What is Ethernet ?

Answer: Ethernet is described as IEEE 802.3 standard. It uses Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision
Detection (CSMA/CD) access method and supports speeds up to 100 Gbps. It can use coaxial, twisted pair and fiber
optic cables. Ethernet uses frames to with source and destination MAC addresses to deliver data.

Router
A router is specialized computer connected to more than one network. It runs
software that allows it to move data from one network to another. Routers operate
at the network layer (OSI Model - Layer 3). The primary function of a router is to
connect networks together and keep Layer 2 broadcast traffic under control. There
are several companies that make routers: Cisco, Juniper, Nortel (Bay
Networks), Redback, Lucent, 3Com, and HP just to name a few.
WHY IS A ROUTER NECESSARY?

Routers perform the following functions:

Restrict network broadcasts to the local LAN
Act as the default gateway.
Move data between networks
1. Routing
2. Protocol Translation
Best Path Calculations
Route Advertisement

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OSI Model:
The Open Systems Interconnect Model (the OSI Model) is a theoretical model
of networking that organizes network functions into seven layers. OSI (Open
Systems Interconnection) model was created by the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO), an international standard-setting body. It was designed to be
a reference model for describing the functions of a communication system.
The International Standards Organization (ISO) developed a theoretical model of
how networks should behave and how they are put together. This model is called
the Open Standards Interconnect (OSI) Model. The "ISO OSI Model" was developed
because it appeared that IBM was going to patent the design of their SNA networks

so that no one else could use IBM's design model for networking. The ISO OSI model
is used throughout the network, internet and telecom industries today to describe
various networking issues. The OSI model is also of use in a learning or training
environment where a novice can use it as a point of reference to learn how various
technologies interact, where they reside, what functions they perform and how each
protocol communicates with other protocols.
History of OSI model:
physical layer
datalink layer
network layer
transport layer
session layer
presentation layer
application layer
Note: important things we must know about OSI model:

The
The
The
The

OSI
OSI
OSI
OSI

Model
Model
Model
Model

is
is
is
is

a theoretical model
not a technology.
not a protocol.
not a program or software.

1. Application Layer: this layer is the closest to the user. It enables network
applications to communicate with other network applications. The OSI application
layer is responsible for displaying data and images to the user in a humanrecognizable format and to interface with the presentation layer below it.
Examples of applications that utilize the network are:

Telnet
FTP
Instant Message software (AIM, MSN, ICQ, Yahoo)
Microsoft Windows File Shares
Web Browsers (Internet Explorer, Firefox, Google Chrome, Safari)
Network games of Doom, Quake, Unreal (first-person 3D shooter video
games)
IRC (mIRC)

2. presentation layer :

The presentation layer handles the conversion of data

between a Standards-based or platform independent formats to a format understood by the

local machine. This allows for data to be transported between devices and still be
understood. or In short we can say that this layer defines data formats. Compression and
encryption are defined at this layer.

The presentation layer performs the folowing functions:

Communication with the application layer above.

Translation of data conforming to cross-platform standards into formats
understood by the local machine.
Communication with the session layer below.

Examples of Presentation Layer Functions

Conversion
Conversion
Conversion
Conversion

of
of
of
of

a Sun .RAS raster graphic to JPG.

ASCII to IBM EBCDIC
.PICT on a MAC to .jpg
.wav to .mp3

3. Session defines how to establish and terminate a session between the two systems.
The session layer tracks connections, also called sessions. The session layer should keep
track of multiple file downloads requested by a particular FTP application, or multiple telnet
connections from a single terminal client, or web page retrievals from a web server.
With TCP/IP this functionality is handled by application software addressing a connection to
a remote machine and using a different local port number for each connection.
The session layer performs the following functions:
1. Communication with the Presentation layer above.
2. Organize and manage one or more connections per application, between hosts.
3. Communication with the Transport layer below.

4. Transport layer : Establishes and terminates connections between two computers. Used for

flow control and data recovery. The transport layer may use a variety of techniques such as
a Cyclic Redundancy Check, windowing and acknowledgements. If data is lost or damaged it
is the transport layer's responsibility to recover from that error.
1.

Communicate with the Session layer above.

2.

Reassemble transport Protocol Data Units into data streams

3.

Reliable protocols operating at this layer will

Detect errors and lost data

Recover lost data

Manage retransmission of data.

4.

Segmentation of data streams into transport Protocol Data Units.

5.

Communicate with the Network layer below.

Examples of transport layer protocols include:

Transmission Control Protocol (Reliable)
User Datagram Protocol (Unreliable)

5. Network layer: It is the network layer's job to figure out the network topology,
handle routing and to prepare data for transmission. Or defines device addressing, routing, and
path determination. Device (logical) addressing is used to identify a host on a network (e.g. by its IP address).

The network layer is concerned with the following primary functions:

Communication with the Transport layer above.

Encapsulation of Transport data into Network layer Protocol Data Units.
Management of connectivity and routing between hosts or networks.
Communication with the data link layer below.

Examples of network layer protocols include:

Internet Protocol
Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP or "ping")
Internet Gateway Management Protocol (IGMP)
IPX/SPX

6. Data Link The data link Layer is the second layer of the OSI model. It encapsulates a
packet in a frame. A frame contains a header and a trailer that enable devices to
communicate. A header, most commonly, contains a source and a destination MAC
address. A trailer contains the Frame Check Sequence field, which is used to detect
transmission errors.
The data link layer performs various functions depending upon the hardware
protocol used, but has four primary functions:

COMMUNICATION WITH NETWORK LAYER

SEGMENTATION & REASSEMBLY
BIT ORDERING
COMMUNICATION WITH PHYSICAL LAYER

The data link layer has two sublayers:

1. Logical Link Control used for flow control and error detection
2. Media Access Control used for hardware addressing and controlling the access
method

EXAMPLE :
Ethernet Network Adaptors uses a Media Access Control (MAC) address, which is a
physical address that (somewhat) uniquely identifies a network card to the physical
network. The Ethernet Adaptor's primary job at the data link layer is to
transmit Ethernet frames onto the wire. It places its own MAC address in the frame,
followed by the destination MAC address to which it wishes to communicate, sets
various other values in the Ethernet frame (protocol type etc.) and then transmits
on the wire. The CSMA/CD protocol that Ethernet uses to control access to the
common network bus could be said to occur at the data link layer of the OSI model
or could also be called a data link function.

7. Physical Layer:
defines how to move bits from one device to another. It details how cables, connectors and
network interface cards are going to work and how to send and receive bits.
The Physical Layer receives data from the data link Layer, and transmits it to the wire.
The physical layer controls the electrical and mechanical functions related to the
transmission and receipt of a communications signal. It also manages the encoding and
decoding of data contained within the modulated signal.

The physical layer is responsible for:

Communication with the data link layer above it.

Fragmentation of data into frames
Reassembly of frames into data link Protocol Data Units.
Transmission to the physical media
Receiving from the physical media

It should be noted that in most modern network interface adaptors,

the physical and data link functions are performed by the adaptor.

Example Physical Protocols

CSMA/CD - Carrier Sense Multiple Access / Collision Detect

CSMA/CA - Carrier Sense Multiple Access / Collision Avoid
FDMA - Frequency Division Multiple Access
MSK - Minimum Shift Keying
GFMSK - Gaussian-Fitered Minimum Shift Keying
TDMA - Time Division Multiple Access
CDMA - Code Division Multiple Access
B8ZS - Binary 8 Zero Substitution
2B1Q - 2 Binary 1 Quaternary
PCM - Pulse Code Modulation
QAM - Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
PSK - Phase Shift Keying
SONET - Synchronous Optical NETworking

---------------------

TCP/IP Model: The TCP/IP model was created in the 1970s by the Defense Advance Research Project
Agency (DARPA). Like the OSI model, it describes general guidelines for designing and implementing computer
protocols.

The TCP/IP network model breaks down into four (4) layers:

Application Layer
Transport Layer
Internet Layer
Network Access Layer

Application Layer :
The Application Layer provides the user with the interface to communication. This
could be your web browser, e-mail client (Outlook, Eudora or Thunderbird), or a file
transfer client.
The Application Layer is where your web browser, a telnet, ftp, e-mail or
other client application runs.
The Transport Layer provides the means for the transport of data segments across
the Internet Layer. The Transport Layer is concerned with end-to-end (host-to-host)
communication.
Transmission Control Protocol : Transmission Control
Protocol provides reliable, connection-oriented transport of data between two
endpoints (sockets) on two computers that use Internet Protocol to communicate.

User Datagram Protocol : User Datagram

Protocol provides unreliable, connectionless transport of data between two

endpoints (sockets) on two computers that use Internet Protocol to communicate.
The Transport Layer sends data to the Internet layer when transmitting and sends
data to the Application Layer when receiving.

Difference between TCP/IP model and OSI model