Analytic Functions

Dr. T. Phaneendra

July 15, 2015

Contents
1

Complex Numbers and their Geometry

What is a Complex Function?

Limit and Continuity

Differentiability

Analytic Functions

School

10

of Advanced Sciences, VIT University, E-mail: phaneendra.t@vit.ac.in

Complex Numbers and their Geometry

The set C of all complex numbers consists of all ordered pairs z = (x, y) of real
numbers, where x and y are called the real and imaginary parts of z.
Given two complex numbers z1 = (x1 , y1 ) and z2 = (x2 , y2 ), we have
sum

z1 + z2 = (x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 ),

product z1 z2 = (x1 x2 y1 y2 , x1 y2 + x2 y1 ).
We identify R with a subset of C through the one-to-one correspondence x
(x, 0). This preserves sums and products. Thus for any real x, we write x =
(x, 0). Set i = (0, 1). Then z = (x, y) =
(x, 0) + (0, 1)(y, 0) = x + iy, and
i2 = (0, 1)(0, 1) = (1, 0) = 1 so that i = 1, which is called the imaginary
unit.
If z = (x, y) 6= (0, 0), its inverse is


y
x
,

w=
.
x2 + y 2
x2 + y 2
The modulus or magnitude of a complex number z = (x, y) is given by |z| =

1
x2 + y 2 2 .
Given z = (x, y) = x + iy C, its conjugate is z = x iy.
Properties of Modulus:
z z = |z|2
z

1
z

z
|z|2

=1

z
|z|2

for all z 6= 0

|z1 z2 | = |z1 | |z2 |

|z1 + z2 | |z1 | + |z2 |
The last of these is called the triangle inequality. There is no reasonable ordering
( and ) for the complex numbers, as there is for the reals.
Geometrical Representation
Given z = (x, y) 6= (0, 0), its polar form is
z = (r cos , r sin ),
then
|z|2 = r2 cos2 + r2 sin2 = r2 r = |z|,
2

and

= tan1

y

.
x
Note that r is the usual magnitude of z and is called an argument or phase of z
and is denoted by the symbol arg(z). If
z = r cos + ir sin ,
then r cos( + 2n) + r sin( + 2n) = r cos + ir sin = z. Therefore arg is a
many-valued relation but not a function. The value of (, ] is called the
principal argument Arg(z) of z.
Note that arg(z1 z2 ) = arg(z1 )+arg(z2 for any two complex numbers z1 and z2 .
Each complex number z is represented as a point P (x, y) in the XY-plane and
vice versa. The X-axis representing the points of the form (x, 0) is called the
real axis, and the Y-axis representing the points of the form (0, y) is called the
imaginary axis. The distance OP of P from the orogin O = (0, 0) is the modulus
|z| of z and arg(z) is the angle made by the radius vector OP at O with the
positive real axis OX in the positive (anticlockwise) direction. The XY-plane is
called the Argand plane or complex plane.
Addition and Subtraction of complex numbers are easier in the Cartesian form,
while multiplication, division, powers and roots are easier to handle in polar
form.

What is a Complex Function?

We shall begin with a review of the basics.

Definition 2.1 (Function). A function f is a rule that assigns to each element
in a set A one and only one element in a set B.
If f assigns the value b to the element a in A, we write b = f (a) and call b the
image of a under f .
We are concerned with complex valued funtion w = f (z) of a complex variable
z = x + iy, where x is the real part and y is the imaginary part (both realvalued). Just as the complex number z decomposes into real and imaginary
parts, the complex function w also decomposes into real and imaginary parts,
again both real-valued. This is customarily written
w = u(x, y) + iv(x, y),
with u and v denoting the real and imaginary parts respectively. Thus, a
complex-valued function of a complex variable is, in essence, a pair of real
functions of two real variables.
Example 2.1. Write the function w = z 2 + 2z in the form w = u(x, y) + iv(x, y).
3

Solution: By setting z = x + iy we obtain

w = (x + iy)2 + 2(x + iy) = x2 y 2 + i2xy + 2x + i2y.
Which then can be rewritten as
w = (x2 y 2 + 2x) + i(2xy + 2y).

Limit and Continuity

For z0 C and  > 0, the -neighborhood around z0 is

N (z0 ) = {z C : |z z0 | < }.
A point z0 is a limit point of S C if for every  > 0, N (z0 ) contains at least
one point of S other than z0 . A set S C is open if for each z0 S, there exists
an  > 0 such that N (w) S.
Definition 3.1. Let S C and z0 , a limit point of S. A function f : S C is
said to tend to a limit l as z approaches z0 if for each  > 0, there exists a > 0
such that |f (z) l| <  whenever 0 < |z z0 | < .
We write it as lim f (z) = l. If l is different for different paths of approach as
zz0

z z0 , then we say that the limit of f does not exist at z0 .

Definition 3.2. A function w = f (z) is continuous at z0 if lim f (z) = f (z0 ),
zz0

provided the limit exists.

We say that f is continuous on the region S if it is continuous at every point of
S. If f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y), then f is continuous at z0 = (x0 , y0 ) if and only
if u(x, y) and v(x, y) are continuous at (x0 , y0 ).
Theorem 3.1. If limzz0 f (z) = A and limzz0 g(z) = B, then
limzz0 (f (z) g(z)) = A B,
limzz0 f (z)g(z) = AB,
limzz0

f (z)
g(z)

A
B,

if B 6= 0.

Theorem 3.2. If f (z) and g(z) are continuous at z0 , then so are f (z) g(z) and
(z)
f (z)g(z). The quotient fg(z)
is also continuous at z0 provided g(z0 ) 6= 0.
Definition 3.3. A path is a continuous function : [a, b] C. Here, a, b R
with a b. A closed path is one that ends on its starting point ((b) = (a)). A
path in a subset S of C is a continuous function : [a, b] S (that is, a path
whose range is a subset of C). A set S Cis path-connected if for any z1 , z2 S,
there exists a path in S such that (a) = z1 and (b) = z2 .
4

Differentiability

First, we have
Definition 4.1. Let S C be a path-connected open set and z0 S. We say
that f : S C is differentiable at z0 ) if
f 0 (z0 ) = lim

zz0

f (z0 + z) f (z0 )
f (z) f (z0 )
= lim
,
z0
z z0
z

provided this limit exists, and f 0 (z0 ) is called the derivative of f at z0 .

Iff 0 (z0 ) exists, then z approaches zero in any way. On the other hand, if the
limit in this definition is different for different paths of approach of z 0,
then f will not be differentiable at z0 .
Example 4.1. Show that

d n
dz z

= nz n1 for any positive integer n.

Solution. We have
nz n1 z +
(z + z)n z n
=
z

n(n1) n2
z
(z)2
2

+ + (z)n

Thus


d n
n(n 1) n2
z = lim nz n1 +
z
z + + (z)n1 = nz n1 .
z0
dz
2
Theorem 4.1. If f and g are differentiable at z, then
(a) (f g)0 (z) = f 0 (z) g 0 (z)
(b) (cf )0 (z) = cf 0 (z) for any constant c
(c) (f g)0 (z) = f (z)g 0 (z) + f 0 (z)g(z)
 0
0
(z)g 0 (z)
if g(z) 6= 0
(d) fg (z) = g(z)f (z)f
g(z)2
(e) If g is differentiable at z and f is differentiable at g(z), then
d
f (g(z)) = f 0 (g(z))g 0 (z)
dz
Theorem 4.2. If f (z) is differentiable at z0 , then f will be continuous at that point.
Converse of this theorem is not true.
Cauchy-Riemann Equations
Suppose that f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) is differentiable at a point z0 = (x0 , y0 ).
u u v v
Then all the four partial derivatives
,
,
,
exist at (x0 , y0 ), and satisfy
x y x y
the Cauchy-Riemann equations
u
v u
v
=
,
=
at z0 .
x
y y
x
5

(4.1)

Moreover, The derivative of f at z0 is given by

u
v
+i
or
x
x
v
u
f 0 (z0 ) =
i
at (x0 , y0 ).
y
x

f 0 (z0 ) =

(4.2)
(4.3)

Proof. Let z = z0 + h, h R.
f (z) f (z0 )
u(z) u(z0 ) + iv(z) v(z0 )
=
z z0
h
u(x0 + h + iy0 ) u(x0 + iy0 )
=
h


v(x0 + h + iy0 ) v(x0 + iy0 )
+i
.
h
As h approaches 0,

f (z) f (z0 )
ux (x0 + iy0 ) + ivx (x0 + iy0 ) = f 0 (z0 ).
z z0

Next, take z = z0 + ik, k R. Then

u(z) u(z0 ) + i(v(z) v(z0 ))
f (z) f (z0 )
=
z z0
k
u(x0 + i(y0 + k)) u(x0 + iy0 )
=
k


v(x0 + (y0 + k)) v(x0 + y0 )
+i
.
k
As k approaches 0, we see that
f (z) f (z0 )
uy (x0 + iy0 ) + ivy (x0 + iy0 ) = f 0 (z0 ).
z z0
Equating the two expressions for f 0 (z0 ) and then comparing the real and imaginary parts, we get (b).
Necessary Conditions for Differentiability
If the Cauchy-Riemann equations (4.1) are not satisfied at z0 , the function f
cannot be differentiable at that point. Thus (4.1) are necessary for a function
f (z) to be differentiable at a point z0 .
Example 4.2. Consider f (z) = f (z) = Re z = x for all z S. We try to find
f 0 (0). In fact,
f (z) f (0)
x
L = f 0 (0) = lim
= lim
.
z0
z0 x + iy
z0
Along the real axis, y = 0 and x 0 as z 0. Thus
x
= 1,
x0 x

L = lim

while along the imaginary axis, x = 0 and y 0 as z 0. Thus

L = lim

y0

x
= 0.
iy

That is L is different for different paths of approach as z 0. Therefore f 0 (0)

does not exist. f is not differentiable at z = 0.
Remark 4.1. Note that f (x, y) = x is differentiable in the real case, but not in
the complex case.
Example 4.3. Show that the function f (z) = (x2 + y) + i(y 2 x) is not differentiable at any point.
Solution. Since u(x, y) = x2 + y and v(x, y) = y 2 x we have
u
= 2x,
x

v
= 2y,
y

u
= 1,
y

v
= 1.
x

Hence the Cauchy-Riemann equations are not satisfied and f (z) is nowhere
differentiable.

Exercises
Show that each of the following functions is nowhere differentiable:
(a) z = x iy, eiz = ey+ix , eiz
(b) 2x + ixy 2
Hint. In each case show that the Cauchy-Riemann equations (4.1) are not satisfied at each point z of the complex plane.
Sufficient Conditions for Differentiability
Though the Cauchy-Riemann equations are satisfied at a point, the function f
may not be differentiable at that point. In other words, (4.1) are not sufficient
for f to be differentiable at a point.
Example 4.4. Consider
 3

 3

2
3
2
y 3x2 y
z = z = x 3xy
+i
if z =
6 0
z
|z|2
x2 + y 2
x2 + y 2
f (z) =

0,
if z = 0.
Then
u(x, 0) u(0, 0)
u
(0, 0) = lim
= lim
x0
x0
x
x0

x3 0
x2 +0

!
= 1.

u
v
v
(0, 0) = 0,
= 0 and
(0, 0) = 1. Thus the Cauchy-Riemann
y
x
y
equations hold good at the origin.
Similarly,

f (z) f (0)
z2
= 2.
z0
z
Along the line y = mx: z = (1 + im)x so that x 0 as z 0, and
Let L =

L=

(1 im)2
(1 + im)2

(1 im)2
(1 im)2
=

x0 (1 + im)2
(1 + im)2

lim L = lim

z0

Thus L is different for different m-values, that is L is different for different

paths of approach as z 0, and hence f is not differentiable at 0.

Exercises
Show that each of the following functions f (z) is continuous and satisfies the
Cauchy Riemann equations at the origin but f 0 (0) does not exist:
2
xy (x + iy) , z 6= 0
(a) f (z) =
x2 + y 4

0,
z=0
Hint. Choose the path of approach x = my 2 as z 0 for f 0 (0) = mm
2 +1
2 5
x y (x + iy) , z 6= 0
(b) f (z) =
x4 + y 10

0,
z=0
Hint. Choose the path of approach x = my 5 as z 0 for f 0 (0) = +
3
x y(y ix) , z 6= 0
(c) f (z) =
x6 + y 2

0,
z=0
Hint. Choose the path of approach y = mx3 as z 0 for f 0 (0)
 3

3
3
3
x y + i x + y
, z 6= 0
x2 + y 2
(d) f (z) = x2 + y 2

0,
z=0
Hint. Choose the path of approach along the real and imaginary axes or
y = mx as z 0 for f 0 (0)

3 2
x y
, z 6= 0
2
(e) f (z) = (x + y 2 )2

0,
z=0
Hint. Choose the path of approach y = mx as z 0 for f 0 (0)

zRe (z)
, z 6= 0
(f ) f (z) =
z
0,
z=0
The sufficient conditions for differentiability of a complex function are given
by

Theorem 4.3. Suppose that

(a) the Cauchy-Riemann equations (4.1) are satisfied, and
(b) the partial derivatives

u u v
v
,
,
and
are continuous
x y x
y

at a point z0 , then f (z) will be differentiable z0 .

Example 4.5. Show that f (z) = z 3 = x3 3xy 2 + i(3x2 y y 3 ) is an entire
function and find its derivative at any point of the complex plane.
Solution. Since u(x, y) = x3 3xy 2 and v(x, y) = 3x2 y y 3 , we have
v
u
v
u
= 3x2 3y 2 ,
= 3x2 3y 2 ,
= 6xy,
= 6xy.
x
y
y
x
Hence the Cauchy-Riemann equations are satisfied at every point z. Thus f is
entire. The derivative of f (z) is given by
f 0 (z) =

v
u
+i
= 3x2 3y 2 + i(6xy) = 3z 2 .
x
x

The Cauchy-Riemann Equations in the Polar Form

Let f (z) = u(r, ) + iu(r, ) be differentiable at a point z = rei . Then
u
1 v v
1 u
=
,
=
, and
r
r r
r
i cos i sin f
f 0 (z) =

(4.4)
(4.5)

Functions which are differentiable at every point of the (finite) complex plane
are called entire functions.
Example 4.6. Using the polar Cauchy-Riemann equations (4.4)-(4.5), show that
f (z) = z n is differentiable throughout the complex plane for n 1.
Solution. Let z = rei . Then z n = rn (cos n + i sin n).
u
= nrn1 cos n,
r
v
= nrn1 sin n,
r

u
= rn sin n

u
= rn cos n.

Therefore the Cauchy-Riemann equations (4.4)-(4.5) are satisfied at each z. Also

v
u u v
,
,
and
are known to be continuous at each
the partial derivatives
x y x
y
z. Therefore, f is differentiable everywhere.

Exercises
1. Show that each of the following functions f (z) is entire and find the
derivative at each point z of the complex plane:
(a) iz + 2 = (2 y) + ix
(b) (3x + y) + i(3y x)
(c) ez = ex (cos y + i sin y), ez = ex (cos y i sin y)
(d) cos x cosh y i sin x sinh y
Hint. In each case verify that the Cauchy-Riemann equations (4.1) hold
u u v v
good and the first order partial derivatives
,
,
,
are continux y x y
ous at each point z of the complex plane.

Analytic Functions

Let S C. A function f is said to be analytic at a point z0 S if it is differentiable at every point of some neighborhood of z0 . A function w = f (z) is
analytic on S if and only if it is analytic at every point of S.
Remember:
(a) If f is analytic at a point, then it is differentiable at that point. But the
converse is not true, that is differentiability of f at a point does not imply
its analyticity at that point.
(b) Everywhere differentiable functions are everywhere analytic and vice
versa.
(c) Nowhere differentiable functions are nowhere analytic but the converse
is not true. In fact, there are functions which are differentiable at a point
but are nowhere analytic.
A point at which a function f (z) is not analytic is its point of singularity or singularity.
Example 5.1. Consider f (z) = |z|2 = x2 + y 2 for all z = (x, y) C. Then
ux

u
u
v
v
= 2x, uy
= 2y, vx
= 0, vy
= 0,
x
y
x
y

which are continuous functions and

ux = vy , vx = uy

only if x = 0 = y.

That is, the CR-equations are satisfied at z = (0, 0) only. Thus f is differentiable
only at z = 0 but not in any of its neighborhoods. That is f is not analytic at 0.
Also at the points z 6= 0, the CR-equations fail to hold good. As such f is not
differentiable and hence not analytic at z = 0. Thus f is nowhere analytic.
10

Example 5.2. If f (z) = x2 y 2 for all z = (x, y) C, we see that

ux

u
v
u
v
= 2xy 2 , uy
= 2x2 y, vx
= 0, vy
= 0,
x
y
x
y

which are continuous functions and

ux = vy , vx = uy

only if x = 0 or y = 0.

That is, the CR-equations are satisfied at all points on the coordinate axes, at
which f will be differentiable. But there is no neighborhood of any of the points
on the axes in which f is differentiable. Hence it is nowhere analytic.

Exercises
1. Determine the constants such that each of the following functions is entire:
(a) x + ay i(bx + cy); a, b, c
(b) ax2 by 2 + i(cxy); a, b, c
(c) (3x + y) + i(3y x); a, b, c
(d) ex [cos ay + i sin(y + b)] + c; a, b, c
(e) x2 + axy + by 2 + i(cx2 + dxy + y 2 ); a, b, c, d
(f ) 3x y + 5 + i(ax + by 3); a, b
 
px
1
1
2
2
; p
(g) log(x + y ) + +i tan
2
y
Hint. Employ the Cauchy Riemann equations.
2. Show that each of the following functions is differentiable only at the
origin but nowhere analytic:
(a) z 2 z = z z2 , zImz
2

(b) |z| = x2 + y 2 , x2 ixy

Hint. In each case show that the CR equations do not hold good at each
point z 6= 0 of the complex plane.
3. Determine the points in the complex plane where f (z) = x3 + i(1 y)3 is
differentiable. Is it analytic?
4. Find the points of analyticity for f (z) = x2 + iy 2 .
(
4
e1/z , z 6= 0
show that the Cauchy-Riemann equations
5. If f (z) =
0,
z = 0,
(4.1) are satisfied at every point of the complex plane but f is analytic
only at all z 6= 0.
11

Properties of Analytic Functions

A function (x, y) which has the continuos partial derivatives of second order
on a domain S is said to be harmonic if it satisfies the Laplaces equation 2
2 2
+
= 0 on S.
x2
y 2
Theorem 5.1. Let f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) be analytic on a domain S. Then the real
and imaginary parts u u(x, y) and v v(x, y) will be harmonic functions on S,
that is
2v
2v
2u 2u
+
=
0
and
+
= 0 on S.
(5.1)
x2
y 2
x2
y 2
Remark 5.1. The converse of Theorem 5.1 is not true. That is, a function f =
u + iv is not analytic on S even if u and v are harmonic on S.
Harmonic conjugate
If (x, y) is harmonic on S and if there exists another harmonic function
on S which satisfies the Cauchy-Riemann equations (4.1) on S, then we say
that is a harmonic conjugate of . Then it follows that the function with real
and imaginary parts and respectively is analytic. That is f = + i is
analytic. Thus from Theorem 5.1, we see that
v is a hamonic conjugate of u

f = u + iv is analytic

if = v + iu is analytic
u is a hamonic conjugate of v.

This property is referred to as the antisymmetry of harmonic conjugates.

To find a hamonic conjugate of a harmonic function (x, y), write the
total derivative









d =
dx +
dy =
dx +
dy
x
y
y
x
and then integrate. The analytic function with real part is then given by
f = + i.

Milne-Thomson method
Given a harmonic function (x, y), to determine an analytic function f with
the real part ,
write f 0 (z) =

(x, y)
(x, y)
i
,
x
y

replace x by z and y by 0 in this, and then

integrate w. r. t. z.
12

Exercises
1. Given a harmonic function u u(x, y), determine its harmonic conjugate
v v(x, y) and the analytic function f (z) = u + iv:
(a) cos x cosh y
(b) y + ex cos y; e2xy sin(x2 y 2 ); ex
2

y 2

cos(2xy)

(c) x y ; x 3xy ; 2xy + 3y

x
x2 y 2
; x2 y 2 + 2
(x2 + y 2 )2
x + y2
sin 2x
1
(e)
; log(x2 + y 2 )
cos 2x + cosh 2y 2

(d)

2. Without finding the real part u, determine the analytic function f (z) whose
imaginary part v v(x, y) is:
(a) ex (x sin y + y cos y)
xy
(b) 2
x + y2
3. Determine the analytic function f (z) = u + iv where u and v satisy the
following relations:
(a) u v =

cos x + sin x ey
2(cos x cosh y)

(b) u v = ex (cos y sin y)

xy
(c) u + v = 2
x + 4xy + y 2
Theorem 5.2 (Analytic Function with constant Modulus). If f (z) is an analytic
with constant modulus that is, |f (z)|=constant on a domain S, then f (z) will also be
constant on S.
Theorem 5.3 (Analytic Function and Orthogonalality). Suppose that f (z) =
u(x, y) + iv(x, y) is analytic on a domain S, and that f 0 (z) 6= 0 for all z S, then the
families of curves {u(x, y) = constant} and {v(x, y) = constant} are orthogonal.

Planar Fluid Flow problems:

Consider the nontubulent flow of a frictionless, incompressible fluid moving in
planes parallel to the complex plane. Suppose that the velocity of fluid paticles
is F(x, y) = f1 i + f2 j. Since the motion is irrotational,
curl F = F = 0 so that F = grad =
for some scalar potential (x, y).

13

(5.2)

Also since the flow is incompressible, the divergence of the velocity field is
zero, that is div F = 0. Using (5.2) in this, we get
div F = == 0
or
2 =

2 2
+
=0
x2
y 2

In other words, is harmonic function.

Hence there exists a harmonic conjugate (x, y) of such that
f (z) = (x, y) + i(x, y)

(5.3)

is analytic. The flow pattern is completely represented by the analytic function

(5.3), and is called complex potential of the fluid flow.
The real part of (5.3) is called the velocity potential, and
the imaginary part of (5.3) is called the stream function.
The level curves (x, v) = a corresponding to the velocity potential are
called equipotential curves, and the level curves (x, v) = b corresponding to
the stream function are called the stream lines of fluid flow. Equipotential
curves and the stream lines (paths of fluid flow) are orthogonal.
Remark 5.2. If the complex potential f (z) of a fluid-flow is given by (5.3), the
velocity of the fluid particles is
f 0 (z) = x ix = x + iy .

Flow around a Corner

The complex potential f (z) = z 2 = (x2 y 2 ) + i (2xy) models a flow with
equipotential curves = x2 y 2 = constant and stream lines = 2xy =
constant, both are hyperbolas. The velocity vector is
f 0 (z) = x ix = 2(x iy)
with magnitude 2

p
x2 + y 2 .

The flow may be interpreted as the flow in a channel bounded by the positive
coordinates axes and a hyperbola, say, xy = 1. The speed along a streamline
has a minimum at a point where the cross section of the channel is large.

Exercises
1. Given the velocity potential = 3x2 y y 3 of a fluid flow, determine its
the stream function and hence the complex potential f (z) = + i.
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2. Given the electrostatic potential = log(x2 + y 2 ), find the flux function

and the complex potential f (z) = + i.
x
of a fluid flow, determine
+ y2
the velocity potential and hence the complex potential f (z) = + i
of the fluid flow.

3. Given the stream function = x2 y 2 +

x2

Higher Order Thinking Questions

1. Prove or disprove the following statements:
(a) Everywhere differentiable functions are analytic everywhere.
(b) If f = u + iv satisfies the Cauchy-Riemann equations at every point
of the complex plane, then it will be differentiable at at least one
point of the complex plane.
(c) Nowhere analytic function is nowhere differentiable.
(d) If f is differentiable at a point of the complex plane, then it will be
analytic at that point.
(e) If f = u + iv is analytic, then f = v + iu is analytic.
2. Give an example of a nowhere analytic function f which is differentiable
along the straight line y = x.


u, v
3. If f = u + iv is differentiable at a point, compute the Jacobian J
x, y
in terms of the derivative f 0 (z).
4. If f (z) is an entire function, is f (z) analytic at at least one point of the
complex plane? If both f (z) and f (z) are analytic, what can you say
about f ?
5. If u and v are harmonic functions, can f = u + iv be analytic? Justify!
6. If f = u + iv is analytic where u is a harmonic conjugate of v, what can
you say about f ?
7. If f = u + iv is analytic, prove that U = eu cos v and V = ex sin v are
harmonic conjugates of each other.
8. If u(x, y) is a harmonic function and v(x, y) is its harmonic conjugate,
show that (x, y) = u(x, y)v(x, y) and (x, y) = u2 v 2 are harmonic.
9. Explain why the curves of u(x, y) = x2 y 2 and v(x, y) = 2xy, though
intersect at z = 0, are not orthogonal.

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