TCS Interview QuestionsDifference Between procedure oriented and object oriented programming

What is the difference between "overloading" and "overridding"?

In overloading ,multiple functions are having different signature whereas in
function overriding multiple functions are having same signature.
Function overloading is the implementation of static polymorphism.
Function Overriding is the implementation of dynamic polymorphism.
What is Virtual Finction?
Suppose there is base class and derived class from that base class and both are
having the same function name.
Now suppose we have declared base pointer and made it to point to derived object.
Then any reference to that function through base class pointer would always access
base class version of that function.
So solution is declare that function in base class as virtual ,then any call to that
function would be evaluated based on the type of object base ptr pointing rather
than type of ptr.
Storage Classes In C++
Storage class of a variable determines the accessibility and longevity of a variable.
There are 3 storage classes1. Automatic
All the local variables are auto variables by default. These variables are defined
inside the function and not available outside the function.
2. Extern
Extern variables are the global variables, they are defined globally. They persists
(life is) through out the program and their scope is also throught out the
program.
These variables can be accessed by any function or any file in program.
If you dont want others to access these variable then simply attach static k/w.

3. Static
Static variables are local in scope to their module in which they are defined but
their life is through out the program.
Memory for the static variables are allocated only once at start.
Static variable inside a function can not be called from outside the function but
it is alive and exists in memory.

Next time when control enters that function it retains previously allocated
memory for static variable thus accessing old value ,Thus no new memory is
allocated each time variable is accessed from function like auto/local variables.
If Static variables are defined globally then this variable will accessible only in
that file.

What is C++?
Released in 1985, C++ is an object-oriented programming language created by
Bjarne Stroustrup. C++ maintains almost all aspects of the C language, while
simplifying memory management and adding several features - including a new
datatype known as a class (you will learn more about these later) - to allow objectoriented programming. C++ maintains the features of C which allowed for low-level
memory access but also gives the programmer new tools to simplify memory
management.
C++ used for:
C++ is a powerful general-purpose programming language. It can be used to create
small programs or large applications. It can be used to make CGI scripts or consoleonly DOS programs. C++ allows you to create programs to do almost anything you
need to do. The creator of C++, Bjarne Stroustrup, has put together a partial list of
applications written in C++.
How do you find out if a linked-list has an end? (i.e. the list is not a cycle)
You can find out by using 2 pointers. One of them goes 2 nodes each time. The
second one goes at 1 nodes each time. If there is a cycle, the one that goes 2 nodes
each time will eventually meet the one that goes slower. If that is the case, then you
will know the linked-list is a cycle.
What is the difference between realloc() and free()?
The free subroutine frees a block of memory previously allocated by the malloc
subroutine. Undefined results occur if the Pointer parameter is not a valid pointer.
If the Pointer parameter is a null value, no action will occur.
The realloc subroutine changes the size of the block of memory pointed to by the
Pointer parameter to the number of bytes specified by the Size parameter and
returns a new pointer to the block. The pointer specified by the Pointer parameter
must have been created with the malloc, calloc, or realloc subroutines and not been
deallocated with the free or realloc subroutines. Undefined results occur if the
Pointer parameter is not a valid pointer.
What is function overloading and operator overloading?
Function overloading: C++ enables several functions of the same name to be
defined, as long as these functions have different sets of parameters (at least as far
as their types are concerned). This capability is called function overloading. When
an overloaded function is called, the C++ compiler selects the proper function by
examining the number, types and order of the arguments in the call. Function
overloading is commonly used to create several functions of the same name that

perform similar tasks but on different data types.

Operator overloading allows existing C++ operators to be redefined so that they
work on objects of user-defined classes. Overloaded operators are syntactic sugar
for equivalent function calls. They form a pleasant facade that doesn't add anything
fundamental to the language (but they can improve understandability and reduce
maintenance costs).
What is the difference between declaration and definition?
The declaration tells the compiler that at some later point we plan to present the
definition of this declaration.
E.g.: void stars () //function declaration
The definition contains the actual implementation.
E.g.: void stars () // declarator

for(int j=10; j > =0; j--) //function body

cout << *;
cout << endl; }
What are the advantages of inheritance?
It permits code reusability. Reusability saves time in program development. It
encourages the reuse of proven and debugged high-quality software, thus reducing
problem after a system becomes functional.
How do you write a function that can reverse a linked-list?
void reverselist(void)

{
if(head==0)
return;
if(head->next==0)
return;
if(head->next==tail)

head->next = 0;
tail->next = head;

else

{
node* pre = head;
node* cur = head->next;
node* curnext = cur->next;
head->next = 0;
cur-> next = head;
for(; curnext!=0; )

cur->next = pre;
pre = cur;
cur = curnext;
curnext = curnext->next;

}
curnext->next = cur;

}
}
What do you mean by inline function?
The idea behind inline functions is to insert the code of a called function at the
point where the function is called. If done carefully, this can improve the
application's performance in exchange for increased compile time and possibly (but
not always) an increase in the size of the generated binary executables.

Write a program that ask for user input from 5 to 9 then calculate the average
#include "iostream.h"
int main() {
int MAX = 4;
int total = 0;
int average;
int numb;
for (int i=0; i<MAX; i++) {
cout << "Please enter your input between 5 and 9: ";
cin >> numb;
while ( numb<5 || numb>9) {
cout << "Invalid input, please re-enter: ";
cin >> numb;

}
total = total + numb;

average = total/MAX;
cout << "The average number is: " << average << "\n";
return 0;

}
Write a short code using C++ to print out all odd number from 1 to 100
using a for loop

for( unsigned int i = 1; i < = 100; i++ )

if( i & 0x00000001 )
cout << i << \",\";
What is public, protected, private?
Public, protected and private are three access specifier in C++.
Public data members and member functions are accessible outside the class.
Protected data members and member functions are only available to derived
classes.
Private data members and member functions cant be accessed outside the class.

However there is an exception can be using friend classes.

Write a function that swaps the values of two integers, using int* as the argument
type.
void swap(int* a, int*b) {
int t;
t = *a;
*a = *b;
*b = t;

}
Tell how to check whether a linked list is circular.

Create two pointers, each set to the start of the list. Update each as follows:
while (pointer1) {
pointer1 = pointer1->next;
pointer2 = pointer2->next; if (pointer2) pointer2=pointer2->next;
if (pointer1 == pointer2) {
print (\"circular\n\");

}
}

OK, why does this work?

If a list is circular, at some point pointer2 will wrap around and be either at the
item just before pointer1, or the item before that. Either way, its either 1 or 2 jumps
until they meet.
What is virtual constructors/destructors?
Answer1
Virtual destructors:
If an object (with a non-virtual destructor) is destroyed explicitly by applying the
delete operator to a base-class pointer to the object, the base-class destructor
function (matching the pointer type) is called on the object.
There is a simple solution to this problem declare a virtual base-class destructor.
This makes all derived-class destructors virtual even though they dont have the
same name as the base-class destructor. Now, if the object in the hierarchy is
destroyed explicitly by applying the delete operator to a base-class pointer to a
derived-class object, the destructor for the appropriate class is called. Virtual
constructor: Constructors cannot be virtual. Declaring a constructor as a virtual
function is a syntax error.
Answer2
Virtual destructors: If an object (with a non-virtual destructor) is destroyed
explicitly by applying the delete operator to a base-class pointer to the object, the
base-class destructor function (matching the pointer type) is called on the object.
There is a simple solution to this problem declare a virtual base-class destructor.
This makes all derived-class destructors virtual even though they dont have the
same name as the base-class destructor. Now, if the object in the hierarchy is
destroyed explicitly by applying the delete operator to a base-class pointer to a
derived-class object, the destructor for the appropriate class is called.

Virtual constructor: Constructors cannot be virtual. Declaring a constructor

as a virtual function is a syntax error. Does c++ support multilevel and
multiple inheritance?

Yes.
What are the advantages of inheritance?
It permits code reusability.
Reusability saves time in program development.
It encourages the reuse of proven and debugged high-quality software, thus
reducing problem after a system becomes functional.
What is the difference between declaration and definition?
The declaration tells the compiler that at some later point we plan to present the
definition of this declaration.
E.g.: void stars () //function declaration
The definition contains the actual implementation.
E.g.: void stars () // declarator

for(int j=10; j>=0; j--) //function body

cout<<*;
cout<<endl; }

What is the difference between an ARRAY and a LIST?

Answer1
Array is collection of homogeneous elements.
List is collection of heterogeneous elements.
For Array memory allocated is static and continuous.
For List memory allocated is dynamic and Random.
Array: User need not have to keep in track of next memory allocation.
List: User has to keep in Track of next location where memory is allocated.
Answer2
Array uses direct access of stored members, list uses sequencial access for
members.
//With Array you have direct access to memory position 5
Object x = a[5]; // x takes directly a reference to 5th element of array
//With the list you have to cross all previous nodes in order to get the 5th node:
list mylist;
list::iterator it;
for( it = list.begin() ; it != list.end() ; it++ )

{
if( i==5)

x = *it;

break;

i++;

}
Does c++ support multilevel and multiple inheritance?
Yes.
What is a template?
Templates allow to create generic functions that admit any data type as parameters
and return value without having to overload the function with all the possible data
types. Until certain point they fulfill the functionality of a macro. Its prototype is
any of the two following ones:

template <class indetifier> function_declaration; template <typename indetifier>

function_declaration;
The only difference between both prototypes is the use of keyword class or
typename, its use is indistinct since both expressions have exactly the same
meaning and behave exactly the same way.
Define a constructor - What it is and how it might be called (2 methods).
Answer1
constructor is a member function of the class, with the name of the function being
the same as the class name. It also specifies how the object should be initialized.
Ways of calling constructor:
//Modified by Shweta 12th May 2015
1) Implicit call: automatically by complier when an object is created.
E.g. Integer int1(0,100);
2) Explicit call E.g.- Integer int1 = Integer(0,100);
When the constructor is called explicitly, temporary object is created and
then copied using copy initialization or copy constructor.
If copy constructor is private then in this case it wont be able to create
object.

You have two pairs: new() and delete() and another pair : malloc() and
free().
Explain differences between eg. new() and malloc()
Answer1
1.) new and delete are preprocessors while malloc() and free() are functions. [we
dont use brackets will calling new or delete].
2.) no need of allocate the memory while using new but in malloc() we have to
use sizeof().

3.) new will initlize the new memory to 0 but malloc() gives random value in the
new alloted memory location [better to use calloc()]
Answer2
new() allocates continous space for the object instace
malloc() allocates distributed space.
new() is castless, meaning that allocates memory for this specific type,
malloc(), calloc() allocate space for void * that is cated to the specific class type
pointer.
What is the difference between class and structure?
Structure: Initially (in C) a structure was used to bundle different type of data types
together to perform a particular functionality. But C++ extended the structure to
contain functions also. The major difference is that all declarations inside a
structure are by default public.
Class: Class is a successor of Structure. By default all the members inside the class
are private.

What is RTTI?
Runtime type identification (RTTI) lets you find type of object at the time of
program execution.
RTTI is achieved using
1.typeid() operator Gives exact type of object.
2.type_info class contains type information returned by typeid() operator.
3.<dynamic_cast> - used for conversion of polymorphic types
What is encapsulation?

Packaging an objects variables within its methods is called encapsulation.

Explain term POLIMORPHISM and give an example using eg. SHAPE object:
If I have a base class SHAPE, how would I define DRAW methods for two
objects CIRCLE and SQUARE
Answer1
POLYMORPHISM : A phenomenon which enables an object to react differently to
the same function call.
in C++ it is attained by using a keyword virtual
Example
public class SHAPE

{
public virtual void SHAPE::DRAW()=0;

Note here the function DRAW() is pure virtual which means the sub classes must
implement the DRAW() method and SHAPE cannot be instatiated
public class CIRCLE::public SHAPE

public void CIRCLE::DRAW()

{
// TODO drawing circle

}
}

public class SQUARE::public SHAPE

{
public void SQUARE::DRAW()

// TODO drawing square

}
}
now from the user class the calls would be like
globally
SHAPE *newShape;
When user action is to draw
public void MENU::OnClickDrawCircle(){
newShape = new CIRCLE();

}
public void MENU::OnClickDrawCircle(){
newShape = new SQUARE();

}
the when user actually draws
public void CANVAS::OnMouseOperations(){
newShape->DRAW();

}
Answer2
class SHAPE{
public virtual Draw() = 0; //abstract class with a pure virtual method
};
class CIRCLE{
public int r;
public virtual Draw() { this->drawCircle(0,0,r); }
};
class SQURE
public int a;
public virtual Draw() { this->drawRectangular(0,0,a,a); }
};

Each object is driven down from SHAPE implementing Draw() function in its own
way.
What is an object?
Object is a software bundle of variables and related methods. Objects have state
and behavior.
How can you tell what shell you are running on UNIX system?
You can do the Echo $RANDOM. It will return a undefined variable if you are from
the C-Shell, just a return prompt if you are from the Bourne shell, and a 5 digit
random numbers if you are from the Korn shell. You could also do a ps -l and look
for the shell with the highest PID.
What do you mean by inheritance?
Inheritance is the process of creating new classes, called derived classes, from
existing classes or base classes. The derived class inherits all the capabilities of the
base class, but can add embellishments and refinements of its own.

Describe PRIVATE, PROTECTED and PUBLIC the differences and give

examples.
class Point2D{
int x; int y;
public int color;
protected bool pinned;
public Point2D() : x(0) , y(0) {} //default (no argument) constructor
};
Point2D MyPoint;
You cannot directly access private data members when they are declared (implicitly)
private:
MyPoint.x = 5; // Compiler will issue a compile ERROR
//Nor yoy can see them:
int x_dim = MyPoint.x; // Compiler will issue a compile ERROR
On the other hand, you can assign and read the public data members:
MyPoint.color = 255; // no problem
int col = MyPoint.color; // no problem
With protected data members you can read them but not write them:
MyPoint.pinned = true; // Compiler will issue a compile ERROR
bool isPinned = MyPoint.pinned; // no problem
What is namespace?
Namespaces allow us to group a set of global classes, objects and/or functions
under a name. To say it somehow, they serve to split the global scope in sub-scopes

known as namespaces.
The form to use namespaces is:
namespace identifier { namespace-body }
Where identifier is any valid identifier and namespace-body is the set of classes,
objects and functions that are included within the namespace. For example:
namespace general { int a, b; } In this case, a and b are normal variables integrated
within the general namespace. In order to access to these variables from outside
the namespace we have to use the scope operator ::. For example, to access the
previous variables we would have to put:
general::a general::b
The functionality of namespaces is specially useful in case that there is a possibility
that a global object or function can have the same name than another one, causing
a redefinition error.
What is a COPY CONSTRUCTOR and when is it called?
A copy constructor is a method that accepts an object of the same class and copies
its data members to the object on the left part of assignement:
class Point2D{
int x; int y;
public int color;
protected bool pinned;
public Point2D() : x(0) , y(0) {} //default (no argument) constructor
public Point2D( const Point2D & ) ;
};
Point2D::Point2D( const Point2D & p )

this->x = p.x;
this->y = p.y;
this->color = p.color;
this->pinned = p.pinned;

}
main(){
Point2D MyPoint;
MyPoint.color = 345;
Point2D AnotherPoint = Point2D( MyPoint ); // now AnotherPoint has color = 345
What is Boyce Codd Normal form?
A relation schema R is in BCNF with respect to a set F of functional dependencies if
for all functional dependencies in F+ of the form a-> , where a and b is a subset of
R, at least one of the following holds:
* a- > b is a trivial functional dependency (b is a subset of a)
* a is a superkey for schema R
What is virtual class and friend class?
Friend classes are used when two or more classes are designed to work together

and need access to each other's implementation in ways that the rest of the world
shouldn't be allowed to have. In other words, they help keep private things private.
For instance, it may be desirable for class DatabaseCursor to have more privilege to
the internals of class Database than main() has.
What is the word you will use when defining a function in base class to
allow this function to be a polimorphic function?
virtual
What do you mean by binding of data and functions?
Encapsulation.

What are 2 ways of exporting a function from a DLL?

1.Taking a reference to the function from the DLL instance.
2. Using the DLL s Type Library
What is the difference between an object and a class?
Classes and objects are separate but related concepts. Every object belongs to a
class and every class contains one or more related objects.
- A Class is static. All of the attributes of a class are fixed before, during, and after
the execution of a program. The attributes of a class don't change.
- The class to which an object belongs is also (usually) static. If a particular object
belongs to a certain class at the time that it is created then it almost certainly will
still belong to that class right up until the time that it is destroyed.
- An Object on the other hand has a limited lifespan. Objects are created and
eventually destroyed. Also during that lifetime, the attributes of the object may
undergo significant change.
Suppose that data is an array of 1000 integers. Write a single function call
that will sort the 100 elements data [222] through data [321].
quicksort ((data + 222), 100);
What is a class?
Class is a user-defined data type in C++. It can be created to solve a particular kind
of problem. After creation the user need not know the specifics of the working of a
class.
What is friend function?
As the name suggests, the function acts as a friend to a class. As a friend of a class,
it can access its private and protected members. A friend function is not a member
of the class. But it must be listed in the class definition.
Which recursive sorting technique always makes recursive calls to sort
subarrays that are about half size of the original array?
Mergesort always makes recursive calls to sort subarrays that are about half size of
the original array, resulting in O(n log n) time.
What is abstraction?
Abstraction is of the process of hiding unwanted details from the user.
What are virtual functions?
A virtual function allows derived classes to replace the implementation provided by
the base class. The compiler makes sure the replacement is always called whenever
the object in question is actually of the derived class, even if the object is accessed
by a base pointer rather than a derived pointer. This allows algorithms in the base
class to be replaced in the derived class, even if users don't know about the derived
class.

What is the difference between an external iterator and an internal iterator?

Describe an advantage of an external iterator.

An internal iterator is implemented with member functions of the class that has
items to step through. .An external iterator is implemented as a separate class that
can be "attach" to the object that has items to step through. .An external iterator
has the advantage that many difference iterators can be active simultaneously on
the same object.
What is a scope resolution operator?
A scope resolution operator (::), can be used to define the member functions of a
class outside the class.
What do you mean by pure virtual functions?
A pure virtual member function is a member function that the base class forces
derived classes to provide. Normally these member functions have no
implementation. Pure virtual functions are equated to zero.
class Shape { public: virtual void draw() = 0; };
What is polymorphism? Explain with an example?
"Poly" means "many" and "morph" means "form". Polymorphism is the ability of an
object (or reference) to assume (be replaced by) or become many different forms of
object.
Example: function overloading, function overriding, virtual functions. Another
example can be a plus + sign, used for adding two integers or for using it to
concatenate two strings.

Whats the output of the following program? Why?

#include <stdio.h>
main()

typedef union

{
int a;
char b[10];
float c;

Union;
Union x,y = {100};
x.a = 50;
strcpy(x.b,\"hello\");
x.c = 21.50;
printf(\"Union x : %d %s %f \n\",x.a,x.b,x.c );
printf(\"Union y :%d %s%f \n\",y.a,y.b,y.c);

}
Given inputs X, Y, Z and operations | and & (meaning bitwise OR and AND,
respectively)

What is output equal to in

output = (X & Y) | (X & Z) | (Y & Z)

Why are arrays usually processed with for loop?

The real power of arrays comes from their facility of using an index variable to
traverse the array, accessing each element with the same expression a[i]. All the is
needed to make this work is a iterated statement in which the variable i serves as a
counter, incrementing from 0 to a.length -1. That is exactly what a loop does.
What is an HTML tag?
Answer: An HTML tag is a syntactical construct in the HTML language that
abbreviates specific instructions to be executed when the HTML script is loaded
into a Web browser. It is like a method in Java, a function in C++, a procedure in
Pascal, or a subroutine in FORTRAN.
Explain which of the following declarations will compile and what will be
constant - a pointer or the value pointed at: * const char *

* char const *
* char * const
Note: Ask the candidate whether the first declaration is pointing to a string or a
single character. Both explanations are correct, but if he says that its a single
character pointer, ask why a whole string is initialized as char* in C++. If he says
this is a string declaration, ask him to declare a pointer to a single character.
Competent candidates should not have problems pointing out why const char* can
be both a character and a string declaration, incompetent ones will come up with
invalid reasons.
Youre given a simple code for the class Bank Customer. Write the following
functions:

* Copy constructor
* = operator overload
* == operator overload
* + operator overload (customers balances should be added up, as an
example of joint account between husband and wife)
Note:Anyone confusing assignment and equality operators should be dismissed
from the interview. The applicant might make a mistake of passing by value, not by
reference. The candidate might also want to return a pointer, not a new object, from
the addition operator. Slightly hint that youd like the value to be changed outside
the function, too, in the first case. Ask him whether the statement customer3 =
customer1 + customer2 would work in the second case.
What problems might the following macro bring to the application?
#define sq(x) x*x
Anything wrong with this code?

T *p = new T[10];
delete p;
Everything is correct, Only the first element of the array will be deleted, The entire
array will be deleted, but only the first element destructor will be called.

Anything wrong with this code?

T *p = 0;
delete p;
Yes, the program will crash in an attempt to delete a null pointer.
How do you decide which integer type to use?
It depends on our requirement. When we are required an integer to be stored in 1
byte (means less than or equal to 255) we use short int, for 2 bytes we use int, for 8
bytes we use long int.
A char is for 1-byte integers, a short is for 2-byte integers, an int is generally a 2byte or 4-byte integer (though not necessarily), a long is a 4-byte integer, and a long
long is a 8-byte integer.

What does extern mean in a function declaration?

Using extern in a function declaration we can make a function such that it can
used outside the file in which it is defined.
An extern variable, function definition, or declaration also makes the described
variable or function usable by the succeeding part of the current source file. This
declaration does not replace the definition. The declaration is used to describe the
variable that is externally defined.
If a declaration for an identifier already exists at file scope, any extern declaration of
the same identifier found within a block refers to that same object. If no other
declaration for the identifier exists at file scope, the identifier has external linkage.
What can I safely assume about the initial values of variables which are not
explicitly initialized?
It depends on complier which may assign any garbage value to a variable if it is not
initialized.
What is the difference between char a[] = string; and char *p =
string;?
In the first case 6 bytes are allocated to the variable a which is fixed, where as in
the second case if *p is assigned to some other value the allocate memory can
change.
Whats the auto keyword good for?
Answer1
Not much. It declares an object with automatic storage duration. Which means the
object will be destroyed at the end of the objects scope. All variables in functions
that are not declared as static and not dynamically allocated have automatic
storage duration by default.
For example
int main()

{
int a; //this is the same as writing auto int a;
}

Answer2
Local variables occur within a scope; they are local to a function. They are often
called automatic variables because they automatically come into being when the
scope is entered and automatically go away when the scope closes. The keyword
auto makes this explicit, but local variables default to auto auto auto auto so it is
never necessary to declare something as an auto auto auto auto.
What is the difference between char a[] = string; and char *p =
string; ?
Answer1
a[] = string;
char *p = string;
The difference is this:
p is pointing to a constant string, you can never safely say
p[3]=x';
however you can always say a[3]=x';
char a[]=string; - character array initialization.
char *p=string ; - non-const pointer to a const-string.( this is permitted only in the
case of char pointer in C++ to preserve backward compatibility with C.)
Answer2
a[] = string;
char *p = string;
a[] will have 7 bytes. However, p is only 4 bytes. P is pointing to an adress is either
BSS or the data section (depending on which compiler GNU for the former and
CC for the latter).
Answer3
char a[] = string;
char *p = string;
for char a[].using the array notation 7 bytes of storage in the static memory
block are taken up, one for each character and one for the terminating nul
character.
But, in the pointer notation char *p.the same 7 bytes required, plus N bytes
to store the pointer variable p (where N depends on the system but is usually a
minimum of 2 bytes and can be 4 or more)

How do I declare an array of N pointers to functions returning pointers to

functions returning pointers to characters?
Answer1
If you want the code to be even slightly readable, you will use typedefs.
typedef char* (*functiontype_one)(void);

typedef functiontype_one (*functiontype_two)(void);

functiontype_two myarray[N]; //assuming N is a const integral
Answer2
char* (* (*a[N])())()
Here a is that array. And according to question no function will not take any
parameter value.
What does extern mean in a function declaration?
It tells the compiler that a variable or a function exists, even if the compiler hasnt
yet seen it in the file currently being compiled. This variable or function may be
defined in another file or further down in the current file.

How do I initialize a pointer to a function?

This is the way to initialize a pointer to a function
void fun(int a)

{
}
void main()

{
void (*fp)(int);
fp=fun;
fp(1);

}
How do you link a C++ program to C functions?

By using the extern "C" linkage specification around the C function declarations.
Explain the scope resolution operator.
It permits a program to reference an identifier in the global scope that has been
hidden by another identifier with the same name in the local scope.
What are the differences between a C++ struct and C++ class?
The default member and base-class access specifier are different.
How many ways are there to initialize an int with a constant?
Two.
There are two formats for initializers in C++ as shown in the example that follows.
The first format uses the traditional C notation. The second format uses
constructor notation.
int foo = 123;
int bar (123);
How does throwing and catching exceptions differ from using setjmp and
longjmp?
The throw operation calls the destructors for automatic objects instantiated since
entry to the try block.
What is a default constructor?
Default constructor WITH arguments class B { public: B (int m = 0) : n (m) {} int n; };
int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { B b; return 0; }

What is a conversion constructor?

A constructor that accepts one argument of a different type.

What is the difference between a copy constructor and an overloaded
assignment operator?
A copy constructor constructs a new object by using the content of the argument
object. An overloaded assignment operator assigns the contents of an existing
object to another existing object of the same class.
When should you use multiple inheritance?
There are three acceptable answers: "Never," "Rarely," and "When the problem
domain cannot be accurately modeled any other way."
Explain the ISA and HASA class relationships. How would you implement
each in a class design?
A specialized class "is" a specialization of another class and, therefore, has the ISA
relationship with the other class. An Employee ISA Person. This relationship is best
implemented with inheritance. Employee is derived from Person. A class may have
an instance of another class. For example, an employee "has" a salary, therefore the
Employee class has the HASA relationship with the Salary class. This relationship
is best implemented by embedding an object of the Salary class in the Employee
class.
When is a template a better solution than a base class?
When you are designing a generic class to contain or otherwise manage objects of
other types, when the format and behavior of those other types are unimportant to
their containment or management, and particularly when those other types are
unknown (thus, the generosity) to the designer of the container or manager class.
What is a mutable member?
One that can be modified by the class even when the object of the class or the
member function doing the modification is const.
What is an explicit constructor?
A conversion constructor declared with the explicit keyword. The compiler does not
use an explicit constructor to implement an implied conversion of types. Its
purpose is reserved explicitly for construction.

What is the Standard Template Library (STL)?

A library of container templates approved by the ANSI committee for inclusion in
the standard C++ specification.
A programmer who then launches into a discussion of the generic programming
model, iterators, allocators, algorithms, and such, has a higher than average
understanding of the new technology that STL brings to C++ programming.
Describe run-time type identification.
The ability to determine at run time the type of an object by using the typeid
operator or the dynamic_cast operator.
What problem does the namespace feature solve?
Multiple providers of libraries might use common global identifiers causing a name
collision when an application tries to link with two or more such libraries. The
namespace feature surrounds a librarys external declarations with a unique
namespace that eliminates the potential for those collisions.
This solution assumes that two library vendors dont use the same namespace
identifier, of course.

Are there any new intrinsic (built-in) data types?

Yes. The ANSI committee added the bool intrinsic type and its true and false value
keywords.

Will the following program execute?

void main()

{
void *vptr = (void *) malloc(sizeof(void));
vptr++;

}
Answer1
It will throw an error, as arithmetic operations cannot be performed on void
pointers.
Answer2
It will not build as sizeof cannot be applied to void* ( error Unknown size )
Answer3
How can it execute if it wont even compile? It needs to be int main, not void main.
Also, cannot increment a void *.
Answer4
According to gcc compiler it wont show any error, simply it executes. but in general
we cant do arthematic operation on void, and gives size of void as 1
Answer5
The program compiles in GNU C while giving a warning for void main. The
program runs without a crash. sizeof(void) is 1? hence when vptr++, the address is
incremented by 1.
Answer6
Regarding arguments about GCC, be aware that this is a C++ question, not C. So
gcc will compile and execute, g++ cannot. g++ complains that the return type
cannot be void and the argument of sizeof() cannot be void. It also reports that ISO
C++ forbids incrementing a pointer of type void*.
Answer7
in C++
voidp.c: In function `int main():
voidp.c:4: error: invalid application of `sizeof to a void type
voidp.c:4: error: `malloc undeclared (first use this function)
voidp.c:4: error: (Each undeclared identifier is reported only once for each function
it appears in.)
voidp.c:6: error: ISO C++ forbids incrementing a pointer of type `void*
But in c, it work without problems

void main()
{
char *cptr = 0?2000;
long *lptr = 0?2000;
cptr++;
lptr++;
printf( %x %x, cptr, lptr);
}
Will it execute or not?
Answer1
For Q2: As above, wont compile because main must return int. Also, 02000
cannot be implicitly converted to a pointer (I assume you meant 02000 and not 0?
2000.)
Answer2
Not Excute.
Compile with VC7 results following errors:
error C2440: initializing : cannot convert from int to char *
error C2440: initializing : cannot convert from int to long *

Not Excute if it is C++, but Excute in C.

The printout:
2001 2004
Answer3
In C++
[$]> g++ point.c
point.c: In function `int main():
point.c:4: error: invalid conversion from `int to `char*
point.c:5: error: invalid conversion from `int to `long int*
in C

[$] etc > gcc point.c

point.c: In function `main:
point.c:4: warning: initialization makes pointer from integer without a cast
point.c:5: warning: initialization makes pointer from integer without a cast
[$] etc > ./a.exe
2001 2004

What is the difference between Mutex and Binary semaphore?

semaphore is used to synchronize processes. where as mutex is used to provide
synchronization between threads running in the same process.
In C++, what is the difference between method overloading and method
overriding?

Overloading a method (or function) in C++ is the ability for functions of the same
name to be defined as long as these methods have different signatures (different set
of parameters). Method overriding is the ability of the inherited class rewriting the
virtual method of the base class.
What methods can be overridden in Java?
In C++ terminology, all public methods in Java are virtual. Therefore, all Java
methods can be overwritten in subclasses except those that are declared final,
static, and private.
What are the defining traits of an object-oriented language?
The defining traits of an object-oriented langauge are:
* encapsulation
* inheritance
* polymorphism
Write a program that ask for user input from 5 to 9 then calculate the
average
int main()

{
int MAX=4;
int total =0;
int average=0;
int numb;
cout<<"Please enter your input from 5 to 9";
cin>>numb;
if((numb <5)&&(numb>9))
cout<<"please re type your input";
else
for(i=0;i<=MAX; i++)

{
total = total + numb;
average= total /MAX;

}
cout<<"The average number is"<<average<<endl;
return 0;

Assignment Operator - What is the diffrence between a "assignment

operator" and a "copy constructor"?

Answer1.
In assignment operator, you are assigning a value to an existing object. But in copy
constructor, you are creating a new object and then assigning a value to that object.
For example:
complex c1,c2;
c1=c2; //this is assignment
complex c3=c2; //copy constructor
Answer2.

A copy constructor is used to initialize a newly declared variable from an existing

variable. This makes a deep copy like assignment, but it is somewhat simpler:
There is no need to test to see if it is being initialized from itself.
There is no need to clean up (eg, delete) an existing value (there is none).
A reference to itself is not returned.
RTTI - What is RTTI?
Answer1.
RTTI stands for "Run Time Type Identification". In an inheritance hierarchy, we can
find out the exact type of the objet of which it is member. It can be done by using:
1) dynamic id operator
2) typecast operator
Answer2.
RTTI is defined as follows: Run Time Type Information, a facility that allows an
object to be queried at runtime to determine its type. One of the fundamental
principles of object technology is polymorphism, which is the ability of an object to
dynamically change at runtime.
STL Containers - What are the types of STL containers?
There are 3 types of STL containers:
1. Adaptive containers like queue, stack
2. Associative containers like set, map
3. Sequence containers like vector, deque
What is the need for a Virtual Destructor ?
Destructors are declared as virtual because if do not declare it as virtual the base
class destructor will be called before the derived class destructor and that will lead
to memory leak because derived classs objects will not get freed.Destructors
are declared virtual so as to bind objects to the methods at runtime so that
appropriate destructor is called.

What is "mutable"?
Answer1.
"mutable" is a C++ keyword. When we declare const, none of its data members can
change. When we want one of its members to change, we declare it as mutable.
Answer2.
A "mutable" keyword is useful when we want to force a "logical const" data member
to have its value modified. A logical const can happen when we declare a data
member as non-const, but we have a const member function attempting to modify
that data member. For example:
class Dummy {
public:
bool isValid() const;
private:
mutable int size_ = 0;

mutable bool validStatus_ = FALSE;

// logical const issue resolved
};
bool Dummy::isValid() const
// data members become bitwise const

{
if (size > 10) {
validStatus_ = TRUE; // fine to assign
size = 0; // fine to assign

}
}
Answer2.
"mutable" keyword in C++ is used to specify that the member may be updated or
modified even if it is member of constant object. Example:
class Animal {
private:
string name;
string food;
mutable int age;
public:
void set_age(int a);
};
void main() {
const Animal Tiger(Fulffy,'antelope,1);
Tiger.set_age(2);
// the age can be changed since its mutable

}
Differences of C and C++
Could you write a small program that will compile in C but not in C++ ?
In C, if you can a const variable e.g.
const int i = 2;
you can use this variable in other module as follows
extern const int i;
C compiler will not complain.
But for C++ compiler u must write
extern const int i = 2;
else error would be generated.
Bitwise Operations - Given inputs X, Y, Z and operations | and & (meaning
bitwise OR and AND, respectively), what is output equal to in?
output = (X & Y) | (X & Z) | (Y & Z);

C++ Object-Oriented Interview Questions And Answers

What is a modifier?

A modifier, also called a modifying function is a member function that changes the
value of at least one data member. In other words, an operation that modifies the
state of an object. Modifiers are also known as mutators. Example: The function
mod is a modifier in the following code snippet:
class test

int x,y;
public:
test()

{
x=0; y=0;

void mod()

{
x=10;
y=15;

}
};
What is an accessor?
An accessor is a class operation that does not modify the state of an object. The
accessor functions need to be declared as const operations

Differentiate between a template class and class template.

Template class: A generic definition or a parameterized class not instantiated until
the client provides the needed information. Its jargon for plain templates. Class
template: A class template specifies how individual classes can be constructed
much like the way a class specifies how individual objects can be constructed. Its
jargon for plain classes.
When does a name clash occur?
A name clash occurs when a name is defined in more than one place. For example.,
two different class libraries could give two different classes the same name. If you
try to use many class libraries at the same time, there is a fair chance that you will
be unable to compile or link the program because of name clashes.
Define namespace.
It is a feature in C++ to minimize name collisions in the global name space. This
namespace keyword assigns a distinct name to a library that allows other libraries
to use the same identifier names without creating any name collisions.
Furthermore, the compiler uses the namespace signature for differentiating the
definitions.

What is the use of using declaration. ?

A using declaration makes it possible to use a name from a namespace without the
scope operator.
What is an Iterator class ?
A class that is used to traverse through the objects maintained by a container
class. There are five categories of iterators: input iterators, output iterators, forward
iterators, bidirectional iterators, random access. An iterator is an entity that gives
access to the contents of a container object without violating encapsulation
constraints. Access to the contents is granted on a one-at-a-time basis in order. The
order can be storage order (as in lists and queues) or some arbitrary order (as in
array indices) or according to some ordering relation (as in an ordered binary tree).
The iterator is a construct, which provides an interface that, when called, yields
either the next element in the container, or some value denoting the fact that there
are no more elements to examine. Iterators hide the details of access to and update
of the elements of a container class.
The simplest and safest iterators are those that permit read-only access to the
contents of a container class.
What is an incomplete type?
Incomplete types refers to pointers in which there is non availability of the
implementation of the referenced location or it points to some location whose value
is not available for modification.
int *i=0x400 // i points to address 400
*i=0; //set the value of memory location pointed by i.
Incomplete types are otherwise called uninitialized pointers.
What is a dangling pointer?
A dangling pointer arises when you use the address of an object after
its lifetime is over. This may occur in situations like returning
addresses of the automatic variables from a function or using the
address of the memory block after it is freed. The following
code snippet shows this:
class Sample

public:
int *ptr;
Sample(int i)

{
ptr = new int(i);

}
~Sample()

delete ptr;

void PrintVal()

cout << "The value is " << *ptr;

}
};
void SomeFunc(Sample x)

cout << "Say i am in someFunc " << endl;

}
int main()

{
Sample s1 = 10;
SomeFunc(s1);
s1.PrintVal();

}
In the above example when PrintVal() function is
called it is called by the pointer that has been freed by the
destructor in SomeFunc.

Differentiate between the message and method.

Message:
* Objects communicate by sending messages to each other.
* A message is sent to invoke a method.
Method
* Provides response to a message.
* It is an implementation of an operation.
What is an adaptor class or Wrapper class?
A class that has no functionality of its own. Its member functions hide the use of a
third party software component or an object with the non-compatible interface or a
non-object-oriented implementation.
What is a Null object?
It is an object of some class whose purpose is to indicate that a real object of that
class does not exist. One common use for a null object is a return value from a
member function that is supposed to return an object with some specified
properties but cannot find such an object.
What is class invariant?
A class invariant is a condition that defines all valid states for an object. It is a
logical condition to ensure the correct working of a class. Class invariants must
hold when an object is created, and they must be preserved under all operations of
the class. In particular all class invariants are both preconditions and postconditions for all operations or member functions of the class.

What do you mean by Stack unwinding?

It is a process during exception handling when the destructor is called for all local
objects between the place where the exception was thrown and where it is caught.
Define precondition and post-condition to a member function.
Precondition: A precondition is a condition that must be true on entry to a member
function. A class is used correctly if preconditions are never false. An operation is
not responsible for doing anything sensible if its precondition fails to hold. For
example, the interface invariants of stack class say nothing about pushing yet
another element on a stack that is already full. We say that isful() is a precondition
of the push operation. Post-condition: A post-condition is a condition that must be
true on exit from a member function if the precondition was valid on entry to that
function. A class is implemented correctly if post-conditions are never false. For
example, after pushing an element on the stack, we know that isempty() must
necessarily hold. This is a post-condition of the push operation.
What are the conditions that have to be met for a condition to be an
invariant of the class?
* The condition should hold at the end of every constructor.
* The condition should hold at the end of every mutator (non-const) operation.
What are proxy objects?
Objects that stand for other objects are called proxy objects or surrogates.
template <class t="">
class Array2D

{
public:
class Array1D

{
public:
T& operator[] (int index);
const T& operator[] (int index)const;
};
Array1D operator[] (int index);
const Array1D operator[] (int index) const;
};
The following then becomes legal:
Array2D<float>data(10,20);
cout<<data[3][6]; // fine
Here data[3] yields an Array1D object and the operator [] invocation on that object
yields the float in position(3,6) of the original two dimensional array. Clients of the
Array2D class need not be aware of the presence of the Array1D class. Objects of
this latter class stand for one-dimensional array objects that, conceptually, do not
exist for clients of Array2D. Such clients program as if they were using real, live,
two-dimensional arrays. Each Array1D object stands for a one-dimensional array

that is absent from a conceptual model used by the clients of Array2D. In the above
example, Array1D is a proxy class. Its instances stand for one-dimensional arrays
that, conceptually, do not exist.
Name some pure object oriented languages.
Smalltalk, Java, Eiffel, Sather.
What is an orthogonal base class?
If two base classes have no overlapping methods or data they are said to be
independent of, or orthogonal to each other. Orthogonal in the sense means that
two classes operate in different dimensions and do not interfere with each other in
any way. The same derived class may inherit such classes with no difficulty.

What is a node class?

A node class is a class that,
* relies on the base class for services and implementation,
* provides a wider interface to the users than its base class,
* relies primarily on virtual functions in its public interface
* depends on all its direct and indirect base class
* can be understood only in the context of the base class
* can be used as base for further derivation
* can be used to create objects.
A node class is a class that has added new services or functionality beyond the
services inherited from its base class.
What is a container class? What are the types of container classes?
A container class is a class that is used to hold objects in memory or external
storage. A container class acts as a generic holder. A container class has a
predefined behavior and a well-known interface. A container class is a supporting
class whose purpose is to hide the topology used for maintaining the list of objects
in memory. When a container class contains a group of mixed objects, the
container is called a heterogeneous container; when the container is holding a
group of objects that are all the same, the container is called a homogeneous
container.
How do you write a function that can reverse a linked-list?
Answer1:
void reverselist(void)

{
if(head==0)
return;
if(head-<next==0)
return;
if(head-<next==tail)

head-<next = 0;
tail-<next = head;

else

node* pre = head;

node* cur = head-<next;
node* curnext = cur-<next;
head-<next = 0;
cur-<next = head;
for(; curnext!=0; )

cur-<next = pre;
pre = cur;
cur = curnext;
curnext = curnext-<next;

}
curnext-<next = cur;

}
}
Answer2:
node* reverselist(node* head)

if(0==head || 0==head->next)
//if head->next ==0 should return head instead of 0;
return 0;

node* prev = head;

node* curr = head->next;
node* next = curr->next;
for(; next!=0; )

{
curr->next = prev;
prev = curr;
curr = next;
next = next->next;

}
curr->next = prev;
head->next = 0;
head = curr;

return head;

What is polymorphism?

Polymorphism is the idea that a base class can be inherited by several classes. A
base class pointer can point to its child class and a base class array can store
different child class objects.
How do you find out if a linked-list has an end? (i.e. the list is not a cycle)
You can find out by using 2 pointers. One of them goes 2 nodes each time. The
second one goes at 1 nodes each time. If there is a cycle, the one that goes 2 nodes
each time will eventually meet the one that goes slower. If that is the case, then you
will know the linked-list is a cycle.

How can you tell what shell you are running on UNIX system?
You can do the Echo $RANDOM. It will return a undefined variable if you are from
the C-Shell, just a return prompt if you are from the Bourne shell, and a 5 digit
random numbers if you are from the Korn shell. You could also do a ps -l and look
for the shell with the highest PID.
What is Boyce Codd Normal form?
A relation schema R is in BCNF with respect to a set F of functional dependencies if
for all functional dependencies in F+ of the form a->b, where a and b is a subset of
R, at least one of the following holds:
* a->b is a trivial functional dependency (b is a subset of a)
* a is a superkey for schema R
What is pure virtual function?
A class is made abstract by declaring one or more of its virtual functions to be pure.
A pure virtual function is one with an initializer of = 0 in its declaration
Write a Struct Time where integer m, h, s are its members
struct Time

int m;
int h;
int s;
};
How do you traverse a Btree in Backward in-order?
Process the node in the right subtree
Process the root
Process the node in the left subtree
What is the two main roles of Operating System?
As a resource manager
As a virtual machine
In the derived class, which data member of the base class are visible?
In the public and protected sections.

C++ programming on UNIX

Could you tell something about the Unix System Kernel?

The kernel is the heart of the UNIX openrating system, its reponsible for controlling
the computers resouces and scheduling user jobs so that each one gets its fair
share of resources.
What are each of the standard files and what are they normally associated
with?
They are the standard input file, the standard output file and the standard error
file. The first is usually associated with the keyboard, the second and third are
usually associated with the terminal screen.
Detemine the code below, tell me exectly how many times is the operation
sum++ performed ?
for ( i = 0; i < 100; i++ )
for ( j = 100; j > 100 - i; j)
sum++;
(99 * 100)/2 = 4950
The sum++ is performed 4950 times.
Give 4 examples which belongs application layer in TCP/IP architecture?
FTP, TELNET, HTTP and TFTP
Whats the meaning of ARP in TCP/IP?
The "ARP" stands for Address Resolution Protocol. The ARP standard defines two
basic message types: a request and a response. a request message contains an IP
address and requests the corresponding hardware address; a replay contains both
the IP address, sent in the request, and the hardware address.
What is a Makefile?
Makefile is a utility in Unix to help compile large programs. It helps by only
compiling the portion of the program that has been changed.
A Makefile is the file and make uses to determine what rules to apply. make is
useful for far more than compiling programs.
What is deadlock?
Deadlock is a situation when two or more processes prevent each other from
running. Example: if T1 is holding x and waiting for y to be free and T2 holding y
and waiting for x to be free deadlock happens.

What is semaphore?
Semaphore is a special variable, it has two methods: up and down. Semaphore
performs atomic operations, which means ones a semaphore is called it can not be
inturrupted.
The internal counter (= #ups - #downs) can never be negative. If you execute the
down method when the internal counter is zero, it will block until some other
thread calls the up method. Semaphores are use for thread synchronization.
Is C an object-oriented language?
C is not an object-oriented language, but limited object-oriented programming can
be done in C.
Name some major differences between C++ and Java.
C++ has pointers; Java does not. Java is platform-independent; C++ is not. Java
has garbage collection; C++ does not. Java does have pointers. In fact all variables

in Java are pointers. The difference is that Java does not allow you to manipulate
the addresses of the pointer

C++ Networking Interview Questions and Answers

What is the difference between Stack and Queue?

Stack is a Last In First Out (LIFO) data structure.

Queue is a First In First Out (FIFO) data structure
Write a fucntion that will reverse a string.
char *strrev(char *s)

int i = 0, len = strlen(s);

char *str;
if ((str = (char *)malloc(len+1)) == NULL)
/*cannot allocate memory */
err_num = 2;
return (str);

while(len)
str[i++]=s[len];
str[i] = NULL;
return (str);

What is the software Life-Cycle?

The software Life-Cycle are

1) Analysis and specification of the task
2) Design of the algorithms and data structures
3) Implementation (coding)
4) Testing
5) Maintenance and evolution of the system
6) Obsolescence
What is the difference between a Java application and a Java applet?
The difference between a Java application and a Java applet is that a Java
application is a program that can be executed using the Java interpeter, and a JAVA
applet can be transfered to different networks and executed by using a web browser
(transferable to the WWW).
Name 7 layers of the OSI Reference Model?
-Application layer
-Presentation layer
-Session layer
-Transport layer
-Network layer
-Data Link layer
-Physical layer

C++ Algorithm Interview Questions and Answers

What are the advantages and disadvantages of B-star trees over Binary trees?
Answer1
B-star trees have better data structure and are faster in search than Binary trees,
but its harder to write codes for B-start trees.
Answer2
The major difference between B-tree and binary tres is that B-tree is a external data
structure and binary tree is a main memory data structure. The computational
complexity of binary tree is counted by the number of comparison operations at
each node, while the computational complexity of B-tree is determined by the disk
I/O, that is, the number of node that will be loaded from disk to main memory. The
comparision of the different values in one node is not counted.

Write the psuedo code for the Depth first Search.

dfs(G, v) //OUTLINE
Mark v as "discovered"
For each vertex w such that edge vw is in G:
If w is undiscovered:
dfs(G, w); that is, explore vw, visit w, explore from there as much as possible, and
backtrack from w to v. Otherwise:
"Check" vw without visiting w. Mark v as "finished".

Describe one simple rehashing policy.

The simplest rehashing policy is linear probing. Suppose a key K hashes to location
i. Suppose other key occupies H[i]. The following function is used to generate
alternative locations:
rehash(j) = (j + 1) mod h
where j is the location most recently probed. Initially j = i, the hash code for K.
Notice that this version of rehash does not depend on K.

Describe Stacks and name a couple of places where stacks are useful.
A Stack is a linear structure in which insertions and deletions are always made at
one end, called the top. This updating policy is called last in, first out (LIFO). It is
useful when we need to check some syntex errors, such as missing parentheses.

Suppose a 3-bit sequence number is used in the selective-reject ARQ, what is

the maximum number of frames that could be transmitted at a time?
If a 3-bit sequence number is used, then it could distinguish 8 different frames.
Since the number of frames that could be transmitted at a time is no greater half
the numner of frames that could be distinguished by the sequence number, so at
most 4 frames can be transmitted at a time.