any references in this information to non-IBM Web sites are provided for
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IBM may use or distribute any of the information you supply in any way it believes
appropriate without incurring any obligation to you.

411

Licensees of this program who wish to have information about it for the purpose of
enabling: (i) the exchange of information between independently created programs
and other programs (including this one) and (ii) the mutual use of the information
which has been exchanged, should contact:
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Such information may be available, subject to appropriate terms and conditions,
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The licensed program described in this information and all licensed material
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This information contains examples of data and reports used in daily business
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COPYRIGHT LICENSE:
This information contains sample application programs in source language, which
illustrates programming techniques on the OS/390 operating platforms. You may
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This publication documents intended Programming Interfaces that allow the
customer to write OS/390 C/C++ programs.

Trademarks
The following terms are trademarks of International Business Machines Corporation
in the United States or other countries or both:
AD/Cycle
BookManager
C/370
DB2
DRDA

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OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

AIX
C Set ++
CICS
DB2 Universal Database
GDDM

AIX/6000
C++/MVS
CICS/ESA
DFSMS/MVS
Hiperspace

IBM
Language Environment
MVS/DFP
OpenEdition
OS/400
S/390
System/370
VisualAge
400

IMS
Library Reader
MVS/ESA
OS/2
QMF
SOM
System/390
VM/ESA

IMS/ESA
MVS
Open Class
OS/390
RACF
SP
System Object Model
VSE/ESA

Microsoft, Windows, and Windows NT are trademarks of Microsoft Corporation in

the U.S. and/or other countries.
UNIX is a registered trademark of The Open Group in the U.S. and/or other
countries.
Java and all Java-based trademarks are trademarks of Sun Microsystems, Inc. in
the U.S. and/or other countries.
Other company, product, and service names may be trademarks or service marks
of others.

Standards
Extracts are reprinted from IEEE Std 1003.11990, IEEE Standard Information
TechnologyPortable Operating System Interface (POSIX)Part 1: System
Application Program Interface (API) [C language], copyright 1990 by the Institute of
Electrical and Electronic Engineers, Inc.
Extracts are reprinted from IEEE P1003.1a Draft 6 July 1991, Draft Revision to
Information TechnologyPortable Operating System Interface (POSIX), Part 1:
System Application Program Interface (API) [C Language], copyright 1992 by the
Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers, Inc.
Extracts are reprinted from IEEE Std 1003.21992, IEEE Standard Information
TechnologyPortable Operating System Interface (POSIX)Part 2: Shells and
Utilities, copyright 1990 by the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers, Inc.
Extracts are reprinted from IEEE Std P1003.4a/D61992, IEEE Draft Standard
Information TechnologyPortable Operating System Interface (POSIX)Part 1:
System Application Program Interface (API)Amendment 2: Threads Extension [C
language], copyright 1990 by the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers,
Inc.
For more information on IEEE, visit their web site at http://www.ieee.org/.
Extracts from ISO/IEC 9899:1990 have been reproduced with the permission of the
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and the International
Electrotechnical Commission (IEC). The complete standard can be obtained from
any ISO or IEC member or from the ISO or IEC Central Offices, Case postale 56,
CH - 1211 Geneva 20, Switzerland. Copyright remains ISO and IEC. For more
information on ISO, visit their web site at http://www.iso.ch/.
Extracts from X/Open Specification, Programming Languages, Issue 4 Release 2,
copyright 1988, 1989, February 1992, by the X/Open Company Limited, have been
Notices

413

reproduced with the permission of X/Open Company Limited. No further

reproduction of this material is permitted without the written notice from the X/Open
Company Ltd, UK. For more information, visit http://www.opengroup.org/.

414

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

Glossary
This glossary defines technical terms and
abbreviations that are used in OS/390 C/C++
documentation. If you do not find the term you are
looking for, refer to the index of the appropriate
OS/390 C/C++ manual or view IBM Dictionary of
Computing, located at:
http://www.ibm.com/networking/nsg/nsgmain.htm

This glossary includes terms and definitions from:

v American National Standard Dictionary for
Information Systems, ANSI/ISO X3.172-1990,
copyright 1990 by the American National
Standards Institute (ANSI/ISO). Copies may be
purchased from the American National
Standards Institute, 11 West 42nd Street, New
York, New York 10036. Definitions are indicated
by the symbol ANSI/ISO after the definition.
v IBM Dictionary of Computing, SC20-1699.
These definitions are indicated by the registered
trademark IBM after the definition.
v X/Open CAE Specification, Commands and
Utilities, Issue 4. July, 1992. These definitions
are indicated by the symbol X/Open after the
definition.
v ISO/IEC 9945-1:1990/IEEE POSIX
1003.1-1990. These definitions are indicated by
the symbol ISO.1 after the definition.
v The Information Technology Vocabulary,
developed by Subcommittee 1, Joint Technical
Committee 1, of the International Organization
for Standardization and the International
Electrotechnical Commission (ISO/IEC
JTC1/SC1). Definitions of published parts of this
vocabulary are identified by the symbol
ISO-JTC1 after the definition; definitions taken
from draft international standards, committee
drafts, and working papers being developed by
ISO/IEC JTC1/SC1 are identified by the symbol
ISO Draft after the definition, indicating that final
agreement has not yet been reached among
the participating National Bodies of SC1.

A
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|

abstract class. (1) A class with at least one pure

virtual function that is used as a base class for other
classes. The abstract class represents a concept;
classes derived from it represent implementations of the
concept. You cannot create a direct object of an
abstract class, but you can create references and
pointers to an abstract class and set them to refer to
objects of classes derived from the abstract class. See
Copyright IBM Corp. 1996, 2000

| also base class. (2) A class that allows polymorphism.

There can be no objects of an abstract class; they are
only used to derive new classes.
abstract code unit. See ACU.
abstract data type. A mathematical model that
includes a structure for storing data and operations that
can be performed on that data. Common abstract data
types include sets, trees, and heaps.
abstraction (data). A data type with a private
representation and a public set of operations (functions
or operators) which restrict access to that data type to
that set of operations. The C++ language uses the
concept of classes to implement data abstraction.
access. An attribute that determines whether or not a
class member is accessible in an expression or
declaration.
access declaration. A declaration used to restore
access to members of a base class.
access mode. (1) A technique that is used to obtain a
particular logical record from, or to place a particular
logical record into, a file assigned to a mass storage
device. ANSI/ISO. (2) The manner in which files are
referred to by a computer. Access can be sequential
(records are referred to one after another in the order in
which they appear on the file), access can be random
(the individual records can be referred to in a
nonsequential manner), or access can be dynamic
(records can be accessed sequentially or randomly,
depending on the form of the input/output request). IBM.
(3) A particular form of access permitted to a file.
X/Open.
access resolution. The process by which the
accessibility of a particular class member is determined.
access specifier. One of the C++ keywords: public,
private, and protected, used to define the access to a
member.
ACU (abstract code unit). A measurement used by
the OS/390 C/C++ compiler for judging the size of a
function. The number of ACUs that comprise a function
is proportional to its size and complexity.
addressing mode. See AMODE.
address space. (1) The range of addresses available
to a computer program. ANSI/ISO. (2) The complete
range of addresses that are available to a programmer.
See also virtual address space. (3) The area of virtual
storage available for a particular job. (4) The memory
locations that can be referenced by a process. X/Open.
ISO.1.

415

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|

aggregate. (1) An array or a structure. (2) A

compile-time option to show the layout of a structure or
union in the listing. (3) In programming languages, a
structured collection of data items that form a data type.
ISO-JTC1. (4) In C++, an array or a class with no
user-declared constructors, no private or protected
non-static data members, no base classes, and no
virtual functions.
alert. (1) A message sent to a management services
focal point in a network to identify a problem or an
impending problem. IBM. (2) To cause the user's
terminal to give some audible or visual indication that an
error or some other event has occurred. When the
standard output is directed to a terminal device, the
method for alerting the terminal user is unspecified.
When the standard output is not directed to a terminal
device, the alert is accomplished by writing the alert
character to standard output (unless the utility
description indicates that the use of standard output
produces undefined results in this case). X/Open.
alert character. A character that in the output stream
should cause a terminal to alert its user via a visual or
audible notification. The alert character is the character
designated by a '\a' in the C and C++ languages. It is
unspecified whether this character is the exact
sequence transmitted to an output device by the system
to accomplish the alert function. X/Open.
This character is named <alert> in the portable
character set.
alias. (1) An alternate label; for example, a label and
one or more aliases may be used to refer to the same
data element or point in a computer program. ANSI/ISO.
(2) An alternate name for a member of a partitioned
data set. IBM. (3) An alternate name used for a
network. Synonymous with nickname. IBM.
alias name. (1) A word consisting solely of
underscores, digits, and alphabetics from the portable
file name character set, and any of the following
characters: ! % , @. Implementations may allow other
characters within alias names as an extension. X/Open.
(2) An alternate name. IBM. (3) A name that is defined
in one network to represent a logical unit name in
another interconnected network. The alias name does
not have to be the same as the real name; if these
names are not the same; translation is required. IBM.
alignment. The storing of data in relation to certain
machine-dependent boundaries. IBM.
alternate code point. A syntactic code point that
permits a substitute code point to be used. For
example, the left brace ({) can be represented by X'B0'
and also by X'C0'.
American National Standard Code for Information
Interchange (ASCII). The standard code, using a
coded character set consisting of 7-bit coded characters
(8 bits including parity check), that is used for

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OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

information interchange among data processing

systems, data communication systems, and associated
equipment. The ASCII set consists of control characters
and graphic characters. IBM.
Note: IBM has defined an extension to ASCII code
(characters 128255).
American National Standards Institute (ANSI/ISO).
An organization consisting of producers, consumers,
and general interest groups, that establishes the
procedures by which accredited organizations create
and maintain voluntary industry standards in the United
States. ANSI/ISO.
AMODE (addressing mode). In OS/390, a program
attribute that refers to the address length that a program
is prepared to handle upon entry. In OS/390, addresses
may be 24 or 31 bits in length. IBM.
angle brackets. The characters < (left angle bracket)
and > (right angle bracket). When used in the phrase
enclosed in angle brackets, the symbol < immediately
precedes the object to be enclosed, and > immediately
follows it. When describing these characters in the
portable character set, the names <less-than-sign> and
<greater-than-sign> are used. X/Open.
anonymous union. A union that is declared within a
structure or class and does not have a name. It must
not be followed by a declarator.
ANSI/ISO. See American National Standards Institute.
API (application program interface). A functional
interface supplied by the operating system or by a
separately orderable licensed program that allows an
application program written in a high-level language to
use specific data or functions of the operating system or
the licensed program. IBM.
application. (1) The use to which an information
processing system is put; for example, a payroll
application, an airline reservation application, a network
application. IBM. (2) A collection of software
components used to perform specific types of
user-oriented work on a computer. IBM.
application generator. An application development
tool that creates applications, application components
(panels, data, databases, logic, interfaces to system
services), or complete application systems from design
specifications.
application program. A program written for or by a
user that applies to the user's work, such as a program
that does inventory control or payroll. IBM.
archive libraries. The archive library file, when
created for application program object files, has a
special symbol table for members that are object files.

|
|
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|

argument. (1) A parameter passed between a calling

program and a called program. IBM. (2) In a function
call, an expression that represents a value that the
calling function passes to the function specified in the
call. (3) In the shell, a parameter passed to a utility as
the equivalent of a single string in the argv array
created by one of the exec functions. An argument is
one of the options, option-arguments, or operands
following the command name. X/Open.

automatic library call. The process in which control

sections are processed by the binder or loader to
resolve references to members of partitioned data sets.
IBM.

argument declaration. See parameter declaration.

arithmetic object. (1) A bit field, or an integral,

floating-point, or packed decimal (IBM extension) object.
(2) A real object or objects having the type float, double,
or long double.
array. In programming languages, an aggregate that
consists of data objects with identical attributes, each of
which may be uniquely referenced by subscripting.
ISO-JTC1.
array element. A data item in an array. IBM.
ASCII. See American National Standard Code for
Information Interchange.
Assembler H. An IBM licensed program. Translates
symbolic assembler language into binary machine
language.
assembler language. A source language that includes
symbolic language statements in which there is a
one-to-one correspondence with the instruction formats
and data formats of the computer. IBM.
assembler user exit. In the OS/390 Language
Environment a routine to tailor the characteristics of an
enclave prior to its establishment.
assignment expression. An expression that assigns
the value of the right operand expression to the left
operand variable and has as its value the value of the
right operand. IBM.
atexit list. A list of actions specified in the OS/390
C/C++ atexit() function that occur at normal program
termination.
auto storage class specifier. A specifier that enables
the programmer to define a variable with automatic
storage; its scope restricted to the current block.
automatic call library. Contains modules that are
used as secondary input to the binder to resolve
external symbols left undefined after all the primary
input has been processed.
The automatic call library can contain:
v Object modules, with or without binder control
statements
v Load modules

automatic storage. Storage that is allocated on entry

to a routine or block and is freed on the subsequent
return. Sometimes referred to as stack storage or
dynamic storage.

background process. (1) A process that does not

require operator intervention but can be run by the
computer while the workstation is used to do other
work. IBM. (2) A mode of program execution in which
the shell does not wait for program completion before
prompting the user for another command. IBM. (3) A
process that is a member of a background process
group. X/Open. ISO.1.
background process group. Any process group,
other than a foreground process group, that is a
member of a session that has established a connection
with a controlling terminal. X/Open. ISO.1.
backslash. The character \. This character is named
<backslash> in the portable character set.
base class. A class from which other classes are
derived. A base class may itself be derived from another
base class. See also abstract class.
based on. The use of existing classes for
implementing new classes.
binary expression. An expression containing two
operands and one operator.
binary stream. (1) An ordered sequence of
untranslated characters. (2) A sequence of characters
that corresponds on a one-to-one basis with the
characters in the file. No character translation is
performed on binary streams. IBM.
bind. (1) To combine one or more control sections or
program modules into a single program module,
resolving references between them. (2) To assign virtual
storage addresses to external symbols.
binder. The DFSMS/MVS program that processes the
output of language translators and compilers into an
executable program (load module or program object). It
replaces the linkage editor and batch loader in the
MVS/ESA or OS/390 operating system.
bit field. A member of a structure or union that
contains a specified number of bits. IBM.
bitwise operator. An operator that manipulates the
value of an object at the bit level.

v OS/390 C/C++ run-time routines (SCEELKED)

Glossary

417

SIN in PL/I, the predefined data type INTEGER in

FORTRAN. ISO-JTC1. Synonymous with predefined.
IBM.

blank character. (1) A graphic representation of the

space character. ANSI/ISO. (2) A character that
represents an empty position in a graphic character
string. ISO Draft. (3) One of the characters that belong
to the blank character class as defined via the
LC_CTYPE category in the current locale. In the POSIX
locale, a blank character is either a tab or a space
character. X/Open.

byte-oriented stream. See orientation of a stream.

C
C library. A system library that contains common C
language subroutines for file access, string operators,
character operations, memory allocation, and other
functions. IBM.

block. (1) In programming languages, a compound

statement that coincides with the scope of at least one
of the declarations contained within it. A block may also
specify storage allocation or segment programs for
other purposes. ISO-JTC1. (2) A string of data elements
recorded or transmitted as a unit. The elements may be
characters, words or physical records. ISO Draft. (3)
The unit of data transmitted to and from a device. Each
block contains one record, part of a record, or several
records.

C or C++ language statement. A C or C++ language

statement contains zero or more expressions. A block
statement begins with a { (left brace) symbol, ends with
a } (right brace) symbol, and contains any number of
statements.
All C or C++ language statements, except block
statements, end with a ; (semicolon) symbol.

block statement. In the C or C++ languages, a group

of data definitions, declarations, and statements
appearing between a left brace and a right brace that
are processed as a unit. The block statement is
considered to be a single C or C++ statement. IBM.

c89 utility. A utility used to compile and bind an

OS/390 UNIX application program from the OS/390
shell.
C++ class library. A collection of C++ classes.

boundary alignment. The position in main storage of

a fixed-length field, such as a halfword or doubleword,
on a byte-level boundary for that unit of information.
IBM.

C++ library. A system library that contains common

C++ language subroutines for file access, memory
allocation, and other functions.

braces. The characters { (left brace) and } (right

brace), also known as curly braces. When used in the
phrase enclosed in (curly) braces the symbol {
immediately precedes the object to be enclosed, and }
immediately follows it. When describing these
characters in the portable character set, the names
<left-brace> and <right-brace> are used. X/Open.
brackets. The characters [ (left bracket) and ] (right
bracket), also known as square brackets. When used in
the phrase enclosed in (square) brackets the symbol [
immediately precedes the object to be enclosed, and ]
immediately follows it. When describing these
characters in the portable character set, the names
<left-bracket> and <right-bracket> are used. X/Open.
break statement. A C or C++ control statement that
contains the keyword break and a semicolon. IBM. It is
used to end an iterative or a switch statement by exiting
from it at any point other than the logical end. Control is
passed to the first statement after the iteration or switch
statement.
built-in. (1) A function that the compiler will
automatically inline instead of making the function call,
unless the programmer specifies not to inline. (2) In
programming languages, pertaining to a language
object that is declared by the definition of the
programming language; for example, the built-in function

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callable services. A set of services that can be

invoked by a OS/390 Language Environmentconforming high level language using the conventional
OS/390 Language Environment-defined call interface,
and usable by all programs sharing the OS/390
Language Environment conventions.
Use of these services helps to decrease an application's
dependence on the specific form and content of the
services delivered by any single operating system.

call chain. A trace of all active functions.

caller. A function that calls another function.
cancelability point. A specific point within the current
thread that is enabled to solicit cancel requests. This is
accomplished using the pthread_testintr() function.
carriage-return character. A character that in the
output stream indicates that printing should start at the
beginning of the same physical line in which the
carriage-return character occurred. The carriage-return
is the character designated by '\r' in the C and C++
languages. It is unspecified whether this character is the
exact sequence transmitted to an output device by the
system to accomplish the movement to the beginning of
the line. X/Open.
case clause. In a C or C++ switch statement, a CASE
label followed by any number of statements.

case label. The word case followed by a constant

integral expression and a colon. When the selector
evaluates the value of the constant expression, the
statements following the case label are processed.

character string. A contiguous sequence of

characters terminated by and including the first null
byte. X/Open.
child. A node that is subordinate to another node in a
tree structure. Only the root node is not a child.

| cast expression. An expression that converts or

| reinterprets its operand.

child enclave. The nested enclave created as a result

of certain commands being issued from a parent
enclave.

cast operator. The cast operator is used for explicit

type conversions.

CICS (Customer Information Control System).

Pertaining to an IBM licensed program that enables
transactions entered at remote terminals to be
processed concurrently by user-written application
programs. It includes facilities for building, using, and
maintaining databases. IBM.

cataloged procedures. A set of control statements

placed in a library and retrievable by name. IBM.
catch block. A block associated with a try block that
receives control when an exception matching its
argument is thrown.
char specifier. A char is a built-in data type. In the
C++ language, char, signed char, and unsigned char
are all distinct data types.
character. (1) A letter, digit, or other symbol that is
used as part of the organization, control, or
representation of data. A character is often in the form
of a spatial arrangement of adjacent or connected
strokes. ANSI/ISO. (2) A sequence of one or more bytes
representing a single graphic symbol or control code.
This term corresponds to the ISO C standard term
multibyte character (multibyte character), where a
single-byte character is a special case of the multibyte
character. Unlike the usage in the ISO C standard,
character here has no necessary relationship with
storage space, and byte is used when storage space is
discussed. X/Open. ISO.1.

CICS destination control table. See DCT.

CICS translator. A routine that accepts as input an
application containing EXEC CICS commands and
produces as output an equivalent application in which
each CICS command has been translated into the
language of the source.

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class. (1) A C++ aggregate that may contain functions,

types, and user-defined operators in addition to data. A
class may be derived from another class, inheriting the
properties of its parent class. A class may restrict
access to its members. (2) A user-defined data type. A
class data type can contain both data representations
(data members) and functions (member functions).
class key. One of the C++ keywords: class, struct and
union.

character array. An array of type char. X/Open.

class library. A collection of classes.
character class. A named set of characters sharing
an attribute associated with the name of the class. The
classes and the characters that they contain are
dependent on the value of the LC_CTYPE category in
the current locale. X/Open.

class member operator. An operator used to access

class members through class objects or pointers to
class objects. The class member operators are:

character constant. A string of any of the characters

that can be represented, usually enclosed in quotes.

class name. A unique identifier that names a class

type.

character set. (1) A finite set of different characters

that is complete for a given purpose; for example, the
character set in ISO Standard 646, 7-bit Coded
Character Set for Information Processing Interchange.
ISO Draft. (2) All the valid characters for a programming
language or for a computer system. IBM. (3) A group of
characters used for a specific reason; for example, the
set of characters a printer can print. IBM. (4) See also
portable character set.

class scope. An indication that a name of a class can

be used only in a member function of that class.

character special file. (1) A special file that provides

access to an input or output device. The character
interface is used for devices that do not use block I/O.
IBM. (2) A file that refers to a device. One specific type
of character special file is a terminal device file. X/Open.
ISO.1.

->*

class tag. Synonym for class name.

class template. A blueprint describing how a set of
related classes can be constructed.
client program. A program that uses a class. The
program is said to be a client of the class.
CLIST. A programming language that typically
executes a list of TSO commands.
CLLE (COBOL Load List Entry). Entry in the load list
containing the name of the program and the load
address.
Glossary

419

assigned to a set of items, such that any two sets in

that assigned order can be collated. ANSI/ISO. (3) The
relative ordering of collating elements as determined by
the setting of the LC_COLLATE category in the current
locale. The character order, as defined for the
LC_COLLATE category in the current locale, defines the
relative order of all collating elements, such that each
element occupies a unique position in the order. This is
the order used in ranges of characters and collating
elements in regular expressions and pattern matching.
In addition, the definition of the collating weights of
characters and collating elements uses collating
elements to represent their respective positions within
the collation sequence.

COBCOM. Control block containing information about

a COBOL partition.
COBOL (common business-oriented language). A
high-level language, based on English, that is primarily
used for business applications.
COBOL Load List Entry. See CLLE.
COBVEC. COBOL vector table containing the address
of the library routines.
coded character set. (1) A set of graphic characters
and their code point assignments. The set may contain
fewer characters than the total number of possible
characters: some code points may be unassigned. IBM.
(2) A coded set whose elements are single characters;
for example, all characters of an alphabet. ISO Draft. (3)
Loosely, a code. ANSI/ISO.

collation. The logical ordering of character or

wide-character strings according to defined precedence
rules. These rules identify a collation sequence between
the collating elements, and such additional rules that
can be used to order strings consisting or multiple
collating elements. X/Open.

code element set. (1) The result of applying a code to

all elements of a coded set, for example, all the
three-letter international representations of airport
names. ISO Draft. (2) The result of applying rules that
map a numeric code value to each element of a
character set. An element of a character set may be
related to more than one numeric code value but the
reverse is not true. However, for state-dependent
encodings the relationship between numeric code
values to elements of a character set may be further
controlled by state information. The character set may
contain fewer elements than the total number of
possible numeric code values; that is, some code
values may be unassigned. X/Open. (3) Synonym for
codeset.

collection. (1) An abstract class without any ordering,

element properties, or key properties. (2) In a general
sense, an implementation of an abstract data type for
storing elements.
Collection Class Library. A set of classes that
provide basic functions for collections, and can be used
as base classes.
column position. A unit of horizontal measure related
to characters in a line.
It is assumed that each character in a character set has
an intrinsic column width independent of any output
device. Each printable character in the portable
character set has a column width of one. The standard
utilities, when used as described in this document set,
assume that all characters have integral column widths.
The column width of a character is not necessarily
related to the internal representation of the character
(numbers of bits or bytes).

code page. (1) An assignment of graphic characters

and control function meanings to all code points; for
example, assignment of characters and meanings to
256 code points for an 8-bit code, assignment of
characters and meanings to 128 code points for a 7-bit
code. (2) A particular assignment of hexadecimal
identifiers to graphic characters.

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code point. (1) A representation of a unique character.

For example, in a single-byte character set each of 256
possible characters is represented by a one-byte code
point. (2) An identifier in an alert description that
represents a short unit of text. The code point is
replaced with the text by an alert display program.
codeset. Synonym for code element set. IBM.
collating element. The smallest entity used to
determine the logical ordering of character or
wide-character strings. A collating element consists of
either a single character, or two or more characters
collating as a single entity. The value of the
LC_COLLATE category in the current locale determines
the current set of collating elements. X/Open.
collating sequence. (1) A specified arrangement used
in sequencing. ISO-JTC1. ANSI/ISO. (2) An ordering

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OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

The column position of a character in a line is defined

as one plus the sum of the column widths of the
preceding characters in the line. Column positions are
numbered starting from 1. X/Open.

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comma expression. An expression (not a function

argument list) that contains two or more operands
separated by commas. The compiler evaluates all
operands in the order specified, discarding all but the
last (rightmost). The value of the expression is the value
of the rightmost operand. Typically this is done to
produce side effects.
command. A request to perform an operation or run a
program. When parameters, arguments, flags, or other
operands are associated with a command, the resulting
character string is a single command.
command processor parameter list (CPPL). The
format of a TSO parameter list. When a TSO terminal

monitor application attaches a command processor,

condition manager. Manages conditions in the

common execution environment by invoking various
user-written and language-specific condition handlers.

COMMAREA. A communication area made available

to applications running under CICS.

condition token. In the OS/390 Language

Environment, a data type consisting of 12 bytes (96
bits). The condition token contains structured fields that
indicate various aspects of a condition including the
severity, the associated message number, and
information that is specific to a given instance of the
condition.

Common Business-Oriented Language. See

COBOL.
common expression elimination. Duplicated
expressions are eliminated by using the result of the
previous expression. This includes intermediate
expressions within expressions.
compilation unit. (1) A portion of a computer program
sufficiently complete to be compiled correctly. IBM. (2) A
single compiled file and all its associated include files.
(3) An independently compilable sequence of high-level
language statements. Each high-level language product
has different rules for what makes up a compilation unit.
complete class name. The complete qualification of a
nested class name including all enclosing class names.
Complex Mathematics library. A C++ class library
that provides the facilities to manipulate complex
numbers and perform standard mathematical operations
on them.
computational independence. No data modified by
either a main task program or a parallel function is
examined or modified by a parallel function that might
be running simultaneously.

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concrete class. (1) A class that is not abstract. (2) A

class defining objects that can be created.
condition. (1) A relational expression that can be
evaluated to a value of either true or false. IBM. (2) An
exception that has been enabled, or recognized, by the
OS/390 Language Environment and thus is eligible to
activate user and language condition handlers. Any
alteration to the normal programmed flow of an
application. Conditions can be detected by the
hardware/operating system and result in an interrupt.
They can also be detected by language-specific
generated code or language library code.
conditional expression. A compound expression that
contains a condition (the first expression), an expression
to be evaluated if the condition has a nonzero value
(the second expression), and an expression to be
evaluated if the condition has the value zero (the third
expression).
condition handler. A user-written condition handler or
language-specific condition handler (such as a PL/I
ON-unit or OS/390 C/C++ signal() function call)
invoked by the OS/390 C/C++ condition manager to
respond to conditions.

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const. (1) An attribute of a data object that declares

the object cannot be changed. (2) A keyword that allows
you to define a variable whose value does not change.
(3) A keyword that allows you to define a parameter that
is not changed by the function. (4) A keyword that
allows you to define a member function that does not
modify the state of the class for which it is defined.
constant. (1) In programming languages, a language
object that takes only one specific value. ISO-JTC1. (2)
A data item with a value that does not change. IBM.
constant expression. An expression having a value
that can be determined during compilation and that
does not change during the running of the program.
IBM.
constant propagation. An optimization technique
where constants used in an expression are combined
and new ones are generated. Mode conversions are
done to allow some intrinsic functions to be evaluated at
compile time.
constructed reentrancy. The attribute of applications
that contain external data and require additional
processing to make them reentrant. Contrast with
natural reentrancy.
constructor. A special C++ class member function
that has the same name as the class and is used to
create an object of that class.
control character. (1) A character whose occurrence
in a particular context specifies a control function. ISO
Draft. (2) Synonymous with nonprinting character. IBM.
(3) A character, other than a graphic character, that
affects the recording, processing, transmission, or
interpretation of text. X/Open.
control statement. (1) A statement that is used to
alter the continuous sequential execution of statements;
a control statement may be a conditional statement,
such as if, or an imperative statement, such as return.
(2) A statement that changes the path of execution.
controlling process. The session leader that
establishes the connection to the controlling terminal. If
the terminal ceases to be a controlling terminal for this
session, the session leader ceases to be the controlling
process. X/Open. ISO.1.

Glossary

421

controlling terminal. A terminal that is associated with

a session. Each session may have at most one
controlling terminal associated with it, and a controlling
terminal is associated with exactly one session. Certain
input sequences from the controlling terminal cause
signals to be sent to all processes in the process group
associated with the controlling terminal. X/Open. ISO.1.
conversion. (1) In programming languages, the
transformation between values that represent the same
data item but belong to different data types. Information
may be lost because of conversion since accuracy of
data representation varies among different data types.
ISO-JTC1. (2) The process of changing from one
method of data processing to another or from one data
processing system to another. IBM. (3) The process of
changing from one form of representation to another; for
example to change from decimal representation to
binary representation. IBM. (4) A change in the type of a
value. For example, when you add values having
different data types, the compiler converts both values
to a common form before adding the values.
conversion descriptor. A per-process unique value
used to identify an open codeset conversion. X/Open.
conversion function. A member function that
specifies a conversion from its class type to another
type.
coordinated universal time (UTC). Synonym for
Greenwich Mean Time (GMT). See GMT.
copy constructor. A constructor that copies a class
object of the same class type.
CSECT (control section). The part of a program
specified by the programmer to be a relocatable unit, all
elements of which are to be loaded into adjoining main
storage locations.
Cross System Product. See CSP.
CSP (Cross System Product). A set of licensed
programs designed to permit the user to develop and
run applications using independently defined maps
(display and printer formats), data items (records,
working storage, files, and single items), and processes
(logic). The Cross System Product set consists of two
parts: Cross System Product/Application Development
(CSP/AD) and Cross System Product/Application
Execution (CSP/AE). IBM.
current working directory. (1) A directory, associated
with a process, that is used in path-name resolution for
path names that do not begin with a slash. X/Open.
ISO.1. (2) In the OS/2 operating system, the first
directory in which the operating system looks for
programs and files and stores temporary files and
output. IBM. (3) In the OS/390 UNIX environment, a
directory that is active and that can be displayed.
Relative path name resolution begins in the current
directory. IBM.

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OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

cursor. A reference to an element at a specific

position in a data structure.
Customer Information Control System. See CICS.

D
data abstraction. A data type with a private
representation and a public set of operations (functions
or operators) which restrict access to that data type to
that set of operations. The C++ language uses the
concept of classes to implement data abstraction.
data definition (DD). (1) In the C and C++ languages,
a definition that describes a data object, reserves
storage for a data object, and can provide an initial
value for a data object. A data definition appears
outside a function or at the beginning of a block
statement. IBM. (2) A program statement that describes
the features of, specifies relationships of, or establishes
context of, data. ANSI/ISO. (3) A statement that is
stored in the environment and that externally identifies a
file and the attributes with which it should be opened.
data definition name. See ddname.
data definition statement. See DD statement.
data member. The smallest possible piece of
complete data. Elements are composed of data
members.
data object. (1) A storage area used to hold a value.
(2) Anything that exists in storage and on which
operations can be performed, such as files, programs,
classes, or arrays. (3) In a program, an element of data
structure, such as a file, array, or operand, that is
needed for the execution of a program and that is
named or otherwise specified by the allowable character
set of the language in which a program is coded. IBM.
data set. Under OS/390, a named collection of related
data records that is stored and retrieved by an assigned
name.
data stream. A continuous stream of data elements
being transmitted, or intended for transmission, in
character or binary-digit form, using a defined format.
IBM.
data structure. The internal data representation of an
implementation.
data type. The properties and internal representation
that characterize data.
Data Window Services (DWS). Services provided as
part of the Callable Services Library that allow
manipulation of data objects such as VSAM linear data
sets and temporary data objects known as
TEMPSPACE.

default argument. An argument that is declared with a

default value in a function prototype or declaration. If a
call to the function omits this argument, the default
value is used. Arguments with default values must be
the trailing arguments in a function prototype argument
list.

DBCS (double-byte character set). A set of

characters in which each character is represented by 2
bytes. Languages such as Japanese, Chinese, and
Korean, which contain more symbols than can be
represented by 256 code points, require double-byte
character sets.
Because each character requires 2 bytes, the typing,
display, and printing of DBCS characters requires
hardware and programs that support DBCS. IBM.

default clause. In the C or C++ languages, within a

switch statement, the keyword default followed by a
colon, and one or more statements. When the
conditions of the specified case labels in the switch
statement do not hold, the default clause is chosen.
IBM.

DCT (destination control table). A table that contains

an entry for each extrapartition, intrapartition, and
indirect destination. Extrapartition entries address data
sets external to the CICS region. Intrapartition
destination entries contain the information required to
locate the queue in the intrapartition data set. Indirect
destination entries contain the information required to
locate the queue in the intrapartition data set.

default constructor. A constructor that takes no

arguments, or, if it takes arguments, all its arguments
have default values.
default initialization. The initial value assigned to a
data object by the compiler if no initial value is specified
by the programmer.

ddname (data definition name). (1) The logical name

of a file within an application. The ddname provides the
means for the logical file to be connected to the
physical file. (2) The part of the data definition before
the equal sign. It is the name used in a call to fopen or
freopen to refer to the data definition stored in the
environment.
DD statement (data definition statement). (1) In
OS/390, serves as the connection between the logical
name of a file and the physical name of the file. (2) A
job control statement that defines a file to the operating
system, and is a request to the operating system for the
allocation of input/output resources.
dead code elimination. A process that eliminates
code that exists for calculations that are not necessary.
Code may be designated as dead by other optimization
techniques.
dead store elimination. A process that eliminates
unnecessary storage use in code. A store is deemed
unnecessary if the value stored is never referenced
again in the code.
decimal constant. (1) A numerical data type used in
standard arithmetic operations. (2) A number containing
any of the digits 0 through 9. IBM.
decimal overflow. A condition that occurs when one
or more nonzero digits are lost because the destination
field in a decimal operation is too short to contain the
results.
declaration. (1) In the C and C++ languages, a
description that makes an external object or function
available to a function or a block statement. IBM. (2)
Establishes the names and characteristics of data
objects and functions used in a program.
declarator. Designates a data object or function
declared. Initializations can be performed in a
declarator.

default locale. (1) The C locale, which is always used

when no selection of locale is performed. (2) A system
default locale, named by locale-related environmental
variables.

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define directive. A preprocessor directive that directs

the preprocessor to replace an identifier or macro
invocation with special code.
definition. (1) A data description that reserves storage
and may provide an initial value. (2) A declaration that
allocates storage, and may initialize a data object or
specify the body of a function.
degree. The number of children of a node.
delete. (1) A C++ keyword that identifies a free storage
deallocation operator. (2) A C++ operator used to
destroy objects created by new.
demangling. The conversion of mangled names back
to their original source code names. During C++
compilation, identifiers such as function and static class
member names are mangled (encoded) with type and
scoping information to ensure type-safe linkage. These
mangled names appear in the object file and the final
executable file. Demangling (decoding) converts these
names back to their original names to make program
debugging easier. See also mangling.
deque. A queue that can have elements added and
removed at both ends. A double-ended queue.
dequeue. An operation that removes the first element
of a queue.
dereference. In the C and C++ languages, the
application of the unary operator * to a pointer to access
the object the pointer points to. Also known as
indirection.

Glossary

423

do statement. In the C and C++ compilers, a looping

statement that contains the keyword do, followed by a
statement (the action), the keyword while, and an
expression in parentheses (the condition). IBM.

derivation. In the C++ language, to derive a class,

called a derived class, from an existing class, called a
base class.
derived class. A class that inherits from a base class.
All members of the base class become members of the
derived class. You can add additional data members
and member functions to the derived class. A derived
class object can be manipulated as if it is a base class
object. The derived class can override virtual functions
of the base class.

dot. The file name consisting of a single dot character

(.). X/Open. ISO.1.
double-byte character set. See DBCS.
double-precision. Pertaining to the use of two
computer words to represent a number in accordance
with the required precision. ISO-JTC1. ANSI/ISO.

descriptor. PL/I control block that holds information

such as string lengths, array subscript bounds, and area
sizes, and is passed from one PL/I routine to another
during run time.

double-quote. The character ", also known as

quotation mark. X/Open.
This character is named <quotation-mark> in the
portable character set.

destination control table. See DCT.

destructor. A special member function that has the
same name as its class, preceded by a tilde (), and
that "cleans up" after an object of that class, for
example, freeing storage that was allocated when the
object was created. A destructor has no arguments and
no return type.

doubleword. A contiguous sequence of bytes or

characters that comprises two computer words and is
capable of being addressed as a unit. IBM.
dynamic. Pertaining to an operation that occurs at the
time it is needed rather than at a predetermined or fixed
time. IBM.

detach state attribute. An attribute associated with a

thread attribute object. This attribute has two possible
values:
0

Undetached. An undetached thread keeps its

resources after termination of the thread.

Detached. A detached thread has its resources

freed by the system after termination.

device. A computer peripheral or an object that

appears to the application as such. X/Open. ISO.1.
difference. For two sets A and B, the difference (A-B)
is the set of all elements in A but not in B. For bags,
there is an additional rule for duplicates: If bag P
contains an element m times and bag Q contains the
same element n times, then, if m>n, the difference
contains that element m-n times. If mn, the difference
contains that element zero times.
digraph. A combination of two keystrokes used to
represent unavailable characters in a C or C++ source
program. Digraphs are read as tokens during the
preprocessor phase.

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directory. (1) In a hierarchical file system, a container

for files or other directories. IBM. (2) The part of a
partitioned data set that describes the members in the
data set.

dynamic allocation. Assignment of system resources

to a program when the program is executed rather than
when it is loaded into main storage. IBM.

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dynamic binding. The act of resolving references to

external variables and functions at run time. In C++,
dynamic binding is supported by using virtual functions.
dynamic link library (DLL). A file containing
executable code and data bound to a program at run
time. The code and data in a dynamic link library can be
shared by several applications simultaneously.
Compiling code with the DLL option does not mean that
the produced executable will be a DLL. To create a
DLL, use #pragma export or the EXPORTALL compiler
option.
DSA (dynamic storage area). An area of storage
obtained during the running of an application that
consists of a register save area and an area for
automatic data, such as program variables. DSAs are
generally allocated within Language
Environment-managed stack segments. DSAs are
added to the stack when a routine is entered and
removed upon exit in a last in, first out (LIFO) manner.
In Language Environment, a DSA is known as a stack
frame.
dynamic storage. Synonym for automatic storage.

disabled signal. Synonym for enabled signal.

dynamic storage area. See DSA
display. To direct the output to the user's terminal. If
the output is not directed to the terminal, the results are
undefined. X/Open.
DLL. See dynamic link library.

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OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

encapsulation. Hiding the internal representation of

data objects and implementation details of functions
from the client program. This enables the end user to
focus on the use of data objects and functions without
having to know about their representation or
implementation.

EBCDIC. See extended binary-coded decimal

interchange code.
effective group ID. An attribute of a process that is
used in determining various permissions, including file
access permissions. This value is subject to change
during the process lifetime, as described in the exec
family of functions and setgid(). X/Open. ISO.1.
effective user ID. (1) The user ID associated with the
last authenticated user or the last setuid() program. It
is equal to either the real or the saved user ID. (2) The
current user ID, but not necessarily the user's login ID;
for example, a user logged in under a login ID may
change to another user's ID. The ID to which the user
changes becomes the effective user ID until the user
switches back to the original login ID. All discretionary
access decisions are based on the effective user ID.
IBM. (3) An attribute of a process that is used in
determining various permissions, including file access
permissions. This value is subject to change during the
process lifetime, as described in exec and setuid().
X/Open. ISO.1.
elaborated type specifier. A specifier typically used in
an incomplete class declaration to qualify types that are
otherwise hidden.
element. The component of an array, subrange,
enumeration, or set.
element equality. A relation that determines if two
elements are equal.
element occurrence. A single instance of an element
in a collection. In a unique collection, element
occurrence is synonymous with element value.
element value. All the instances of an element with a
particular value in a collection. In a nonunique
collection, an element value may have more than one
occurrence. In a unique collection, element value is
synonymous with element occurrence.
else clause. The part of an if statement that contains
the word else, followed by a statement. The else clause
provides an action that is started when the if condition
evaluates to a value of zero (false). IBM.

enclave. In OS/390 Language Environment, an

independent collection of routines, one of which is
designated as the main routine. An enclave is roughly
analogous to a program or run unit.

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enqueue. (1) An operation that adds an element as

the last element to a queue. (2) Request control of a
serially reusable resource.

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entry point. The address or label of the first

instruction that is executed when a routine is entered for
execution.
enumeration constant. In the C or C++ language, an
identifier, with an associated integer value, defined in an
enumerator. An enumeration constant may be used
anywhere an integer constant is allowed. IBM.
enumeration data type. (1) In the Fortran, C, and
C++ language, a data type that represents a set of
values that a user defines. IBM. (2) A type that
represents integers and a set of enumeration constants.
Each enumeration constant has an associated integer
value.
enumeration tag. In the C and C++ language, the
identifier that names an enumeration data type. IBM.
enumeration type. An enumeration type defines a set
of enumeration constants. In the C++ language, an
enumeration type is a distinct data type that is not an
integral type.
enumerator. In the C and C++ language, an
enumeration constant and its associated value. IBM.
equivalence class. (1) A grouping of characters that
are considered equal for the purpose of collation; for
example, many languages place an uppercase
character in the same equivalence class as its
lowercase form, but some languages distinguish
between accented and unaccented character forms for
the purpose of collation. IBM. (2) A set of collating
elements with the same primary collation weight.

empty line. A line consisting of only a new-line

character. X/Open.

Elements in an equivalence class are typically elements

that naturally group together, such as all accented
letters based on the same base letter.

empty string. (1) A string whose first byte is a null

byte. Synonymous with null string. X/Open. (2) A
character array whose first element is a null character.
ISO.1.

The collation order of elements within an equivalence

class is determined by the weights assigned on any
subsequent levels after the primary weight. X/Open.

enabled signal. The occurrence of an enabled signal

results in the default system response or the execution
of an established signal handler. If disabled, the
occurrence of the signal is ignored.

escape sequence. (1) A representation of a character.

An escape sequence contains the \ symbol followed by
one of the characters: a, b, f, n, r, t, v, ', ", x, \, or
followed by one or more octal or hexadecimal digits. (2)
Glossary

425

A sequence of characters that represent, for example,

nonprinting characters, or the exact code point value to
be used to represent variant and nonvariant characters
regardless of code page. (3) In the C and C++
language, an escape character followed by one or more
characters. The escape character indicates that a
different code, or a different coded character set, is
used to interpret the characters that follow. Any member
of the character set used at runtime can be represented
using an escape sequence. (4) A character that is
preceded by a backslash character and is interpreted to
have a special meaning to the operating system. (5) A
sequence sent to a terminal to perform actions such as
moving the cursor, changing from normal to reverse
video, and clearing the screen. Synonymous with
multibyte control. IBM.
exception. (1) Any user, logic, or system error
detected by a function that does not itself deal with the
error but passes the error on to a handling routine (also
called throwing the exception). (2) In programming
languages, an abnormal situation that may arise during
execution, that may cause a deviation from the normal
execution sequence, and for which facilities exist in a
programming language to define, raise, recognize,
ignore, and handle it; for example, (ON-) condition in
PL/I, exception in ADA. ISO-JTC1.
executable. A load module or program object which
has yet to be loaded into memory for execution.
executable file. A regular file acceptable as a new
process image file by the equivalent of the exec family
of functions, and thus usable as one form of a utility.
The standard utilities described as compilers can
produce executable files, but other unspecified methods
of producing executable files may also be provided. The
internal format of an executable file is unspecified, but a
conforming application cannot assume an executable
file is a text file. X/Open.
exception handler. (1) Exception handlers are catch
blocks in C++ applications. Catch blocks catch
exceptions when they are thrown from a function
enclosed in a try block. Try blocks, catch blocks, and
throw expressions are the constructs used to implement
formal exception handling in C++ applications. (2) A set
of routines used to detect deadlock conditions or to
process abnormal condition processing. An exception
handler allows the normal running of processes to be
interrupted and resumed. IBM.
executable file. A regular file acceptable as a new
process image file by the equivalent of the exec family
of functions, and thus usable as one form of a utility.
The standard utilities described as compilers can
produce executable files, but other unspecified methods
of producing executable files may also be provided. The
internal format of an executable file is unspecified, but a
conforming application cannot assume an executable
file is a text file. X/Open.

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OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

executable program. A program that has been

link-edited and therefore can be run in a processor.
IBM.
extended binary-coded data interchange code
(EBCDIC). A coded character set of 256 8-bit
characters. IBM.

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extended-precision. Pertaining to the use of more

than two computer words to represent a floating point
number in accordance with the required precision. In
OS/390 four computer words are used for an
extended-precision number.
extension. (1) An element or function not included in
the standard language. (2) File name extension.
external data definition. A description of a variable
appearing outside a function. It causes the system to
allocate storage for that variable and makes that
variable accessible to all functions that follow the
definition and are located in the same file as the
definition. IBM.
extern storage class specifier. A specifier that
enables the programmer to declare objects and
functions that several source files can use.

F
feature test macro (FTM). A macro (#define) used to
determine whether a particular set of features will be
included from a header. X/Open. ISO.1.
FIFO special file. A type of file with the property that
data written to such a file is read on a first-in-first-out
basis. Other characteristics of FIFOs are described in
open(), read(), write(), and lseek(). X/Open. ISO.1.
file access permissions. The standard file access
control mechanism uses the file permission bits. The
bits are set at the time of file creation by functions such
as open(), creat(), mkdir(), and mkfifo() and can be
changed by chmod(). The bits are read by stat() or
fstat(). X/Open.
file descriptor. (1) A positive integer that the system
uses instead of the file name to identify an open file. (2)
A per-process unique, non-negative integer used to
identify an open file for the purpose of file access.
ISO.1.
The value of a file descriptor is from zero to
{OPEN_MAX}which is defined in <limits.h>. A process
can have no more than {OPEN_MAX} file descriptors
open simultaneously. File descriptors may also be used
to implement directory streams. X/Open.
file mode. An object containing the file mode bits and
file type of a file, as described in <sys/stat.h>. X/Open.

form-feed character. A character in the output stream

that indicates that printing should start on the next page
of an output device. The formfeed is the character
designated by '\f' in the C and C++ language. If the
formfeed is not the first character of an output line, the
result is unspecified. It is unspecified whether this
character is the exact sequence transmitted to an output
device by the system to accomplish the movement to
the next page. X/Open.

file mode bits. A file's file permission bits,

set-user-ID-on-execution bit (S_ISUID) and
set-group-ID-on-execution bit (S_ISGID). X/Open.
file permission bits. Information about a file that is
used, along with other information, to determine if a
process has read, write, or execute/search permission
to a file. The bits are divided into three parts: owner,
group, and other. Each part is used with the
corresponding file class of process. These bits are
contained in the file mode, as described in <sys/stat.h>.
The detailed usage of the file permission bits is
described in file access permissions. X/Open. ISO.1.

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forward declaration. A declaration of a class or

function made earlier in a compilation unit, so that the
declared class or function can be used before it has
been defined.

file scope. A name declared outside all blocks,

classes, and function declarations has file scope and
can be used after the point of declaration in a source
file.

freestanding application. (1) An application that is

created to run without the run-time environment or
library with which it was developed. (2) An OS/390
C/C++ application that does not use the services of the
dynamic OS/390 C/C++ run-time library or of the
Language Environment. Under OS/390 C support, this
ability is a feature of the System Programming C
support.

filter. A command whose operation consists of reading

data from standard input or a list of input files and
writing data to standard output. Typically, its function is
to perform some transformation on the data stream.
X/Open.

free store. Dynamically allocated memory. New and

delete are used to allocate and deallocate free store.

first element. The element visited first in an iteration

over a collection. Each collection has its own definition
for first element. For example, the first element of a
sorted set is the element with the smallest value.

friend class. A class in which all the member

functions are granted access to the private and
protected members of another class. It is named in the
declaration of another class and uses the keyword
friend as a prefix to the class. For example, the
following source code makes all the functions and data
in class you friends of class me:

flat collection. A collection that has no hierarchical

structure.
float constant. (1) A constant representing a
nonintegral number. (2) A number containing a decimal
point, an exponent, or both a decimal point and an
exponent. The exponent contains an e or E, an optional
sign (+ or -), and one or more digits (0 through 9). IBM.

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class me {
friend class you;
// ...
};

for statement. A looping statement that contains the

word for followed by a for-initializing-statement, an
optional condition, a semicolon, and an optional
expression, all enclosed in parentheses.

friend function. A function that is granted access to

the private and protected parts of a class. It is named in
the declaration of the other class with the prefix friend.
function. A named group of statements that can be
called and evaluated and can return a value to the
calling statement. IBM.

foreground process. (1) A process that must run to

completion before another command is issued. The
foreground process is in the foreground process group,
which is the group that receives the signals generated
by a terminal. IBM. (2) A process that is a member of a
foreground process group. X/Open. ISO.1.
foreground process group. (1) The group that
receives the signals generated by a terminal. IBM. (2) A
process group whose member processes have certain
privileges, denied to processes in background process
groups, when accessing their controlling terminal. Each
session that has established a connection with a
controlling terminal has exactly one process group of
the session as the foreground process group of that
controlling terminal. X/Open. ISO.1.
foreground process group ID. The process group ID
of the foreground process group. X/Open. ISO.1.

function call. An expression that moves the path of

execution from the current function to a specified
function and evaluates to the return value provided by
the called function. A function call contains the name of
the function to which control moves and a
parenthesized list of values. IBM.
function declarator. The part of a function definition
that names the function, provides additional information
about the return value of the function, and lists the
function parameters. IBM.

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function definition. The complete description of a

function. A function definition contains a sequence of
specifiers (storage class, optional type, inline, virtual,
optional friend), a function declarator, optional
Glossary

427

| contructor-initializers, parameter declarations, optional

| const, and the block statement. Inline, virtual, friend,
| and const are not available with C.
function prototype. A function declaration that
provides type information for each parameter. It is the
first line of the function (header) followed by a
semicolon (;). The declaration is required by the
compiler at the time that the function is declared, so that
the compiler can check the type.
function scope. Labels that are declared in a function
have function scope and can be used anywhere in that
function after their declaration.
function template. Provides a blueprint describing
how a set of related individual functions can be
constructed.

G
Generalization. Refers to a class, function, or static
data member which derives its definition from a
template. An instantiation of a template function would
be a generalization.

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Generalized Object File Format (GOFF). It is the

strategic object module format for S/390. It extends the
capabilities of object modules to contain more
information than current object modules. It removes the
limitations of the previous object module format and
supports future enhancements. It is required for
XPLINK.
generic class. Synonym for class templates.
global. Pertaining to information available to more
than one program or subroutine. IBM.
global scope. Synonym for file scope.
global variable. A symbol defined in one program
module that is used in other independently compiled
program modules.
GMT (Greenwich Mean Time). The solar time at the
meridian of Greenwich, formerly used as the prime
basis of standard time throughout the world. GMT has
been superseded by coordinated universal time (UTC).
graphic character. (1) A visual representation of a
character, other than a control character, that is
normally produced by writing, printing, or displaying.
ISO Draft. (2) A character that can be displayed or
printed. IBM.
Graphical Data Display Manager (GDDM). Pertaining
to an IBM licensed program that provides a group of
routines that allows pictures to be defined and displayed
procedurally through function routines that correspond
to graphic primitives. IBM.
Greenwich Mean Time. See GMT.

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OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

group ID. (1) A non-negative integer that is used to

identify a group of system users. Each system user is a
member of at least one group. When the identity of a
group is associated with a process, a group ID value is
referred to as a real group ID, an effective group ID,
one of the supplementary group IDs or a saved
set-group-ID. X/Open. (2) A non-negative integer, which
can be contained in an object of type gid_t, that is used
to identify a group of system users. ISO.1.

H
halfword. A contiguous sequence of bytes or
characters that constitutes half a computer word and
can be addressed as a unit. IBM.
hash function. A function that determines which
category, or bucket, to put an element in. A hash
function is needed when implementing a hash table.
hash table. (1) A data structure that divides all
elements into (preferably) equal-sized categories, or
buckets, to allow quick access to the elements. The
hash function determines which bucket an element
belongs in. (2) A table of information that is accessed by
way of a shortened search key (that hash value). Using
a hash table minimizes average search time.
header file. A text file that contains declarations used
by a group of functions, programs, or users.
heap storage. An area of storage used for allocation
of storage whose lifetime is not related to the execution
of the current routine. The heap consists of the initial
heap segment and zero or more increments.
hexadecimal constant. A constant, usually starting
with special characters, that contains only hexadecimal
digits. Three examples for the hexadecimal constant
with value 0 would be '\x00', '0x0', or '0X00'.

| High Level Assembler. An IBM licensed program.

| Translates symbolic assembler language into binary
| machine language.
hiperspace memory file. An IBM file used under
OS/390 to deal with memory files as large as 2
gigabytes. IBM.
hooks. Instructions inserted into a program by a
compiler at compile-time. Using hooks, you can set
break-points to instruct the Debug Tool to gain control of
the program at selected points during its execution.
hybrid code. Program statements that have not been
internationalized with respect to code page, especially
where data constants contain variant characters. Such
statements can be found in applications written in older
implementations of MVS, which required syntax
statements to be written using code page IBM-1047
exclusively. Such applications cannot be converted from
one code page to another using iconv().

types: void, arrays of unknown size and structures and

unions of unspecified content. A void type can never be
completed. Arrays of unknown size and structures or
unions of unspecified content can be completed in
further declarations.

I18N. Abbreviation for internationalization.

identifier. (1) One or more characters used to identify
or name a data element and possibly to indicate certain
properties of that data element. ANSI/ISO. (2) In
programming languages, a token that names a data
object such as a variable, an array, a record, a
subprogram, or a function. ANSI/ISO. (3) A sequence of
letters, digits, and underscores used to identify a data
object or function. IBM.
if statement. A conditional statement that contains the
keyword if, followed by an expression in parentheses
(the condition), a statement (the action), and an optional
else clause (the alternative action). IBM.
ILC (interlanguage call). A function call made by one
language to a function coded in another language.
Interlanguage calls are used to communicate between
programs written in different languages.
ILC (interlanguage communication). The ability of
routines written in different programming languages to
communicate. ILC support enables the application writer
to readily build applications from component routines
written in a variety of languages.
implementation-defined behavior. Application
behavior that is not defined by the standards. The
implementing compiler and library defines this behavior
when a program contains correct program constructs or
uses correct data. Programs that rely on
implementation-defined behavior may behave differently
on different C or C++ implementations. Refer to the
OS/390 C/C++ books that are listed in IBM OS/390
C/C++ and Related Publications on page 4 for
information about implementation-defined behavior in
the OS/390 C/C++ environment. Contrast with
unspecified behavior and undefined behavior.
IMS (Information Management System). Pertaining
to an IBM database/data communication (DB/DC)
system that can manage complex databases and
networks. IBM.
include directive. A preprocessor directive that
causes the preprocessor to replace the statement with
the contents of a specified file.
include file. See header file.
incomplete class declaration. A class declaration
that does not define any members of a class. Until a
class is fully declared, or defined, you can only use the
class name where the size of the class is not required.
Typically an incomplete class declaration is used as a
forward declaration.

indirection. (1) A mechanism for connecting objects

by storing, in one object, a reference to another object.
(2) In the C and C++ languages, the application of the
unary operator * to a pointer to access the object to
which the pointer points.
indirection class. Synonym for reference class.

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induction variable. It is a controlling variable of a

loop.
inheritance. A technique that allows the use of an
existing class as the base for creating other classes.
initial heap. The OS/390 C/C++ heap controlled by
the HEAP runtime option and designated by a heap_id
of 0. The initial heap contains dynamically allocated
user data.
initializer. An expression used to initialize data
objects. The C++ language, supports the following types
of initializers:
v An expression followed by an assignment operator
that is used to initialize fundamental data type objects
or class objects that contain copy constructors.
v A parenthesized expression list that is used to
initialize base classes and members that use
constructors.
Both the C and C++ languages support an expression
enclosed in braces ( { } ), that used to initialize
aggregates.
inlined function. A function whose actual code
replaces a function call. A function that is both declared
and defined in a class definition is an example of an
inline function. Another example is one which you
explicitly declared inline by using the keyword inline.
Both member and nonmember functions can be inlined.
input stream. A sequence of control statements and
data submitted to a system from an input unit.
Synonymous with input job stream, job input stream.
IBM.
instance. An object-oriented programming term
synonymous with object. An instance is a particular
instantiation of a data type. It is simply a region of
storage that contains a value or group of values. For
example, if a class box is previously defined, two
instances of a class box could be instantiated with the
declaration: box box1, box2;

incomplete type. A type that has no value or meaning

when it is first declared. There are three incomplete
Glossary

429

instantiate. To create or generate a particular instance

or object of a data type. For example, an instance box1
of class box could be instantiated with the declaration:
box box1;
instruction. A program statement that specifies an
operation to be performed by the computer, along with
the values or locations of operands. This statement
represents the programmer's request to the processor
to perform a specific operation.
instruction scheduling. An optimization technique
that reorders instructions in code to minimize execution
time.
integer constant. A decimal, octal, or hexadecimal
constant.
integral object. A character object, an object having
an enumeration type, an object having variations of the
type int, or an object that is a bit field.
Interactive System Productivity Facility. See ISPF.

iteration. The process of repeatedly applying a

function to a series of elements in a collection until
some condition is satisfied.

J
JCL (job control language). A control language used
to identify a job to an operating system and to describe
the job's requirement. IBM.

K
keyword. (1) A predefined word reserved for the C
and C++ languages, that may not be used as an
identifier. (2) A symbol that identifies a parameter in
JCL.
kind attribute. An attribute for a mutex attribute
object. This attribute's value determines whether the
mutex can be locked once or more than once for a
thread and whether state changes to the mutex will be
reported to the debug interface.

interlanguage call. See ILC (interlanguage call).

interlanguage communication. See ILC
(interlanguage communication).
internationalization. The capability of a computer
program to adapt to the requirements of different native
languages, local customs, and coded character sets.
X/Open.
Synonymous with I18N.
interoperability. The capability to communicate,
execute programs, or transfer data among various
functional units in a way that requires the user to have
little or no knowledge of the unique characteristics of
those units.
Interprocedural Analysis. See IPA.
interprocess communication. (1) The exchange of
information between processes or threads through
semaphores, queues, and shared memory. (2) The
process by which programs communicate data to each
other to synchronize their activities. Semaphores,
signals, and internal message queues are common
methods of inter-process communication.
I/O Stream library. A class library that provides the
facilities to deal with many varieties of input and output.
IPA (Interprocedural Analysis). A process for
performing optimizations across compilation units.
ISPF (Interactive System Productivity Facility). An
IBM licensed program that serves as a full-screen editor
and dialogue manager. Used for writing application
programs, it provides a means of generating standard
screen panels and interactive dialogues between the
application programmer and terminal user. (ISPF)

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L
label. An identifier within or attached to a set of data
elements. ISO Draft.
Language Environment. Abbreviated form of OS/390
Language Environment. Pertaining to an IBM software
product that provides a common runtime environment
and runtime services to applications compiled by
Language Environment-conforming compilers.
last element. The element visited last in an iteration
over a collection. Each collection has its own definition
for last element. For example, the last element of a
sorted set is the element with the largest value.
late binding. Allowing the system to determine the
specific class of the object and invoke the appropriate
function implementations at run time. Late binding or
dynamic binding hides the differences between a group
of related classes from the application program.
leaves. Nodes without children. Synonymous with
terminals.
lexically. Relating to the left-to-right order of units.
library. (1) A collection of functions, calls, subroutines,
or other data. IBM. (2) A set of object modules that can
be specified in a link command.
linkage editor. Synonym for linker. The linkage editor
has been replaced by the binder for the MVS/ESA or
OS/390 operating systems. See binder.
Linkage. Refers to the binding between a reference
and a definition. A function has internal linkage if the
function is defined inline as part of the class, is declared

with the inline keyword, or is a nonmember function

declared with the static keyword. All other functions
have external linkage.
linker. A computer program for creating load modules
from one or more object modules by resolving cross
references among the modules and, if necessary,
adjusting addresses. IBM.
link pack area (LPA). In OS/390, an area of storage
containing re-enterable routines from system libraries.
Their presence in main storage saves loading time.

lvalue. An expression that represents a data object

that can be both examined and altered.

M
macro. An identifier followed by arguments (may be a
parenthesized list of arguments) that the preprocessor
replaces with the replacement code located in a
preprocessor #define directive.
macro call. Synonym for macro.

literal. (1) In programming languages, a lexical unit

that directly represents a value; for example, 14
represents the integer fourteen, APRIL represents the
string of characters APRIL, 3.0005E2 represents the
number 300.05. ISO-JTC1. (2) A symbol or a quantity in
a source program that is itself data, rather than a
reference to data. IBM. (3) A character string whose
value is given by the characters themselves; for
example, the numeric literal 7 has the value 7, and the
character literal CHARACTERS has the value
CHARACTERS. IBM.

macro instruction. Synonym for macro.

loader. A routine, commonly a computer program, that

reads data into main storage. ANSI/ISO.

make utility. Maintains all of the parts and

dependencies for your application. The make utility uses
a makefile to keep the parts of your program
synchronized. If one part of your application changes,
the make utility updates all other files that depend on
the changed part. This utility is available under the
OS/390 shell and by default, uses the c89 utility to
recompile and bind your application.

load module. All or part of a computer program in a

form suitable for loading into main storage for execution.
A load module is usually the output of a linkage editor.
ISO Draft.
local. (1) In programming languages, pertaining to the
relationship between a language object and a block
such that the language object has a scope contained in
that block. ISO-JTC1. (2) Pertaining to that which is
defined and used only in one subdivision of a computer
program. ANSI/ISO.
local customs. The conventions of a geographical
area or territory for such things as date, time, and
currency formats. X/Open.
locale. The definition of the subset of a user's
environment that depends on language and cultural
conventions. X/Open.
localization. The process of establishing information
within a computer system specific to the operation of
particular native languages, local customs, and coded
character sets. X/Open.
local scope. A name declared in a block has scope
within the block, and can therefore only be used in that
block.
Long name. An external name C++ name in an object
module, or and external name in an object module
created by the C compiler when the LONGNAME option is
used. Long names are up to 1024 characters long and
may contain both upper-case and lower-case
characters.

main function. An external function with the identifier

main that is the first user functionaside from exit
routines and C++ static object constructorsto get
control when program execution begins. Each C and
C++ program must have exactly one function named
main.
makefile. A text file containing a list of your
application's parts. The make utility uses makefiles to
maintain application parts and dependencies.

mangling. The encoding during compilation of

identifiers such as function and variable names to
include type and scope information. These mangled
names ensure type-safe linkage. See also demangling.
manipulator. A value that can be inserted into streams
or extracted from streams to affect or query the
behavior of the stream.
member. A data object or function in a structure,
union, or class. Members can also be classes,
enumerations, bit fields, and type names.
member function. (1) An operator or function that is
declared as a member of a class. A member function
has access to the private and protected data members
and member functions of objects of its class. Member
functions are also called methods. (2) A function that
performs operations on a class.
method. In the C++ language, a synonym for member
function.
migrate. To move to a changed operating
environment, usually to a new release or version of a
system. IBM.
module. A program unit that usually performs a
particular function or related functions, and that is
Glossary

431

distinct and identifiable with respect to compiling,

combining with other units, and loading.

new main routine within the process. See also child

enclave and parent enclave.

multibyte character. A mixture of single-byte

characters from a single-byte character set and
double-byte characters from a double-byte character
set.

newline character. A character that in the output

stream indicates that printing should start at the
beginning of the next line. The newline character is
designated by '\n' in the C and C++ language. It is
unspecified whether this character is the exact
sequence transmitted to an output device by the system
to accomplish the movement to the next line. X/Open.

multicharacter collating element. A sequence of two

or more characters that collate as an entity. For
example, in some coded character sets, an accented
character is represented by a non-spacing accent,
followed by the letter. Other examples are the Spanish
elements ch and ll. X/Open.
multiple inheritance. An object-oriented programming
technique implemented in the C++ language through
derivation, in which the derived class inherits members
from more than one base class.
multitasking. A mode of operation that allows
concurrent performance, or interleaved execution of two
or more tasks. ISO-JTC1. ANSI/ISO.
mutex. A flag used by a semaphore to protect shared
resources. The mutex is locked and unlocked by
threads in a program. A mutex can only be locked by
one thread at a time and can only be unlocked by the
same thread that locked it. The current owner of a
mutex is the thread that it is currently locked by. An
unlocked mutex has no current owner.
mutex attribute object. Allows the user to manage
the characteristics of mutexes in their application by
defining a set of values to be used for the mutex during
its creation. A mutex attribute object allows the user to
create many mutexes with the same set of
characteristics without redefining the same set of
characteristics for each mutex created.
mutex object. Used to identify a mutex.

nickname. Synonym for alias.

nonprinting character. See control character.
null character (NUL). The ASCII or EBCDIC character
'\0' with the hex value 00, all bits turned off. It is used to
represent the absence of a printed or displayed
character. This character is named <NUL> in the
portable character set.
null pointer. The value that is obtained by converting
the number 0 into a pointer; for example, (void *) 0.
The C and C++ languages guarantee that this value will
not match that of any legitimate pointer, so it is used by
many functions that return pointers to indicate an error.
X/Open.
null statement. A C or C++ statement that consists
solely of a semicolon.
null string. (1) A string whose first byte is a null byte.
Synonymous with empty string. X/Open. (2) A character
array whose first element is a null character. ISO.1.
null value. A parameter position for which no value is
specified. IBM.
null wide-character code. A wide-character code with
all bits set to zero. X/Open.
number sign. The character #, also known as pound
sign and hash sign. This character is named
<number-sign> in the portable character set.

name space. A category used to group similar types

of identifiers.

named pipe. A FIFO file. Named pipes allow transfer

of data between processes in a FIFO manner and
synchronization of process execution. Allows processes
to communicate even though they do not know what
processes are on the other end of the pipe.

object. (1) A region of storage. An object is created

when a variable is defined. An object is destroyed when
it goes out of scope. (See also instance.) (2) In
object-oriented design or programming, an abstraction
consisting of data and the operations associated with
that data. See also class. IBM. (3) An instance of a
class.

natural reentrancy. A program that contains no

writable static and requires no additional processing to
make it reentrant is considered naturally reentrant.
nested class. A class defined within the scope of
another class.
nested enclave. A new enclave created by an existing
enclave. The nested enclave that is created must be a

432

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

object code. Machine-executable instructions, usually

generated by a compiler from source code written in a
higher level language (such as the C++ language). For
programs that must be linked, object code consists of
relocatable machine code.
object module. (1) All or part of an object program
sufficiently complete for linking. Assemblers and

compilers usually produce object modules. ISO Draft.

(2) A set of instructions in machine language produced
by a compiler from a source program. IBM.
object-oriented programming. A programming
approach based on the concepts of data abstraction
and inheritance. Unlike procedural programming
techniques, object-oriented programming concentrates
not on how something is accomplished, but on what
data objects comprise the problem and how they are
manipulated.
octal constant. The digit 0 (zero) followed by any
digits 0 through 7.
open file. A file that is currently associated with a file
descriptor. X/Open. ISO.1.
operand. An entity on which an operation is
performed. ISO-JTC1. ANSI/ISO.
operating system (OS). Software that controls
functions such as resource allocation, scheduling,
input/output control, and data management.
operator function. An overloaded operator that is
either a member of a class or that takes at least one
argument that is a class type or a reference to a class
type.
operator precedence. In programming languages, an
order relation defining the sequence of the application
of operators within an expression. ISO-JTC1.
orientation of a stream. After application of an input
or output function to a stream, it becomes either
byte-oriented or wide-oriented. A byte-oriented stream is
a stream that had a byte input or output function applied
to it when it had no orientation. A wide-oriented stream
is a stream that had a wide character input or output
function applied to it when it had no orientation. A
stream has no orientation when it has been associated
with an external file but has not had any operations
performed on it.
OS/390 UNIX System Services (OS/390 UNIX). An
element of the OS/390 operating system, (formerly
known as OpenEdition). OS/390 UNIX includes a
POSIX system Application Programming Interface for
the C language, a shell and utilities component, and a
dbx debugger. All the components conform to IEEE
POSIX standards (ISO 9945-1: 1990/IEEE POSIX
1003.1-1990, IEEE POSIX 1003.1a, IEEE POSIX
1003.2, and IEEE POSIX 1003.4a).
overflow. (1) A condition that occurs when a portion of
the result of an operation exceeds the capacity of the
intended unit of storage. (2) That portion of an operation
that exceeds the capacity of the intended unit of
storage. IBM.

overlay. The technique of repeatedly using the same

areas of internal storage during different stages of a
program. ANSI/ISO. Unions are used to accomplish this
in C and C++.
overloading. An object-oriented programming
technique that allows you to redefine functions and most
standard C++ operators when the functions and
operators are used with class types.

P
parameter. (1) In the C and C++ languages, an object
declared as part of a function declaration or definition
that acquires a value on entry to the function, or an
identifier following the macro name in a function-like
macro definition. X/Open. (2) Data passed between
programs or procedures. IBM.
parameter declaration. A description of a value that a
function receives. A parameter declaration determines
the storage class and the data type of the value.
parent enclave. The enclave that issues a call to
system services or language constructs to create a
nested or child enclave. See also child enclave and
nested enclave.
parent process. (1) The program that originates the
creation of other processes by means of spawn or exec
function calls. See also child process. (2) A process that
creates other processes.
parent process ID. (1) An attribute of a new process
identifying the parent of the process. The parent
process ID of a process is the process ID of its creator,
for the lifetime of the creator. After the creator's lifetime
has ended, the parent process ID is the process ID of
an implementation-dependent system process. X/Open.
(2) An attribute of a new process after it is created by a
currently active process. ISO.1.
partitioned concatenation. Specifying multiple PDSs
or PDSEs under one ddname. The concatenated data
sets act as one big PDS or PDSE and access can be
made to any member with a unique name. An attempted
access to a member whose name occurs more than
once in the concatenated data sets, returns the first
member with that name found in the entire
concatenation.
partitioned data set (PDS). A data set in direct
access storage that is divided into partitions, called
members, each of which can contain a program, part of
a program, or data. IBM.
partitioned data set extended (PDSE). Similar to
partitioned data set, but with extended capabilities.
path name. (1) A string that is used to identify a file. A
path name consists of, at most, {PATH_MAX} bytes,
including the terminating null character. It has an
Glossary

433

optional beginning slash, followed by zero or more file

names separated by slashes. If the path name refers to
a directory, it may also have one or more trailing
slashes. Multiple successive slashes are treated as one
slash. A path name that begins with two successive
slashes may be interpreted in an implementationdependent manner, although more than two leading
slashes are treated as a single slash. The interpretation
of the path name is described in path name resolution.
ISO.1. (2) A file name specifying all directories leading
to the file.
path name resolution. Path name resolution is
performed for a process to resolve a path name to a
particular file in a file hierarchy. There may be multiple
path names that resolve to the same file. X/Open.
pattern. A sequence of characters used either with
regular expression notation or for path name expansion,
as a means of selecting various characters strings or
path names, respectively. The syntaxes of the two
patterns are similar, but not identical. X/Open.
period. The character (.). The term period is
contrasted against dot, which is used to describe a
specific directory entry. This character is named
<period> in the portable character set.
permissions. Codes that determine how a file can be
used by any users who work on the system. See also
file access permissions. IBM.
persistent environment. A program can explicitly
establish a persistent environment, direct functions to it,
and explicitly terminate it.
pointer. In the C and C++ languages, a variable that
holds the address of a data object or a function. IBM.
pointer class. A class that implements pointers.
pointer to member. An operator used to access the
address of non-static members of a class.
polymorphism. The technique of taking an abstract
view of an object or function and using any concrete
objects or arguments that are derived from this abstract
view.
portable character set. The set of characters
specified in POSIX 1003.2, section 2.4:
<NUL>
<alert>
<backspace>
<tab>
<newline>
<vertical-tab>
<form-feed>
<carriage-return>
<space>
<exclamation-mark>
<quotation-mark>
<number-sign>
<dollar-sign>

434

!
"
#
$

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

<percent-sign>
<ampersand>
<apostrophe>
<left-parenthesis>
<right-parenthesis>
<asterisk>
<plus-sign>
<comma>
<hyphen>
<hyphen-minus>
<period>
<slash>
<zero>
<one>
<two>
<three>
<four>
<five>
<six>
<seven>
<eight>
<nine>
<colon>
<semicolon>
<less-than-sign>
<equals-sign>
<greater-than-sign>
<question-mark>
<commercial-at>

%
&
'
(
)
*
+
,

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
:
;
<
=
>
?
@

A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T
U
V
W
X
Y
Z

<left-square-bracket>
<backslash>
<reverse-solidus>
<right-square-bracket>
<circumflex>
<circumflex-accent>
<underscore>
<low-line>
<grave-accent>
<a>

[
\
\
]
|
|
_
_
v
a
b

c
d
e
f
g
h
i
j
k
l

m
n
o
p
q
r
s
t
u
v
w
x
y
z

<left-brace>
<left-curly-bracket>
<vertical-line>
<right-brace>
<right-curly-bracket>
<tilde>

{
{
|
}
}

portable file name character set. The set of

characters from which portable file names are
constructed. For a file name to be portable across
implementations conforming to the ISO POSIX-1
standard and to ISO/IEC 9945, it must consists only of
the following characters:

preinitialization. A process by which an environment

or library is initialized once and can then be used
repeatedly to avoid the inefficiency of initializing the
environment or library each time it is needed.
prelinker. A utility provided with OS/390 Language
Environment that you can use to process application
programs that require DLL support, or contain either
constructed reentrancy or external symbol names that
are longer than 8 characters. You require the prelinker,
or its equivalent function which is provided by the
binder, to process all C++ applications, or C applications
that are compiled with the RENT, DLL, LONGNAME or
IPA options. As of Version 2 Release 4, the prelinker
was superseded by the binder. See also binder.
preprocessor. A phase of the compiler that examines
the source program for preprocessor statements that
are then executed, resulting in the alteration of the
source program.
preprocessor statement. In the C and C++
languages, a statement that begins with the symbol #
and is interpreted by the preprocessor during
compilation. IBM.
primary expression. (1) An identifier, parenthesized
expression, function call, array element specification,
structure member specification, or union member
specification. IBM. (2) Literals, names, and names
qualified by the :: (scope resolution) operator.
printable character. One of the characters included in
the print character classification of the LC_CTYPE
category in the current locale. X/Open.

A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 . _ -

private. Pertaining to a class member that is only

accessible to member functions and friends of that
class.

The last three characters are the period, underscore,

and hyphen characters, respectively. The hyphen must
not be used as the first character of a portable file
name. Upper- and lower-case letters retain their unique
identities between conforming implementations. In the
case of a portable path name, the slash character may
also be used. X/Open. ISO.1.

process. (1) An instance of an executing application

and the resources it uses. (2) An address space and
single thread of control that executes within that
address space, and its required system resources. A
process is created by another process issuing the
fork() function. The process that issues the fork()
function is known as the parent process, and the new
process created by the fork() function is known as the
child process. X/Open. ISO.1.

portability. The ability of a programming language to

compile successfully on different operating systems
without requiring changes to the source code.
positional parameter. A parameter that must appear
in a specified location relative to other positional
parameters. IBM.
precedence. The priority system for grouping different
types of operators with their operands.
predefined macros. Frequently used routines
provided by an application or language for the
programmer.

process group. A collection of processes that permits

the signaling of related processes. Each process in the
system is a member of a process group that is identified
by the process group ID. A newly created process joins
the process group of its creator. IBM. X/Open. ISO.1.
process group ID. The unique identifier representing
a process group during its lifetime. A process group ID
is a positive integer. (Under ISO only, it is a positive
integer that can be contained in a pid_t.) A process
group ID will not be reused by the system until the
process group lifetime ends. X/Open. ISO.1.

Glossary

435

process group lifetime. A period of time that begins

when a process group is created and ends when the
last remaining process in the group leaves the group,
because either it is the end of the last process' lifetime
or the last remaining process is calling the setsid() or
setpgid() functions. X/Open. ISO.1.
process ID. The unique identifier representing a
process. A process ID is a positive integer. (Under ISO
only, it is a positive integer that can be contained in a
pid_t.) A process ID will not be reused by the system
until the process lifetime ends. In addition, if there exists
a process group whose process group ID is equal to
that process ID, the process ID will not be reused by
the system until the process group lifetime ends. A
process that is not a system process will not have a
process ID of 1. X/Open. ISO.1.
process lifetime. The period of time that begins when
a process is created and ends when the process ID is
returned to the system. After a process is created with a
fork() function, it is considered active. Its thread of
control and address space exist until it terminates. It
then enters an inactive state where certain resources
may be returned to the system, although some
resources, such as the process ID, are still in use.
When another process executes a wait() or waitpid()
function for an inactive process, the remaining
resources are returned to the system. The last resource
to be returned to the system is the process ID. At this
time, the lifetime of the process ends. X/Open. ISO.1.
program object. All or part of a computer program in
a from suitable for loading into main storage for
execution. A program object is the output of the OS/390
Binder and is a newer more flexible format (e.g. longer
external names) than a load module.
protected. Pertaining to a class member that is only
accessible to member functions and friends of that
class, or to member functions and friends of classes
derived from that class.
prototype. A function declaration or definition that
includes both the return type of the function and the
types of its parameters. See function prototype.
public. Pertaining to a class member that is accessible
to all functions.
pure virtual function. A virtual function that has a
function definition of = 0;. See also abstract classes.

qualified type name. Used to reduce complex class

name syntax by using typedefs to represent qualified
class names.
Query Management Facility (QMF). Pertaining to an
IBM query and report writing facility that enables a
variety of tasks such as data entry, query building,
administration, and report analysis. IBM.
queue. A sequence with restricted access in which
elements can only be added at the back end (or bottom)
and removed from the front end (or top). A queue is
characterized by first-in, first-out behavior and
chronological order.
quotation marks. The characters " and , also known
as double-quote and single-quote respectively. X/Open.

R
radix character. The character that separates the
integer part of a number from the fractional part.
X/Open.
real group ID. The attribute of a process that, at the
time of process creating, identifies the group of the user
who created the process. This value is subject to
change during the process lifetime, as describe in
setgid(). X/Open. ISO.1.
real user ID. The attribute of a process that, at the
time of process creation, identifies the user who created
the process. This value is subject to change during the
process lifetime, as described in setuid(). X/Open.
ISO.1.
reason code. A code that identifies the reason for a
detected error. IBM.
reassociation. An optimization technique that
rearranges the sequence of calculations in a subscript
expression producing more candidates for common
expression elimination.
redirection. In the shell, a method of associating files
with the input or output of commands. X/Open.
reentrant. The attribute of a program or routine that
allows the same copy of a program or routine to be
used concurrently by two or more tasks.
reference class. A class that links a concrete class to
an abstract class. Reference classes make
polymorphism possible with the Collection Classes.
Synonymous with indirection class.

qualified class name. Any class name or class name

qualified with one or more :: (scope resolution)
operators.

refresh. To ensure that the information on the user's

terminal screen is up-to-date. X/Open.

qualified name. Used to qualify a nonclass type name

such as a member by its class name.

register storage class specifier. A specifier that

indicates to the compiler within a block scope data
definition, or a parameter declaration, that the object
being described will be heavily used.

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OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

register variable. A variable defined with the register

storage class specifier. Register variables have
automatic storage.

scope. (1) That part of a source program in which a

variable is visible. (2) That part of a source program in
which an object is defined and recognized.

regular expression. (1) A mechanism to select

specific strings from a set of character strings. (2) A set
of characters, meta-characters, and operators that
define a string or group of strings in a search pattern.
(3) A string containing wildcard characters and
operations that define a set of one or more possible
strings.

scope operator (::). An operator that defines the

scope for the argument on the right. If the left argument
is blank, the scope is global; if the left argument is a
class name, the scope is within that class. Synonymous
with scope resolution operator.

regular file. A file that is a randomly accessible

sequence of bytes, with no further structure imposed by
the system. X/Open. ISO.1.
relation. An unordered flat collection class that uses
keys, allows for duplicate elements, and has element
equality.

scope resolution operator (::). Synonym for scope

operator.
semaphore. An object used by multi-threaded
applications for signalling purposes and for controlling
access to serially reusable resources. Processes can be
locked to a resource with semaphores if the processes
follow certain programming conventions.
sequence. A sequentially ordered flat collection.

relative path name. The name of a directory or file

expressed as a sequence of directories followed by a
file name, beginning from the current directory. See path
name resolution. IBM.
reserved word. (1) In programming languages, a
keyword that may not be used as an identifier.
ISO-JTC1. (2) A word used in a source program to
describe an action to be taken by the program or
compiler. It must not appear in the program as a
user-defined name or a system name. IBM.
RMODE (residency mode). In OS/390, a program
attribute that refers to where a module is prepared to
run. RMODE can be 24 or ANY. ANY refers to the fact
that the module can be loaded either above or below
the 16M line. RMODE 24 means the module expects to
be loaded below the 16M line.
runtime library. A compiled collection of functions
whose members can be referred to by an application
program during runtime execution. Typically used to
refer to a dynamic library that is provided in object code,
such that references to the library are resolved during
the linking step. The runtime library itself is not statically
bound into the application modules.

sequential concatenation. Multiple sequential data

sets or partitioned data-set members are treated as one
long sequential data set. In the case of sequential data
sets, you can access or update the data sets in order.
In the case of partitioned data-set members, you can
access or update the members in order. Repositioning
is possible if all of the data sets in the concatenation
support repositioning.
sequential data set. A data set whose records are
organized on the basis of their successive physical
positions, such as on magnetic tape. IBM.
session. A collection of process groups established for
job control purposes. Each process group is a member
of a session. A process is a member of the session of
which its process group is a member. A newly created
process joins the session of its creator. A process can
alter its session membership; see setsid(). There can
be multiple process groups in the same session.
X/Open. ISO.1.
shell. A program that interprets sequences of text
input as commands. It may operate on an input stream
or it may interactively prompt and read commands from
a terminal. X/Open.

This feature is provided as part of the OS/390 Shell and

Utilities feature licensed program.

saved set-group-ID. An attribute of a process that

allows some flexibility in the assignment of the effective
group ID attribute, as described in the exec() family of
functions and setgid(). X/Open. ISO.1.

Short name. An external non-C++ name in an object

module produced by compiling with the NOLONGNAME
option. Such a name is up to 8 characters long and
single case.

saved set-user-ID. An attribute of a process that

allows some flexibility in the assignment of the effective
user ID attribute, as described in exec() and setuid().
X/Open. ISO.1.
scalar. An arithmetic object, or a pointer to an object
of any type.

signal. (1) A condition that may or may not be

reported during program execution. For example, SIGFPE
is the signal used to represent erroneous arithmetic
operations such as a division by zero. (2) A mechanism
by which a process may be notified of, or affected by,
an event occurring in the system. Examples of such
events include hardware exceptions and specific actions
by processes. The term signal is also used to refer to
Glossary

437

the event itself. X/Open. ISO.1. (3) A method of

interprocess communication that simulates software
interrupts. IBM.
signal handler. A function to be called when the signal
is reported.
single-byte character set (SBCS). A set of characters
in which each character is represented by a one-byte
code. IBM.

spill area. A storage area used to save the contents of

registers. IBM.
SQL (Structured Query Language). A language
designed to create, access, update and free data
tables.
square brackets. The characters [ (left bracket) and ]
(right bracket). Also see brackets.

single-precision. Pertaining to the use of one

computer word to represent a number in accordance
with the required precision. ISO-JTC1. ANSI/ISO.

stack frame. The physical representation of the

activation of a routine. The stack frame is allocated and
freed on a LIFO (last in, first out) basis. A stack is a
collection of one or more stack segments consisting of
an initial stack segment and zero or more increments.

single-quote. The character , also known as

apostrophe. This character is named <quotation-mark>
in the portable character set.

stack storage. Synonym for automatic storage.

slash. The character /, also known as solidus. This

character is named <slash> in the portable character
set.
socket. (1) A unique host identifier created by the
concatenation of a port identifier with a transmission
control protocol/Internet protocol (TCP/IP) address. (2) A
port identifier. (3) A 16-bit port-identifier. (4) A port on a
specific host; a communications end point that is
accessible though a protocol family's addressing
mechanism. A socket is identified by a socket address.
IBM.
sorted map. A sorted flat collection with key and
element equality.
sorted relation. A sorted flat collection that uses keys,
has element equality, and allows duplicate elements.
sorted set. A sorted flat collection with element
equality.
source module. A file that contains source statements
for such items as high-level language programs and
data description specifications. IBM.
source program. A set of instructions written in a
programming language that must be translated to
machine language before the program can be run. IBM.
space character. The character defined in the
portable character set as <space>. The space character
is a member of the space character class of the current
locale, but represents the single character, and not all of
the possible members of the class. X/Open.
spanned record. A logical record contained in more
than one block. IBM.
specialization. A user-supplied definition which
replaces a corresponding template instantiation.
specifiers. Used in declarations to indicate storage
class, fundamental data type and other properties of the
object or function being declared.

438

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

standard error. An output stream usually intended to

be used for diagnostic messages. X/Open.
standard input. (1) An input stream usually intended
to be used for primary data input. X/Open. (2) The
primary source of data entered into a command.
Standard input comes from the keyboard unless
redirection or piping is used, in which case standard
input can be from a file or the output from another
command. IBM.
standard output. (1) An output stream usually
intended to be used for primary data output. X/Open. (2)
The primary destination of data coming from a
command. Standard output goes to the display unless
redirection or piping is used, in which case standard
output can go to a file or to another command. IBM.
statement. An instruction that ends with the character
; (semicolon) or several instructions that are surrounded
by the characters { and }.
static. A keyword used for defining the scope and
linkage of variables and functions. For internal variables,
the variable has block scope and retains its value
between function calls. For external values, the variable
has file scope and retains its value within the source
file. For class variables, the variable is shared by all
objects of the class and retains its value within the
entire program.
static binding. The act of resolving references to
external variables and functions before run time.
storage class specifier. One of the terms used to
specify a storage class, such as auto, register, static, or
extern.
stream. (1) A continuous stream of data elements
being transmitted, or intended for transmission, in
character or binary-digit form, using a defined format.
(2) A file access object that allows access to an ordered
sequence of characters, as described by the ISO C
standard. Such objects can be created by the fdopen()
or fopen() functions, and are associated with a file

descriptor. A stream provides the additional services of

user-selectable buffering and formatted input and
output. X/Open.

switch statement. A C or C++ language statement

that causes control to be transferred to one of several
statements depending on the value of an expression.

string. A contiguous sequence of bytes terminated by

and including the first null byte. X/Open.

system default. A default value defined in the system

profile. IBM.

string constant. Zero or more characters enclosed in

double quotation marks.

system process. (1) An implementation-dependent

object, other than a process executing an application,
that has a process ID. X/Open. (2) An object, other than
a process executing an application, that is defined by
the system, and has a process ID. ISO.1.

string literal. Zero or more characters enclosed in

double quotation marks.
striped data set. A special data set organization that
spreads a data set over a specified number of volumes
so that I/O parallelism can be exploited. Record n in a
striped data set is found on a volume separate from the
volume containing record n - p, where n > p.
struct. An aggregate of elements having arbitrary
types.
structure. A construct (a class data type) that contains
an ordered group of data objects. Unlike an array, the
data objects within a structure can have varied data
types. A structure can be used in all places a class is
used. The initial projection is public.
structure tag. The identifier that names a structure
data type.
Structured Query Language. See SQL.
stub routine. A routine, within a runtime library, that
contains the minimum lines of code required to locate a
given routine at run time.
subprogram. In the IPA Link version of the Inline
Report listing section, an equivalent term for 'function'.
subscript. One or more expressions, each enclosed in
brackets, that follow an array name. A subscript refers
to an element in an array.
subsystem. A secondary or subordinate system,
usually capable of operating independently of or
asynchronously with, a controlling system. ISO Draft.
subtree. A tree structure created by arbitrarily denoting
a node to be the root node in a tree. A subtree is
always part of a whole tree.
superset. Given two sets A and B, A is a superset of B
if and only if all elements of B are also elements of A.
That is, A is a superset of B if B is a subset of A.
support. In system development, to provide the
necessary resources for the correct operation of a
functional unit. IBM.
switch expression. The controlling expression of a
switch statement.

T
tab character. A character that in the output stream
indicates that printing or displaying should start at the
next horizontal tabulation position on the current line.
The tab is the character designated by '\t' in the C
language. If the current position is at or past the last
defined horizontal tabulation position, the behavior is
unspecified. It is unspecified whether the character is
the exact sequence transmitted to an output device by
the system to accomplish the tabulation. X/Open.
This character is named <tab> in the portable character
set.
task library. A class library that provides the facilities
to write programs that are made up of tasks.
template. A family of classes or functions with variable
types.
template class. A class instance generated by a class
template.
Template Declaration. A prototype of a template
which can optionally include a template definition.
Template Definition. A blueprint the compiler uses to
generate a template instantiation.
template function. A function generated by a function
template.
Template Instantiation. Compiler generated code for
a class or function using the referenced types and the
corresponding class or function template definition.
terminals. Synonym for leaves.
text file. A file that contains characters organized into
one or more lines. The lines must not contain NUL
characters and none can exceed {LINE_MAX}which is
defined in limits.hbytes in length, including the
new-line character. The term text file does not prevent
the inclusion of control or other unprintable characters
(other than NUL). X/Open.
thread. The smallest unit of operation to be performed
within a process. IBM.

Glossary

439

throw expression. An argument to the C++ exception

being thrown.
tilde. The character . This character is named <tilde>
in the portable character set.
token. The smallest independent unit of meaning of a
program as defined either by a parser or a lexical
analyzer. A token can contain data, a language
keyword, an identifier, or other parts of language syntax.
IBM.
traceback. A section of a dump that provides
information about the stack frame, the program unit
address, the entry point of the routine, the statement
number, and the status of the routines on the call-chain
at the time the traceback was produced.
trigraph sequence. An alternative spelling of some
characters to allow the implementation of C in character
sets that do not provide a sufficient number of
non-alphabetic graphics. ANSI/ISO.
Before preprocessing, each trigraph sequence in a
string or literal is replaced by the single character that it
represents.
truncate. To shorten a value to a specified length.
try block. A block in which a known C++ exception is
passed to a handler.
type definition. A definition of a name for a data type.
IBM.
type specifier. Used to indicate the data type of an
object or function being declared.

U
ultimate consumer. The target of data in an I/O
operation. An ultimate consumer can be a file, a device,
or an array of bytes in memory.
ultimate producer. The source of data in an I/O
operation. An ultimate producer can be a file, a device,
or an array of byes in memory.
unary expression. An expression that contains one
operand. IBM.
undefined behavior. Action by the compiler and
library when the program uses erroneous constructs or
contains erroneous data. Permissible undefined
behavior includes ignoring the situation completely with
unpredictable results. It also includes behaving in a
documented manner that is characteristic of the
environment, during translation or program execution,
with or without issuing a diagnostic message. It can also
include terminating a translation or execution, while
issuing a diagnostic message. Contrast with unspecified
behavior and implementation-defined behavior.

440

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

underflow. (1) A condition that occurs when the result

of an operation is less than the smallest possible
nonzero number. (2) Synonym for arithmetic underflow,
monadic operation. IBM.
union. (1) In the C or C++ language, a variable that
can hold any one of several data types, but only one
data type at a time. IBM. (2) For bags, there is an
additional rule for duplicates: If bag P contains an
element m times and bag Q contains the same element
n times, then the union of P and Q contains that
element m+n times.
union tag. The identifier that names a union data type.
unnamed pipe. A pipe that is accessible only by the
process that created the pipe and its child processes.
An unnamed pipe does not have to be opened before it
can be used. It is a temporary file that lasts only until
the last file descriptor that uses it is closed.
unique collection. A collection in which the value of
an element only occurs once; that is, there are no
duplicate elements.
unrecoverable error. An error for which recovery is
impossible without use of recovery techniques external
to the computer program or run.
unspecified behavior. Action by the compiler and
library when the program uses correct constructs or
data, for which the standards impose no specific
requirements. Such action should not cause compiler or
application failure. You should not, however, write any
programs to rely on such behavior as they may not be
portable to other systems. Contrast with
implementation-defined behavior and undefined
behavior.
user-defined data type. (1) A mathematical model
that includes a structure for storing data and operations
that can be performed on that data. Common abstract
data types include sets, trees, and heaps. (2) See also
abstract data type.
user ID. A nonnegative integer that is used to identify
a system user. (Under ISO only, a nonnegative integer,
which can be contained in an object of type uid_t.)
When the identity of a user is associated with a
process, a user ID value is referred to as a real user ID,
an effective user ID, or (under ISO only, and there
optionally) a saved set-user ID. X/Open. ISO.1.
user name. A string that is used to identify a user.
ISO.1.
user prefix. In an OS/390 environment, the user prefix
is typically the user's logon user identification.

V
value numbering. An optimization technique that
involves local constant propagation, local expression
elimination, and folding several instructions into a single
instruction.
variable. In programming languages, a language
object that may take different values, one at a time. The
values of a variable are usually restricted to a certain
data type. ISO-JTC1.
variant character. A character whose hexadecimal
value differs between different character sets. On
EBCDIC systems, such as S/390, these 13 characters
are an exception to the portability of the portable
character set.
<left-square-bracket>
<right-square-bracket>
<left-brace>
<right-brace>
<backslash>
<circumflex>
<tilde>
<exclamation-mark>
<number-sign>
<vertical-line>
<grave-accent>
<dollar-sign>
<commercial-at>

[
]
{
}
\
|

!
#
|
v
$
@

vertical-tab character. A character that in the output

stream indicates that printing should start at the next
vertical tabulation position. The vertical-tab is the
character designated by '\v' in the C or C++ languages.
If the current position is at or past the last defined
vertical tabulation position, the behavior is unspecified.
It is unspecified whether this character is the exact
sequence transmitted to an output device by the system
to accomplish the tabulation. X/Open. This character is
named <vertical-tab> in the portable character set.
virtual address space. In virtual storage systems, the
virtual storage assigned to a batched or terminal job, a
system task, or a task initiated by a command.
virtual function. A function of a class that is declared
with the keyword virtual. The implementation that is
executed when you make a call to a virtual function
depends on the type of the object for which it is called,
which is determined at run time.
Virtual Storage Access Method (VSAM). An access
method for direct or sequential processing of fixed and
variable length records on direct access devices. The
records in a VSAM data set or file can be organized in
logical sequence by a key field (key sequence), in the
physical sequence in which they are written on the data
set or file (entry-sequence), or by relative-record
number.

volatile attribute. (1) In the C or C++ language, the

keyword volatile, used in a definition, declaration, or
cast. It causes the compiler to place the value of the
data object in storage and to reload this value at each
reference to the data object. IBM. (2) An attribute of a
data object that indicates the object is changeable. Any
expression referring to a volatile object is evaluated
immediately (for example, assignments).

W
while statement. A looping statement that contains
the keyword while followed by an expression in
parentheses (the condition) and a statement (the
action). IBM.
white space. (1) Space characters, tab characters,
form-feed characters, and new-line characters. (2) A
sequence of one or more characters that belong to the
space character class as defined via the LC_CTYPE
category in the current locale. In the POSIX locale,
white space consists of one or more blank characters
(space and tab characters), new-line characters,
carriage-return characters, form-feed characters, and
vertical-tab characters. X/Open.
wide-character. A character whose range of values
can represent distinct codes for all members of the
largest extended character set specified among the
supporting locales.
wide-character code. An integral value corresponding
to a single graphic symbol or control code. X/Open.
wide-character string. A contiguous sequence of
wide-character codes terminated by and including the
first null wide-character code. X/Open.
wide-oriented stream. See orientation of a stream.

| word. A character string considered as a unit for a

| given purpose. In S/390, a word is 32 bits or 4 bytes.
working directory. Synonym for current working
directory.
writable static area. See WSA.
write. (1) To output characters to a file, such as
standard output or standard error. Unless otherwise
stated, standard output is the default output destination
for all uses of the term write. X/Open. (2) To make a
permanent or transient recording of data in a storage
device or on a data medium. ISO-JTC1. ANSI/ISO.
WSA (writable static area). An area of memory in the
program that is modifyable during program execution.
Typically, this area contains global variables and
function and variable descriptors for DLLs.

visible. Visibility of identifiers is based on scoping

rules and is independent of access.
Glossary

441

X
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|

XPLINK (Extra Performance Linkage). A new call

linkage between functions that has the potential for a
significant performance increase when used in an
environment of frequent calls between small functions.
XPLINK makes subroutine calls more efficient by
removing nonessential instructions from the main path.
When all functions are compiled with the XPLINK
option, pointers can be used without restriction, which
makes it easier to port new applications to S/390.

442

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

Bibliography
This bibliography lists the publications for IBM products that are related to the
OS/390 C/C++ product. It includes publications covering the application
programming task. The bibliography is not a comprehensive list of the publications
for these products, however, it should be adequate for most OS/390 C/C++ users.
Refer to OS/390 Information Roadmap, GC28-1727, for a complete list of
publications belonging to the OS/390 product.
Related publications not listed in this section can be found on the IBM Online
Library Omnibus Edition: MVS Collection CD-ROM (SK2T-0710), the IBM Online
Library Omnibus Edition: OS/390 Collection CD-ROM (SK2T-6700), or on a tape
available with OS/390.
|

OS/390
v OS/390 Introduction and Release Guide, GC28-1725
v OS/390 Planning for Installation, GC28-1726
v OS/390 Summary of Message Changes, GC28-1499

|
|
|
|
|
|

v OS/390 Information Roadmap, GC28-1727

OS/390 C/C++
v OS/390 C/C++ Programming Guide, SC09-2362
v OS/390 C/C++ Users Guide, SC09-2361

|
|
|
|
|

v
v
v
v
v

|
|
|
|
|
|
|

v Debug Tool Users Guide and Reference, SC09-2137

OS/390 Language Environment

v OS/390 Language Environment
v OS/390 Language Environment
v OS/390 Language Environment
SC28-1942
v OS/390 Language Environment
v OS/390 Language Environment
v OS/390 Language Environment

|
|
|
|
|
|
|

|
|

C/C++ Language Reference, SC09-2360

C/C++ Run-Time Library Reference, SC28-1663
C Curses, SC28-1907
C/C++ Compiler and Run-Time Migration Guide, SC09-2359
C/C++ Reference Summary, SX09-1313

v OS/390 C/C++ IBM Open Class Library Users Guide, SC09-2363

v OS/390 C/C++ IBM Open Class Library Reference, SC09-2364

|
|

OS/390
OS/390
OS/390
OS/390
OS/390

Concepts Guide, GC28-1945

Customization, SC28-1941
Debugging Guide and Run-Time Messages,
Programming Guide, SC28-1939
Programming Reference, SC28-1940
Run-Time Migration Guide, SC28-1944

v OS/390 Language Environment Writing Interlanguage Applications, SC28-1943

Assembler
v HLASM Language Reference, SC26-4940
v HLASM Programmers Guide, SC26-4941

443

COBOL
v
v
v
v

COBOL for OS/390 & VM Compiler and Run-Time Migration Guide, GC26-4764
Programming Guide, SC26-9049
Language Reference, SC26-9046
Diagnosis Guide, GC26-9047

v Licensed Program Specifications, GC26-9044

v Installation and Customization under OS/390, GC26-9045
v Millenium Language Extensions, GC26-9266

PL/I
v PL/I for MVS & VM Language Reference, SC26-3114
v PL/I for MVS & VM Programming Guide, SC26-3113
v PL/I for MVS & VM Compiler and Run-Time Migration Guide, SC26-3118

VS FORTRAN
v Language and Library Reference, SC26-4221
v Programming Guide, SC26-4222

CICS
v CICS Application Programming Guide, SC34-5702
v CICS Application Programming Reference, SC34-5703
v CICS Distributed Transaction Programming Guide, SC34-5708
v CICS Front End Programming Interface Users Guide, SC34-5710
v CICS Messages and Codes, GC33-5716
v CICS Resource Definition Guide, SC34-5722
v
v
v
v
v
v

CICS
CICS
CICS
CICS
CICS
CICS

System Definition Guide, SC34-5725

System Programming Reference, SC34-5726
Users Handbook, SX33-6116
Family: Client/Server Programming, SC34-1435
Transaction Server for OS/390 Migration Guide, GC34-5699
Transaction Server for OS/390 Release Guide, GC34-5701

v CICS Transaction Server for OS/390: Planning for Installation, GC34-5700

DB2
v DB2 Administration Guide, SC26-8957
v DB2 Application Programming and SQL Guide, SC26-8958
v DB2 Call Level Interface Guide and Reference, SC26-8959
v DB2 Command Reference, SC26-8960
v
v
v
v
v

DB2
DB2
DB2
DB2
DB2

Data Sharing: Planning and Administration, SC26-8961

Installation Guide, GC26-8970
Messages and Codes, GC26-8979
Reference for Remote DRDA Requesters and Servers, SC26-8964
SQL Reference, SC26-8966

v DB2 Utility Guide and Reference, SC26-8967

444

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

IMS/ESA
v
v
v
v

IMS/ESA Application
IMS/ESA Application
IMS/ESA Application
IMS/ESA Application
SC26-8726

v
v
v
v

Introducing QMF, GC26-9576

Using QMF, SC26-9578
Developing QMF Applications, SC26-9579
Reference, SC26-9577

Programming:
Programming:
Programming:
Programming:

Design Guide, SC26-8728

Transaction Manager, SC26-8729
Database Manager, SC26-8727
EXEC DLI Commands for CICS and IMS,

QMF

v Installing and Managing QMF on MVS, SC26-9575

v Messages and Codes, SC26-9580

DFSMS
v OS/390 DFSMS Introduction, SC26-7344
v OS/390 DFSMS: Managing Catalogs, SC26-7338
v
v
v
v

OS/390
OS/390
OS/390
OS/390

DFSMS: Using Data Sets, SC26-7339

DFSMS Macro Instructions for Data Sets, SC26-7337
DFSMS Access Method Services for Catalogs, SC26-7326
DFSMS Program Management, SC27-0806

Bibliography

445

446

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

INDEX
Special Characters
[ ] array subscript operators 141
decrement operator 143
? : conditional operators 161
/= compound assignment operator 164
*= compound assignment operator 164
&= compound assignment operator 164
+= compound assignment operator 164
\ continuation character 67, 216
== equal to operator 156
\ escape character 68
++ increment operator 143
&& logical AND operator 159
!= not equal to operator 156
?? trigraphs 54
+ addition operator 154
& address operator 145
__ANSI__ macro 226
__BFP__ macro 227
& bitwise AND operator 157
__cdecl 125
__CHARSET_LIB__ macro 227
, comma operator 165
/ division operator 153
double quotation mark 66
__EXTENDED__ macro 227
* indirection operator 145
! logical negation operator 144
* multiplication operator 153
# preprocessor directive character 216
# preprocessor operator 221
= simple assignment operator 163
bitwise negation operator 144
| (caret), locale 54
|= compound assignment operator 164
| bitwise exclusive OR operator 158
_Export keyword 127
>= greater than or equal to operator 155
>>= compound assignment operator 164
>> right-shift operator 154
> greater than operator 155
<= less than or equal to operator 155
<<= compound assignment operator 164
<< left-shift operator 154
< less than operator 155
_LONG_LONG macro 229
| (vertical bar), locale 54

Numerics
370 macro

232

A
abort function 386
abstract classes 355

access
base classes 342
constructors 317
declarations 287, 343
derived class 341
effective 346
exception handling 379
friends 304
inherited member 341
members 299
multiple 349
private 342
protected members 342
public 342
resolution 345
specifiers 300, 340, 342
summary example 347
virtual function 354
accessibility 299, 345, 349
additive operators
addition + 154
subtraction 154
address operator & 145
aggregate classes
constructors and destructors 317
description 278
aggregate operands 135
ALIAS compile option 259
aliasing, type-based 136
alignment rules
changing with #pragma pack 266
nested structures 114
structures 114
unions 119
allocation expressions 148
ambiguities
base classes 348, 350
conversions 169
resolving 202
virtual functions 353
AND operator (bitwise) & 157
AND operator (logical) && 159
anonymous
unions 118
unions in C 117
ANSI, implementation-defined behavior
ANSI aliasing 136
ANSI flagging 254
ANSI/ISO standards 401
ANSI macro 226
argc (argument count)
argument to main 183
in different environments 41
argument count 183
argument vector 183
arguments
best-matching 307
command line 36

401

447

arguments (continued)
const 308
default 189, 318
default initializers in templates
in a function call 184
matching 306
matching conversions 307
pass by reference 188
passing 41
template
matching 365, 368
nontype 363
type 360
to main function 36, 183
trivial conversions 308, 365
virtual functions 352
volatile 308
argv (argument vector)
argument to main 183
in different environments 41
restriction 41
arithmetic
conversions 170
operands 135
arrays
ANSI/ISO support 404
class members 288
declaring 101
operands 135
subscripting operators 141
overloading 313
arrow operator 142
ASCII character codes 69
assignment
memberwise 313
operators
copying classes 331
default for classes 331
overloading 312
assignment expression
compound 164
description 163
simple 163
associativity of operators 133
auto storage class specifier 75

358

B
base classes
abstract 355
access 341, 342
ambiguities 348, 350
description 338
direct 337, 347
indirect 337, 348
initialization 327, 329
multiple 347
multiple access 349
pointers to 340, 345, 352
virtual 348, 351
base list 338, 340, 348

448

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

base specifier 340

best-matching arguments 307
BFP macro 227
binary expression 152
binary operators
addition operator + 154
bitwise AND operator & 157
bitwise inclusive OR operator |
bitwise OR operator | 158
description 152
division operator / 153
equality operator == 156
greater than operator > 155
inequality operator != 156
left-shift operator << 154
less than operator < 155
logical AND operator && 159
logical OR operator || 160
multiplication operator * 153
overloading 311
remainder operator % 153
right-shift operator >> 154
subtraction operator () 154
binding
dynamic 338
static 338
virtual functions 351
bit fields 110, 288
ANSI/ISO support 404
bitwise operators
AND & 157
exclusive OR | 158
inclusive OR | 158
left-shift << 154
negation operator 144
right-shift >> 154
block
visibility 48
block scope
in C 37
in C++ 47
block scope data declarations
auto 75
description 72
register 83
static 83
block statement 196
boundaries, data 131
brackets [ ] 141
break statement 197

158

C
C and C++ differences 391
call, function 184
call scope 345
carriage return escape sequence \r 68
case label 210
cast
argument-matching conversions 307
expressions 146

cast (continued)
function style 320
catch
argument matching 379
exceptions 378
keyword 374
no match 386
char constant 65
char type specifier 87
character
constants 65
data types 87
escape sequence 68
set 53
string constant 66
chars pragma 243
CHARSET_LIB macro 227
checkout pragma 243
class key 278
class member access operators
argument-matching conversions 307
description 142
overloading 314
class member lists 287
class members 287
class names
description 279
scope 282
class object 74
class operands 135
class scope 48
class templates
declarations 362
definitions 362
description 361
friends 370
instantiation 361
member functions 369
static members 371
classes 335, 337
abstract 355
aggregate 278, 317
class
templates 360
class templates 360
class-type members 288
constructors 317
conversions 325
copying
by assignment 331
by initialization 332
restrictions 331
declarations 278
derivation 338
destructors 317
friends 301
incomplete declarations 282, 288, 338
inheritance 335
initialization 327
local 284
member access 299

classes 335, 337 (continued)

member functions 289
member lists 287
member scope 291
members 287
nested 283, 304, 344
objects 74
overloading
functions 305
operators 308, 311
overview 277
packing
using #pragma pack 266
scope 282
special member functions 317
static members 295
this pointer 293
virtual 351
virtual base 348
virtual member functions 351
COBOL linkage 257
CODESET macro 227
comma operator 165
command-line arguments
main function 36
passing 41
comment pragma 244
comments 56
COMMONC macro 227
COMPAT macro 227
compatible types 161
COMPILER_VER macro 227
complete class name 340
compound statement 196
conditional compilation
description 233
elif preprocessor directive 234
if preprocessor directive 234
ifdef preprocessor directive 235
ifndef preprocessor directive 235
conditional expression ? : 161
conditional statements
if 207
switch 210
const
arguments 308
qualifier 122
constant expression 139
constants
character 65
description 61
enumeration 92
escape sequence 68
escape sequences 68
fixed-point decimal 65
floating-point 63
integer 62
member functions 289
string 66
construction order
of class objects 319
INDEX

449

construction order (continued)

of derived class objects 330
constructors
construction order 319, 330
conversion by 326
copy 319, 331, 332
default 318, 329
derived class objects 330
description 318
exception handling 382
explicitly constructing objects 320
initialization by 327
initializer 329
overview 317
templates 362, 370
temporary objects 325
virtual 317
continuation character 67, 216
continue statement 199
control statements
break 197
continue 199
goto 206
return 208
conversion functions 326
conversions
ambiguous 169
arguments 307
arithmetic 170
cast 146
derived class 351
sequence 307
standard 167
trivial 308
user-defined
by constructor 326
conversion functions 326
convlit pragma 245
copy constructors 319, 331, 332
copy restrictions 331
copying class objects 331
csect pragma 246

D
data
abstraction 43
hiding 44
data members
description 288
scope 291
static 297
DATE macro 225
dbx 23
deallocation expression 151
debug tool 19
debugging
dbx 23
debug tool 19
decimal constant 63
decimal data type operators 148

450

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

declarations
access 343
class
description 278
incomplete 282, 288, 338
member 287
syntax 278
templates 362
description 71
file scope 72, 73
friend 301, 304
function 174
matching 305
resolving ambiguities 202
templates 367
in source files 34
matching 305
parameter 181
pointers to members 292
resolving ambiguous statements
template functions 367
declarators
array 101
character 87
description 121
floating-point 88
integer 91
member 287
pointer 95
restrictions 405
union 116
decrement operator 314
decrement operator () 143
default
arguments 317, 318
assignment operator 331
clause 210, 211
constructors 318, 329
copy constructors 332
initializers in templates 358
label 211
member access 301
define pragma 247
define preprocessor directive 217
defined unary operator 234
definitions
class templates 362
function templates 367
in source files 34
macro 217
member function 289
template classes 362
template functions 367
delete operator
description 151
free store 322
overloading 316
dereferencing operator 145
derived classes
access 341
access declarations 343

202

derived classes (continued)

base list 338, 340
catch block 379
construction order 330
description 338
initialization 327
pointers to 340, 345, 352
syntax 340
destructors
description 320
destruction order 321
exception handling 382
overview 317
thrown objects 321
virtual 317, 320
diagnostic messages 406
differences between C and C++ 391
digitsof operator 148
digraph characters 55
DIGRAPHS macro 227
direct base class 337, 347
directives 34
disjoint pragma 247
division operator (/) 153
DLL macro 227
DLLs (Dynamic Link Libraries)
#pragma export 248
do statement 201
dominant names 340
dot operator 142
double byte character set (DBCS)
comments 56
double precision
constants 63
variables 88
double type specifier 88
dynamic binding
in object-oriented programming 44
virtual functions 338

E
EBCDIC character codes 69
effective access 346
elaborated type specifier 282
elif preprocessor directive 234
ellipsis
argument-matching conversions
function call operator 313
in overloaded operator 311
type checking 181
user-defined conversions 307
else clause 207
else preprocessor directive 236
empty argument list 181
encapsulation 44
end of string 66
endif preprocessor directive 236
enum 91
enumeration
ANSI/ISO support 404

307

enumeration (continued)
enum data types 91
enumeration constant 92
operands 135
enumerator 92
environment
implementation-defined behavior
pragma 248
equal to operator == 156
equality operators
equal to == 156
not equal to != 156
error messages 238
error preprocessor directive 223
errors
ANSI/ISO support 406
message classes 406
escape character \ 68
escape sequence 68, 402
evaluation, expression 133
examples
cbc3raa 199
cbc3raa1 197
cbc3raa2 198
cbc3raa3 200
cbc3raa4 200
cbc3raa6 206
cbc3raa7 214
cbc3raa8 220
cbc3raa9 220
cbc3raaa 34
cbc3raab 35
cbc3raaf 76
cbc3raag 76
cbc3raai 82
cbc3raak 85
cbc3raam 100
cbc3raan 94
cbc3raao 105
cbc3raap 106
cbc3raaq 99
cbc3raas 113
cbc3raat 179
cbc3raau 182
cbc3raav 176
cbc3raaw 176
cbc3raax 187
cbc3raay 187
cbc3rabc 236
cbc3rabd 238
cbc3rabe 252
cbc3rabg 406
cbc3rabi 213
cbc3rah1 81
cbc3rah2 81
cbc3rah3 81
cbc3raj1 84
cbc3raj2 84
cbc3rmax 36
cbc3x02d 47
cbc3x02f 49

409

INDEX

451

examples (continued)
cbc3x02g 49
cbc3x02h 49
cbc3x02i 50
cbc3x02j 51
cbc3x02k 68
cbc3x02l 69
cbc3x06a 188
cbc3x06b 189
cbc3x06c 141
cbc3x07e 201
cbc3x08a 232
cbc3x08b 232
cbc3x08c 232
cbc3x10a 300
cbc3x10b 280
cbc3x10c 278
cbc3x10d 278
cbc3x10e 282
cbc3x11a 291
cbc3x11b 293
cbc3x11c 294
cbc3x11d 294
cbc3x11e 296
cbc3x11f 297
cbc3x11g 298
cbc3x11h 299
cbc3x11i 302
cbc3x11j 302
cbc3x12a 305
cbc3x12b 309
cbc3x12c 310
cbc3x12d 315
cbc3x12e 315
cbc3x13a 328
cbc3x14a 339
cbc3x14b 339
cbc3x14c 340
cbc3x14d 344
cbc3x14e 345
cbc3x14f 347
cbc3x14g 350
cbc3x15a 358
cbc3x15b 368
cbc3x16a 376
cbc3x16b 380
cbc3x16c 381
cbc3x16d 383
cbc3x16f 377
machine-readable 9
naming of 9
softcopy 9
exception handling
access 379
catching exceptions 378
constructors 382
destructors 382
exception specifications
empty 385
unexpected 385
order of catching 379

452

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

exception handling (continued)

overview 373
resumption model 376
rethrowing exceptions 380
special functions 386
syntax 374
termination model 376
throw 321
transferring control 376
exception specification syntax 384
exclusive OR operator (bitwise) | 158
explicit definitions
member function templates 369
template classes 364, 372
template functions 366
explicit initialization 327
explicit type conversions 146
exponent 64
exporting functions
with #pragma export 248
expressions
allocation 148
assignment 163
binary 152
cast 146
comma 165
conditional 161
constant 139
deallocation 151
description 133
evaluation of 133
list 327
lvalue 136
parenthesized 138
pointer-to-member 160
primary 137
resolving ambiguous statements 202
statement 202
throw 152
unary 142
EXTENDED macro 227
extern declaration 78
extern storage class specifier 77
external
declaration 36
linkage 39
names
length of 60
long name support 61
mapping 60
static 80
extraction operator 49

F
FETCHABLE preprocessor directive
field, bit 110
file inclusion 224
FILE macro 226
file scope
description 73

257

file scope (continued)

extern 77
in C 37
in C++ 48
in templates 369
static 83
files, implementation-defined behavior
FILETAG macro 228
filetag pragma 249
fixed-point decimal
constants 65
data type 89
float type specifier 88, 91
floating-point
constants 63
conversions 168
range 403
storage 403
variables
double 88
float 88
long double 88
for statement 203
formal exception handling 374
FORTRAN linkage 257
free store
delete operator 151
description 322
new operator 148
friends
access 304
description 301
member functions 289
nested classes 304
scope 303
templates 370
virtual functions 353
function call operator 313
function declarator 180
function-like macro 218
FUNCTION macro 228
function optimization 264
function scope
in C 37
in C++ 48
function style cast
constructing an object 320
function templates
description 365
friends 370
members 369
functions
argument conversions 308
body 182
calling functions 140, 184
conversion 326
declarations 174
declarator 180
default arguments 189
definitions 178
exception specifications 384

408

functions (continued)
friend 301
inline 194
main 36, 183
operator delete() 322
operator new() 322
overloading 305
overview 173
parameter 184
pointers to 192
polymorphic 338
prototypes 178
return statements 208
return values 191
specifiers 131, 194
template 365
virtual 289, 338, 351, 353
void 176

G
global variables 77
goto statement 206
greater than operator > 155
greater than or equal to operator >=

155

H
handler list 374
hdrstop pragma 249
hexadecimal constant 63
hexadecimal numbers as escape sequences
HHW370 macro 228
hidden
names 138, 280, 282
virtual functions 352
HOSMVS macro 228

I
IBMC macro 228
IBMCPP macro 228
identifiers
ANSI/ISO support 401
description 58
external names in OS/390 C/C++ 60
limits in names 61
linkage of 38
if preprocessor directive 234
if statement 207
ifdef preprocessor directive 235
ifndef preprocessor directive 235
IGNERRNO macro 228
implementation-defined behavior 401
implementation dependency
allocation of floating-point types 88
allocation of integral types 90
bit field length 111
class member allocation 288
order of argument passing 185
sign of char 87
INDEX

453

implementation dependency (continued)

size_t 316, 322
implementation pragma 250
implicit conversions 167
implicit declaration 174
include preprocessor directive 224
inclusive OR operator (bitwise) | 158
incomplete class declarations 282, 288, 338
increment operator ++ 143, 314
indentation of code 216
indirect base class 337, 348
indirection operator * 145
info pragma 250
inheritance
design using 337
graph 337, 348, 349
in object-oriented programming 44
multiple 336, 347
overview 335
single 335
INITAUTO macro 228
INITAUTO_W macro 229
initial expression 129
initialization
by constructor
base classes 329
explicit 327
members 329
by copying 332
member lists 317
members 288
static data members 298
initializers
array 102
character 87
constructors 327
description 129
floating 88
integer 91
structure 109
inline
functions
constructors 317
description 194
specifiers 131
keyword 194
member functions
description 290
template 370
pragma 251
input
operator 49
record 270
input/output overview 48
insertion operator 49
instantiation
member function templates 369
template classes 361, 371
template functions 368
int constant 62
int type specifier 91

454

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

integer
ANSI/ISO support 403
conversions 168
data types 90
floating-point constant 63
integer constants 62
integral
operands 135
promotions 167, 307
internal linkage 39
isolated_call pragma 253

K
keywords
__cdecl 125
_Export 127
description 59

L
label statement 195
langlvl pragma 254
leaves pragma for function calls 256
left-shift operator << 154
less than operator < 155
less than or equal to operator <= 155
library functions 405
LIBREL macro 229
limits
floating-point 403
integer 403
line continuation
escape sequence, as an 68
preprocessor directives, in 216
string constants, in 67
LINE macro 226
line preprocessor directive 237
linkage of identifiers 38
linkage pragma for interlanguage calls 256
linkage specifications 50
linking to non-C++ programs 50
literal 66
local
classes 284
scope 37, 47
type names 285
variables 37, 72
LOCALE macro 229
localization 410
logical AND operator && 159
logical negation operator ! 144
logical OR operator || 160
long double type specifier 88
long long
conversions 168
type specifier 90
long name support 61
long type specifier 90
LONGNAME compiler option 61
LONGNAME macro 229

longname pragma
loop statements
do 201
for 203
while 214
lvalue 136

258

M
macro
definition 217, 218
invocation 218
main function
description 183
parameters to 36
program execution 36
map pragma 259
margins pragma 261
matching arguments
description 306
exception handling 379
template functions 365, 368
member functions
constant 289
constructors 317
definition 289
description 289
destructors 317
inline 290
local classes 284
overloading operators 310
special 290, 317
static 299
templates 369
this pointer 293, 354
volatile 289
member lists 279, 287
member of a structure 108
members
access
default 301
inherited 341
public, private, and protected 300
arrays 288
class member access operators 142
class type 288
data 288
declaration 287
declarator 287
inherited 338
initialization 327, 329
initializer list 317
of classes 287
overloading class access operators 314
pointers to 160, 292
protected 342
scope 291
static 283, 295
virtual functions 289
memberwise assignment 313

memory
data mapping 131
management 409
MI_BUILTIN
macro 229
minus, unary operator 144
modifying access 343
modulo operator % 153
multibyte characters
ANSI/ISO support 402
overview 402
multiple
access 349
inheritance 336, 347
multiplicative operators
division / 153
multiplication * 153
remainder % 153
MVS (Multiple Virtual System)
macro 230
variable names 60

N
name spaces 40
names
class 279, 282
dominant 340
hidden 138, 280, 282
local type 285
types 385
naming
classes 40
external names 60
long names 60
negation operators
bitwise 144
logical ! 144
nested classes
access declarations 344
friend scope 304
scope 283
nested template arguments 361
nested try blocks 379
nested visibility 37
nesting level limits 407
new-line character
escape sequence \n 68
white space, as 216
new operator
description 148
free store 322
overloading 316
noinline pragma 251, 262
NOLONGNAME compiler option 61
nolongname pragma 258
nomargins pragma 261
nosequence pragma 270
not equal to operator != 156
Notices 411
null character \0 66
INDEX

455

NULL pointer 97, 168

null statement 208
number sign (#)
preprocessor directive character
preprocessor operator 221

216

O
object-like macro 217
objects
base class 348
class
copying 331
declarations 280
initialization 327
construction order 319
of class objects 319
of derived classes 330
constructors 318
conversion to 325
data abstraction 43
description 74
destruction order 321
destructors 318
explicitly constructing 320
temporary 192, 318, 321, 324
octal constant 63
octal numbers as escape sequences
ones complement operator 144
operator 221
operator delete() function 322
operator new() function 322
operators 221
.* (pointer-to-member) 160
:: (scope resolution) 138
. (dot) 142
->* (pointer-to-member) 160
-> (arrow) 142
additive
addition operator + 154
subtraction 154
assignment
compound 164
copying classes 331
default 331
description 163
overloading 312
simple = 163
associativity 133
binary 152, 311
bitwise AND & 157
bitwise exclusive OR | 158
bitwise inclusive OR | 158
bitwise shift
left-shift << 154
right-shift >> 154
comma 165
conditional ? : 161
delete
description 151
free store 322

456

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

operators 221 (continued)

delete (continued)
overloading 316
digitsof 148
equality
equal to == 156
not equal to != 156
logical AND && 159
logical OR || 160
multiplicative
division / 153
multiplication * 153
remainder % 153
new
description 148
free store 322
overloading 316
overloading
arrow 314
binary 311
description 308
dot 314
general rules 309
increment 314
restrictions 311
subscripting 313
unary 311
pointer-to-member 160, 292
precedence and associativity 133
precisionof 148
preprocessor
# 221
## 222
primary 137
array subscripting [ ] 141
relational
greater than > 155
greater than or equal to >= 155
less than < 155
less than or equal to <= 155
scope resolution 339, 346, 350, 353
unary 142
address operator & 145
bitwise negation operator 144
decrement operator 143
increment operator (++) 143
indirection operator * 145
logical negation operator ! 144
overloading 311
sizeof operator 146
unary minus operator () 144
unary plus operator (+) 144
optimization
controlling, using option_override pragma
granularity 264
inlining 251
option_override
pragma 264
options
compiler
overriding defaults 263

264

options (continued)
specifying 263
pragma 263
run-time 268
OR operator (logical) || 160
order
of catching exceptions 379
template declaration 362, 367
OS linkage 257
output operator 49
overloading
functions
access declarations 345
argument matching 306
arguments 307
declaration matching 305
restrictions 306
operators
argument matching 306
assignment 312
class member access 314
decrement 314
delete 316, 322, 324
description 308
function call 313
general rules 309
increment 314
member functions 310
new 316, 322
operands 310
restrictions 311
subscript 313
resolution for template functions 365
special operators 312
overriding virtual functions 352, 354

P
pack pragma 266
packed
assignments and comparisons 164
structures 112, 185
unions 116, 185
Packed qualifier 124
page pragma 267
pagesize pragma 267
parameter declaration list 181
parameter passing 184
parameters, to main function 36
parentheses
for calling functions 140
for grouping expressions 138
passing a value 186
passing an address 186
passing an argument by reference 188
phases of preprocessing 216
PL/I linkage 257
placement syntax 149, 322
plus, unary operator 144
pointer-to-member
conversions 169

pointer-to-member (continued)
declarations 292
operators 160
pointers
arrays 404
conversions 168
description 95
this 293
to functions 192
to members 160, 292
polymorphism 44, 338, 340
portability issues 401
POSIX 399
pound sign (#)
preprocessor directive character 216
preprocessor operator 221
pragma definitions
define 247
implementation 250
info 250
noinline 262
priority 267
pragma directives
csect 246
exporting functions and variables 248
leaves 256
linkage 256
reachable 268
runopts 268
variable 273
wsizeof 273
pragmas
chars 243
checkout 243
comment 244
convlit 245
csect 246
define 247
disjoint 247
environment 248
filetag 249
hdrstop 249
implementation 250
info 250
inline 251
IPA considerations 242
isolated_call 253
langlvl 254
leaves 256
linkage 256
longname 258
map 259
margins 261
noinline 251, 262
nolongname 258
nomargins 261
nosequence 270
option_override 264
options 263
pack 266
page 267
INDEX

457

pragmas (continued)
pagesize 267
priority 267
reachable 268
runopts 268
sequence 270
skip 271
strings 271
subtitle 271
target 272
title 273
variable 273
wsizeof 273
precedence of operators 133
precisionof operator 148
predefined macros
_LONG_LONG 229
370 232
ANSI 226
BFP 227
CHARSET_LIB 227
CODESET 227
COMMONC 227
COMPAT 227
COMPILER_VER 227
DATE 225
DIGRAPHS 227
DLL 227
EXTENDED 227
FILE 226
FILETAG 228
FUNCTION 228
HHW370 228
HOSMVS 228
IBMC 228
IBMCPP 228
IGNERRNO 228
INITAUTO 228
INITAUTO_W 229
LIBREL 229
LINE 226
LOCALE 229
LONGNAME 229
MI_BUILTIN 229
MVS 230
SAA 230
SAAL2 230
STDC 226
STRING_CODE_SET 230
TARGET_LIB 230
TEMPINC 231
THW370 231
TIME 226
TIMESTAMP 231
TOSMVS 231
XPLINK 232
preprocessing, phases of 216
preprocessor directive character
preprocessor directives
## operator 222
# operator 221

458

preprocessor directives (continued)

ANSI/ISO support 405
conditional compilation 233
define 217
else 236
endif 236
error 223
format of 216
include 224
line control 237
pragma 238
undef 221
preprocessor operator
# 221
## 222
primary expression 137
priority pragma 267
private keyword 300, 342
program, running 36
program entry point 183
program linkage 38
promotions (integral) 167, 307
protected keyword 300, 330
protected member access 342
prototype 178
public derivation 342
public keyword 300, 330, 342
pure specifier 288, 289, 320, 353, 355

Q
qualified
class name 138
type name 283
qualifiers
_Packed 124
const 122
volatile 122

216

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

reachable pragma for function calls 268

record
margins 261
sequence numbers 270
recursive function calls 140
reentrant variables 273
references
conversions 169
description 131
initialization 132
pass by reference 188
return types 192
scope 345
temporary objects 325
registers
ANSI/ISO support 404
storage class specifier 83
relational operators
greater than > 155
greater than or equal to >= 155

relational operators (continued)

less than < 155
less than or equal to <= 155
remainder operator % 153
restoring access 343
resumption model 376
rethrowing exceptions 380
return statement 191, 208
return types
description 191
references 192
return values 176, 191
right-shift operator >> 154
running, starting point 36
runopts pragma 268
runtime options 268

S
SAA macro 230
SAAL2 macro 230
scalar operands 135
scope
block 37
call 345
class names 282
description 37, 47
file 37
friend 303
function 37
local classes 284
member 291
nested classes 283
reference 345
scope resolution operator
ambiguous base classes 350
class member access 346
description 138
inheritance 339
virtual functions 353
sequence pragma 270
set_new_handler() library function 150
set_terminate() library function 386
set_unexpected() library function 386
shift operators (<< and >>) 154
shift states 402
short type specifier 90
signal
function 407
handler 375
signed char type specifier 87
signed int 90
signed long 90
signed long long 90
simple assignment operator = 163
simple I/O 48
single inheritance 335
sizeof operator 146
skip pragma 271
source
files 35

source (continued)
program 34
margins 261
variable names 60
space character 216
special functions
member functions 290, 317
used in exception handling 386
specifications
exception 384
linkage 50
specifiers
access 300, 340, 342
base 340
class 278
declaration 287
inline 131, 194
pure 288, 289
virtual 131
splice preprocessor directive ## 222
standard conversions 167
statements
ANSI/ISO support 405
block 196
break 197
continue 199
do 201
expression 202
for 203
goto 206
if 207
labels 195
null 208
overview 195
resolving ambiguities 202
return 191, 208
switch 210
while 214
static
binding 44, 338
data members 297
initialization of data members 298
member functions 299
members 283, 295
storage class specifier 83
STDC macro 226
storage class specifiers
auto 75
extern 77
register 83
static 83
storage duration 40
storage of variables 131
streams 408
string
constants 66
conversion 402
literals 66
STRING_CODE_SET macro 230
strings pragma 271
struct type specifier 108
INDEX

459

structures
ANSI/ISO support 404
packing
using _Packed qualifier 112
using #pragma pack 266
subdeclarator 122
subscript declarator
description 122
in arrays 101
subscript operator
overloading 313
subscripts 141
subtitle pragma 271
subtraction operator 154
supporting ANSI/ISO 401
switch statement 210
syntax diagrams, how to read 10

T
tab character
horizontal escape sequence \t 68
vertical escape sequence \v 68
white space, as 216
TARGET_LIB macro 230
target pragma 272
TEMPINC macro 231
template classes
declaration 362
definition 362
description 361
explicit definition 364, 372
instantiation 371
template functions
declarations 367
definitions 367
description 365
explicit definition 366
grouping definitions of 366
instantiation 368
overloading resolution 365
templates
#pragma define 247
#pragma implementation 250
argument
list 358, 360
nested list 361
nontype 363
class templates 360
constructors 362, 370
declaration 357
default initializers 358
friends 370
function templates 365
identifier 358
member functions 369
pragma define 247
pragma implementation 250
static data members 371
syntax 357
temporary objects 192, 318, 321, 324

460

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

terminate function 386

termination model 376
this pointer 293, 307, 354
throw
argument matching 379
expression 152, 374, 379
keyword 374
point 376
rethrowing exceptions 380
THW370 macro 231
time 410
TIME macro 226
TIMESTAMP macro 231
title pragma 273
TMP_MAX macro 408
tmpnam() library function 408
tokens 53, 215
TOSMVS macro 231
translation limits 407
trigraphs 54
trivial conversions 308
try
blocks 374
keyword 374
nested blocks 379
type
data mapping 131
type-based aliasing 136
type checking 181
type declarations
array 101
character 87
enumerations 91
fixed-point decimal 89
floating-point 88
functions 178
integer 90
pointer 95
scalar 87
structure 107
typedef 85
union 114
void 100
type names
exception specification syntax
local 285
scope 47
type qualifiers
_Packed 124
const 122
volatile 122
type specifier
(long) double 88
char 87
enumeration 91
float 88
int 90, 91
long 90
long long 90
short 90
union 116

385

type specifier (continued)

unsigned 90
typedef specifier
class declaration 285
description 85
linkage 258
local type names 285
pointers to members 293
qualified type name 283
restrictions on overloaded functions
types
aggregate classes 278
conversions 146, 167
data abstraction 43

U
unary expression 142
unary minus operator 144
unary operators
address operator (&) 145
bitwise negation operator 144
decrement operator () 143
increment operator ++ 143
indirection operator * 145
logical negation operator ! 144
minus 144
overloading 311
plus 144
sizeof operator 146
unary plus operator (+) 144
undef preprocessor directive 221
underscores in identifiers 60
unexpected() library function 384
unexpected function 386
union specifier 115
unions
anonymous in C 117
anonymous in C++ 118
ANSI/ISO support 404
constructors and destructors 317
member destructors 320
packing
using _Packed qualifier 116
using #pragma pack 266
unsigned char type specifier 87
unsigned int type specifier 90
unsigned long long type specifier 90
unsigned long type specifier 90
unsigned short type specifier 90
unsigned type specifier 90
user-defined
conversions 307, 325
types 277

306

variables (continued)
block scope data declarations 72
character 87
enumeration 91
file scope data declarations 73
floating-point 88
integer 90
local 37
names 60
pointer 95
storage of 131
structure 107
union 114
virtual
base classes 348, 351
destructors 317
function specifier 131
functions
access 354
ambiguous calls to 353
description 351
dynamic binding 338
hidden 352
overriding 352, 354
pure 355
keyword 340
member functions 289
visibility
block 37, 48
class members 299
description 37
nested 37
void 100
void function 176
volatile
keyword 308
member functions 289
qualifier 122

W
wchar_t 66
while statement 214
white space 56, 215, 216, 221
wide character constant 66
wide characters
ANSI/ISO support 402
wsizeof pragma 273

X
XPLINK macro

232

V
variable arguments 181
variable pragma 273
variables
array 101
INDEX

461

462

OS/390 V2R10.0 C/C++ Language Reference

Printed in the United States of America

SC09-2360-05

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