Data Structures Using C++

Data Structures and Algorithms
Lecturer: Dr. Junbin Gao

Contents
1 Abstract Data Types 1
1.1 Review on C++ Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.2 Basic Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2 C++ Classes 8
2.1 Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.2 Constructors and Destructors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.3 Functions and Class Member Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.4 Constant and Static Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.5 Operator Overloading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3 The Bag Class 21
3.1 The Bags . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

3.2 Class Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.3 General Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
4 The Sequence Class 28
4.1 The Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

4.2 The Design of Sequence Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
4.3 The Implementation of Sequence Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
5 Pointers and Dynamic Arrays 33
5.1 Pointers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
5.2 Arrays and Array Pointers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
5.3 Function Pointers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
CONTENTS ii
6 Dynamic Implementation of Container Classes 39
6.1 The Bag Class with A Dynamic Array . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

6.2 General Rules for Class with Pointer Member . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
7 Linked Lists and Their Applications 45
7.1 Lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
7.2 General Linked Lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
7.3 Application: Large Integers & Lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
8 More About Linked Lists 52
8.1 Other Techniques for Lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

8.2 One More Example: Binary Encoding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
9 Templates 55
9.1 Template Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

9.2 Template Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
9.3 Applying Template Classes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
10 Templates and Iterators 62
10.1 Node Template Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

10.2 STL and Their Iterators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
10.3 Node Iterator — Linked List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
11 Complexity Analysis of Algorithms 67
11.1 big-oh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
11.2 Main Properties of big-oh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
11.3 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
12 Recursion and Iteration 73
12.1 Recursive Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

12.2 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
12.3 Recursion vs. Iteration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
12.4 Backtracking Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
CONTENTS iii
13 Algorithms for Search 81
13.1 Why Search? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

13.2 Sequential Search . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
13.3 Binary Search . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
13.4 Alternative Binary Search . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
13.5 Pros and Cons of Searching Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
14 Hashing and Complexity 89
14.1 Hashing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
14.2 Hash Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
14.3 Collision Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
14.4 Bucket Technique and Chained Addressing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
15 Stacks and Their Application 98
15.1 Stack Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

15.2 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
16 Queues and Their Application 102
16.1 Queues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

16.2 Queue Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
17 Dynamic Queues 107
17.1 Linked List Implementation of a Queue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

17.2 Priority Queues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
18 Trees and Binary Trees 111
18.1 The Tree Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

18.2 Tree Representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
18.3 Traversing Binary Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
19 Binary Search Trees and B-Trees 118
19.1 Binary Search Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

19.2 Main Operations on Binary Search Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
19.3 B-Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
19.4 The Set Class for B-tree Nodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
CONTENTS iv
19.5 B-tree Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
20 Quadratic Sorting 127
20.1 Concepts Related to Sorting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

20.2 Insertion Sort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
20.3 Selection Sort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
20.4 Comparing Insertion and Selection Sort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
21 Recursive Sorting 135
21.1 Mergesort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

21.2 Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
21.3 Quicksort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
22 Heap Sort 144
22.1 Complete Binary Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144

22.2 Heaps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
22.3 Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
22.4 Characteristics of Heapsort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
23 Graphs 152
23.1 Graph Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152

23.2 Graph Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
23.3 Member Functions for a Graph Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
24 Algorithms for Graphs 157
24.1 Graph Traversals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

24.2 Path Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Chapter 1
Abstract Data Types
This chapter marks an important step in your exploration of computer science. Up to this point,
it has been difficult to divorce your study of computer science from the learning of C++. You have
developed problem-solving skills, but the problems we have encountered have been very focused.
That is, the problems were chosen specifically to illustrate a particular feature of C++. This is the
way problem-solving skills must be developed: Start with small problems and work toward large
ones.
By now, you are familiar with many features of the C++ programming language. You are ready
to direct your attention toward larger, more complex problems that require you to integrate many of
the particular skills you have developed. Now our attention will be directed more toward issues of
algorithm design and data structure and less toward describing C++. If we need a particular feature
of C++ that you have not yet learned, we will introduce it when appropriate.
1.1 Review on C++ Programming

1.1.1 Good Programming Practices
Defensive Programming (Robustness): A program ...
• should not crash on incorrect input/should always check input for correctness.
• should always check the returned value of new operator (trying to access a null pointer
will cause your program to crash)
• should always crash gracefully (i.e. with error message, not segmentation fault).
User Interface: A program ...
• should use cin and cout for user interface.
• always prompt the user for input. For instance,
cout << "Enter an integer value: ";

cin >> i;
• always annote your output. For example,
cout << "The value of i is: " << i << endl;
Programming Style: A program should ...
• be one statement per line.

• use descriptive variable and function names.
• use uppercase and lowercase letters to improve readability.
int arraySum(int* array, int length);
• use #define statements for constant definitions.
#define MAX_LENGTH 20
#define MONTHS_IN_YEAR 12
• use a clear and uniform indentation scheme.
#include <iostream.h>
int main() {
int num;
cout << "Enter an integer: ";
cin >> num;
if (num == 10)
cout << "The number is 10" << endl;
else
cout << "The number is not 10" << endl;
}
Program Documentation: always write comments or documents for programs.
1.1.2 Object Oriented Paradigm

Object-oriented programming (OOP) is a programming paradigm that takes the abstract data
model to a higher level of abstraction. In OOP, an object is an entity consisting of a data struc-
ture and its associated operations or methods.
The three main characteristics of OOP are encapsulation, inheritance and polymorphism.
• Encapsulation is combining the data and methods that manipulate the data in one place
— an object. All processing for an object is bundled together in a library and hidden from
the user.
• Inheritance is the ability to define an object as a descendant of an existing object.
• Polymorphism occurs when a single method name, used up and down the hierarchy of
objects, acts in an appropriate—possibly different—way for each object.
1.2 Basic Concepts

1.2.1 Abstract Data Types (ADT)
A data type consists of two parts, a set of data items and fundamental operations on this set.
We can see that the integer type consists of values (whole numbers in some defined range) and
operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication and division etc).
When using an ADT we need only worry about what each operation does, not how.
A Data Structure is an aggregation of simple and composite data type into a set with defined
relationship. The structure means a set of rules that hold the data together. In other words, if
we take a combination of data types and fit them into a structure such that we can define its
relating rules, we have made a data structure.
The examples: Array and Record.
An Algorithm is a precise, step-by-step method of doing a task in a finite amount of time.
1.2.2 Data Types in C++

Primary types:
long int l = 0xABCDEF01L;

char c;
double d;
Pointers:
char *cp = "Hello";

short *sp;
Enumerated types:
enum weeks {SUN, MON, TUE, WED, THU, FRI, SAT};

week Today = MON;
Boolean Data Type: C++ provided a new built-in data type called bool (boolean type). A
boolean type variable takes one of only two constant values true and false.
bool GuessIt;
GuessIt = true;
Structures:
struct person {
int age;
char *firstName;
char *lastName;
};
person bob = {33, "Bob", "Smith"};
Unions:
union charOrInt {
char c;
int i;
};
charOrInt coi = {’a’}, coi2 = {10};

coi2.c = coi.c;
Arrays:
person people[10];
int a[] = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
1.2.3 Pointers in C++

A pointer does not hold any data but instead holds the address of memory location of data. Care
should be taken to make sure that a pointer does actually point to data of the correct type.
Failure to do so may result in a segmentation fault.
Incorrect use of pointers can result in your program crashing.
Pointer examples:
int *iptr;
char *cptr;
1.2.4 Constant pointers

In C++ a constant variable is a variable whose value can’t be changed. For pointers the idea
of constants is more complex because we must specify whether it is the pointer itself that is
constant, or the data it points to.
Four different types of constant pointers:
• non-constant pointer to non-constant data
int* p = &i;
• non-constant pointer to constant data
const int* p = &i;
• constant pointer to non-constant data
int* const p = &i;
• constant pointer to constant data
const int* const p = &i;
This can be extended to pointers to pointers, etc.
const int* const* const pp = &p;
You can read the above definition as
const int* (const* (const pp)) = &p;
which means that pp is a constant pointer pointing to a pointer whose type is constant pointer
to a constant int variable. Complicated?? Yes ...
1.2.5 Example: Swap using pointers

Incorrect version:
void swap(int a, int b) {

int tmp = a;
a = b;
b = tmp;
}
Why? The swap function exchanges the values of local copies of its arguments a and b other
than themselves. Please read and run this program at http://turing.une.edu.au/˜comp282/Le
ctures/Lecture 01/Examples/test swap.cpp
The default initialization method of argument passing in C++ is to copy the values of argu-
ments into the storage of the parameters. This referred to as pass-by-value.
Under pass-by-value, the function never accesses the arguments of the call. The values that
function manipulates are its own local copies; they are stored on the run-time stack. When
function terminates, these values are lost.
Correct version with pointers:
template <class T>

void swap(T *x, T *y) {
T temp = *x;
*x = *y;
*y = temp;
}
Now the values have been exchanged. See the program http://turing.une.edu.au/˜comp282/Lec
tures/Lecture 01/Examples/test refswap.cpp
1.2.6 Pass By Reference

C++ provides us with another way of passing addresses to functions via the use of reference
variables. These variables act like pointers but don’t look like them.
Examples:
int i;
int &iref = i; // Reference variable
Pass-by-reference is the technique of making a variable accessible to a function by passing its

address.
A correct swap function using call-by-reference:
void swap(int &a, int &b) {

int tmp = a;
a = b;
b = tmp;
}
When the parameters are references, the function receives the lvalue of the argument rather
than a copy of its value. This means that the function knows where the argument resides in
memory and can therefore change its value or take its address.
Any use of the pass-by-reference parameter within the body of the function will access the
argument in the calling program
Pass-by-reference is one of very powerful ways in passing values to a function. It has the sim-
ilar definition format as the pass-by-value, but its functioning is more likely to that of pointer
version.
If the function does not change the value of the argument within the body of the function, for
the sake of security you can declare the parameter type as const reference parameter. For example
int difference(const int & p1, const int &p2);
1.2.7 new & delete Operators

We use the new and delete operators to allocate and free memory in C++. C programmers
can think of these as malloc and free in C respectively.
The new operator allocates memory for any type including arrays and returns a pointer to the
desired type.
In other words, the new operator creates a new dynamic variable of any types. The dynamic
variable does not have any identifiers or names but we know the address of the variable
through the returned appointer to the variable.
The creation of new dynamic variables is called memory allocation and the memory is dynamic
memory.
The dynamic variables created by the new operator must be freed or destroyed by the delete
operator explicitly. It is desired for you always to destroy the dynamic memory if you don’t
want it any more or before terminating the program.
The delete operator frees memory for all types except arrays.
For arrays, we must use the delete[] operator.
Examples:
int *iptr = new int;

int *iiptr = new int(1024);
// Put an initial value in the dynamic variable
char *cptr = new char[1024];
delete iptr;
delete iiptr;
delete [] cptr;
Chapter 2
C++ Classes
2.1 Classes
2.1.1 Concept of C++ class
C++ classes are similar to structures in C, with the main difference being that classes can have
functions, or methods, as well as variables, or data members in their definitions.
The other main difference is that classes use the technique of information hiding to avoid incor-
rect use of the class. This is done via the public, private and protected key words.
A class can be considered a type, whereas an object is an instance of a class. For example, the
primary type int of C++ is a class, any variables declaration as int type can be considered
as int objects. In the following small section of pseudo-code, Date is a class, and dObj is an
object.
class Date {
...
//Definition
...
};
Date dObj;
In C++ the class and struct keywords are interchangeable.
The class technique of C++ is a good tool used for implementing the concept of abstract data
types in data structures
2.1.2 A Class Outline

The general syntax of declaring a class
2 C++ Classes 9
class class_name {
public:
Function prototypes that can be used
outside the class
......
private:
Type definitions and member declarations
accessible only inside the class
......
};
A class declaration consists of three parts:
1. The class head: includes the C++ keyword class and the name of the new class
2. The public section: begins with the C++ keyword public followed by a colon. A list of
items appears after the colon. These are items that are made available to anyone who uses
the new data type.
3. The private section: begins with the C++ keyword private followed by a colon. After a
colon is a list of items that are part of the class but are not directly available to program-
mers who use the class.
2.1.3 Example Class and Its Usage

Let us define a class
class Card {
public:
Card(face_t f = ace,
suit_t s = hearts); // constructors
Card(const Card &c);
Card &operator=
(const Card &c); // operator
˜Card(); // destructor
face_t getFace() const; // methods

suit_t getSuit() const;
private:
face_t face; // data members
suit_t suit;
};
2 C++ Classes 10
Then we use this class just like using the standard type int
Card c;
Card *cp = new Card(c);
2.2 Constructors and Destructors

2.2.1 Constructors
Constructors are used to initialize an object. They are called automatically whenever a new
object is created. If no constructor is given, the compiler will automatically generate a default
one.
Constructors always have the same name as the class, and never have a return type (not even
void: you must not write void at the front of the constructor’s head).
Constructors are declared like other methods with the above differences.
You may declare as many constructors as you like — one for each different way of initializing
an object.
Two special constructors:
1. Default constructor: If you write a class with no constructors, then the compiler auto-
matically creates a simple default constructor. This automatic default constructor doesn’t
do much work. It is a good way to write your own constructors even your own default
constructor, rather than depending on the automatic default constructor. Your own con-
structor is the one which is used by programmers to declare a variable of the class without
having to provide any arguments for the constructor.
2. Copy constructor: Copy constructor is a special member function which will be called
when the program creates a new object through object assignment or assigns an object to
another. We will talk about it later.
2.2.2 Destructors
Destructors are used to do any final preparations before an object is destroyed. They are called
automatically, either when delete is used on a dynamically allocated object, or when a static
object goes out of scope.
Unlike constructors, there can only be one destructor per class. The name of a destructor must
be the class name preceded by a tilde (˜). Destructors have no arguments, and no return type.
Destructors are particularly useful for freeing any dynamically allocated memory the object
might have. Without appropriate destructors, your program may have memory leaks (this
isn’t Java!).
2 C++ Classes 11
2.2.3 Example: How constructor and destructor work?

What is the output of this program?
class A {
public:
A() { cout << "Making A" << endl; }
˜A() { cout << "Breaking A" << endl; }
};
class B {
public:
B() { cout << "Making B" << endl; }
˜B() { cout << "Breaking B" << endl; }
private:
A a;
};
void main() {
B b;
}
Answer:
Making A
Making B
Breaking B
Breaking A
Why? All the data members of an object are initialized before the constructor builds up the
object itself. In the above example, the program declares a new object b of class B. Before
building up the object b itself, its only data member, the object a of class A, should be initialized
or created first. Thus in order for the program to build up the object a, the constructor A() of
class A is called first. That is why we see the output Making A first and then Making B.
Before exiting the program, the object b is destroyed by calling its destructor first and the data
member a of the object b by calling its destructor, respectively.
Surprise you!? Try the program yourself.
2.3 Functions and Class Member Functions

2.3.1 Function and Its Type
Either a function’s name or any parameter’s name is not part of its type.
2 C++ Classes 12
A function’s type is determined only by its return type and its parameter list including param-
eter’s type on the list.
Example:
int lexicoCompare(const string &s1, const string &s2)
Then we say the function lexicoCompare’s type is the TYPE of returning type of int and
two parameters of type const string&. Denote by
int (const string &, const string &)
2.3.2 Default Arguments

A C++ function may have or may not have any arguments. This should be defined in the .h
file or function prototype.
In C++ a function/method can be given default arguments. Default arguments must be given
to the rightmost parameters first. Because the number of arguments to a function with default
values is variable, the default value parameters must appear after all parameters that don’t
have default values.
Correct examples:
int sum(int = 0, int = 1);

void print(char *str = "");
Incorrect example:
void readBytes(int fd = 0, void *buf);
2.3.3 Inline Functions/Methods

Inline functions/methods can be defined either by preceding the function prototype with the
inline keyword.
Example 1:
inline int square(int x) {

return x*x;
}
2 C++ Classes 13
Or placing a function definition inside a class definition, called an inline member function.
Example 2:
class Card {
public:
face_t getFace() const
{ return face; }
.
.
.
face_t face;
};
Inline member function has two effects:
1. You don’t have to write the function implementation later

2. Each time the inline function is used in your program, compiler will recompile the short
function definition and place a copy of this compiled short definition in your code.
Notice that when you declare an inline member function, there is no semicolon before the
opening curly bracket or after the closing curly bracket.
2.3.4 Implementing Member Functions

Writing the complete definition of a member function is just like writing any other function,
with one small difference: In the head of the function definition, the class name must appear
before the function name, separated by two colons
For example, if we want to define the member function getFace() of the class Card outside
the body of the definition of the class Card, then we must write it as
face_t Card :: getFace( ) const

{
return face;
}
This requirement, called the scope resolution operator, tells the compiler that the function is a
member function of a particular class.
We use the term function implementation to describe a full function definition. The function
implementation provides all the details of how the function works.
Usually all the function implementation codes of a certain class are written in a separate file,
called implementation file of the class while the prototype definition and all the information
needed to use the class should appear in a header file.
2 C++ Classes 14
2.4 Constant and Static Members

2.4.1 Constant Members
Constant data members:
• can be initialized only by constructor:

• can not be changed once initialized.
Constant methods must not:
• alter the data members.

• call other methods that are non-const.
• call non-const methods of the data members.
2.4.2 Constant Examples

Incorrect Example:
class foo {
public:
foo()
{ b = a = 0; }
int x() const //constant method
{ return y()*2; } //call a non-constant method
int y() //non-constant method
{ return a; }
int *z()
{ return &b; }
private:
int a;
const int b;
};
Corrected Version:
class foo {
public:
foo(): b(0)
{ a = 0; }
int x() const
{ return y( )*2; } //works well
2 C++ Classes 15
int y( ) const
{ return a; }
const int *z( ) //return a pointer to int object
{ return &b; } //which is of constant type
private:
int a;
const int b;
};
2.4.3 Static members

Any member (except constructors & destructors) can be declared static.
Usually each object has its own copy of each member variable. However a static data member
only has one instance (classwide). That is, all of the class’s objects share the same value for a
static data member.
A static member is used w.r.t the whole class, not a specific object.
Use the static keyword to declare a static member.
Example:
class Card {
public:
static Card getAce()
{ return Card(ace, spades);}
static Card getKing();
static const int cardsInPack;
...
};
In addition to declaring the static data members and methods within the class definition, the
program must also repeat the declaration of the static members in the implementation file
elsewhere. For the above example, we must declare the following stuff elsewhere
const int Card::cardsInPack = 52;
Card Card::getKing() {
return Card(king, diamonds);
}
2 C++ Classes 16
For methods, static and const don’t mix.
class X {
static int foo() const;
...
};
where the member method foo() is declared as static and constant function.
To use static data or methods, call with the class identifier other than a special object from the
class, for example:
Card c = Card::getKing();
for (int i = 0; i < Card::cardsInPack; i ++)
...;
because we have only one copy of static members for all the objects of the class.
2.5 Operator Overloading

2.5.1 C++ Operators
There are many operators in C++. They can be binary operators and unitary operators
Binary operators take actions (operations) on two operands. Most of C++ operators are binary
operators, for example, +, -, == and >= etc.
Unitary operators take actions on a single operand. The typical unitary operators are ! (nega-
tive boolean) and - (negative value).
The primary type variable can be used as operands for C++ operators. For example, we can
write
int a, b, c;
char letter = ’=’;
a = 1, b = 2;
c = a + b;
cout << ’c’ << letter << c;
However the following may result in an error

2 C++ Classes 17
Card A, B;
cout << A + B;
because C++ compiler does not know how to add two Card objects and how to output a Card
object.
Making operator available to new class objects is called operator overloading. For example, if
we want to write cout << A where A is a Card object, we need to tell the compiler how to
output the content of the objects for the Card class.
2.5.2 Overloading Operators as non-Member Functions

Overloading an operator is just like defining a new function for a new class but the function
name must take the format of the keyword operator followed by the overloaded operator.
The general syntax for overloading a binary operator, using + as an example,
returnType operator + (const newClass& Op1, const newClass& Op2)

{
//Algorithm definition
}
where the operator + can be replaced by any other binary operators such as == etc., and Op1
and Op2 are considered as the left operand and right operand, respectively. The type of the
result of the operation may be different from the type of the operands.
For example, consider the vector class for 3D space
class vector {
public:
vector(); //default constructor
vector(int u, int v, int w) //constructor with three components
{ x = u;
y = v;
z = w; }
˜vector(); //destructor
....; //other member function
private:
int x;
int y;
int z;
}
2 C++ Classes 18
From mathematics we know the sum of two 3D vector is also a vector whose three components
are the sum of the components of the two vectors respectively. Thus we can define + for the
vector as
vector operator + (const vector& p1, const vector& p2)

{
int sum_x, sum_y, sum_z;
sum_x = p1.x + p2.x;
sum_y = p1.y + p2.y;
sum_z = p1.z + p2.z;
vector sum(sum_x, sum_y, sum_z);
return sum;
}
In mathematics, another important operation is the inner product between two vectors. The
result of inner product is the sum of the multiplications of the corresponding components. For
two vectors p1 = (x1, y1, z1) and p2 = (x2, y2, z2) the inner product of p1 and
p2 is
s = p1 ∗ p2 = x1 ∗ x2 + y1 ∗ y2 + z1 ∗ z2
The result is a scalar other than a vector. Hence the overloaded operator * should be defined
as
int operator * (const vector& p1, const vector& p2)

{
int product;
product = p1.x * p2.x + p1.y * p2.y + p1.z * p2.z;
return product;
}
2.5.3 Overloading Operators as Member Functions

Sometimes overloading operator as a member function is convenient for users. For example,
suppose both x and y are objects of a class, we hope that x += y has the same effect as x =
x + y i.e., the operation result should be put back into x. In this case, it is better to define
overloaded operator += as a member function of the class.
If a binary operator is overloaded as a member function of a class, then the object who calls this
function will implicitly be the first operand of the operation with the other operand coming
from the argument of the function. Hence the prototype for the overloaded operator as a
member function looks like
2 C++ Classes 19
returnType operator += (const newClass& RightHandOperand);
where only one argument in the parameter list of the overloaded function which is the right
hand side operand.
For example, let us define the myString class
class myString {
public:
myString(const char* = 0); //constructor
...
myString& operator+=(const myString& rhs); //overload +=
...
private:
int _size;
char *_string;
}
Then define the function with new algorithms somewhere
myString& myString::operator += (const myString& rightS){

if (rightS) {
myString tmp(*this); //store the object itself
_size += strlen(s); //new size, this += for int
delete[] _string; //delete the storage for the object string
_string = new char[_size + 1]; //new space for the concatenated string
strcpy(_string, tmp._string); //copy the old string first;
strcpy(_sring + tmp._size, rightS); //copy the string provided by s
//Now we have finished the concatenation of the string with s
}
return *this; //return new string
}
Then in our program, we can write
mystring1 += mystring2; //concatenate string1 with string2
please read the above statement as the object mystring1 is calling its member function +=
with the argument mystring2.
2 C++ Classes 20
2.5.4 Overloading Output and Input Operators

The output operator << and the input operator >> can be overloaded for a new class. However
the overloading must follow the mysterious prototype shown below
ostream& operator << (ostream& outs, const newClass& source);

istream& operator >> (istream& ins, newClass& target);
In the overloading prototype, the first argument and the return type must be an object of
ostream& and istream&, respectively. Thus you cannot overload both operators as member
functions of the new class.
The source parameter is a const reference parameter, meaning that the function will not
alter the point that it is writing.
You need to provide the complete implementation for the overloaded output and input oper-
ators, that is, how to output and input. Our textbook provides examples for the class point.
As both the functions for the overloaded output and input operators are not member functions
of new classes, so both of them do not have access to the private members of the objects of the
classes. To solve this problem, we can declare them as friend functions of the classes.
Chapter 3
The Bag Class
The bag class is one of special kinds of container classes. A container class is a class where each
object contains a collection of items. The bag class that we will build is the simple version of more
complex classess defined in the C++ Standard Library.
3.1 The Bags

3.1.1 Bags as Containers
A container may hold a collection of items or elements. For example, a container containing
several integers, a container containing several candy.
Generally we make an assumption that the items in a container are of the same type.
A bag is a special kind of container in which the items may be repeative, without any order.
Our purpose is to implement the bag concept by using certain data structure.
3.1.2 Bag Classes and Data Members

To implement any Bag collection, we need something to keep the bag elements in it. We will
use a C++ class to implement the bag collection. In the class to be implemented an array will
be used as the spaces for storing bag elements
In C++, in order to declare an array, we need to specify the type of items of the array. To be
more flexible, won’t actually use a special type when we refer to the types of the items in the
bag, i.e., in the array.
We use the name value type for the data type of the items in a bag. A typedef statement
will be used to link a specified type to the type name value type.
To keep track of how many items are in a bag, we will use a variable. The type of the variable
is defined as the name size type. The name is normally specified to an integer type of some
kind, for example, C++ data type size t which is an integer data type that can hold only
non-negative numbers.
3 The Bag Class 22
In the implementation, we may need to specify the size of the array in the Bag class, called the
bag’s CAPACITY.
For example, our bag class for integers looks like
class bag
{
public:
typedef int value type;
typedef std::size t size type;
static const size type CAPACITY = 30;
....
}
Data member CAPACITY is declared as static and const, so all the instances from this class
share a single copy of the CAPACITY and the value of CAPACITY is defined once and cannot
be changed.
In the above implementation, you change the int type to any other special types so that you
can make the bag class for items of the types.
3.1.3 Member functions and Operations of Bag Classes

The bag may have a default constructor to initialize a bag instance so that it is empty. Also we
may need a copy constructor so that we can make a new object (or instance) of the bag class
from another existed object, like
bag b;
//We put some items into the bag b here
bag c(b); //make a new bag copying from the bag b
We may need a constant member function to count the number of the items contained in the
bag. Once we call this function for an object of the bag, the number of all the items in the bag
can be given. We call this function the size() function with the following prototype
size type size() const;
We definitely need methods to allow taking items out of the bag, declared as
3 The Bag Class 23
bool erase one(const value type & target);

size type erase(const value type & target);
The erase one function removes one copy of target and returns true or false depending
on if the target is really in the bag. The erase function removes all the copies of target in
the bag and returns the number of copies removed.
We also need a method to allow putting an item in the bag.
void insert(const value type & item);
We need a method to report how many copies of a particular item are in the bag.
Or we may need an external method to merge two bags, called the union operation which can
be obtained by overloading the + operator. If the + operator is defined for bags, so it is sensible
to also overload the += operator.
3.2 Class Design

3.2.1 Private Members and Constructors
The class for the bag will have an array in it to hold the bag items. This array will be one of
the private member variables of the bag class. The length of the array is determined by the
constant CAPACITY.
The entries of a bag will be stored in the front part of an array, as shown in this example. That
is, the true number of items in the bag may be less than the constant CAPACITY.
The entries may appear in any order. This represents the same bag as the previous one. This is
the basic feature of the bag.
Because part of the array can contain garbage, the bag class needs to keep track of how many
numbers are in the bag. We put this information in the variable used of type size type. One
solution:
class bag
{
public:
...
private:
value type data[CAPACITY];
size type used;
};
3 The Bag Class 24
Every method that is in the class will use this array, removing something from it or putting
something in, etc. Remember that how you decide to represent a collection determines the
inner workings of the class, the data structure type, including its variables and methods. These
inner workings do not have to be known by the user of the class. The user can use the bag class
without thinking about the array or whatever is being used. All the user of the class needs to
know is what methods the class has and what parameters to send each method, and what each
method returns.
The default constructor initializes a bag as an empty bag, and does no other work. An empty
bag does not have any items in it. That is, no array entry is used. So the variable used = 0
bag::bag() { used = 0; }
3.2.2 Counting
The size function returns the number of items in the bag. This information is recorded in the
private member used. So the function implementation is very simple
bag::size type bag::size() const

{
return used;
}
To count the number of occurrences of a particular item target in a bag, we step through the
used portion of the array, that is from data[0] to data[used-1]. The function definition is
bag::size type bag::count(const value type& target) const

{
size type answer;
size type i;
answer = 0;
for (i = 0; i < used; ++i )
if (target == data[i] )
++answer;
return answer;
}
3.2.3 Insertion and Deletion

As there is no order among the bag items, so we can insert a new item into a bag at any
place in the array. The simplest way is to put the first available position in the array, that is
3 The Bag Class 25
data[used]. The only condition that should be checked is whether used==CAPACITY. If

this condition is true, there is no available array entry for a new item. That is, the bag has been
full. In this case we cannot insert a new item any more.
void bag::insert(const value type& entry)

{
assert(size() < CAPACITY ); // Check the condition
data[used] = entry; //Put new item in the first available place
++used; //Increase the number of the items
}
The erase one function removes an item named target from a bag. There may be several
occurences of the target in the bag, however the erase one function simply removes one
occurrence. As the items of the bag are stored in the bag’s array, in the first step the function
looks for the target from the beginning of the array until the entry indexed by used-1. The
first occurrence of the target along the array will be removed. To make the array partially
filled, in the second step, the last item indexed by used-1 will be moved to the place where
the first occurrence of the target stays.
The following example demonstrates the whole deletion procedure. Suppose the target is the
number 6. There are two occurences for the number 6. First the first number 6 is found in the
second entry of the array, and it will be removed. Then the number in the fifty entry, i.e., 7,
will be moved into the second place to make the array partially filled.
If the target is successfully deleted, the target function returns a true boolean value, other-
wise a false value in the case of no target in the bag.
bool bag::erase one(const value type& target)

{
size type index; //location of target in the data arry
index = 0;
while ((index<used) && (data[index]!=target))
++index; //Search for target item by item
if (index == used)
return false; //no target found
--used;
data[index] = data[used];
return true; //successful deletion
}
With the aid of the erase one function, it is easy to implement the erase function which
deletes all the occurrences of a target from the bag if any.
3 The Bag Class 26
bag::size type bag::erase(const value type & target);

{
size type number;
number = 0;
while (erase one(target))
++number;
return number;
}
3.2.4 Union Operations

In our design, the operator += is overloaded as a member function. The overloaded function
has one parameter of type bag and copies each of items from the parameter bag to the object
bag that activates +=.
The core work of the overloaded function is to copy items from the array in one bag into the
array of another bag. The Standard Library contains a copy function for easy copying of items
from one location to another.
void bag::operator += (const bag& addend)

{
assert(size()+addend.size() <= CAPACITY);
copy(addend.data, addend.data+addend.used, data+used);
used += addend.used;
}
3.3 General Rules

3.3.1 What need to learn?
A container or a bag could be implemented in many ways. We just look at one implementation
by using an array for the storage of items in the container.
Although there are several built-in container classes in the C++ Standard Library, just using
them does not give you a real understanding of the structure. So we choose to implement the
bag container in our own way.
Having to figure out how to handle the removal of an element in a container of a particular
type makes you unable to avoid learning the container itself.
3.3.2 What to remember for each container?

What are the characteristics of a container? For example, every container has to have a method
to add new items and a method to delete items
3 The Bag Class 27
What are the characteristics that are peculiar to this particular container? For example, the bag
container has no order, so that removal of each element should be random. Adding items can
take place anywhere.
What are the operations that must be defined for a container? This tells you what methods
must be defined for the class implementing for the container.
Chapter 4
The Sequence Class
4.1 The Sequences

4.1.1 Specification
A sequence is similar to a bag — both contain a bunch of items of the same typpe.
But unlike a bag, the items in a sequence are arranged in an order, that is, you can follow the
order to access the items one after another.
In the implementation of bag classes, the items of a bag are arranged in an array, one after
another. It seems that there is also an order in a bag. Please note, that is a quirk of our particular
bag implementation, and it is not part of the natures of a bag. Actually there is no order for
items of a bag at all.
4.1.2 Iterator
The items of a sequence are kept one after another. The order is part of natures of a sequence.
A program can step through the sequence one item at a time. A sequence class provides a pro-
gram methods to control precisely where items are inserted and removed within the sequence.
On a sequence a program can use an internal iterator to access items.
4.2 The Design of Sequence Classes

4.2.1 Data Types Used in Sequence Classes
Like a bag class, our sequence is a class for a collection of items of an underlying value type.
Also our sequence provides size type for the sequence size. Both type names will be de-
clared by using typedef statement in the class.
As we have done for defining a bag class, we use an array of size CAPACITY and type value type.
The constant CAPACITY is also declared in the class.
For example, our bag class for double values looks like
class sequence {
public:
typedef double value type;
typedef std::size t size type;
....
}
4.2.2 Data Members

The class for the sequence will have an array in it to hold the sequence items. This array will
be one of the private member variables of the sequence class. The length of the array is
determined by the constant CAPACITY.
The entries of a sequence will be stored in the front part of an array. That is, the true number
of items in the sequence may be less than the constant CAPACITY.
The entries must appear in sequence’s order. This oder is one of the basic features of a se-
quence.
Because part of the array can contain garbage, the sequence class needs to keep track of how
many numbers are in the sequence. We put this information in the variable used of type
size type.
In sequence class we define the so-called current item which indicates the precise location
where we are. The current item is reprented by its index in the array, declared as current index.
One solution of the sequence class
class sequence {
public:
...
private:
value type data[CAPACITY];
size type used;
size type current index;
};
4.2.3 Member Functions and Operations

A default constructor is needed for the sequence class. It builds up an empty sequence object.
The size member function returns the number of items in the sequence.
We will have member functions to exam a sequence which has already been built. For a bag,
all information we can gather is how many copies of a particular item are in the bag. For a
sequence, we may examine the items one after another and the items must be examined in
order, from the front to the back of the sequence. Three member functions are provided by the
sequence class to enforce the in-order retrieval rule. The start function moves to the front of
the sequence and makes the front item as the current item. The advance function changes the
current item to the next item in the sequence. The current function returns the information
of the current item in the sequence.
Generally the current function provides the information of the current item. However there
exists a case where we cannot get the information of the current item. For example, if the
current item is the last item in the sequence, then the current item does not exit after the
advance function is called. So the sequence class provides a function, called is item, to
examine whether there actually is another item for current to provide, or whether current
has advanced right off the end of the sequence.
Like a bag class, the sequence class also provide member functions to insert new items into the
sequence. The insert function places a new item before the current item while the attach
function adds a new item to a sequence after the current item. The operation here is different
from that of the insert function of a bag class where the new item is simply placed at the first
available position in the array.
We can remove the current item from a sequence by the remove current function. This
function has no parameters. In the bag class, the erase one function has a parameter of
target and one occurence of the target, if any, will be removed from the bag. For a sequence,
we have no such a deletion function. If you really want to delete a particular item from a
sequence, first you need to move the current position to the target then call remove current
function to remove the target item.
You may add more member functions to a sequence class.
4.3 The Implementation of Sequence Classes

4.3.1 The Header File
The header file for the sequence class
class sequence {
public:
// TYPEDEFS and MEMBER CONSTANTS
typedef double value_type;

typedef std::size_t size_type;
static const size_type CAPACITY = 30;
// CONSTRUCTOR
sequence( );
// COPY CONSTRUCTOR
sequence(const sequence& source)
// MODIFICATION MEMBER FUNCTIONS
void start( );
void advance( );
void insert(const value_type& entry);
void attach(const value_type& entry);
void remove_current( );
// CONSTANT MEMBER FUNCTIONS
size_type size( ) const;
bool is_item( ) const;
value_type current( ) const;
private:
value_type data[CAPACITY];
size_type used;
size_type current_index;
};
The function implementation is to be finished in Tutorial 2 (in Week 3).
4.3.2 The Function Implementation Examples

All the function implementation should be completed in Tutorial 2. As an example, we only
implement the insert function and the current function.
In our sequence class declaration we have a user defined copy constructor. Its purpose is to
create a new sequence object from another existed sequence object. The algorith is to copy
every items in the existed object into the created object one by one. Here is the example of its
implementation. You may have your own version.
sequence::sequence(const sequence& source)

// Library facilities used: cstdlib
{
size_type i;
used = source.used;
current_index = source.current_index;
for(i = 0; i < used; i++)
data[i] = source.data[i];
By our definition, the insert function places a new item before the current item. There are a
lot of work to be done in the insert function. First of all we need to check if there exists any
extra space in the entry for the new item. If the array is full, then you cannot insert any new
items into the sequence.
The current item is indexed by the private member current index, so the new item should
be put in the data[current index]. If there is no current item, then the new item should
be put in the front of the sequence. Whatever the case is, we need to move all the items from
data[current index] one place toward the end of the sequence so that we can make the
space data[current index] available to the new item and keep the order of the items in
the sequence.
The implementation code is as follows
void sequence::insert(const value_type& entry)

// Library facilities used: cstdlib
{
size_type i;
assert(size() < CAPACITY );
if (!is_item()) //if there is no current item
current_index = 0;
// make the first item as the current one
for(i = used; i > current_index; i--)
data[i] = data[i-1];
//move all the items after the current item
data[current_index] = entry; //put the new item
used++;
}
Chapter 5
Pointers and Dynamic Arrays
5.1 Pointers
5.1.1 Pointer Variables and Types
The values belonging to pointer data types are the memory addresses of a computer. A pointer
variable is a variable whose content is an address, or a memory location.
When you declare a pointer variable, you need to specify the data type of the value to be stored
in the memory location pointed to by the pointer variable.
Please review Lecture 1 on how to declare a pointer variable. Because C++ does not automati-
cally initialize variables, pointer variables must be initialized if you do not want them to point
to anything. For example
int * p;
p = NULL; // or
p = 0;
5.1.2 Dynamic Memory

Variables that are created during program execution are called dynamic variables. C++ pro-
vides two operators — new and delete (see Lecture 1) — to create and destroy, respectively,
dynamic variables.
double * d ptr;
d ptr = new double;
From the above example, you can see dynamic variables are not declared, even it does not
have an identifier for a dynamic variable.
Dynamic variables are created during the execution of a program. Only at that time does a
dynamic variable come into existence.
5.1.3 Pointer Parameters

A function parameter may be a pointer or an array.
A value parameter of a function can be a pointer. An example was introduced in section 1.2.5
of Lecture 1.
Sometimes it is possible to declare a parameter that is a reference to a pointer if we wish to

modify the pointer itself rather than the object addressed by the pointer. For example, here is
a function to swap two pointers
void ptrswap(int *& v1, int *& v2) {

int * tmp = v2;
v2 = v1;
v1 = tmp;
}
Can you tell what is the difference between this swapping function and the one defined in
section 1.2.5 of Lecture 1.
5.2 Arrays and Array Pointers

5.2.1 Arrays
An array is a collection of objects of a single data type. The individual objects are not named;
rather, each one is accessed by its position inn the array.
An array definition consists of a type specifier, an identifier (name for the array) and a dimen-
sion
int myArray[10];
An array cannot be initialized with another array, nor can one array be assigned to another.
Additionally, it is not permitted to declare an array of references.
The array identifier evaluates to the address of the first element contained within it. Its type is
that of pointer to the type of the element the array contains. For example, myArray’s type is
int*.
5.2.2 Array Parameters

Array could be a parameter of functions, called array parameters. An array parameter is passed
as a pointer to its first element.
To declare an array parameter in a function you can use any of three declarations formats, as
shown in the following examples
void myFunc(int*);
void myFunc(int[]);
void myFunc(int[90]);
As an array is passed as a pointer, thus the changes to an array parameter within the called
function are actually made to the array argument itself and not to a local copy.
The array’s size is not part of its parameter type. The function being passed an array does not
know its actual size, and neither does the compiler. Usually the size information is passed to a
function by using an extra size parameter.
void myFunc(int* myArray, int Size);
However if you can declare the parameter as a reference to an array. When the parameter
is a reference to an array type, the array size becomes part of the parameter and argument
types, and the compiler checks that the size of array argument matches the one specified in the
function parameter type.
void myFunc(int (&myArray)[90]);
5.2.3 Using Dynamic Arrays

An array created during the execution of a program is called a dynamic array. To create a
dynamic array, we use the new operator to allocate an array of variables. Example
int *p;
p = new int[10];
*p = 25; // storing 25 into the first memory location
In the above example, the pointer p is pointing to the first memory location of the allocated
memory for the created array. Moreover, p is simply called a dynamic array.
Any component in a dynamic array is accessed by index operator [ ]. For example, the third
component in the dynamic array p is p[2].
A dynamic array must be destroyed by delete [] operator. For example
delete [] p;
For multidimensional array note that only the first dimension of the array dynamically allo-
cated can be specified using an expression evaluated at run-time. The other dimension must
be constant values known at compile time.
5.3 Function Pointers

5.3.1 The Type of Function
In Comp131 and Comp132, you learnt a lot about C++ functions. For example, function pro-
totype, function names, parameter list, and function definition etc.
Like a variable, a function also has a type. A function’s name is not part of its type.
A function type is determined only by its return type and its parameter list.
For example, consider the following function
int sizeCompare(const string & s1, const string & s2) {

// function definition is here
}
where the function name is sizeCompare, and the type of the function is given by its param-
eter list consisting of two const string & parameters, and its return type int. Thus the
following function shares the same type as the above
int yourComp(const string & m1, const string & m2) {

// function definition is here
}
In C++, you can define functions with the same names but in different types. The following
example actually declares two “different” functions as compilers will perform function type
checking before loading an appropriate function.
int sizeComp(string &, string &);

int sizeComp(const string &, const string &);
5.3.2 The Type of Member Functions

A member function has an additional type attribute absent from a nonmember function, i.e.,
its class.
A pointer to a member function must match the type of the function it is assigned, in three
areas: (1) the type and number of parameters, (2) the return type, and (3) the class type of
which it is a member.
The declaration of a pointer to member function requires an expanded syntax that takes the
class type into account. A pointer to a member function can be declared, initialized, and as-
signed, as follows
int (MyClass::*ptr f1) () = NULL;

int (MyClass::*ptr f2) () = &MyClass::AMemFun;
//where AMemFun is a member function with no parameters
//and a return type of int
ptr f1 = ptr f2;
ptr f2 = &MyClass::AnotherMemFun;
//where AnotherMemFun is another member function with
//no parameters and a return type of int
5.3.3 Pointer to Functions

For a function we can talk about its function type. Thus we can define pointer variables to
function types.
The syntax of defining a function pointer variable is given as follows
returnType (*F PtrVar) (list of parameter types);
where F PtrVar is the variable name being defined. The following example defines a function
pointer variable named myPtr
int (* myPtr) (const string&, const string&);
Note: as a variable, myPtr’s type is a pointer pointing to functions of the type of two const
string& parameters and a return type of int.
Like an array name, a function name is considered as a function pointer (value) pointing to
the function. Thus we can assign a function name (value) to a function pointer variable of the
same type. For example, we can
myPtr = sizeCompare;
It is possible to declare arrays of pointers to functions. For example
int (*testCases[10])();
declares testCases to be an array of ten elements. Each element is a pointer to a function

that takes no arguments and that has a return type of int.
5.3.4 Function Pointer Parameters

A function parameter can be a “pointer to function”. That means we can pass a function
argument to another function. We will use this technique in constructing sort algorithms.
To see how to declare a “pointer to function” parameter, let’s have a look at the following
example
typedef int (*PFunc) (const string &, const string &);

int sortFunc(string *, string *, PFunc);
where the first line defines a name “PFunc” as the type of “pointer to function” pointing to
functions of type of two const string& parameter and a return type of int.
We can pass any function argument of type of two const string& parameter and a return
type of int to the function sortFunc. See the example below
int lexicoCompare(const string &, const string &);

//the function lexicoCompare
string *s1, *s2;
//other stuff
sortFunc(s1, s2, lexicoCompare); //calling sortFunc
In this example, we are calling the function sortFunc with two string arguments s1, s2
and a function argument lexicoCompare which itself is a function.
Chapter 6
Dynamic Implementation of
Container Classes
6.1 The Bag Class with A Dynamic Array

6.1.1 Pointer Member Variables
Pointers enable us to define data structures whose size is determined when a program is ac-
tually running rather than at compilation time. Such data structures are called dynamic data
structures.
A class may be a dynamic data structure (it may use dynamic memory) by using pointer mem-
ber variables in the class.
Several new factors come into play when a class has dynamic memory. The pointer member
variables point to dynamic memory allocated at running time which are generally not consid-
ered as “part” of the class objects. Extra cares should be paid for dealing with the dynamic
memory when the class objects are created and destroyed.
The original bag class in lecture note 3 has a member variable that is a static array containing
the bag’s items. Now we will use a pointer member variable to create dynamic bag.
The new bag class is roughly defined as
class bag {
public:
...
private:
value type *data; //Pointer to dynamic array
size type used; //How much of array is being used
size type capacity; //Current capacity of the bag
}
6.1.2 Constructor and Destructor

The items of a bag object will be stored in a dynamic array that the member variable data
points to. The constructor of the dynamic bag class is responsible for allocating the dynamic
array.
The initial size of the dynamic array is determined by the data member capacity. The size
of the array may increase to whatever capacity is needed to all the items of the bag objects in a
program.
Increasing the size of the array ensures more items can be inserted.
The prototype and definition of the constructor of the dynamic bag class may look like
bag::bag(size type initial_capacity = DEFAULT_CAPACITY){

data = new value type[initial_capacity];
capacity = initial capacity;
used = 0;
}
where DEFAULT CAPACITY is a default value defined elsewhere for the initial size of the dy-
namic array.
As the dynamic memory for the bag items is allocated by the new operator in the constructor,
the memory should be explicitly returned to the system by using the delete operator when
the object goes out of scope. This can be done by the user-defined destructor.
The primary responsibility of the destructor is releasing dynamic memory.
bag::˜bag( ){
delete [ ] data;
}
6.1.3 Copy Constructor and Assignment Operation

In C++ when a new object is initialized/created as a copy of an existing object, the automatic
(default) copy constructor will be activated. The automatic copy constructor copies data mem-
bers one by one. The procedure is called memberwise copy.
However if a class has pointer member variable such as the pointer data in our bag class, only
can the pointer itself be copied from the existing object to the initialized object. The dynamic
array pointed by data of the bag object won’t be automatically copied.
If you want to avoid the simple copying of member variables (in fact you must avoid this),
then you must provide a copy constructor to do the job, copying the contents in the dynamic
array.
The copy constructor of the dynamic bag class should have the following prototype and im-
plementation
bag::bag(const bag& source){

data = new value type[source.capacity];
capacity = source.capacity;
used = source.used;
copy(source.data, source.data+used, data);
}
the parameter of the copy constructor is usually a const reference parameter.
The copy constructor is activated when you declare a new object by
//suppose x is an existing object

bag y(x); //declare the object y
or
bag y = x; //Alternative format of the above
Like the automatic copy constructor, the automatic assignment operator makes a memberwise
copy between the objects of a class. If a class, like our dynamic bag class, contains any pointer
variable members, we must overload the assignment operator to make sure the contents in the
dynamic array to be correctly copied.
When you overload the assignment operator, C++ requires the overloaded operator to be a
member function of the class. In an assignment statement y=x (both x and y are objects of
the same class), the object y is activating the function, and the object x is the argument for the
parameter of the function.
The prototype and implementation of the overloaded assignment operator looks like
void operator =(const bag& source) {

value type *new data;
if (this == &source) //self-assignment checking

return;
if (capacity != source.capacity) {
new data = new value type[source.capacity];
delete [] data;
data = new data;
capacity = source.capacity;
}
used = source.used;
copy(source.data, source.data+used, data);
}
As a general rule we always use the self-assignment checking to avoid the assignment such as
y = y from occurring.
6.1.4 Other Member Functions

Just like the static implementation of the bag class introduced in Lecture Note 3 we may have
the following member functions.
We may need a constant member function to count the number of the items contained in the
bag. Once we call this function for an object of the bag, the number of all the items in the bag
can be given.
We definitely need methods to allow taking items out of the bag. The erase one function
removes one copy of target and returns true or false depending on if the target is
really in the bag. The erase function removes all the copies of target in the bag and returns
the number of copies removed.
We also need a method to allow inserting an item in the bag.
We need a method to report how many copies of a particular item are in the bag.
Or we may need an external method to merge two bags, called the union operation which can
be obtained by overloading the + operator. If the + operator is defined for bags, so it is sensible
to also overload the += operator.
The += operator is defined as
void bag::operator +=(const bag& addend) {

if (used + addend.used > capacity)
reserve(used+addend.used); //Allocate more memory
copy(addend.data, addend.data+addend.used, data+used);
used += addend.used;
The + operator (as an external function) is defined as
bag operator +(const bag& b1, const bag& b2){

bag answer(b1.size() + b2.size());
answer += b1;
answer += b2;
return answer;
}
6.2 General Rules for Class with Pointer Member

6.2.1 Rules
You may need member functions to allocate and release dynamic memory as needed.
You must override the automatic copy constructor and the automatic assignment operator.
The class must have a destructor to return all dynamic memory allocated to the object from the
heap.
Overall when a member variable of a class is a pointer to dynamic memory, the class should
always be given a destructor, an overloaded copy constructor, and an overloaded assignment
operator
6.2.2 When the Copy Constructor Used

The copy constructor is used when one object is to be initialized as a copy of another existing
object, as
//suppose x is an existing object

bag y(x); //declare the object y
or
bag y = x; //Alternative format of the above

When a return value of a function is an object of the class, by default the copying occurs by
using the automatics copy constructor, which copies all the member variables fro the local
variable to the return location. If you want to avoid the simple copying of member variable,
then you must provide your own copy constructor.
When a function uses a value parameter of an object of the class, the actual argument is copied
to the formal parameter. If there is any pointer member, you need to provide your own copy
constructor.
Chapter 7
Linked Lists and Their Applications
In this lecture, we will talk about the linked lists, and discuss the dynamic implementation for
the linked lists.
7.1 Lists
7.1.1 Basic Definition
A list is a linear data structure. We can insert and delete elements in any order from the list.
A linked list is a new data structure which is used to implement a list of elements arranged in
some kind of order. It is a sequence of elements arranged one after another, with each element
connected to the next by a link.
A node is a container for data in a list. In the list, each node may have a successor and a prede-
cessor, but no explicit order. Each node knows only its successor and predecessor if any.
Operations can take place anywhere inside the list.
There are two implementations, Dynamic implementation and Static implementation
7.1.2 Node Classes

Each node needs two bits of data: a piece of data information (any class type) and a link to the
next node
The node class can be defined as
class node {
...
private:
data type data field;
node * link field;
where data type may be any valid data type such as the primary types (int, double) or
user-defined classes.
For the node class we would like to provide members for the node constructor, for setting
data information and link, and for getting (reading) data information and link. For example, a
simplified version of the node class is
class node {
public:
node(const value type& init data = A Default,
node* init link = NULL) {
data field = init data;
link field = init link;
}
void set data(const value type& new data) {
data field = new data;
}
void set link(node* new link) {
link field = new link;
}
value type data() const
{ return data field; }
node* link() { return link field; }
private:
data type data field;
node * link field;
}
7.2 General Linked Lists

7.2.1 Building Linked Lists
In the implementation of a linked list, the list is accessed through one or more pointers to nodes.
That is, the linked list consists of several nodes linked one by one.
A pointer to the first node of the list is called the head pointer. And the pointer to the last node
of the list is called the tail pointer.
We could also implement and maintain pointers to other nodes in a linked list. For example,
we can define a head pointer, a current pointer to the so-called current node and a pointer to the
previous node of the current node.
Each pointer to a node must be declared as a pointer variable. In our implementation we won’t
declare a linked list class but instead we declare two pointer variables
node* head ptr;

node* tail ptr;
The implementation of a linked list is defined and manipulated by a linked-list toolkit although
we can declare a new class for the linked list data structure.
A empty linked list means the value in the pointer variable head ptr is NULL. And the
link field of the node pointed by the variable tail ptr is always NULL (why?).
7.2.2 Functions in A Linked-list Toolkit

One of the most imporatant methods is to insert a new node to the linked list. There are two
cases to be handled.
• Inserting a new node at the head of a linked list. The work to be done in this insertion
process is to allocate new place (a new node) for the new element, to put the new node at
the head of the linked list and to update the variable head ptr of the linked list object.
The prototype and implementation is as follows
void list head insert(node*& head ptr, const value type& entry) {
head ptr = new node(entry, head ptr);
}
The node constructor will allocate memory for the entry and set the link field of the
newly allocated node to the head node (pointed by head ptr) of the list and the member
function sets the head ptr to the new node. That is, we have added the new node at the
head of the list.
• Inserting a new node at a place rather than the head of a linked list. In this insertion,
we need to know where the new entry is to be added. We assume that a particular node
is pointed by a node pointer previous ptr and we will add the new entry just after
that node. The work to be done includes allocating a new node (to be done by the node
constructor), placing the new entry in the data field, making the link field to the node
after the new node’s location and connecting the link field of the node pointed to by
previous ptr to the new node that we just created.
void list insert(node* previous ptr, const value type& entry) {

node* insert ptr;
insert ptr = new node;
insert ptr->set data(entry);
insert ptr->set link(previous ptr->link() );

previous ptr->set link(insert ptr);
}
Searching is also an important task in manipulating linked lists. This operation find the node in
the linked list by comparing the data field of the node with a given data entry and the function
returns a pointer to the found node. The prototype of the function is
node* list search(node* head ptr, const value type& target);
The searching process begins from the head node of the linked list and search for the target
node by node until the target is found or not.
Sometimes it is very important to remove a certain element from the linke list. Just like insert-
ing an element into a linked list, we define two different functions for removing the head node
and any other node, respectively. We need to provide the location of the node in the linked list.
Two function take the following formats respectively
void list head remove(node*& head ptr);

void list remove(node* previous ptr);
where previous ptr is the pointer to the node just before the node to be removed. In other
word, the node pointed to by previous ptr is in the front of the node to be removed. Here
is the example of its implementation
void list remove(node* previous ptr) {

node * remove ptr;
remove ptr = previous ptr->link();
previous ptr->set link( remove ptr->link() );
delete remove ptr;
}
Question: can we use the above function as
list remove( tail ptr );
More member functions can be found from the textbook.

7.2.3 The Whole Linked List Toolkit
class node {
public:
node(const value type& init data=value type(),
node* init link = NULL)
{ data field = init data;
link field = init link; }
void set data(const value type& new data){
data field = new data; }
void set link(node* new link) {
link field = new link; }
value type data() const {
return data field; }
const node* link() const {
return link field; }
private:
value type data field;
node* link field;
}
//Functions for the linked list
std::size t list length(const node* head ptr);
void list head insert(node*& head ptr, const value type& entry);
void list insert(node* previous ptr, const value type& entry);
node* list search(node* head ptr, const value type& target);
const node* list search(const node* head ptr,
const value type& target);
node* list locate(node* head ptr, std::size t position);
const node* list locate(const node* head ptr,
std::size t position);
void list head remove(node*& head ptr);
void list remove(node* previous ptr);
void list clear(node*& head ptr);
void list copy(const node* source ptr, node*& head ptr,
node*& tail ptr);
7.3 Application: Large Integers & Lists

7.3.1 List for Larger Integers
Maximum integer using:
• int type: 2147483647

• unsigned int type: 4294967295
Problem: What if we need integers larger than this?
Solution: Use a linked list of digits, to create arbitrarily large integers.
6 3 1
The integer 631
Example:
head
7.3.2 Pointer addition
Given a pointer: type *p
Assume p points to an array in memory
*p is the first element
*(p+1) is the second element
*(p+n) is the (n+1)th element
When we add 1 to a pointer, we actually add sizeof(type) bytes to the memory location
7.3.3 Initializing from a string

We use a list of value type being short to store the integer
Function, initialize list num from string str:
void init(node* &num, char *str) {

num = NULL;
list_head_insert(num,(*str)-’0’);
str = str + 1;
while ((*str) != ’\0’) {
list_insert(num, (*str)-’0’);
str = str + 1;
}
}
7.3.4 Adding two integer lists

We can add the lists as we would on a piece of paper
Digit by digit
Basic Idea:
• Traverse the two lists simultaneously

• sum the current digits & add to new list
• Remember carry
Chapter 8
More About Linked Lists
8.1 Other Techniques for Lists

8.1.1 Dummy First Node
Dummy first node comes before the logical first node
Doesn’t contain any meaningful information
Advantage
• can avoid special cases

◦ insertion & deletion of logical first node
◦ insertion into empty list
Example:

8 ...
head
8.1.2 Circular Lists

Eg: consider days of week
• Monday, first day in week

• Sunday, last day in week
• Sunday is predecessor of Monday
a circular list is:
A list where the head is the successor of the tail
Advantage: Starting from any node, we can traverse the list to any other node.
8.1.3 Doubly Linked Lists (pp. 261 - 263)

In certain applications, we must be able to traverse the list in both directions
Each node has a pointer to it’s previous node.
We can include a method to go back to the previous node in lists
A possible set of definitions for a doubly linked list of items is the following
class dnode {
public:
... ...
private:
value type data field;
dnode* link fore;
dnode* link back;
};
For the head node
link back = NULL;
For the tail node
link fore = NULL;
8.2 One More Example: Binary Encoding

8.2.1 Definition
A deBruijn sequence is a sequence of 2n bits such that when it is arranged in a circle, each
subsequence of n bits is different.
Example: (length 23 = 8)
00011101
Can encode 8 characters, with 3 bits for each character
Each 3 bit subsequence is a different character

000 A 001 B 011 C 111 D

110 E 101 F 010 G 100 H
deBruijn sequences can be implemented as circular lists. See the following figure
1 0
0 H A 0
G B
F C
1 E D 0
1 1
The data field of the node in the list consists of a bit (1 or 0) and a char.
8.2.2 Basic algorithm for encoding string

A deBruijn sequence and chars represented by the sequence can be stored in a doubly linked
list. The list can be built up from a file containing characters and another file containing de-
Bruijn sequence.
Suppose a doubly linked list of a deBruijn sequence has been given, then we can design a
program to encode a text file.
The algorithm is simple. Read each char from the text file, look for the char in the doubly
linked list, read n consecutive bits from the list and write down the code for the char until no
char remained in the text file.
while more chars to encode

get next char
traverse list until we reach that char
output bits at next n nodes
end while
Chapter 9
Templates
In this lecture, we study the concept of template class and show several examples of how to use
template classes and template functions.
9.1 Template Functions

9.1.1 Why Template Functions?
Template function technique is a more flexible mechanism which provides function definition
in terms of some underlying data type.
We can instantiate many functions (following the same algorithm but for different types of
data) from a template function.
Actually a template function is not an ordinary function but just a template for instantiating
new functions which apply same task to arguments of different types.
9.1.2 Syntax for a Template Function

In a template function, there are three types of arguments
• Type parameters
• Non-Type parameters
• Template parameters
The general syntax to define a template function is
template <class T1, class T2, ...

type1 v1, type2 v2, ...
template def1, template def2, ...>
//The above is called template prefix
ret type Func Name(An Arg list) {
9 Templates 56
...
}
Swap function Example:
template <class T>

void swap(T *x, T *y) {
T temp = *x;
*x = *y;
*y = temp;
}
9.1.3 Using a Template Function

A program can use a template function with any T type that has the necessary features.
In the case of the above swap template function, the type parameter T can be any of the C++
build-in type, or it may be a class. That is, we can use the above template function to swap two
elements of any type.
For example, we can use it as
swap(integer1, integer2); //swap two int variables

swap(s1, s2); //swap two string variables
swap(student1, student2); // swap two variable of
//two student objects
9.2 Template Classes

As we have seen, the function template technique can be used to define functions fitting to
different cases where functions’ arguments may be of different types. As a class is usually made of
data fields with other types, one may use the template techniques to class declarations.
9.2.1 Idea for Template Classes

A template class is a prescription for creating a sort of classes where one or more types or values
are parameterized.
Template classes use the same parameters as a function template, that is
• Type parameters
• Non-type parameters
• Template parameters (the parameter is itself a template class).
Template classes are useful when we want a same basic class structure, for an unlimited num-
ber of possible classes.
9 Templates 57
They are particularly suited to structures that store different kind of things.
Templates provide the means with which programs can build their own generic containers
(class) and provide a mechanism for data abstraction.
9.2.2 Definition of Template Classes

Syntax for a template class is
template <class T1, class T2, ...,

type1 v1, type2 v2, ...,
template def1, template def2, ...>
class Name {
...
class definition
...
};
The expression template < ... ...> is called the template prefix. It warns the compiler
that the following definition will use an unspecified data types, such as T1, T2 etc.
Each T1, T2 etc. can be used as a type within the template class definition.
Each v1,v2 etc. are normal variables throughout the template class definition.
Example:
template <class T, int n>

class foo {
...
T x[n];
void replace(const T& newElement);
};
This example is very interesting. Template class foo has a type parameter T and a non-type
parameter n of the type int.
In the body of the class definition, an array of type T (the actual type value is unspecified), x,
is defined and the length of the array x is n which is also unspecified.
From this template class one may build up a class including an array of any given length where
the type of the array elements can be specified according to applications.
template def is of the form:
template <...> class ident

9 Templates 58
Template Classes of arbitrary complexity can be created
template <template <class X, int a> class T>

class Y {
T<int, 10> foo;
...
};
where the template class Y is defined in terms of another template class T with a type parameter
X and a non-type parameter a, and in the definition of Y a specified/generated class T<int,
10> from its template is used.
9.2.3 Defining the methods for template classes

A template class may contain many member function declarations whose definitions depend
on the unknown type parameters etc.
For the function implementation, you must follow some rules to tell the compiler about the
dependency on the type parameters etc. Thus each method defined outside the class definition
and each static data member must be also prefixed by the template keyword and template
parameters.
The function definition outside the class template body looks much like the syntax for template
functions. For example, the replace function in the foo template class should be defined outside
the template class body in this way
template <class T, int n>

void foo<T, n>::replace(const T& newElement){
//replace operations here;
}
For methods which use extra template arguments, we need to include template keyword within
the class definition. This is also true for normal classes with method templates.
class Foo {
template <class T>
void fooThis(T &x);
...
};
This way means that we are using a template function within a template class or a normal
class.
9 Templates 59
9.3 Applying Template Classes

9.3.1 Template Instantiation
A template class is not a class at all, but just a plan to make new classes with the same structure.
Generation of classes from a template class is called a template instantiation.
A template instantiation can be used wherever a non-template class can be used.
Arguments for template classes never be deduced from context.
Before we can instantiate a template class, its definition, not declaration, must be known.
// declaration of X
template <class T>
class X;
// definition of Y
template <class T>
class Y { ... };
X<int> x; // Error: only declaration given

Y<char> y; // OK. definition known
9.3.2 Assumptions About Type Parameters

At times it is necessary for us to make assumptions about the type parameters of a template
class or function. We may need to assume that a certain method is present in the class.
For example, if we were writing a generic function for sorting an array of type T. We would
assume that two values of type T could be compared.
Fortunately C++ lets us make any assumptions about the type arguments we want. If we in-
stantiate the template with arguments which make any of the assumptions false, the compiler
will complain.
Example:
template <class T>

class X {
public:
X() {t(10, "foo");} // assumption: T has a constructor
// T::T(int, char*)
void bar()
{ t.doBar(); // assumption: T has a method doBar
t.print(); } // assumption: T has a method print
9 Templates 60
private:
T t;
};
class Y {
public:
Y();
Y(int, char*);
void doBar();
void print();
};
X<Y> xy; // OK. all assumptions about Y are true

X<int> xint; // Error: Assumptions are false
Do you know why the second instantiation does not work through?
9.3.3 Default arguments

Like default arguments for function parameters, the formal parameters of template could have
default values.
The default values must be given to rightmost parameter first.
If all parameters are default, must give empty brackets <>.
Example:
template<class T = int>
class foo {
...
};
foo<> x; // Correct default int used

foo y; // Incorrect, missing <>
Do you know why missing <> causes trouble?
9.3.4 Arguments for non-type parameters

The parameter values to the non-type parameter must be a constant expression.
And they must be determinable at compile time.

9 Templates 61
template <int x, int y>

class Pic { ... };
const int i = 4, j = 10;

Pic<i, j> p1; // OK. i & j are const
Pic<3, 11> p2; // OK.
void main() {
int a, b;
cin >> a >> b;
Pic<a, b> p3; // Error: a & b not const
}
The compiler doesn’t know the values for a and b at the compile time.
9.3.5 Static Data Members in Class Template

Class templates can declare static data members.
One set of static data members per instantiation. Normally there is only one copy of static data
members for all the objects of a class. One can make many classes from a class template. If
there are static data members defined in a class template, then each newly created class from
the template has its own copy of static data members when instantiating.
Chapter 10
Templates and Iterators
10.1 Node Template Classes

10.1.1 Definition
Node is a container for storing data of certain type together with a link to another node. In the
former lectures, we use value type as an alias for the type of data stored in the node.
By using template class, we will replace the alias value type by a type parameter Item.
All member functions will be re-defined following the syntax of template classes.
10.1.2 New Node Template Class

The prototype of the node template class is as follows
template <class Item>

class node {
public:
node(const Item& init data=Item(), node* init link=NULL)
{ data field = init data; link field = init link; }
Item& data() { return data field; }
void set data(const Item& new data){
data field = new data; }
void set link(node* new link){
link field = new link; }
private:
Item data field;
node* link field;
};
From the definition we can see that the data field is of type Item which is currently un-
known and should be instantiated later.
10.1.3 Toolkit for Linked Lists

The toolkit for manipulating linked lists based on the node template class consists of a range
of template functions.
Here are several typical functions in the toolkit,

void list clear(node<Item>*& head ptr);

void list copy(const node<Item>* source ptr, node<Item>*& head ptr,
node<Item>*& tail ptr);

void list insert(node<Item>* previous ptr, const Item& entry);

std::size t list length(const node<Item>* head ptr);
Please read the text (pages 306-313) for more details.
10.2 STL and Their Iterators

The ANSI/ISO C++ Standard provides a variety of container classes called the Standard Tem-
plate Library (STL).
10.2.1 The Multiset Template Class

A multiset is an STL template class similar to our bag. It permits a collection of items to be
stored, where each item may occur multiple times in the multiset.
The declaration of multiset is included in the standard header file set.
Here is an example to declare a multiset (bag) object mySet containing int items
multiset<int> mySet;
The above statement invokes the default constructor creating an empty multiset object mySet.
10.2.2 Multiset Operations

Multiset template class provides a lot of member functions which can be used to manipulate
the set, such as inserting items into the set, deleting items from the set, counting the number
of items in the set etc. For example, insert the integer 4 into mySet
mySet.insert(4);
Other functions are

count(target) returns the number of times that target occurs
empty() returns true if the set has no items
erase(el) removes all copies of el
clear() removes all elememnts from the set
10.2.3 Iterators
The multiset’s insert function is different from the insert function that we defined for our
bag class. The multiset insertion function returns a special value called an iterator, however
the bag’s insertion function returns a void type.
An iterator is an object that permits a programmer to easily step through all the items in a
container, examining the items and perhaps changing them.
Any STL container has a standard member function called begin which returns an iterator
that provides access to the first item in the container. Remember we have no order among the
elements in a container (e.g. a set here), but the STL maintains ways in which elements are
stored in certain order. Then the begin function gives the iterator to the first element. For
example
multiset<string> actors;
//insert information into actors
multiset<string>::iterator myIndex;
myIndex = actors.begin(); //the iterator to the first actor
You can imagine that an iterator of an element is the “index” to the element. Through the
iterator you can get an access to the element. For example, suppose myRole is an iterator to
the actors set, then *myRole is the item that the iterator myRole is “pointing” to. That is, an
iterator has much meaning of an ordinary pointer.
When you use the ++ to an iterator, the iterator will be moved to the “next” item in the
container. This is the easy way to traverse all the elements in the container. For example,
++myRole is a new iterator “pointing to” to the next actor in the set actors.
A container also has an end member function that returns an iterator to mark the end of its
items in the container. The typical way to traverse all the elements in actors is as follows
for (myRole = actors.begin(); myRole!=actors.end(); ++myRole)

{
//do what you want to do here!
}
Be careful: When an iterator’s underlying container changes, for example, by an insertion or

a deletion, the iterator generally becomes invalid. You need to reassign a new value to your
iterator from the changed container.
All iterators in STL can be grouped into three categories
• Forward Iterator
• Bidirectional Iterator
• Random Access Iterator
10.3 Node Iterator — Linked List

The objective here is to construct node iterator for our linked lists.
10.3.1 Node Iterator

We hope out node iterator allows us to step through the list. The proposed node iterator
template class is derived from std::iterator.
The prototype of the template class is

class node iterator
: public std::iterator<std::forward iterator tag, Item>
{
public:
//iterator methods
private:
node<Item>* current;
}
From the definition we can see there is only one private member in the node iterator tem-
plate class which is a pointer to node<Item>.
10.3.2 Operations for Node Iterator

The node iterator has one constructor with one parameter. The parameter is a pointer too a
node where the iterator will start.
node iterator(node<Item>* initial = NULL) {

current = initial; }
We will overload the * operator for the aim of getting information of the item “pointed to” by
the iterator
Item& operator*() const

{ return current->data(); }
Also we should define ++ operations for our iterator, i.e., the prefix and postfix ++ operators
node iterator& operator ++() //Prefix

{ current = current->link;
return *this; }
node iterator operator ++(int) //Postfix

{ node iterator original(current);
current = current->link;
return original; }
Finally we may need comparison operations for our iterators
bool operator ==(const node iterator other) const

{ return current == other.current; }
bool operator !=(const node iterator other) const
{ return current != other.current; }
Chapter 11
Complexity Analysis of Algorithms
The context of this lecture is from Section 1.2 of the textbook. The big-oh technique is used to
analyze the effectiveness of algorithms. We provide many examples to demonstrate the application
of big-oh.
11.1 big-oh
11.1.1 Time and Space Complexity
In doing a time analysis for an algorithm, we count certain operations that occur while carrying
out an algorithm or a method other than count the the actual elapsed time during each algorithm.
That is, we do not usually measure the actual time taken to run the algorithm because the number
of seconds can depend on too many extraneous factors — such as the speed of the processor, and
whether the processor is busy with other tasks.
There is no precise definition of what constitutes an operation. An operation can be as simple

as the execution of a single program statement
In computing the efficiency of an algorithm, some measure of the amount of work done or the
space requirements must be used. This measure is called the complexity or order of magnitude of
the algorithm.
For most algorithms/programs, the number of operations depends on the algorithm /pro-
gram’s input. The complexity of an algorithm is measured in terms of the size of the prob-
lem/input using an expression of size n. [Those of you who have done amth140 should know
what I’m talking about].
The method that we will use is to perform upper bound estimates of such as the complexity
and efficiency.
11.1.2 An Example
A polynomial Pn (x) of order n is defined by
Pn (x) = a0 xn + a1 xn−1 + · · · + an−1 x + an
We want to evaluate polynomial Pn (x) at a given point x. Two algorithms are available
Algorithm A (as defined):
Pn (x) = a0 xn + a1 xn−1 + · · · + an−1 x + an
Algorithm B (more sophisticated):
Pn (x) = (((a0 x + a1 )x + a2 )x + · · · + an−1 )x + an
Now we want to analyze the number of multiplications used in both algorithms (we don’t care
about addition as it is much easier than multiplication on a computer)
n(n+1)
2 = 0.5n2 + 0.5n multiplications in algorithm A, and only n multiplications in algorithm
B
You may note that Algorithm B is faster than Algorithm A especially for larger n.
If we use both algorithm to a new polynomial with order twice n, that is, P2n (x), then the num-
ber of multiplication of algorithm A increase about 4-fold while algorithm B twice fold. If we
increase the order of polynomial to 10n, then algorithm A need about 100-fold multiplication
while algorithm B tenfold.
The critical amount for Algorithm A is n2 (not its coefficient 0.5) and the critical amount for
Algorithm B is n. We can express this kind of information in a format called big-O notation. For
example, we say the complexity of algorithm A is O(n2 ) (we don’t care about the coefficient
0.5 and the second term 0.5n) and algorithm B O(n)
11.1.3 Definition of big-O

Function f is of complexity or order at most g, written with big-oh notation as f = O(g), if there
exists a positive constant c and a positive integer n0 such that
| f (n) |≤ C | g(n) |
for all n ≥ n0 . We also say f has complexity O(g).
The values C and n0 in the above definition themselves are not important, the significance lies
in the existence of such C and n0 , rather than the magnitude of these values.
For example, the complexity of Algorithm A in the last subsection satisfies
|0.5n2 + 0.5n| ≤ 0.6|n2 |
with C = 0.6 and n ≥ n0 = 3

Table 11.1: The number of Operations/time in Evaluating A Polynomial

Input Size Algorithm A Algorithm B
(n) (0.5(n2 + n) = O(n2 )) (n = O(n))
10 55 10
100 5050 100
1000 500500 1000
10000 50005000 10000
100000 5000050000 100000
... ... ...
See the amth140 webpage for information on big-oh:
http://mcs.une.edu.au/˜amth140
11.1.4 Equality and Inequality of complexity

f and g are of equal complexity, written O(f ) = O(g) provided f = O(g) and g = O(f ).
f is of smaller complexity than g, written O(f ) < O(g), if f = O(g) but g 6= O(f ).
For example, Algorithm B (O(n)) has a smaller complexity than Algorithm A (O(n2 )). Why?
Because O(n) = O(n2 ) but O(n2 ) 6= O(n) (i.e., you cannot find a constant C and an integer n0
such that |n2 | ≤ C|n| for all n ≥ n0 )
Generally, for a problem of size n, suppose that there are two algorithms A and B.
Execute in f (n) and g(n) amounts of operation/space for algorithms A and B, respectively.
If O(f ) < O(g), then, for large enough values of n, A will be more efficient than B.
The following table shows you why an O(n2 ) algorithm is much worse than an O(n) algorithm
11.2 Main Properties of big-oh

11.2.1 General Principles
f (n) = O(f (n))
k · f (n) = O(f (n))
g(n) = O(f (n)) → f (n) + g(n) = O(f (n))
11.2.2 Examples of big-oh

2n2 + 10n − 1 = O(n2 )
en + n1000 = O(en )
en + n1000 6= O(n1000 )
O(1) < O(log2 n) < O(n) < O(n2 ) < . . . < O(n1000 ) < . . . < O(en ) < O(n!) < O(nn )
11.2.3 Some Standard Complexities

A polynomial-time algorithm has complexity O(nm ) for m ≥ 0 an integer.
A linear-time algorithm has complexity O(n).
A constant-time algorithm has complexity O(1).
A logarithmic-time algorithm has complexity O(log2 n).
An exponential-time algorithm has complexity O(an ) for a > 1 (much harder than a polynomial-
time algorithm).
A factorial-time algorithm has complexity O(n!).
11.3 Examples
11.3.1 Examples: Code segments
For a sequence of statements, complexity is O(1).
For the following code segments, what is the time complexity with regard to n (assuming that
all non-output statements are negligible)?
Example 1:
int i, j;
for (i = 0; i < n; i ++)

for (j = 0; j < n; j ++)
cout << i*j << endl;
Answer: We should find out how many times the inner output statement should be run.
The outer for has n loops (i from 0 to n). For each loop we need to do another for in which
we have n loops too (j from 0 to n). Thus there are n × n loops for two fors. Hence the final
time complexity of this piece of program is O(n2 )
Example 2:
int i, j, k;
for (i = 0; i < n; i ++)

for (j = 0; j < i; j ++)
for (k = 0; k < j; k ++)
cout << i*j*k << endl;
Answer:
For the most inner for when both i and j are fixed we should do j output statements, i.e., k
from 0 to j − 1. In the middle for block, j is limited to 0 to i − 1 where i is fixed. Thus to finish
two inner for block we need to do
(i − 1)i
T (i) = 0 + 1 + 2 + · · · + (i − 1) = , for a given i
2
output statements. Now let us vary i from 0 to n − 1. In order for us to finish outer for block,
the total number of output statements to be implemented is
T = T (0) + T (1) + ... + T (n − 1)

1(1 − 1) 2(2 − 1) 3(3 − 1) (n − 1)(n − 1 − 1)
=0+ + + + ··· +
2 2 2 2
n−1
X i(i − 1) n−1 n−1
1 X 1 X
= = i2 − i
i=1
2 2 i=1
2 i=1
1 1
= (n − 1)n(2n − 1) − n(n − 1)
12 4
1
= n(n − 1)(n − 2)
6
= O(n3 )
11.3.2 Space Complexity: Recursive fibonacci function

A function call requires a constant k amount of stack space.
For the recursive fibonacci function below, what is the space complexity with regard to n.
int fib(int n) {
if (n <= 2)
return 1;
return fib(n-1) + fib(n-2);
}
Interestingly enough, the answer is O(n)
Take n = 5 as an example. When the program begins to call fib(5), in the body of fib(5)
the program needs to do fib(4) first. The program suspends calculation and begin to call
fib(4) before the addition (i.e., fib(4)+fib(3)). At this stage, the program will store the
information in the current module, i.e., the parameter 5 will be stored in the function stack by
the operating system. Please note that at this stage nothing happens to fib(3).
As the program is running on fib(4), it is stepping into the second level of the recursive
block. In the second level block the program is going to call fib(3) (Please note this fib(3)
is not the fib(3) at the upper level needed for fib(5). When the program moves into this
fib(3) the system will store the information of its caller fib(4), i.e., 4 in the stack.
Now the program is running on fib(3). In the same way, within the body of fib(3) the
program is going to call fib(2) first. At this point, caller fib(3)’s information (i.e. 3) will
be pushed on to the stack and then the program is about to process fib(2) call.
In processing fib(2) the program meets the terminal condition and return the value 1 as the
returned value from the function call fib(2). Then the program starts the second function
call fib(1) in the body of fib(3). Similarly the call fib(1) returns with a value of 1.
Now the stack uses 3 unit spaces to hold the information 5, 4 and 3.
Then the program returns to the caller fib(3), thus the information 3 will be popped up from
the stack and fib(3) returns the value of fib(2)+fib(1). And the program comes back to
the body of the caller fib(4). In the body the program needs to process the second function
call fib(2) in which the terminal condition is arrived. After calculating fib(3)+fib(2),
the program is going back to the upper level caller fib(4).
Then the information 4 will be popped up from the stack and the program just finishes the first
function call in body of calling fib(5) and then moves to the second function call fib(3).
Within fib(3) the program needs to push the information 3 onto the stack again in order to
process the inner calls fib(2) and fib(1). Now the stack holds the information 5 and 3.
After finishing the process of calls fib(2) and fib(1) the program pops out the information
3 and returns to the body of its caller fib(5) and calculates the addition fib(4)+fib(3).
Finally the program pops up the information 5 and finishes the calling fib(5).
In the whole procedure only 3 (5 − 2) unit spaces are needed to implement recursive function
call fib(5). Generally in the procedure of computing fib(n) the program needs about n − 2
unit spaces for the stack. Thus the space complexity of fib(n) is O(n).
Chapter 12
Recursion and Iteration
In general, there are two approaches to writing repetitive algorithms. One uses iteration; the
other uses recursion. Recursion is a repetitive process in which an algorithm calls itself. In this
lecture, we study recursion and iteration as well as backtracking algorithms.
12.1 Recursive Functions

12.1.1 Recursive Tasks
A recursive task is one that calls itself. With each invocation, the problem is reduced to a smaller
task (reducing case) until the task arrives at some stopping or base case, which stops the process.
The condition that must be true to achieve the terminal case is the stopping condition.
A recursive function only works if each recursive call is to a simpler task.
For a number of problems, recursive algorithms are simpler.
See Figure 9.1 on page 420 and Figure 9.2 on pages 423.
12.1.2 General algorithm for recursion

Instead of a looping control structure, recursive functions use an if or if ...else state-
ment, such as
if (stopping_condition)
terminal_case
else
reducing_case
or
if (!stopping_condition)
reducing_case
Example
• The first example is the factorial function: n!.

• This is defined as: (
n · (n − 1) · . . . · 3 · 2 · 1 for n > 0
n! = (12.1)
1 for n = 0
• This gives us the recursive form:

(
1 for n = 0
n! = (12.2)
n(n − 1)! for n > 0
Recursive version of n!
double recFact(int n) {
if (n == 0)
return 1;
return n * recFact(n-1);
}
Iterative version of n!
double itFact(int n) {
double retVal = 1.0;
int i;
for (i = 1; i <= n; i ++)

retVal *= i;
}
12.1.3 Tracing Recursive Calls

The computer keeps track of function calls in the following way: When a function call is en-
countered, the first step is to save some information that will allow the computation to return
to the correct location after the function call is completed.
The computer also provides memory for the called function’s formal parameters and any local
variables that the called function uses.
Next, the actual arguments are plugged in for the formal parameters, and the code of the called
function begins to execute.
If the execution should encounter another function call — recursive — then the first function’s
computation is stopped temporarily. This is because the second function call must be executed
before the first function call can continue.
Information is saved that indicates precisely where the first function call should resume when
the second call is completed.
The second function is given memory for its own parameters and local variables. The execu-
tion then proceeds to the second function call.
When the second function call is completed, the execution returns to the correct location within
the first function. And the first function resumes its computation.
Suppose that we want to calculate the factorial of 5.
We call the function recFact(5), then the computer allocates memory for the formal param-
eter n (now no local variables at all) and copies the actual argument value 5 into memory of
the formal parameter n.
As the value of n is nonzero, then the function executes the second statement in its body, i.e.,
the return statement.
There it encounters another function call recFact(4). Then the computer stops the compu-
tation of the first function call and begins processing the second function call. At the same
time, information is saved that indicates the point of the first function computation.
The computer allocates new memory for the formal parameter n and plugs value 4 into it.
Note memory for n here is different from memory for n in the first function call which holds a
value of 5.
Then the computer begins processing the second call in which the third function call is encoun-
tered. Then the same procedure goes through. Now suppose the second function call finishes
its job, then the second function call returns its result to the body of the first function call.
Finally the first function call resume its computation from the stopping point, i.e., computing
5 times the result from the second function call, and then returns the product. Now the first
function call finishes its job.
12.2 Examples
12.2.1 The Problem
In this example we consider a recursive function for deleting an object from a black and white
image.
Two black pixels are in the same object if we can get from one to the other with horizontal and
vertical moves without going over any white pixels.
Thus the image in Figure 12.1 has two objects.
12.2.2 Algorithm: Deleting an object from the image

To delete an object we specify a pixel in (row, col) format.
The base case occurs if the pixel is outside the bounds of the image, or if it is already white.
0 1 2 3 4
Figure 12.1: Initial image
If not then we white out the pixel and then call the function recursively for the pixels directly
above, below, to the left and to the right of the current pixel.
Two base cases:
• Pixel is outside the image.

• Pixel is already white.
Recursive case: make the pixel white and call function for each surrounding pixel.
eg. Figure 12.2 shows the result when we delete the object at pixel (3,2).
12.2.3 Defining function ErasePic

Here is a recursive algorithm for the ErasePic function.
ErasePic algorithm for pic at (row, col)

if (row, col) is inside pic and
(row, col) is black
change (row, col) to white
call ErasePic for:
(row - 1, col ),
(row + 1, col ),
(row , col - 1) and
(row , col + 1)
0 1 2 3 4
Figure 12.2: Final image
12.2.4 Transformed into C++

We use a 2D array of type int to represent an image. If the pixel is white, then the correspond-
ing element in the array is 0; if the pixel is black, the element has 1.
The code:
const int SIZE = 5;

typedef int pic_t[SIZE][SIZE];
void ErasePic(pic_t pic, int row, int col) {

if ((0 <= row) && (row < SIZE) &&
(0 <= col) && (col < SIZE) &&
(pic[row][col] == 1)) {
pic[row][col] = 0;
ErasePic(pic, row + 1, col );
ErasePic(pic, row, col + 1);
ErasePic(pic, row - 1, col );
ErasePic(pic, row, col - 1);
}
}
Suppose we call the above function at pixel (3,2), then can you trace the order of pixels chang-
ing from black to white?
12.3 Recursion vs. Iteration

In Favour of Iteration:
• Recursive functions use more stack space than their iterative counterparts.
• Recursive functions can require more CPU time.
In Favour of Recursion:
• The most natural and simple solution to a problem may be recursive.

• Some compilers can automatically convert some recursive functions to equivalent itera-
tive functions.
12.4 Backtracking Algorithms

12.4.1 Principle
A backtracking algorithm is an algorithm where we guess a solution, and back up if an impasse
is reached.
Like navigating a maze
• Try one direction.

• Back up if we reach a dead end.
Backtracking should be used when:
• We have more than one choice.

• We don’t know which choice will work.
12.4.2 Eight Queens Problem

A chessboard is an 8x8 board.
A queen can move along its row, column and it diagonals.
The problem is to place eight queens on a chessboard such that no queen can take another.
We can do this using backtracking.
12.4.3 Different Strategies

Consider all possible combinations:
(64
8 ) = 4, 426, 165, 368 combinations.
Restrict attention to one queen per row:
88 = 16, 777, 216 combinations.
Restrict attention to one queen per row & column

8! = 40, 320 combinations.
We can also immediately discard all guarded diagonals.
12.4.4 Backtracking Algorithm for Problem

This algorithm is recursive, so it still has the same basic form given earlier. However, it may
try several recursive cases and then a base case.
We consider the board column by column.
For each column we find an unguarded position for the queen.
We repeat the process for the next column (recursive case).
If this fails then we find another unguarded position for this column.
If there are no more unguarded positions then we signal failure and exit (base case).
If there are no more columns to consider then we signal success and exit (base case).
12.4.5 General Algorithm for Backtracking

if (stopping_condition)
stopping_case
else
while (more_guesses)
try_guess_reduce
or
if (!stopping_condition)
while (more_guesses)
try_guess_reduce
12.4.6 Algorithm for addQueen

addQueen algorithm for board at (row, col)
//check base cases

if col >= BOARD_SIZE then
return with success //we have finished all columns
if row >= BOARD_SIZE then
return with failure //we have checked the whole column col
//base cases end
//check if (row, col) is guarded

if isGuarded(board, row, col) then
return the result of addQueen for board at (row+1,col)
add a Queen to board at (row, col)
//check agian to see if the puzzle is solved

if success is returned from addQueen for board at (0,col+1)
then return with success
//if all places on col+1 are under attack, we should

//backtrack to the last step
remove the Queen at (row, col) from the board
//try the next row on column col

return the result of addQueen for board at (row+1, col)
The job of addQueen function is to play the game at the location (row, col)and report the
result (success or failure) from the location. Within the function, we first check if the location is
outside the board. If so, then the game is over and the function returns the game status (success
or failure). Then check if the location is guarded by the placed queens. If guarded, then we play
the game at the next location (row+1, col); if not, we put a new queen at the location. After
that we further play the game from a new column, that is, from the new location (0, col+1). If
the returned result is failure from that location, that means the location (row, col) is not a good
location for the new queen. Hence we go back one step by removing the queen at (row, col) and
try the next location on the same column, that is, the location (row+1, col).
Chapter 13
Algorithms for Search
In this lecture, we talk about the concept of key and comparing algorithm, Sequential search
and Binary search (two versions) and their properties and conclusions.
13.1 Why Search?

Searching a list of values is a common computational task. An application program might
retrieve a student record, bank account record, credit record, or any other type of record using a
search algorithm.
13.1.1 Objectives
Search an array for a target using two algorithms:
• Sequential search.
• Binary search.
Compare efficiency of algorithms.
We are not limiting ourselves to one specific type of array.
13.1.2 Keys
To search an array, we must be able to compare elements.
This is done via a key. A key is something which can be used to identify or clarify objects/elements.
It’s unique for objects of classes.
For simple types like int, char, and char*, the key may be the element itself.
For more complex types such as structures, this key may be one specific field.
For example, in the following structure, we could use studentNumber as the key.
struct student {
char firstName[32];
char lastName[32];
int studentNumber;
};
13.1.3 General Principles

The searching algorithms should return:
• The index of the target in the array if it is found.

• −1 if the target is not found.
The algorithms are compared by the number of key comparisons they require.
13.2 Sequential Search

13.2.1 Principle
Also called Linear search.
Begin at the start of the array.
Search the array, element by element.
Finish when:
• The target is found.

• The end of the array is reached.
The technique is often used because it is easy to write the algorithm code and is applicable to
many situations including both sorted and unsorted arrays.
13.2.2 Algorithm for Sequential Search of an unsorted array

We search for a desired item x in an array a with n array elements. The pseudocode for the
algorithm is
i = 0
found = FALSE
while ( (i < n) and (not found) ) do the following
{
if (x is a[i])
found = TRUE
else
i = i + 1
}
if (i == n)
i = - 1
return i
13.2.3 Algorithm Analysis: Number of Comparisons required

How many comparisons are required for a sequential search?
The perfect answer depends on the distribution of elements in the array. Usually when we
analyze the performance of an algorithm, we consider the “hardest” case. This is called the
worst-case.
For the sequential search algorithm, the worst-case search occurs when the target is the last
element in the array. In this case, the algorithm compares every element in the array with the
target thus the algorithm takes n comparisons.
Another worst-case is that the target is not in the array at all. In this case, the algorithm has to
complete comparison with each element in the array.
The best case occurs when the target is the first element in the array, thus only one comparison
operation is needed.
On average for an array of length n:
n+1
• A successful search: 2 (the best case: 1, and the worst case: n).
• An unsuccessful search: n (no such element x in the array a)
13.2.4 Example: Sequential Search on Character Array

For a character array, the key is just the element.
We search an array of size n = 8 for the element ’M’.
a: ’R’ ’A’ ’F’ ’P’ ’M’ ’B’ ’X’ ’V’
index: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
In this example, the algorithm needs five comparisons between the target and the elements in
the array.
If the target x is ’V’, the successful search needs 8 comparison.
If the target x is ’W’, then the algorithm needs 8 comparisons but unsuccessful.
13.3 Binary Search

Sequential search is easy to implement, easy to analyze, and fine to use if we are only searching
a small array. However, if a search algorithm will be used over and over, it is worthwhile to find a
faster algorithm. The algorithm, called binary search, may be used.
13.3.1 Problem and Idea

Cuts problem in half with each iteration.
Array must be sorted for the algorithm to work.
We consider the middle element. Three cases:
• Larger than target:

Search the bottom half of the array.
• Smaller than target:
Search the top half of the array.
• Equal to target:
Found it!
13.3.2 Algorithm for Binary Search of a sorted array

We search for a desired item x in an array a with n array elements. The pseudocode for the
binary search algorithm is
first = 0
last = n-1
found = FALSE
while ( (first <= last) and (not found) ) do the following
{
mid = (first + last)/2
if ( x < a[mid] )
last = mid - 1
else if ( x > a[mid] )
first = mid+1
else
found = TRUE
}
if ( not found ) then
mid = -1
return mid
13.3.3 Example: Binary Search on Integer Array

For an integer array, the key is just the element.
We search an array of size 9 for the element 28.
a: 3 7 8 9 14 22 24 28 31
index: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
first mid last
Step Two
a: 3 7 8 9 14 22 24 28 31
index: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
first mid last
Step Three
a: 3 7 8 9 14 22 24 28 31
index: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
first last
mid
13.4 Alternative Binary Search

13.4.1 Idea
In this algorithm, we only do one comparison per iteration.
We consider the middle element. Two cases:
• Less than target or equal to target:

Search the top half of the array.
• Greater than target:
Search the bottom half of the array (including middle element).
13.4.2 Alternative Algorithm for Binary Search

We search an array a for the target x:
first = 0
last = n-1
while ( first < last ) do the following
{
mid = (first + last) / 2
if ( x > a[mid] )
first = mid+1 else
last = mid
}
if (first = last and x = a[last])
exit with last

exit with -1
Question: What will happen if the key is the middle element at first comparison?
Consider two special cases: (1) the key is the first element and (2) the key is the last element.
13.5 Pros and Cons of Searching Techniques

Sequential Search:
• Works on both sorted and unsorted arrays.

• Requires a lot of comparisons.
Binary Search:
• Is much faster than Sequential Search.

• Only works on sorted arrays.
Number of Comparisons (Successful Search)
Size Sequential Binary 1 Binary 2
10 5.5 5 3
100 50.5 9 7
1000 500.5 14 10
10000 5000.5 19 13
100000 50000.5 24 17
Number of Comparisons (Unsuccessful Search)

Size Sequential Binary 1 Binary 2
10 10 6 3
100 100 10 7
1000 1000 15 10
10000 10000 20 13
100000 100000 25 17
Chapter 14
Hashing and Complexity
14.1 Hashing
14.1.1 Definitions
A table is a finite sequence of records such that each entry has a key which uniquely identifies
it.
There are three basic operations for a table:
1. Insert an entry into table

2. Delete an entry from table
3. Search for key on the table
The load factor, is a measure of the saturation of a table. It is the ratio of the number of items in
the table and the number of table locations.
number of items in table

load factor = number of table locations
The table structure is the main component of a relational database. A relational database is
composed of many tables, called relations.
Example Table
Name Year GPA

Adams, Keith 3 3.21
Blackwell, Henry 1 2.00
Davis, Susan 1 3.50
Hinkel, Chris 2 1.94
Jordan, Ann 4 3.05
Patterson, Lynn 1 2.00
Suarez, Rosa 3 2.82
Williams, George 2 3.64
14.1.2 Different Implementations of Tables

There are a number of implementations of ADT table. A dynamic linked list or an array of
records — in both cases with ordered or unordered data — or a binary search tree can provide the
implementation of table. That is
1. Array:
(a) Sorted
(b) Unsorted
2. Linked List:
(a) Sorted
(b) Unsorted
3. Binary Search Tree
4. Hash Table (Covered in this Lecture Note)
The characteristics of a particular application, including the frequency of doing each operation,
determine the best implementation of ADT table.
To match a table implementation with an application, we must have a clear understanding of
each implementation’s time and space complexities.
14.2 Hash Tables

14.2.1 Definition
A hash table is a table that uses a function h, called a hash function, to compute a record’s nu-
merical location in the table from its key.
In the absence of collisions:
• Insertion: Insert the entry with key at the location h(key)

• Deletions: Delete the entry with key key at the location h(key)
• Retrieve: Check if the entry with key is at the locationh(key)
14.2.2 The hash function

We use the hash function to determine the location for a record or jump immediately to the
desired record.
This direct access approach provides very efficient insertions, deletions and retrievals.
In the remainder method of hashing, the hash function has the form.
hash(k) = k%c
where k is a key, and c is a positive constant.
Typical choice for c is the table size.
hash(key) = key%T ABLE SIZE
Note: The hash function may map two different keys to the same index. This leads to the
possibility of collisions.
14.2.3 Example: Hash table of records
hash(k) = k % 11
Index Key Information

0 3542 . . . . . . . .
1
2 5370 . . . . . . . .
3 7406 . . . . . . . .
4
5 9179 . . . . . . . .
6
7
8
9 6598 . . . . . . . .
10 5081 . . . . . . . .
14.2.4 Good Table Size

In general, primes give the best table sizes. Suppose we pick a non-prime for our table size,
eg: 14. The factors of 14 are 1, 2, 7, 14. Choose the hash function: hash(k) = k%14. Then even
number keys will be hashed to even indices and odd number keys hashed to odd indices.
We wish numbers to be dispersed in a semi-random fashion throughout the table. Eg: Suppose
all keys were even, then we would only use half of the table.
14.3 Collision Problems

14.3.1 Resolving Collisions
In a hash table, a collision occurs when two keys hash to the same location
A probe into a hash table is a check of a location for a key. Many collision-resolving methods
are possible:
• Linear probing
• Quadratic probing
• Random probing
• Chained addressing
14.3.2 Open Addressing

Open addressing is a method of finding an open location for insertion into a hash table after a
collision has occurred.
Linear probing is an open addressing technique. If there is a collision, we continue from the
hash location on, looking for the next available position.
h, h+1, h+2, ...
When using open addressing, each location is assigned one of three states:
• Occupied: Currently in use

• Empty: Has not been used
• Chain: Once occupied, but available now

14.3.3 Linear Probing: Insertions
Insert element with key 3093

hash(k) = k % 11 3093 % 11 = 2
0 3542 . . . . . . . .
1
2 5370 . . . . . . . .
3 7406 . . . . . . . .
4 3093 . . . . . . . .
5 9179 . . . . . . . .
6
7
8
9 6598 . . . . . . . .
10 5081 . . . . . . . .
14.3.4 Linear Probing: Deletions
Delete key 3645

hash(k) = k % 11 3645 % 11 = 4
Index Key Status Information
0 4719 OCC. . . . . . . . .
1 EMPTY
2 EMPTY
3 EMPTY
4 3194 OCC. . . . . . . . .
7 3645 CHAIN
6 4747 OCC. . . . . . . . .
5 2072 OCC. . . . . . . . .
8 EMPTY
9 4200 OCC. . . . . . . . .
10 EMPTY
14.3.5 Linear Probing: Searching
Search for key 2072

hash(k) = k % 11 2072 % 11 = 4
0 4719 . . . . . . . .
1
2
3
4 3194 . . . . . . . .
5 3645 . . . . . . . .
6 4747 . . . . . . . .
7 2072 . . . . . . . .
8
9 4200 . . . . . . . .
10
14.3.6 Clustering
Any key that maps to a location h follows the same path, searching for an available cell.
If many keys map to the same location, we will get clustering.
The clustering of records in a hash table that follow the same path from a hash location is called
primary clustering
When a probing path for one key merges with other hash values and paths, secondary clustering
occurs.
14.3.7 Quadratic Probing

The probe sequence examines the locations that are the squares of the integers beyond the
original hash position h, modulo T ABLE SIZE.
h + 1, h + 4, h + 9, h + 16, ...
Next location depends on number of probes so far.
This method reduces secondary clustering, but does not reduce primary clustering, and it may
not examine every location
14.3.8 Quadratic Probing Example: Insertions
Insert key 3035

hash(k) = k % 11 3035 % 11 = 1
0
1 3312 . . . . . . . .
2 2191 . . . . . . . .
3
4
5 2447 . . . . . . . .
6
7
8
9 3606 . . . . . . . .
10 3035 . . . . . . . .
14.3.9 Random Probing

Random number generator computes next location to be examined. The key is used to seed
the random number generator so that the probe sequence can be duplicated during searches.
This probing method reduces both primary and secondary clustering. It is usually slower
because of time taken in generating random numbers.
14.3.10 Load Factor

With any open addressing method of collision resolution,
As the table fills, there can be a severe degradation in the table performance.
Load factors between 60% and 70% are common. Load factors > 70% are undesirable.
The search time is dependent only on the load factor, not on the table size. We can use the
desired load factor to determine appropriate table size:
number of items in table

table size = smallest prime > desired load factor
14.4 Bucket Technique and Chained Addressing

14.4.1 An Alternative to Open Addressing Techniques
Definition:
A bucket is a collection of elements associated with a particular hash location.

Allow collisions to produce many entries at the same location. When the bucket becomes full,
we must again deal with handling collisions.
Example: Hashing with Buckets
0 element with key = 17 element with key = 51 empty

1 element with key = 18 add new element here empty
2 empty empty empty
3 element with key = 20 element with key = 54 element with key = 37
16 element with key = 16 element with key = 33
Add element with key = 35 hash(key) = key % 17
14.4.2 Chained Addressing

Another technique to resolve collision is chained addressing which uses dynamic linked lists.
Moreover, the implementation expands the table as needed and eliminates secondary clustering.
Each table position is a linked list.
A chain is a linked list of elements that share the same hash location.
Collisions are resolved by adding the element to the linked list at that location.
Chained Example
0
1 element with key = 18
2
3 element with key = 54 add new element here
16 element with key = 33
Add element with key = 37 hash(key) = key % 17

Chapter 15
Stacks and Their Application
In this lecture we talk about the stack structure. Stack is widely used in many computer tech-
niques. For example recursion is implemented in the computer by use of a run-time stack. The stack
is appropriate in situations when the last data placed into the structure should be the first processed.
15.1 Stack Structure

15.1.1 What is a Stack?
A stack is a data structure in which the last data item placed into the structure is the first
accessed.
All activity occurs at one end – the top – of the stack.
The operation to place a data item on the top of the stack is push.
The pop operation removes a data item from the stack.
LIFO is an acronym for Last In First Out.
The top operation returns the top of the stack without removing it
The IsEmpty operation returns true if the stack is empty (i.e. has no elements).
Think of a stack of plates at a salad bar:
• We can add to the top of the stack (push)

• We can remove the top plate (pop)
• To access the nth plate, we must first remove the n-1 plates above it.
15.1.2 The STL Stack Class

Because different stacks may store different types, a Class Template for a stack is desirable. We
need one template parameter: class Item (the type of data to be stored in the stack)
The C++ Standard Template Library (STL) has a stack class. You can simply use it to define
your own stack object. For example, the following statement declares a stack for string
stack<string> myStrStack;
The main methods for the standard stack are
bool empty(); //check if the stack is empty

void push(Item& entry); //add a data into the stack
Item Pop(); //take the object/data from the stack
Item& top(); //index to the top element
15.1.3 Our Version for Stack Template

Array implementation of a stack

class stack {
public:
stack() { used = 0; }
void push(const Item& entry);
void pop();
bool empty() const
{ return (used==0); }
Item top() const;
private:
Item data[CAPACITY];
size type used;
};
Dynamic Implementation of a stack

class stack {
public:
conststatic const size type CAPACITY = 30;
stack() { top ptr = NULL; }
stack(const stack& source);
˜stack(){ list clear(top ptr); }
void pop();
void operator=(const stack& source);
bool empty() const
{ return (top ptr==NULL); }
Item top() const;
private:
node<Item>* top ptr;
};
15.2 Applications
15.2.1 Where are Stacks used?
Stack frames are used to store return addresses, parameters, and local variables in a function
calling
Computer graphics (OpenGL). The sequence of transformations uses a last-specified, first-applied

rule. Thus, a stack of transformations is maintained.
Robotics: Instructions are stores in a stack. We can apply stack controllers such as repeat loops
to these stacks.
Architecture of computers uses stacks to do arithmetics (eg. Intel FPU).
15.2.2 An example: Reversing a string

Two possible solutions:
Use recursion
Use Stack
while more input do

read character
push it onto stack
end
while not stack is empty do

pop character
write it to the screen
end
15.2.3 From Infix to Postfix

Infix notation: (A + B) ∗ C
Postfix notation: AB + C∗
We can use a stack to change notations.
Algorithm
while not end-of-expression do:

read next symbol
cases for symbol:
an operand: write it
’(’ : push ’(’
’)’ : pop & write operators until
’(’, then pop ’(’
’*’,’/’ : pop & write operators until
’(’, ’+’ or ’-’
then push ’*’ or ’/’
’+’,’-’ : pop & write operators until
’(’, then push ’+’ or ’-’
EOE : pop & write all operators
15.2.4 Evaluation of Postfix

When an expression is in postfix notation, the computer pushes the operands onto the stack as
it reads the expression from left to right. When an operator is encountered, the top two items
are popped from the stack, the binary operation evaluated, and the result pushed back onto
the stack.
This way of evaluation is used in the Intel FPU.
Algorithm
while not end-of-expression do

read next symbol
if symbol is an operand
push it onto stack
else (symbol is an operator)
pop two operands,
apply operator to them
push the result
endif
pop the result

Chapter 16
Queues and Their Application
In this lecture, we describe the queue structure which, for example, models a line of people
waiting at the salad bar, discuss the abstraction data type definition of queue as well as the appro-
priate operation on the queue structure.
16.1 Queues
16.1.1 Definition of a Queue
A list where additions and deletions are done at opposite ends.
• enqueue/push, add object to the rear of the queue

• dequeue/pop, remove object from the front of the queue
FIFO: First In First Out. There are two implementations:
• Arrays: covered later

• Linked Lists: covered later
Additional operations:
• empty: Contains no elements

• full: Can not add more elements
• front: returns object at front but doesn’t delete it
Analogy: consider a line of people waiting to be served:
• New arrivals join the rear of the line.

• People leave the line at the front to be served
• People are served in the order that they arrive (FIFO)
16.1.2 The STL Queue Class Template

The C++ Standard Template Library (STL) has a queue class. You can simply use it to define
your own stack object. For example, the following statement declares a stack for string
queue<string> myStrQueue;
The main methods for the standard stack are
bool empty(); //check if the queue is empty

void push(Item& entry); //add an item into the queue
Item pop(); //remove the object/data from the front
Item& front(); //returns the from item
16.1.3 Array Implementation of Queue

We use first and last to indicate the indices of the front and rear elements, respectively.
The template class is defined as

class queue {
public:
//queue methods
private:
Item data[CAPACITY];
size type first;
size type last;
size type count;
};
where count is the number of items in the queue.
When adding elements to the queue, the index last increases. When deleting elements from
the queue, the index first also increases. That is, each time we enqueue an element, the
queue grows to the right (ie. larger indices). Each time an element is dequeued, the queue
shrinks from the left. Thus, the entire queue will slowly drift to the right. Eventually, we will
reach the end of the array, and no longer be able to add elements to the queue even there are
space on the left hand side of the array.
To solve this problem, consider a queue of people waiting to be served. Each time someone
leaves the queue from the front, everyone else shuffles forward to fill the gap. Similarly, for an
array based queue, we could shift each element of the queue one index to the left each time we
dequeued something.
A more efficient solution is to use a circular array.
The array wraps around, so that if we reach the end of the array we start enqueueing elements
at the start. Of course, if the queue is full, we still won’t be able to enqueue any more elements.
16.2 Queue Applications

16.2.1 Computer Science
Simulations
• People waiting to be served

• Airport Traffic: Planes waiting to take off & land.
Operating System
• Jobs wait in queue to execute

◦ First Come First Served: FCFS
◦ Round Robin scheduling
16.2.2 Recognizing palindromes

Recall a stack is a Last In First Out structure.
To recognize palindromes, we first enter the line into both a stack and a queue of characters.
Then we compare the output of both structures char by char. Because a stack is a LIFO struc-
ture and a queue is FIFO, the order of the stack output is reversed, while the queue output is
in order.
Algorithm: Palindrome
while more input do:

read character of input
Push onto Stack
EnQueue onto Queue
end while
while NOT stack is empty do:

Pop char1 off Stack
DeQueue char2 off Queue
if (char1 <> char2) then
return FALSE
end if
end while
return TRUE
16.2.3 Evaluation of Infix

Recall from lecture 15:
• Infix & Postfix expressions

• Algorithm: Infix → Postfix
• Algorithm: Evaluation of Postfix
We can combine these algorithms
Algorithm: Evaluation of Infix
• Convert expr to Postfix

• Store in Queue
• Evaluate stored expr & output
16.2.4 Simulation of customer service: (pp. 381-396)

Consider a queue of car to wash
Must specify certain constants:
• WashTime: for one customer

• SimulationTime: running time
• ProbabilityArrive: rate of Arrival (how to decide if a new customer arrives)
At a certain time, to determine if a new customer arrives, we obtain a random number
between 0 and 1. If this number is less than ProbabilityArrive, we process an arrival
by enqueuing a customer.
Simulation is time based (discrete)
A queue of customers is maintained. (Service is nothing but only the time decrement in this
example)
We can work out the average delay.
Implementation: pp. 390 - 396
Algorithm:
read WashTime, SimulationTime &

ProbabilityArrive
initialize the clock & queue
WindowTimeLeft = 0
while (clock < SimulationTime) do:

process possible arrival
if (WindowTimeLeft = 0 AND
queue is not empty) then

serve car at front of queue
WindowTimeLeft = TransactionTime
end if
if (WindowTimeLeft > 0) then
decrement WindowTimeLeft
end if
increment clock
end while
Chapter 17
Dynamic Queues
17.1 Linked List Implementation of a Queue

17.1.1 Queue Template Class
A queue can also be implemented as a linked list. One end of the linked list is the front, and
the other end is the rear of the queue. Dynamic queues should be used if we can’t predict the
maximum size.
Our approach uses two pointers: One points to the first node (front ptr), and the other
points to the last node (rear ptr).
Here is a class definition for the queue template class,

class queue {
public:
queue(); //constructor
queue(const queue<Item>& source);
//copy constructor
˜queue(); //destructor
void pop();
void operator=(const queue<Item>& source);
bool empty() const { return (count==0); }
Item front() const;
size type size() const { return count; }
private:
node<Item>* front ptr;
node<Item>* rear ptr;
size type count; //total number of items
};
17.1.2 Implementation
The constructor will initialize an empty queue. The implementation is simple

queue<Item>::queue() {
front ptr = NULL;
rear ptr = NULL;
count = 0;
}
The copy constructor will create a new queue object from the given queue. The implementation
is to use the list copy function of the node class to copy items from the source to the newly
created queue.

queue<Item>::queue(const queue<Item>& source) {
count = source.count;
list copy(source.front ptr, front ptr, rear ptr);
}
Before you read the text about the detail of destructor, can you give the implementation of the
destructor ˜queue()
The push function of the queue class adds a node at the rear of the queue. In the implemen-
tation we need to create the node for the given entry, to add the node just after the current rear
node (via the insertion function of the node), and to move the rear ptr pointing to the newly
added node.

void queue<Item>::push(const Item& entry) {
if (empty()) {
list head insert(front ptr, entry);
rear ptr = front ptr;
} else {
list insert(rear ptr, entry);
rear ptr = rear ptr->link();
}
++count;
}
The pop function of the queue class removes a node from the front of the queue. After remov-
ing the second node will be the new front node. In the implementation we need to return the
space for the first node to the system and to move the front ptr to the second node.

void queue<Item>::pop( ) {
assert(!empty());
list head remove(front ptr);
--count;
}
The assignment operation is also important. Here is the implementation of the overloaded =
operator

void queue<Item>::operator=(const queue<Item>& source) {
if (this == & source)
return;
list clear(front ptr);
list copy(source.front ptr, front ptr, rear ptr);
count = source.count;
}
Finally we need a function to return the data information in the front node.

Item queue<Item>::front( ) const
{
assert(!empty());
return front ptr->data();
}
17.2 Priority Queues

17.2.1 Priority Queue
Using a queue ensures that customers are served in the exact order in which they arrive. How-
ever, we often want to assign priorities to customers and serve the higher priority customers
before those of lower priority.
For example, a computer operating system that keeps a queue of programs waiting to use
some resource, such as a printer, may give interactive programs a higher priority than batch
processing programs that will not be picked up by the user.
A priority queue is a container class that allows entries to be retrieved according to some speci-
fied priority levels. The highest priority entry is removed first.
If there are several entries with equally high priorities, then the priority queue’s implementa-
tion determines which will come out first.
17.2.2 Specifying Priority

The C++ STL has a priority queue<Item> template class for Item type data.
If the value of the Item type can be compared with a built-in “less than” operator, then that
operator can be used to specify a priority for each item in the queue.
For your own class type Item, you may have defined your own “less than” operator (over-
loaded operator <)
A programmer may define his own priority function other than the operator <.
In the above meaning, a priority queue can be considered as a sorted queue.
17.2.3 Implementation Ideas

Actually, a priority queue is a sorted queue in the decreasing order based on the order of the
items. The highest priority item is placed at the front of the queue.
A common priority queue implementation uses a tree data structure that achieves high effi-
ciency.
There are several less efficient alternatives. One possibility is to implement the priority queue
as an ordinary linked list, where the items are kept in order from highest to lowest priority
Chapter 18
Trees and Binary Trees
Unlike lists etc., tree is a nonlinear structure. You have knowledge about tree from the course
discrete mathematics. In this lecture we will discuss how to make abstract data type tree and its
implementation methods.
18.1 The Tree Structures

18.1.1 What is a tree? Rooted tree?
Tree is a data structure that is hierarchical in nature
For any nonempty tree, there is a hierarchical arangement with one node at the top. This
representation is a rooted tree, the node at the top is called the root.
Animal
Bird Reptile Mammal
Parrot Cat Dog
18.1.2 Tree definitions

A node (vertex or point) is a container for data and has relationships with its predecessor (if any),
and successors (if any).
An edge is the relationship of a node to a successor.

The successors of the root are roots of the subtrees of the root. The parent of a node (if any) is its
predecessor. The children of a node (if any) are its successors.
A node is a leaf if it has no children. Otherwise it is an internal node
The depth/level of a node is its distance from the root. And the depth/height of a tree is the
maximum level of nodes in the tree
root
Animal Level 1
interior
parent node
Bird Reptile Mammal Level 2
child
edge
Parrot Cat Dog Level 3
node leaf
height = 3
18.1.3 What is a binary tree?

A binary tree is a rooted tree in which every node has at most two children.
A child on the left of the node is called the left child and a child on the right of the node is called
the right child
The left (right) subtree is the subtree containing the left (right) child.
Fruit
No Seeds Has Seeds
Grape Apple Orange
In a full binary tree, every leaf has the same depth, and every nonleaf has two children.
In a complete binary tree, every level except the deepest must contain as many nodes as possible,
and at the deepest level, all the nodes are as far left as possible.
18.2 Tree Representations

18.2.1 Array Representation of Complete Binary Trees
Complete binary trees have a simple representation using arrays.
In this representation, the root node is stored as the first entry of an array, then the left child
of the root node the second entry of the array and the right child of the root the third entry of
the array. Then the most left child on the third level goes to the forth place of the array, then
the child from left to right goes to the array entry, and level by level. See the example on pages
460 — 461.
Under this representation the following properties are true:
• Suppose that the data for a nonroot node appears in entry [i] of the array, then the data
for its parent is always at location [(i-1)/2].
• Suppose that the data for a node appears in entry [i] of the array, then its children (if
they exist) always have their data at these locations: the left child at entry [2i+1] and
the right child at entry [2i+2].
18.2.2 Representing a Binary Tree with a Node Class

For a binary tree, we store node information in the object of a node class which has two pointers
to its left and right child nodes.
The node template class is now like

class binary tree node {
public:
//public member functions
private:
Item data field;
binary tree node<Item>* left field;
binary tree node<Item>* right field;
};
See the example on page 463.
18.2.3 Operations on a Binary Tree

We need to add as many member functions as possible to the binary tree node class.
Actually a binary tree is presented by a lot of nodes linked together. We need a function
returning the data information of the tree node.

Item& binary tree node<Item>::data()
{ return data field; }
One of important operations is to destroy a binary tree. We need to return the nodes of a tree
to the heap. Our function will have one parameter, which is the root pointer of the tree. This
function employs a recursive algorithm. That is, before we return the root node to the heap,
we should return all the nodes in the left subtree and right subtree.

void binary tree node<Item>::tree clear(binary tree node<Item>*& root ptr)
{
if (root ptr != NULL ) {
tree clear( root ptr->left() );
tree clear( root ptr->right() )
delete root ptr;
root ptr = NULL;
}
}
Our second function also has a simple recursive implementation. The function copies a tree.
The tree can be copied with these three steps
• Make l ptr point to a copy of the left subtree

• Make r ptr point to a copy of the right subtree
• return new tree

binary tree node<Item> binary tree node<Item>::
tree copy(const binary tree node<Item>* root ptr)
{
binary tree node<Item>* l ptr;
binary tree node<Item>* r ptr;
if (root ptr == NULL )
return NULL;
else {
l ptr = tree copy( root ptr->left() );
r ptr = tree copy( root ptr->right() )

return new binary tree node<Item>(
root ptr->data(), l ptr, r ptr)
//using the constructor
}
}
18.3 Traversing Binary Trees

18.3.1 Traversals on Trees
To traverse a tree means to travel through the tree and visit each node by performing a task.
A procedure called when a node is visited is called a visit procedure.
There are three different kinds of traversals:
• Preorder
• Postorder
• Inorder
18.3.2 Preorder Traversal

Visit the root before traversing each subtree.
Algorithm (for binary tree):
if the tree is not empty then

visit the root
traverse the left subtree
traverse the right subtree
18.3.3 Postorder Traversal

Visit the root after traversing each subtree.
Algorithm (for binary tree):

visit the root
18.3.4 Inorder Traversal

Visit the root between the traversals of the left & right subtrees.
Algorithm:

visit the root
18.3.5 Doing traversals the easy way

Draw a line around the tree, as such:
10
7 14
2 11 20
We travel anticlockwise along the line and visit each node as we pass:
• it on the left for preorder

• it on the right for postorder
• beneath it for inorder

18.3.6 Example: Traversing a binary tree
G R
B H Z
A F M X
T Y
Preorder: N G B A F H M R Z X T Y
Postorder: A F B M H G T Y X Z R N
Inorder: A B F G H M N R T X Y Z
18.3.7 Code Example for Pre-order Traversal

The visit procedure defined as a function will be transferred to the traversal algorithm as a
function pointer parameter.
The template function definition is given below
template <class Process, class BTNode>

void preorder(Process f, BTNode* node ptr) {
if (node ptr != NULL) {
f(node ptr->data()) //visit data
preorder(f, node ptr->left() );
preorder(f, node ptr->right() );
}
}
Process is a type parameter for a function type. You instantiate the type parameter Process
by any type of function.
Following the same rule, you can define functions for postorder and inorder traversal algo-
rithms.
Chapter 19
Binary Search Trees and B-Trees
19.1 Binary Search Trees

Some of the most significant applications of binary trees arise from storing data in an ordered
fashion in what we call a binary search tree.
19.1.1 The definition of Binary Search Trees

For each node node we must have
• The entry in node is greater than all entries in its left subtree
• The entry in node is less than all entries in its right subtree
• Both subtrees are binary search trees
19.1.2 Examples
Two binary search trees
13 chicken
7 40 bread eggs
1 9 27 apple butter milk
20 35
These are NOT binary search trees

13 chicken
9 40 bread milk
1 7 27 apple butter eggs
20 35 eggs smaller than milk
7 smaller than 9
19.1.3 Implementation of binary search trees

Pointer based:

class BSTree {
public:
BSTree( );
BSTree(const Item& source);
˜BSTree( );
bool erase one(const Item& target);
size type erase(const Item& target);
void insert(const Item& entry);
void operator += (const BSTree& addend);
void operator =(const BSTree& source);
size type size() const;
size type count(const Item& target);
void inorder(void (*)(Item&), binary tree node<Item>*);
private:
binary tree node *root ptr;
};
Array based: not covered
19.2 Main Operations on Binary Search Trees

19.2.1 Searching for an entry
We start at the root
Three cases:
1. The root is the node containing the entry we are looking for
2. The entry in the root node is larger than the target entry, then search left subtree
3. The entry in the root node is smaller than the target entry, then search right subtree
b f
a c e g
19.2.2 Searching for the Node Containing entry
d d d
b f b f b f
a c e g a c e g a c e g
start at the root d to the right since e > d to the left since e < f
19.2.3 Inserting an Element

Two high level steps:
• Find correct location for new node

• Insert node at that location
Finding location is like searching for an entry
Example
g g g
d j d j d j
a h m a h m a e h m
Starting at root g To left since e < g To right since e > d

Found location
19.2.4 Deleting an Element

There are three cases:
• No children: easy
• One child: easy
• Two children: difficult
Deleting a node with zero or one children
e e
e
a g a f
a g
Old child becomes node

e f
Deleting a node with two children

b old right child becomes b

node
k p
f p f r
e h n r e h
n
move left subtree
inorder predecessor to the right of
inorder predecessor
This method tends to produce higher trees which is undesirable, and causes the operations to
take longer.
19.3 B-Trees
19.3.1 The Problem of Unbalanced Trees
Binary search tree can be used to implement a bag class. However the efficiency of binary
search trees can go awry.
Suppose we add numbers in increasing order into a binary search tree, then we will get an
unbalanced tree in the sense that the levels of the tree are only sparsely filled. See Figure 11.3
of the text.
It will take long time to look up the “maximal” item in such an unbalanced binary search tree.
To make algorithm efficient on binary search trees we need to reduce the depth of the trees.
19.3.2 The B-Tree Rules

A B-tree is a special kind of tree, similar to a binary search tree, where each node holds entries
of some type. But a B-tree is not a binary search tree, even not a binary tree because B-tree
nodes have many more than two children.
Another important property of B-trees is that each node contains more than just a single entry.
Every B-tree depends on a positive constant integer called MINIMUM. This constant determines
how many entries are held in a single node.
B-tree Rule 1: The root may have as few as one entry (or even no entries if it also has no
children); every other node has at least MINIMUM entries.
B-tree Rule 2: The maximum number of entries in a node is twice the value of MINIMUM.
B-tree Rule 3: The entries of each B-tree node are stored in a partialy filled array, sorted from
the smallest entry (at index 0) to the largest entry (at the final used position of the array).
B-tree Rule 4: The number of subtrees below a nonleaf node is always one more than the num-
ber of entries in the node.
B-tree Rule 5: For any nonleaf node: (a) An entry at index i is greater than all the entries in
subtree number i of the node, and (b) Any entry at index i is less than all the entries in subtree
number i + 1 of the node.
B-tree Rule 6: Every leaf in a B-tree has the same depth.
B-tree example
19.4 The Set Class for B-tree Nodes

19.4.1 The Set ADT for B-trees
Each node of a B-tree has at least MINIMUM entries and less than 2*MINIMUM+1 entries. We
will define a set class for each B-tree node.
For each B-tree node, we use data count to denote the actual number of the entries and
child count to denote the actual number of children (subtrees).
Here is the recipe of the set template class

class set {
public:
//set member functions
private:
static const std::size t MINIMUM = 200;
static const std::size t MAXIMUM = 2 * MINIMUM;
std::size t data count;
Item data[MAXIMUM+1];
std::size t child count;
set *subset[MAXIMUM+2];
};
From the above structure we can see that the subtrees of the B-tree root node (set) are pointed
to by pointers stored in the subset array of type set, that is, each array entry subset[i] is
a pointer to another set object.
19.4.2 The Example
19.5 B-tree Operations

19.5.1 Searching for an Item in a B-tree
In the implementation of the set class for a B-tree, the member function count determines
whether an item called target appears in the set. Searching for an item in a B-tree follows
the same idea as searching a binary searh tree.
Start with the entire B-tree, checking to see whether the target is in the root. If the target does
appear in the root, then the search is done. Or the target is not in the root, and the root has no
children. In this case the work is also done.
If the target is not in the root and there are subtrees below. In this case, there is only one
possible subtree where the target can appear, so the algorithm makes a recursive call to search
that one subtree for the target.
The pseudocode is
set a variable i to the first index such as that data[i] is not

less than the target. If there is no such index, then set i
to data count, meaning that all of the entries are less than
the target
if (we found the target at data[i]

return 1;
else if (the root has no children)
return 0;
else
return subset[i]->count(target);
See the example from page 533 of the text.
19.5.2 Inserting an Item into a B-tree

A B-tree maintains its “bushy” characteristic by growing at the root instead of at the leaves.
To illustrate how an insertion works, suppose we are developing a B-tree within MINIMUM=1,
so that each node has a maximum of two data items and three subtrees.
Suppose we wish to insert the following values into the tree: 25, 15, 8, 20, 23, 10, 17, and 12.
Because the root can accept two values, then at the beginning the root node contains items 15
and 25 (data[0]=15 and data[1]=25).
15 25 15
8 25
There is no room for the next item 8. To perform the insertion, we split the node in two and
form a new root with these nodes as children. The middle of the sorted value 8, 15 and 25 goes
into the root.
Because the next value 20 is greater than 15, it goes in the rightmost child.
15 15 23
8 20 25 8 20 25
There is no room for the next value 23 which should also be in the rightmost subtree. We sort
the values, 20, 23, 25, and , as before, divide the node. The middle value 23 goes to the root,
while 20 and 25 proceed to separate nodes.
In the next step, it is easy to insert the items 10 and 17.
15 23
8 10 17 20 25
The value 1 also needs to go into the left child, but there is no room. Thus we sort 8, 10, 12,
place 8 and 12 in their own nodes, and send the middle value to the parent. However the
parent (the root) already is full. Consequently, we repeat the process. We sort, 10, 15, and 23,
move the middle value 15 to a new root and place 10 and 23 in leftmost and rightmost children,
respectively. Instead of propagating downward as with binary search trees, B-trees propagate
upward.
15
15 23
10 23
10
8 12 17 20 25 8 12 17 20 25
19.5.3 Removing an Item from a B-tree

In the deletion operation, the algorithm removes an entry from the B-tree. Most of the work
will be accomplished with a procedure called “loose removal” by which we allow to leave a
root of the wholde tree with zero entries or it might leave the root of an internal subtree with
fewer than MINIMUM entries.
The algorithm is fully described in the textbook. Before you read the text, please try yourself
to see if you can work out the algorithm
Chapter 20
Quadratic Sorting
One of the most common applications in computer science is sorting, the process through
which data are arranged according to their values. We discuss six sorting algorithms.
20.1 Concepts Related to Sorting

20.1.1 What shall we learn?
To learn how various sorting methods work
• Description and Explanation

• Algorithm
• Implementation
To learn the efficiency of various sorting methods and about limitations on the best possible
methods
To learn how to select a sorting technique that is well-matched to the characteristic of a problem
you need to solve
Lesson: No method is better under all circumstances
20.1.2 When Analyzing a Sorting Method

The time complexity of the algorithm
The amount data movement required
The average-case and worst-case performance are of interest
20.1.3 Ordered Array

An ordered array is an array in which each entry contains a key, such that the keys are in order.
That is, if entry i comes before entry j in the array, then the key of entry i is less than or equal
to the key of entry j.
Two different elements may have the same key.
20.1.4 Classification of Sorting

In-Place Sort and External Sort
• An in-place sort of an array occurs within the array and uses no external storage or other
arrays
• In-place sorts are more efficient in space utilization
• An external sort uses primary memory for the data currently being sorted and secondary
storage for any data that will not fit in primary memory.
Stable Sorts
• A sort is stable if it preserves the ordering of elements with the same key.
• i.e. If elements e1 and e2 have the same key, and e1 appears earlier than e2 before
sorting, then e1 is located before e2 after sorting.
• Example:
◦ Suppose we have an array of names and addresses that are already sorted by name.
◦ We want to have an ordering of these people by city.
◦ We want to preserve the alphabetical ordering for each city.
◦ We must use a stable sorting algorithm.
20.2 Insertion Sort

We talk about the description of method, illustration of method, algorithm, possible C++ func-
tion and its characteristics.
20.2.1 Description of Insertion Sort

Straightforward method that is often useful for small collections of data (n ≤ 100).
The general idea of insertion sort is for each element, find the slot where it belongs.
We have a sub-array of sorted elements.
At each step of the sort, we insert the next unsorted element into the sorted sub-array
20.2.2 Illustration of Insertion Sort
Sorted Unsorted

hen

cow

cat

ram

ewe

dog

cow hen
cat

ram

ewe

dog

cat cow hen

ram

ewe

dog

cat cow hen ram

ewe

dog

cat cow ewe hen ram

dog

cat cow dog ewe hen ram
20.2.3 Insertion Sort Algorithm

We take each element a[i], one at a time, from i equal 1 to equal n − 1. Before insertion of the
value of a[i], the subarray from a[0] to a[i − 1] is sorted, and the remainder of the array is not. After
insertion, a[0..i] us correctly ordered while the subarray with elements a[i + 1], a[i + 2], ..., a[n − 1] is
unsorted.
Pre:
a is an array with n elements
Post:
a[0..n − 1] has been sorted
Algorithm:
for i from 1 to n-1

temp = a[i]
loc = i
while ((loc > 0) and (a[loc-1] > temp))
a[loc] = a[loc-1]
loc = loc-1
a[loc] = temp
20.2.4 Insertion Sort Function

We should document any assumption about template arguments.
// Pre: > is defined for type T

template <class T>
void insertSort(T *a, size t n) {
size t i;
size t loc;
T temp;
for(i = 1; i < n; ++i) {

temp = a[i];
loc = i;
while(loc && (a[loc - 1] > temp)) {
a[loc] = a[loc - 1];
--loc;
}
a[loc] = temp;
}
}
20.2.5 Characteristics of insertSort
In−Place Sort Y
Stable Algorithm Y
Recursive Algorithm N
Average Case Best Case Worst Case

Time Complexity O(n 2 ) O(n) O(n 2 )
Circumstances sorted reverse sorted
Number of Moves O(n 2 ) O(n) O(n 2 )
The outer for loop is executed n − 1 times, from 1 to n − 1. On the i-th iteration to find and
prepare the location for temp, the value of the i-th array element, we execute the while loop. If a[i]
is already in its proper location, the while loop does not execute. Thus our best situation is where
the data is already sorted. However, in the worst case the array is in descending order, then the
insertion sort to place the array in ascending order requires a total number of 1 + 2 + ... + (n − 1)
iteration of the while loop. Now you can find the average number of times.
One of disadvantage of insertion sort of an array is the amount of movement of data. In an
array of length records, those reassignments can be quite time-consuming.
20.3 Selection Sort

We discuss the description of method, illustration of method, algorithm, C++ Function and its
characteristics.
20.3.1 Description of Selection Sort

For each slot of the array, we find the element that belongs there.
The idea is basically opposite to that for insertion sort.
• Insertion Sort: Find slots for elements

• Selection Sort: Find elements for slots
Good for big elements with small keys
20.3.2 Illustration of Selection Sort

Unsorted

cat

ram

ewe

dog

hen

cow

ram

cat

cow

hen

ewe

dog

cat cow

hen

ram

ewe

dog

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cat cow dog ram

$ #$ewe !"hen
%%%
&
&&%
&& &% %%%
& %%%
&
& %%%
&
& %%%
&
& '&%'%'
(
& ( '''
(
( '''
(
( '''
(
( '''
(
( ('''((
&&% &
% &&% &
% &&% &
% &&% % & ( %
' (
' (
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cat cow dog ewe % & %
&% & % & ram %
& % & ' %(&('
&%(& ' (('
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cat cow dog ewe hen ram
Sorted
20.3.3 Selection Sort Algorithm

Pre:
a is an array with n elements
Post:
a[0..n − 1] has been sorted

Algorithm:
for i from 0 to n-2 do

minIndex = indexOfMin(a, i, n)
swap(a[i], a[minIndex])
20.3.4 indexOfMin Algorithm

Pre:
a is an array with n elements.
i is an index and i < n.
Post:
The function returns the index of the minimum element in the subarray a[i..(n − 1)].
Algorithm:
minIndex = i
for j from i+1 to n-1 do
if a[j] < a[minIndex] then
minIndex = j
return minIndex
20.3.5 Selection Sort Function
template <class T>

void selSort(T *a, size t n) {
size t i;
size t minIndex;
for(i = 0; i < n-1; ++i) {

minIndex = indexOfMin(a, i, n); //must run
swap(a[i], a[minIndex]);
}
}

template <class T>
size t indexOfMin(T *a, size t i, size t n) {
size t j;
size t minIndex = i;
for(j = i + 1; j < n; ++j) {

if(a[j] < a[minIndex])
minIndex = j;
}
return minIndex;
}
template <class T>

void swap(T &x, T &y) {
T temp = x;
x = y;
y = temp;
}
20.3.6 Characteristics of Selection Sort
In−Place Sort Y
Stable Algorithm N
Time Complexity O(n 2 ) O(n 2 ) O(n 2 )
Number of Moves O(n) O(n) O(n)
To discover the complexity, we notice that the order loop is a for loop that always executes n−1
times. The inner for loop, in indexOfMin function, is performed (n − 1) − (i + 1) + 1 = n − i − 1
times. The total number of execution of the if statement in the inner loop is
1 2 1
(n − 1) + ... + 3 + 2 + 1 = n − n
2 2
Regardless of the ordering of the data, the number of comparisons in a selection sort is O(n2 ).
20.4 Comparing Insertion and Selection Sort

Insertion Sort:
• One major disadvantage: an entry may be moved many times

• Stable algorithm, does not alter ordering of elements with same key
Selection Sort:
• Insensitive to original ordering, slower than insertion sort if array is almost sorted
• The worst-case as good as the best-case

• An entry never gets moved if it is originally in its final position; at most n swaps required
• Unstable algorithm, may alter ordering of elements with same key
Chapter 21
Recursive Sorting
21.1 Mergesort
We learn the idea of divide and conquer. The mergesort method is faster than Insertion and
Selection Sort, but not often used due to the time spent on combining the two subarrays.
21.1.1 Divide and Conquer for Mergesort

Divide the array into two subarrays — Easy Step
Sort each individual array — Recursive Step
Combine the two subarrays — Time Consuming Step
21.1.2 Three Stages of Mergesort

1. Divide the array into subarrays:
Choose the middle element:

• mid = (first+last)/2
The left subarray is a[first..mid]
The right subarray is a[(mid+1)..last]
2. Sort the subarrays
Recursive call to Mergesort
3. Merge the two subarrays
Merge subarrays into a temporary array

Copy temporary array back into original array
21.1.3 Recursive calls to Mergesort
owl frog cow zebra horse cat bat sheep
21.1.4 Merges of adjacent, sorted subarrays
frog owl cow zebra cat horse bat sheep
cow frog owl zebra bat cat horse sheep
bat cat cow frog horse owl sheep zebra
21.2 Algorithm
21.2.1 Mergesort(a, first, last) Algorithm
Pre:
a is an array with values for indices from first to last
Post:
a[first..last] is sorted
Algorithm:
if first < last then

mid = (first + last)/2
Mergesort(a, first, mid)
Mergesort(a, mid+1, last)
merge(a, first, mid, last)
21.2.2 Merging two subarrays

Create space for temp array
While there still elements to consider in both subarrays
• Get the smallest element

• Add it to the temp array
• Go to next element in that subarray
• Go to next element in the temp array
Add remaining elements to temp array
Copy temp array back into original array
21.2.3 Merge(a, first, mid, last) Algorithm

Pre:
a is an array in which subarrays a[first..mid] and a[(mid+1)..last] are sorted.
first, mid, and last are indices of a, where first ≤ mid ≤ last.
Post:
a[first..last] is sorted
Algorithm:
ndx1 = first
last1 = mid
ndx2 = mid+1
last2 = last
i = 0
while ((ndx1 <= last1) and (ndx2 <= last2))

if a[ndx1] < a[ndx2] then
temp[i++] = a[ndx1++]
else
while (ndx1 <= last1)

while (ndx2 <= last2)

i = 0
for j from first to last
a[j] = temp[i++]
21.2.4 Mergesort Functions
template <class T>

void MergeSort(T a[], size t first, size t last) {
if(first < last) {
size t mid = (first + last) / 2;
MergeSort(a, first, mid);
MergeSort(a, mid + 1, last);
merge(a, first, mid, last);
}
}
template <class T>

void merge(T a[], size t first, size t mid, size t last) {
size t ndx1 = first;
size t last1 = mid;
size t ndx2 = mid + 1;
size t last2 = last;
size t i = 0;
size t j;
T* temp = new T[last - first + 1];
if(!temp) {
cerr << "Error allocating memory.";
exit(1);
}
while(ndx1 <= last1 && ndx2 <= last2) {

if(a[ndx1] <= a[ndx2])
temp[i++] = a[ndx1++];
else
}
while(ndx1 <= last1)
while(ndx2 <= last2)
i = 0;
for(j = first; j <= last; j++)
a[j] = temp[i++];
delete [] temp;
}
21.2.5 Mergesort Characteristics
In−Place Sort N
Stable Algorithm Y
Recursive Algorithm Y

Time Complexity O(n log 2 n) O(n log 2 n) O(n log 2 n)
21.3 Quicksort
We discuss the idea of quicksort, how it works for both arrays & linked lists, How to choose the
pivot, and how to implement in C++ code.
21.3.1 Quicksort Method

The method is presented by C. A. R. Hoare in 1962. It is a recursive algorithm and far better
performance on average than insertion & selection sort It is arguably the best sorting method
when applied to arrays in random order. It uses the tqchnique of divide & conquer.
The method is to choose an element as the pivot, then to partition the array into two subar-
rays:
• Elements less than the pivot

• Elements greater than the pivot
and recursively to repeat the process on the subarrays.

21.3.2 Illustration of Method
cow rat
hen
cat ram
ewe
dog emu
dog
cow cat ewe hen rat
emu ram
dog ram
cat hen rat
cow emu
dog emu rat ram

cat
cat cow dog emu ewe hen rat ram
21.3.3 Quicksort(a, first, last) Algorithm

Pre:
a is an array
f irst and last are indices within the range of a
Post:
a[f irst..last] has been sorted
if first < last then

partition(a, first, last, loc)
Quicksort(a, first, loc - 1)
Quicksort(a, loc + 1, last)
21.3.4 partition: the basic idea

Choose first element as pivot
Going from the left, find an entry which belongs on the right of the pivot (≥ pivot)
Going from the right, find an entry which belongs on the left of the pivot (≤ pivot)
Swap these entries
Repeat until we meet in the middle

21.3.5 Illustration of partition
pivot = ham
ham fish pork lamb veal beef
i loc
ham fish pork lamb veal beef
i loc
ham fish beef lamb veal pork
i loc
ham fish beef lamb veal pork
i loc
beef fish ham lamb veal pork
i loc
21.3.6 partition(a, first, last, loc) Algorithm

Pre:
a is an array
f irst and last are are indices within the range of a and f irst < last
Post:
a[f irst] is chosen as the pivot
a[f irst..(loc − 1)] contains elements less than or equal to the pivot
a[loc] contains the pivot
a[(loc + 1)..last] contains elements greater than or equal to the pivot
loc is the location of the pivot in the partitioned array
Algorithm:
i = first
loc = last + 1
pivot = a[first]
while (i < loc)

do
i = i + 1
while ((a[i] < pivot) and (i < last))
do
loc = loc - 1
while (a[loc] > pivot)
if (i < loc)
swap(a[i], a[loc])
swap(a[first], a[loc])
21.3.7 Quicksort: C++ Style
template <class T>

void quickSort(T *a, size t first, size t last) {
if(first < last) {
size t loc = partition(a, first, last);
quickSort(a, first, loc - 1);
quickSort(a, loc + 1, last);
}
}
21.3.8 The Partition function in C++
template <class T>

size t partition(T *a, size t first, size t last) {
size t i = first;
size t loc = last + 1;
T pivot = a[first];
while (i < loc) {

do {
++i;
} while ((a[i] < pivot) && (i < last));
do {
--loc;
} while (a[loc] > pivot);
if(i < loc)

swap(a[i], a[loc]);
}
swap(a[first], a[loc]);
return loc;
}
21.3.9 Worst Case & median-of-three

The worst case occurs when the array is either sorted or reverse sorted
In both cases, the size of the subarray to be sorted at each recursive step is only reduced by
one.
The median-of-three method avoids the poor performance of quicksort when the elements are
sorted.
Instead of chosing a[f irst] as a pivot, the median of the f irst, last and middle elements is
computed
It is then swapped into a[f irst] before the partition occurs
21.3.10 Example: median-of-three
A B C D E F G
A B C D E F G A<D<G
D B C A E F G
A B C D E F G After partition
21.3.11 Quicksort Characteristics
In−Place Sort Y
Stable Algorithm N
Recursive Algorithm Y

Time Complexity O(n log 2 n) O(n log 2 n) O(n 2 )
Circumstances sorted or reverse sorted
Chapter 22
Heap Sort
In this lecture we discuss Heapsort:
What is a complete binary tree?
What is a heap?
How do we form a heap?
Efficiency
comparison functions
22.1 Complete Binary Trees

22.1.1 Definition of Complete Binary Trees
A complete binary tree is a binary tree where:
1. All of its leaves are on level n − 1 or level n

2. On levels 1 through n − 2, every node has exactly two children
3. On level n, the leaves are as far to the left as possible
22 Heap Sort 145
22.1.2 These are Complete Binary Trees
P Level 0
A X Level 1
D O G B Level 2
E Level 3
Y E
U O I
22.1.3 These are not Complete Binary Trees
P Node at level 2 does not have 2 children
A X
D O G
A Leaves are not as far to the left as possible
Y E
U O I
22.1.4 Complete Binary Trees & Arrays

Store the tree level-by-level:
22 Heap Sort 146
A 0
B 1 C 2
Tree:
D 3 E 4 F 5 G 6
8 10 12
H 7 I J 9 K L 11 M N 13 O 14
List: A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O
If a node has index k then its left child has index 2k+1 and its right
child has index 2k+2
22.2 Heaps
22.2.1 Definition of Heaps
Definition:
A heap is a complete binary tree, where the values stored in a node is greater than or equal
to the values of its children.
The heapsort function works on a list not on a tree, but it is always convenient to draw a tree
to show the hierarchical relationships between the entries of the list.
For Arrays:
The key at index k is at least as large as the keys in positions 2k + 1 and 2k + 2.
22.2.2 Rough Algorithm of Heapsort

1. Build a heap from the given list:
(a) Start with an empty heap

(b) Add elements onto heap one by one, swapping where necessary
2. Sort the resulting heap:
(a) Swap the first element with the last element of the heap
(b) Reduce the size of the heap by one

(c) Remake the heap
(d) Repeat while there are at least two elements left on the heap
22 Heap Sort 147
22.2.3 Constructing a Heap

Start with empty heap
We add the elements one by one
Find correct location for new element
• If the new element is larger than its parent, swap them

• Repeat process until we reach the root, or element is smaller than its parent
heap rest of array
grows
22.3 Algorithms
22.3.1 PlaceInHeap Algorithm
while ((not a heap) and (the child is not at the root)) do:
find the parent
if parent and child are out of order then
swap parent and child
move the child marker up the tree one level
else
we have a heap
22.3.2 Refined Algorithm: PlaceInHeap(h, childNX)

Pre:
h is an array such that h[0..(childN X − 1)] is a heap
childN X is an index of h
Post:
h[0..childN X] is a heap
parentNX = (childNX-1)/2
heap = FALSE
while ((not heap) and (childNX > 0)) do

if (h[parentNX] < h[childNX])
swap(h[parentNX], h[childNX])
22 Heap Sort 148
childNX = parentNX
parentNX = (childNX-1)/2
else
heap = TRUE
end if
end while
22.3.3 C++ Code
template <class T>

void PlaceInHeap(T h[], size t childNX) {
boolean_t heap = FALSE;
size t parentNX = (childNX - 1) / 2;
while (!heap && childNX) {

if(h[parentNX] < h[childNX]) {
swap(h[parentNX], h[childNX]);
childNX = parentNX;
if(childNX)
parentNX = (childNX - 1) / 2;
}
else
heap = TRUE;
}
}
22.3.4 BuildHeap(h, n) Algorithm

Pre:
h is an array storing a complete binary tree
n is the number of elements in h
Post:
h is an array storing a heap
for childNX from 1 to n-1 do

PlaceInHeap(h, childNX)
22.3.5 Sorting the heap

The largest element will be at the top of the heap
Swap it to the end of the array (which is where it belongs)

22 Heap Sort 149
Reheap the remaining n-1 elements
• The only element out of order will be the top element

• While it is not in the correct position, swap it with its largest child
Repeat process until the array is sorted
heap sorted
grows
22.3.6 Reheap Algorithm

Reheap(h, sortNX):
start parent at the root

give childNX the index of the left child
while ((not heap) and (the left child exists))
if (the right child exists)
give childNX the index of the larger child
if (the larger child is greater than the parent)
swap parent and child
move parent down one level
give childNX the index of its left child
else
we have a heap
22.3.7 C++ code
template <class T>

void Reheap(T h[], size t sortNX)
{
size t parentNX = 0;
size t childNX = (2 * parentNX) + 1;
boolean_t heap = FALSE;
size t RchildNX;
while (!heap && (childNX < sortNX)) {

RchildNX = childNX + 1;
if((RchildNX < sortNX) &&
(h[RchildNX] > h[childNX]))
childNX = RchildNX;
22 Heap Sort 150
if(h[childNX] > h[parentNX]) {

swap(h[childNX], h[parentNX]);
parentNX = childNX;
childNX = (2 * parentNX) + 1;
}
else
heap = TRUE;
}
}
22.3.8 BuildSortTree(h, n) Algorithm

Pre:
h is an array that stores a heap
Post:
h is a sorted array
for sortNX from n-1 down to 1 do

swap(h[0], h[sortNX])
Reheap(h, sortNX)
end for
22.3.9 Heapsort(h, n) Algorithm

Pre:
h is an array
Post:
h is a sorted array
BuildHeap(h, n)
BuildSortTree(h, n)
22.3.10 C++ Code
template <class T>

void BuildHeap(T h[], size t n) {
for(size t childNX = 1; childNX < n; ++childNX)
22 Heap Sort 151
PlaceInHeap(h, childNX);
}
template <class T>

void BuildSortTree(T h[], size t n) {
for(size t sortNX = n - 1; sortNX; --sortNX) {
swap(h[0], h[sortNX]);
Reheap(h, sortNX);
}
}
template <class T>

void HeapSort(T h[], size t n) {
BuildHeap(h, n);
BuildSortTree(h, n);
}
22.4 Characteristics of Heapsort
In−Place Sort Y
Stable Algorithm N

Time Complexity O(n log 2 n) O(n log 2 n) O(n log 2 n)
22.4.1 Analysis of Heapsort

The worst case:
Comparisons Assignments
Quicksort O(n 2) O(n 2)
Heapsort O(n log 2 n) O(n log 2 n)
On average, Heapsort takes twice as long as Quicksort
For small n, Heapsort is inefficient

Chapter 23
Graphs
A graph, like a tree, is a nonlinear data structure consisting of nodes and links between the
nodes.
23.1 Graph Definition

23.1.1 Undirected Graphs
A undirected graph consists of a set of nodes (vertices or points) and a set of edges (links) connecting
pairs of nodes.
Example
a e frog
toad
b
flea
d
bat
c f donkey
23.1.2 Directed Graphs

In an undirected graph each edge connecting two vertices has no particular orientation or
direction
If each edge in a graph has an orientation connecting its first vertex, called the edge’s source, to
its second vertex, called the edge’s destination or target, then the graph is called a directed graph.
Example
23 Graphs 153
An undirected graph can be considered as a directed graph if each edge in the undirected
graph is considered as two edges (two directions) in the directed graph.
23.1.3 More Terminology

A loop is an edge that connects a vertex to itself.
A path in a graph is a sequence of vertices, v0 , v1 , ..., vn , such that each consecutive pair of
vertices vi and vi+1 are connected by an edge. In a directed graph, the connection must go
from the source vi to the target vi+1 is a sequence of nodes, i.e., (vi , vi+1 ) is an edge of the graph
The length of a path is the number of edges in the path.
In principle, a graph may have two or more edges connecting the same two vertices in the
same direction. These are called multiple edges.
If there are no loops and no multiple edges in a (undirected or directed) graph, the graph is
called a simple graph. We only investigate simple graphs in this course.
must be at most one edge between two nodes
a e frog
toad
b
flea
d
bat
c f donkey
edge must go between two distinct nodes
Two nodes are adjacent if there is an edge between them.
23.2 Graph Implementation

23.2.1 Two Implementations for Graphs
Static:
• Uses a 1D array to store the node values

• Uses a 2D adjacency matrix to store the edges
Dynamic:
• Uses linked lists

23 Graphs 154
23.2.2 Adjacency Matrices

An adjacency matrix is a 2D boolean array where the ij-element is TRUE if and only if there
exists an edge between nodes i and j (For a directed graph this means that there exists an edge
from the node i to the node j).
We write
• TRUE = 1
• FALSE = 0
Example: a Static Graph
count = 4
b a
0 1 2 3
nodes = [a b c d]
0 1 2 3
0 0 0 1 1
c d edges = 1 0 0 0 1
2 1 0 0 1
3 1 1 1 0
You can find another example on page 703.
The adjacency matrix of an undirected graph is always symmetric. This may be not true for a
directed graph. Why?
23.2.3 A Look at the graph Class
#define NUMNODES 40

class graph {
public:
...
private:
size t count;
Item nodes[NUMNODES]
bool edges[NUMNODES][NUMNODES];
...
}
23 Graphs 155
23.2.4 Graphs with Dynamic Implementation

A directed graph with n vertices can be represented by n different linked lists. List number i
provides the connections for vertex i. Each entry in the linked list i is a vertex number j such
that there is an edge from i to j.
The same technique also works with any undirected graphs. We use an array of pointers to the
linked lists to represent the graph.
Following the same idea, a graph can be represented by an array of sets of integers. For exam-
ple, to represent a graph with 10 vertices, we can declare an array of 10 sets of integers. The
i-th set contains the vertex numbers of all of the vertices that vertex i is connected to.
23.3 Member Functions for a Graph Class

From now on we suppose we use the static implemention of the graph with the adjacency
matrix.
23.3.1 Adding Vertices and Edges

Adding an vertex to an existed graph is much simpler. The work to be done includes updating
the count by 1, putting the new entry into the nodes array at the location count and setting
all the elements on the count-th column and the count-th row of the array edges to false.
The implementation may look like the following

void graph<Item>::add vertex(const Item& entry){
size t new count, other count;
new count = count;
++count;
for (other count=0; other count < count; ++other count)
{
edges[other count][new count] = false;
edges[new count][other count] = false;
}
nodes[new count] = entry;
}
Adding an edge means setting an appropriate element of the array edges to the value true.

void graph<Item>::add edge(size t source, size t target){
edges[source][target] = true;
}
23 Graphs 156
The above code is for a directed graph. Can you change it for an undirected graph?
Thus removing an edge from a graph is also very simple. You can simply work it out.
Other methods include extracting entry information of the i-th node and getting all edges for
a given node.
Chapter 24
Algorithms for Graphs
24.1 Graph Traversals

24.1.1 Searching for Paths
At times we may want to find a path between two nodes
There are two methods:
• Depth-first search: Search as far as possible in each direction

• Breadth-first search: Search nodes closest to the start first
24.1.2 Depth-First Search

Finding a path from vertex v to w
Process v
Find an unprocessed node, u, adjacent to v (or the target from v).
Continue recursively from u as far as possible
Find the next unprocessed node adjacent to v (or the target from v) and repeat.
We need to keep track of which vertices have been processed.
24.1.3 Breadth-First Search

Finding a path from vertex v to u
Process v
Recursively search each unprocessed node adjacent to v (or the target from v)
The algorithm continues until the node is found, or we have exhausted every possibility
24.1.4 Implementation
As we discussed in Lecture 23, an undirected graph can be considered as a directed graph.
Hence we simply consider the implementation for directed graphs.
The textbook shows the Depth-First Search algorithm with an example on pages 717—720 and
the Breadth-First Search algorithm with another example on pages 720—722.
The pseudocode for the Depth-First Search is
1. Check that the start vertex is a valid vertex number of the graph
2. Set all the components of marked array to false indicating if a vertex has been processed
by the algorithm
3. Recursively call a separate function to process the neighbors’ neighbors until all the ver-
tices are processed.
The C++ code for the Depth-First Search
template <class Process, class Item, class SizeType>

void depth first(Process f, graph<Item>& g, SizeType start) {
bool marked[NUMNODES];
std::fill n(marked, g.size(), false);
recur dfs(f, g, start, marked);
}
void recur dfs(Process f, graph<Item>& g, SizeType v, bool marked[]) {
set<size t> connections = g.neighbors(v);
set<size t>::iterator it;
marked[v] = true; //mark vertex v
f(g[v]); //process the label of vertex
for (it=connections.begin(); it != connections.end(); ++it)
{
if (!marked[*it])
recur dfs(f, g, *it, marked);
}
}
The Breadth-First Search is implemented with a queue of vertex numbers. The start vertex is
processed, marked, and placed in the queue. Then following steps are repeated until the queue
is empty
1. remove a vertex v from the front of the queue

2. for each unmarked neighbor u of v: process u, mark u and then place u in the queue.
Here is the code for the Breadth-First Search algorithm


void breadth first(Process f, graph<Item>& g, SizeType start) {
bool marked[NUMNODES];
set<size t> connections;
set<size t>::iterator it;
queue<size t> vertex queue;
std::fill n(marked, g.size(), false);
marked[start] = true; //mark vertex v
f(g[start]);
vertex queue.push(start);
do {
connections = g.neighbors(vertex queue.front());
vertex queue.pop();
for (it=connections.begin(); it != connections.end(); ++it)
{
if (!marked[*it]) {
marked[*it] = true;
f(g[*it]);
vertex queue.push(*it);
}
}
} while (!vertex queue.empty())
}
24.2 Path Algorithms

24.2.1 Networks or Weighted Graphs
A graph having a number associated with each edge is a network (aka. weighted graph).
The edge number is called a weight.
Networks can represent many different things:
• A computer network: Nodes — the computers; Weights — the estimated delay

• Flight paths: Nodes — the cities; Weights — distance or costs between cities
Example
Darwin
2600
2700
2500
Brisbane
3500
700
1600
Sydney
Perth
Adelaide 900
2200 800 Melbourne

1400
400
Hobart
The implementation for a network is similar to graph implementation. The adjacency matrix
stores numbers instead of booleans.
0 count = 5
1
nodes = [0 1 2 3 4]
50 0 1 2 3 4
edges = 0 0 0 0 0 50
2 1 0 0 0 0 0
70 2 0 0 0 70 120
120
3 0 0 70 0 100
4 3 4 50 0 120 100 0
100
24.2.2 Spanning Trees and Prim’s algorithm

In this subsection we simply considered undirected networks.
A tree is a connected graph with no cycles. A spanning tree of a connected graph is a tree whose
edges are in the graph and that contains all of the vertices in the graph.
A minimal spanning tree of a connected network is a spanning tree that has the smallest possible
weight sum.
Example: Spanning Trees
3100 Boston
San Francisco
1000
2500
Atlanta
3100 Boston
San Francisco
1000
2500
Atlanta
3100 Boston
San Francisco
1000
2500
Atlanta
Prim’s algorithm is used to find a minimal spanning tree t of a connected network g of n vertices:
find an edge in g with the smallest weight

add it and its two nodes to t
repeat until there are n nodes in t:
find an edge in g that is incident to exactly one node of
t and that has the smallest weight
add it and the new node to t
24.2.3 Shortest Path and Dijkstra’s Algorithm

Depth-First Search will find path, but not necessarily shortest path. One may want to find
quickest way to target vertex. For example, on a airline network one may want to find a path
between two cities with the most economic cost.
Dijkstra’s algorithm finds the shortest path from vertex 0 to all other vertices (1, 2, . . ., n-1). A
shortest path between two vertices may not cover every vertex of the network because it is
notnecessarily to find a spanning tree
The Pseudocode for the Algorithm
1. Initialize arrays distance, FromvVertex and processed:


0
 if i = 0,
distance[i] ← weight0i if 0 and i are adjacent,

∞ otherwise

(
0 if 0 and i are adjacent,
F romV ertex[i] ←
−1 otherwise
(
T RU E(1) if i = 0,
processed[i] ←
F ALSE(0) otherwise
2. Then carry out the following procedure
repeat n-1 times

IndexMin = index of unprocessed vertex closest to vertex 0
mark that vertex as having been processed
for each vertex j from 1 to n-1 do
if vertex j hasn’t been processed AND vertices j &
IndexMin are adj.
if it’s shorter to get to vertex j from 0 via IndexMin
change distance[j] to that distance
FromVertex[j] = IndexMin
3. When the algorithm terminates, we follow the FromVertexs back to vertex 0.
The text proposes another version of the algorithm which simply output the shortest distance
between start vertex and all other vertices. Please read the pseudocode on page 735 carefully
and see the example of Dijkstra’s algorithm on pages 729—738.

Data Structures Using C++

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Data Structures Using C++

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Data Structures and Algorithms

Lecturer: Dr. Junbin Gao

1 Abstract Data Types 1

1.1 Review on C++ Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

3 The Bag Class 21

3.1 The Bags . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

4 The Sequence Class 28

4.1 The Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

5 Pointers and Dynamic Arrays 33

6 Dynamic Implementation of Container Classes 39

6.1 The Bag Class with A Dynamic Array . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

7 Linked Lists and Their Applications 45

8 More About Linked Lists 52

8.1 Other Techniques for Lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

9.1 Template Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

10 Templates and Iterators 62

10.1 Node Template Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

11 Complexity Analysis of Algorithms 67

12 Recursion and Iteration 73

12.1 Recursive Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

13 Algorithms for Search 81

13.1 Why Search? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

14 Hashing and Complexity 89

15 Stacks and Their Application 98

15.1 Stack Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

16 Queues and Their Application 102

16.1 Queues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

17 Dynamic Queues 107

17.1 Linked List Implementation of a Queue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

18 Trees and Binary Trees 111

18.1 The Tree Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

19 Binary Search Trees and B-Trees 118

19.1 Binary Search Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

19.5 B-tree Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124

20 Quadratic Sorting 127

20.1 Concepts Related to Sorting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

21 Recursive Sorting 135

21.1 Mergesort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

22 Heap Sort 144

22.1 Complete Binary Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144

23.1 Graph Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152

24 Algorithms for Graphs 157

24.1 Graph Traversals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

Abstract Data Types

1.1 Review on C++ Programming

User Interface: A program ...

• should use cin and cout for user interface.

• always prompt the user for input. For instance,

cout << "Enter an integer value: ";

• always annote your output. For example,

cout << "The value of i is: " << i << endl;

Programming Style: A program should ...

• be one statement per line.

int arraySum(int* array, int length);

• use #define statements for constant definitions.

• use a clear and uniform indentation scheme.

Program Documentation: always write comments or documents for programs.

1.1.2 Object Oriented Paradigm

1.2 Basic Concepts

The examples: Array and Record.

An Algorithm is a precise, step-by-step method of doing a task in a finite amount of time.

1.2.2 Data Types in C++

long int l = 0xABCDEF01L;

char *cp = "Hello";

enum weeks {SUN, MON, TUE, WED, THU, FRI, SAT};

charOrInt coi = {’a’}, coi2 = {10};

1.2.3 Pointers in C++

Incorrect use of pointers can result in your program crashing.

1.2.4 Constant pointers

Four different types of constant pointers:

• non-constant pointer to non-constant data

• non-constant pointer to constant data

const int* p = &i;

• constant pointer to non-constant data

int* const p = &i;

• constant pointer to constant data