C Programming Success in a Day

BY SAM KEY

Beginners Guide To Fast, Easy And Efficient

Learning Of C Programming
3rd Edition

Copyright 2014 by Sam Key - All rights reserved.

In no way is it legal to reproduce, duplicate, or transmit any part of this document in either electronic
means or in printed format. Recording of this publication is strictly prohibited and any storage of this
document is not allowed unless with written permission from the publisher. All rights reserved.

Table of Contents
Chapter 1: Program Structure and Foundation
Chapter 2: The Data Types in C Language
Chapter 3: Hello World the Basics
Chapter 4: Looping in C
Chapter 5: Pointers, Arrays
Chapter 6: Strings, Structures, Unions and Typedef
Chapter 7: The other Header Files
Chapter 8: Command Line Arguments, Recursion and Binary Files
Chapter 9: File Handling Creating and Opening Files
Chapter 10: File Reading and Writing Data
Chapter 11: Graphics Programming Basics in C
Conclusion
Check Out My Other Books

Introduction
I want to thank you and congratulate you for downloading the book, C Programming Success in a
Day Beginners guide to fast, easy and efficient learning of Cc programming.
C. is one of the most popular and most used programming languages back then and today. Many expert
developers have started with learning C in order to become knowledgeable in computer
programming. In some grade schools and high schools, C programming is included on their
curriculum.
If you are having doubts learning the language, do not. C is actually easy to learn. Compared to C++,
C is much simpler and offer little. You do not need spend years to become a master of this language.
This book will tackle the basics when it comes to C. It will cover the basic functions you need in
order to create programs that can produce output and accept input. Also, in the later chapters, you
will learn how to make your program capable of simple thinking. And lastly, the last chapters will
deal with teaching you how to create efficient programs with the help of loops.
Anyway, before you start programming using C, you need to get some things ready. First, you will
need a compiler. A compiler is a program that will translate, compile, or convert your lines of code
as an executable file. It means that, you will need a compiler for you to be able to run the program you
have developed.
In case you are using this book as a supplementary source of information and you are taking a course
of C, you might already have a compiler given to you by your instructor. If you are not, you can get
one of the compilers that are available on the internet from MinGW.org.
You will also need a text editor. One of the best text editors you can use is Notepad++. It is free and
can be downloadable from the internet. Also, it works well with MinGWs compiler.
In case you do not have time to configure or install those programs, you can go and get Microsofts
Visual C++ program. It contains all the things you need in order to practice developing programs
using C or C++.
The content of this book was simplified in order for you to comprehend the ideas and practices in
developing programs in C easily. Thanks again for downloading this book. I hope you enjoy it!

Chapter 1: Program Structure and Foundation

When you look at the code used in C language, you will notice that it is highly structured, which
makes it a bit easier to understand. It is actually a high level programming language, which means it
uses some phrases and words that may be familiar or meaningful to human readers. Dennis Ritchie,
the creator developed this programming language, he intended it to be a general purpose language.
Eventually, it was used to develop the UNIX operating system. It was first implemented in 1972.
This means that all the Unix applications and the entire operating system itself was built on the
foundation of the C programming language. Nowadays, this programming language is used to develop
many different applications.
Benefits of Using C Language
The following are some of the benefits that have been cited by experts and other programmers who
have used it:
The code used for C language can be compiled on many different computer systems. It is
not restricted to one type of system only.
It is powerful enough to handle many low level computing activities.
The programs that have been developed using this language have proven to be quite
efficient.
It is a structured language and you can easily decipher the meaning of the code.
Many new programmers have found that the C language is really easy to learn.
Of course, there are a lot of other interesting facts about C language. It is the most widely used
programming language to create various systems. It is the next step from the B language (1970). The
entire language was formalized by ANSI (American National Standard Institute) in 1988.
C was initially designed to create operating systems. You have to understand that that fact alone
presents a lot of serious advantages. For one thing, the code created using this language can run nearly
as fast as some low level languages such as Assembly Language. However unlike Assembly, C is
better structured and easier to learn even for anyone who has no background in programming. C
language has been used in the development of utilities, language interpreters, data bases, more
modern programs, network drivers, print spoolers, text editors, assemblers, language compilers, and
operating systems.
Character Set and Reserved Words
C language uses a particular character set as well as other terms that are exclusive to the operation of
the code. Some of these terms are user supplied, which means that the programmer has discretion on
what terms to use for certain parts of the code. However, there are key words and reserved terms that

cannot be used by a programmer since they provide a special meaning when they are compiled or
translated into computer executable code.
The following are the characters that are allowed in C language: all upper case letters from A to Z,
all lower case letters from a to z, and all digits from 0 to 9.
Note that there are special characters in C language that may not be freely used by programmers.
These special characters have a different meaning in C language. The special characters include the
following:
\
|
/
*
!
^
"
}
{
&
'
[
]
%
:
$
;
)
(

.
>
<

Characters Used to Indicate White Space

White space such as form feed, carriage return, tab, new lines, and blank spaces are also part of the
language. They may be used with certain specifications.
Keywords
As stated earlier, there are certain terms that are important as to how the code is executed. These
certain key words may not be coined by programmers. These are reserved terms and they have been

defined by ANSI. They include the following: int, while, auto, volatile, break, void, case, unsigned,
char, union, const, typedef, continue, switch, goto, default, struct, do, static, double, sizeof, else,
signed, enum, short, extern, return, float, register, for, and long.
Note that these terms do not yet include key words that are used in other versions of C. Instance,
Turbo C has these extra reserved terms: cdecl, huge, near, pascal, interrupt, far, and asm.
To give you some sort of idea what these terms mean, a few short definitions will be included below.
Note that some of these terms will be discussed at length in other places of this book.
volatile
This is used to define an object in the code that can be modified by computer hardware. The
modifications have no specifics.
void
This term is used to indicate that functions in C language will not make use of arguments thus these
functions will not return or provide any value.
union
This term indicates that variables of different types are classed or included within a single name.
typedef
This part of the code associates an identifier to a type.
struct
This creates a structure, which can be used to group together different variable types.
static
This declares a storage structure whos value will not change for the entire duration of the program.
register
This defines a variable that is behaves faster compared to regular variables declared in C.
sizeof
This is used to measure the amount of bytes that are stored in a single object.
return

This is used to terminate the operation of functions in C. You will typically see this at the end of a
code.
unsigned, signed, long, and short
These are type modifiers. They are used to define and alter fundamental data types.
int
This key word is used to declare a variable that contains integers.
goto
This is a rather common piece of code. You can find it in other programming languages as well (e.g.
BASIC). This term makes the execution of the program to jump to a specific set of instructions or a
different function or routine.
for
This is a reserved term that is used for program looping.
extern
This indicates or declares a variable that is outside of the current function. The variable that it creates
can be modified by other functions in the code.
enum
This creates a type of integer data whose value is a constant.
if - else
This creates a conditional within the execution of a program. It allows the program to execute
different commands depending on certain conditions.
float, double
These terms declare variables that are floating type numbers. The term float creates a single precision
variable while double creates a double precision variable.
do - while
This also creates a loop in the program execution. However, it also includes a conditional statement.
This means that a set of instructions or code will be executed while a certain condition remains true.

const
This makes the value of a variable or even the value of a pointer (will be discussed in detail later) to
be unchangeable for the duration of the execution of the program.
char
This keyword is used to create a variable that will contain a character value.
default, case, switch
These statements are used to test the value of different expressions in the code.
continue break
The term break is used to go out of a loop inside a code. The term continue is used to skip certain
instructions inside a loop.
auto
This code indicates that a certain variable is local to a certain function within the code. Outside of
that function and in other sections of the code, that variable will be meaningless.
Identifiers in C Language
When you write code in C, you will usually create data structures that contain different values. For
instance, when you use int within a code, you are actually creating a variable (i.e. a data structure that
changes value just like in algebra) that will contain only integers. Heres an example:
int xy;
int ab;
In these two examples, the code is creating two variables xy and ab. Both of these variables will
contain whole numbers (i.e. integers). The terms xy and ab are called identifiers. Of course,
programmers who write codes using C just cant create any identifier. There are rules for creating
these identifiers. They are the following:
1. You can use either upper case letters or lower case letters when making these identifiers.
You can also use numbers to go with those letters. You can also add an underscore.
2. The first letter of an identifier must be either an underscore or a letter. In actual practice,
almost all programmers avoid starting their identifier names with underscores since it
can interfere with other processes when compiled especially when it comes to other
system names.
3. Note that even though any identifier name can be any length, in principle, in actual fact

compilers will only use up to 31 characters when processing identifier names.

4. You cannot use any of the reserved words and character sets in C language. The only
special character you can use is an underscore.

Chapter 2: The Data Types in C Language

One of the many things that you will do when you code in C is to manipulate and make use of data.
There are several types of data that can be used in this programming language. A data type can be a
certain value or even a set of values. The programs you write will be more useful when they can
make use, store, and organize data so that they will become useful to end users.
Uses of Different Data Types
Data types in this programming language can be used to identify different variables when they are
declared. Variables will be discussed in detail later. Functions will be discussed later on and these
functions will also return different data types that will be used in various parts of a program.
Functions will also be discussed much later.
Primary and Secondary Data Types
There are primary and secondary data types in C. The primary data types are the following:
Void
Character
Float
Integer
Double
The secondary types of data in this programming language are as follows:
Union
Structure
Pointer
Array
Note that there are also built-in data structures in C. They include both the primary and secondary
data types mentioned above. They are called built-in simply because these data structures are already
part and parcel of the C language library. The fundamental data types include pointer, float, double,
char, int, and void. From these fundamental data types are formed the derived data types which
include structure, string, and array.
However, this programming language is also dynamic. Programmers can also define their own data
structures. But that is more of an advanced topic, which you should learn after you have mastered the
basics mentioned here in this book.
The Fundamental Data Types

The following are short descriptions of the fundamental data types. They will be discussed in greater
detail in the other parts of this book. The definitions here will help you grasp the different notions
used in C.
char *, float *, int*
double, float
char
int
void

These data types are used to identify a data type called pointers (will be
discussed in detail later)
These are used to denote floating point data
This is used to designate a single character
This is used to denote or declare integers (numeric data)
This is data type that is used to denote no value

The following are called derived data types. You can say that a sequence of certain fundamental data
types can be used to create derived data types. Consider the following definitions.
structure

string

array

This data type is a collection of variables that are related to one another. The
variables may be of the same fundamental data type or it may consist of
different fundamental data types.
This data type is a sequence of different char data types. When you combine
different characters and arrange them into a sequence then you have a
character string.
This data type can be arranged as a sequence or an entire table. It can contain
different types of variables of the same fundamental data type.

You will learn other data types as you move on to other chapters of this book.
Variables vs. Constants
Variables will be discussed at length in a later portion of this book. However, well touch on them
lightly here to help you distinguish the differences between variables and constants and how they are
used in C language.
Simply put, variables refer to a storage location in your computers memory. Its primary purpose is to
hold data temporarily. Each variable in C should be given a unique name. The name you give each
variable is only a symbolic name and is only meaningful to humans while reading the code. Your
compiler will assign a machine readable name to the actual variable or memory address being used.
Since variable names are identifiers, then you should stick to the rules on creating identifier names,
which was already mentioned elsewhere in this book. As a quick review here are the rules in simple
terms:
Only alphanumeric characters are allowed (upper case and lower case) and underscores. Maximum
length is 31 characters. Names must begin with a letter.
The Different C Language Constants
Constants on the other hand are also like variables. However, unlike variables, the value contained in
constants cant be changed. There are different constants used in C language, which include the

following:
Integer constants
Floating point constants
Character constants
Escape constants
String constants
Enumeration constants
Enumeration Constants: the enum constant is used in any declaration of enumeration types. For
example:
enum color {blue, red, yellow, green};
String Constants: you will see these constants in the code as any text that is enclosed within double
quotation marks. Here are several examples on how to use string constants:
Regular string constant "okay"
Null string constant ""
String constant with white spaces " "
String constant with one character "a"
String printed on a new line "this goes to the next line"
Escape Sequences: escape sequences are used to display quotation marks, tabs, and hard returns. A
backslash is used as a break from the usual way a compiler will interpret certain lines of code. Here
are some examples of escape sequences:
Null character \0
Question mark \?
Double quotes \"
Single quote \'
Backslash \\
Vertical tab \v
Horizontal tab \t
Return \r
Newline \n
Form feed \f
Backspace \b
Character Constants: character constants appear as single characters that are enclosed in single
quotes. For example: 'o'
Floating Point Constants: floating point constants refer to numbers with a fractional component. It
also refers to numeric values with exponents. Here are a few examples:

-0.11E-4
0.00143
-1.0
Integer Constants: integer constants are constants that are associated with a number. These numbers
should not have any fractional parts. They should also not have an exponent. There are three different
types of integer constants in C. They are decimal, octal, and hexadecimal constants.
Examples of decimal constants include 22, -9, and 0. Examples of octal constants include 033, 077,
and 021. Examples of hexadecimal constants include 0x521 and 0x7f.
Note that hexadecimal constants usually start with a "0x." You can also use lower case letters for
hexadecimal constants. As you observe from the examples above, octal constants usually start with 0.

Chapter 3: Hello World the Basics

When coding a C program, you must start your code with the function main. By the way, a function
is a collection of action that aims to achieve one or more goals. For example, a vegetable peeler has
one function, which is to remove a skin of a vegetable. The peeler is composed of parts (such as the
blade and handle) that will aid you to perform its function. A C function is also composed of such
components and they are the lines of codes within it.
Also, take note that in order to make your coding life easier, you will need to include some prebuilt
headers or functions from your compiler.
To give you an idea on what C code looks like, check the sample below:

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
printf( "Hello World!\n" );
getchar();
return 0;
}

As you can see in the first line, the code used the #include directive to include the stdio.h in the
program. In this case, the stdio.h will provide you with access to functions such as printf and getchar.

Main Declaration
After that, the second line contains int main(). This line tells the compiler that there exist a function
named main. The int in the line indicates that the function main will return an integer or number.

Curly Braces
The next line contains a curly brace. In C programming, curly braces indicate the start and end of a
code block or a function. A code block is a series of codes joined together in a series. When a
function is called by the program, all the line of codes inside it will be executed.

Printf()
The printf function, which follows the opening curly brace is the first line of code in your main
function or code block. Like the function main, the printf also have a code block within it, which is
already created and included since you included <stdio.h> in your program. The function of printf is
to print text into your programs display window.
Beside printf is the value or text that you want to print. It should be enclosed in parentheses to abide
standard practice. The value that the code want to print is Hello World!. To make sure that printf to
recognize that you want to print a string and display the text properly, it should be enclosed inside
double quotation marks.
By the way, in programming, a single character is called a character while a sequence of characters is
called a string.

Escape Sequence
You might have noticed that the sentence is followed by a \n. In C, \n means new line. Since your
program will have problems if you put a new line or press enter on the value of the printf, it is best to
use its text equivalent or the escape sequence of the new line.

By the way, the most common escape sequences used in C are:

\t = tab
\f = new page
\r = carriage return
\b = backspace
\v = vertical tab

Semicolons
After the last parenthesis, a semicolon follows. And if you look closer, almost every line of code
ends with it. The reasoning behind that is that the semicolon acts as an indicator that it is the end of
the line of code or command. Without it, the compiler will think that the following lines are included
in the printf function. And if that happens, you will get a syntax error.

Getchar()
Next is the getchar() function. Its purpose is to receive user input from the keyboard. Many
programmers use it as a method on pausing a program and letting the program wait for the user to
interact with it before it executes the next line of code. To make the program move through after the
getchar() function, the user must press the enter key.
In the example, if you compile or run it without getchar(), the program will open the display or the
console, display the text, and then immediately close. Without the break provided by the getchar()
function, the computer will execute those commands instantaneously. And the program will open and
close so fast that you will not be able to even see the Hello World text in the display.

Return Statement
The last line of code in the function is return 0. The return statement is essential in function blocks.
When the program reaches this part, the return statement will tell the program its value. Returning the
0 value will make the program interpret that the function or code block that was executed
successfully.
And at the last line of the example is the closing curly brace. It signifies that the program has reached
the end of the function.
It was not that not hard, was it? With that example alone, you can create simple programs that can
display text. Play around with it a bit and familiarize yourself with Cs basic syntax.

Chapter 2: Basic Input Output

After experimenting with what you learned in the previous chapter, you might have realized that it
was not enough. It was boring. And just displaying what you typed in your program is a bit useless.
This time, this chapter will teach you how to create a program that can interact with the user. Check
this code example:

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int number_container;
printf( "Enter any number you want! " );
scanf( %d, &number_container );
printf( "The number you entered is %d, number_container );
getchar();
return 0;
}

Variables
You might have noticed the int number_container part in the first line of the code block. int
number_container is an example of variable declaration. To declare a variable in C, you must
indicate the variable type first, and then the name of the variable name.
In the example, int was indicated as the variable or data type, which means the variable is an integer.
There are other variable types in C such as float for floating-point numbers, char for characters, etc.
Alternatively, the name number_container was indicated as the variables name or identifier.
Variables are used to hold values throughout the program and code blocks. The programmer can let
them assign a value to it and retrieve its value when it is needed.

For example:

int number_container;
number_container = 3;
printf ( The variables value is %d, number_container );

In that example, the first line declared that the program should create an integer variable named
number_container. The second line assigned a value to the variable. And the third line makes the
program print the text together with the value of the variable. When executed, the program will
display:

The variables value is 3

You might have noticed the %d on the printf line on the example. The %d part indicates that the next
value that will be printed will be an integer. Also, the quotation on the printf ended after %d. Why is
that?
In order to print the value of a variable, it must be indicated with the double quotes. If you place
double quotes on the variables name, the compiler will treat it as a literal string. If you do this:

int number_container;
number_container = 3;
printf ( The variables value is number_container );

The program will display:

The variables value is number_container

By the way, you can also use %i as a replacement for %d.

Assigning a value to a variable is simple. Just like in the previous example, just indicate the name of
variable, follow it with an equal sign, and declare its value.
When creating variables, you must make sure that each variable will have unique names. Also, the
variables should never have the same name as functions. In addition, you can declare multiple
variables in one line by using commas. Below is an example:

int first_variable, second_variable, third_variable;

Those three variables will be int type variables. And again, never forget to place a semicolon after
your declaration.
When assigning a value or retrieving the value of a variable, make sure that you declare its existence
first. If not, the compiler will return an error since it will try to access something that does not exist
yet.

Scanf()
In the first example in this chapter, you might have noticed the scanf function. The scanf function is
also included in the <stdio.h>. Its purpose is to retrieve text user input from the user.
After the program displays the Enter any number you want text, it will proceed in retrieving a
number from the user. The cursor will be appear after the text since the new line escape character
was no included in the printf.
The cursor will just blink and wait for the user to enter any characters or numbers. To let the program
get the number the user typed and let it proceed to the next line of code, he must press the Enter key.
Once he does that, the program will display the text The number you entered is and the value of the
number the user inputted a while ago.
To make the scanf function work, you must indicate the data type it needs to receive and the location
of the variable where the value that scanf will get will be stored. In the example:

scanf( %d, &number_container );

The first part %d indicates that the scanf function must retrieve an integer. On the other hand, the
next part indicates the location of the variable. You must have noticed the ampersand placed in front
of the variables name. The ampersand retrieves the location of the variable and tells it to the
function.
Unlike the typical variable value assignment, scanf needs the location of the variable instead of its
name alone. Due to that, without the ampersand, the function will not work.

Math or Arithmetic Operators

Aside from simply giving number variables with values by typing a number, you can assign values by
using math operators. In C, you can add, subtract, multiply, and divide numbers and assign the result
to variables directly. For example:

int sum;
sum = 1 + 2;

If you print the value of sum, it will return a 3, which is the result of the addition of 1 and 2. By the
way, the + sign is for addition, - for subtraction, * for multiplication, and / for division.
With the things you have learned as of now, you can create a simple calculator program. Below is an
example code:

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int first_addend, second_addend, sum;
printf( "Enter the first addend! " );
scanf( %d, &first_addend );
printf( "\nEnter the second addend! " );
scanf( %d, &second_addend );
sum = first_addend + second_addend;
printf( "The sum of the two numbers is %d, sum );
getchar();
return 0;
}

Chapter 3: Conditional Statements

The calculator program seems nice, is it not? However, the previous example limits you on creating
programs that only uses one operation, which is a bit disappointing. Well, in this chapter, you can
improve that program with the help of if or conditional statements. And of course, learning this will
improve your overall programming skills. This is the part where you will be able to make your
program think.
If statements can allow you to create branches in your code blocks. Using them allows you to let the
program think and perform specific functions or actions depending on certain variables and situations.
Below is an example:

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int some_number;
printf( Welcome to Guess the Magic Number program. \n );
printf( Guess the magic number to win. \n );
printf( "Type the magic number and press Enter: " );
scanf( %d, &some_number );
if ( some_number == 3 ) {
printf( "You guessed the right number! " );
}
getchar();
return 0;
}

In the example, the if statement checked if the value of the variable some_number is equal to number
3. In case the user entered the number 3 on the program, the comparison between the variable
some_number and three will return TRUE since the value of some_number 3 is true. Since the value
that the if statement received was TRUE, then it will process the code block below it. And the result
will be:

You guessed the right number!

If the user input a number other than three, the comparison will return a FALSE value. If that happens,
the program will skip the code block in the if statement and proceed to the next line of code after the
if statements code block.
By the way, remember that you need to use the curly braces to enclosed the functions that you want to
happen in case your if statement returns TRUE. Also, when inserting if statement, you do not need to
place a semicolon after the if statement or its code blocks closing curly brace. However, you will
still need to place semicolons on the functions inside the code blocks of your if statements.

TRUE and FALSE

The if statement will always return TRUE if the condition is satisfied. For example, the condition in
the if statement is 10 > 2. Since 10 is greater than 2, then it is true. On the other hand, the if statement
will always return FALSE if the condition is not satisfied. For example, the condition in the if
statement is 5 < 5. Since 5 is not less than 5, then the statement will return a FALSE.

Note that if statements only return two results: TRUE and FALSE. In computer programming, the
number equivalent to TRUE is any nonzero number. In some cases, it is only the number 1. On the
other hand, the number equivalent of FALSE is zero.

Operators
Also, if statements use comparison, Boolean, or relational and logical operators. Some of those
operators are:
== equal to
!= not equal to
> greater than
< less than
>= greater than or equal to
<= less than or equal to

Quick Tips Other Operators in C Language

This programming language makes use of several operators to define the value of different variables.
You have already encountered some of these operators earlier. The C language operators include
arithmetic operators, assignment operators, increment operators, decrement operators, relational
operators, conditional operators, logical operators, bitwise operators, and bitwise operators.
Arithmetic operators include the following:
Division: "/"
Multiplication: "*"
Subtraction: "-" (can also be used as unary minus)
Addition: "+" (can also be used as unary plus)
Increment vs. Decrement Operators
"++" is the operator for increment while "" is the operator for decrements. They make one unit
increments or decrements to the value of an object. Note that increment and decrement operators can
be placed before or after a variable. When these operators prefix a variable they will increment the
value of the variable first and then return the new value. However, if they postfix a variable then the
value of the variable will be returned first and then only will this operator increment or decrement the
original value.
Assignment Operators
The equal sign is the assignment operator in C language. It assigns a value to the variable. Note that
the variable should be on the left side of the operator and the value should be on the right. For
example: "a = 25"
Logical Operators
These operators combine expressions. There are three logical operators used in C. They are "&&"
(logical and), "||" (logical or), and "!" (logical not).
Bitwise Operators
C language also involves bit level programming. It will not be covered in this book but at least you
know what operators are involved or used. The bitwise operators in C language are the following:
Shift right: >>
Shift left: <<
Bitwise complement: ~
Bitwise exclusive OR: ^
Bitwise OR: |
Bitwise AND: &

Else Statement
There will be times that you would want your program to do something else in case your if statement
return FALSE. And that is what the else statement is for. Check the example below:

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int some_number;
printf( Welcome to Guess the Magic Number program. \n );
printf( Guess the magic number to win. \n );
printf( "Type the magic number and press Enter: " );
scanf( %d, &some_number );
if ( some_number == 3 ) {
printf( "You guessed the right number! " );
}
else {
printf( "Sorry. That is the wrong number" );
}
getchar();
return 0;
}

If ever the if statement returns FALSE, the program will skip next to the else statement immediately.
And since the if statement returns FALSE, it will immediately process the code block inside the else
statement.
For example, if the number the user inputted on the program is 2, the if statement will return a FALSE.
Due to that, the else statement will be processed, and the program will display:

Sorry. That is the wrong number

On the other hand, if the if statement returns TRUE, it will process the if statements code block, but it

will bypass all the succeeding else statements below it.

Else If
If you want more conditional checks on your program, you will need to take advantage of else if. Else
if is a combination of the if and else statement. It will act like an else statement, but instead of letting
the program execute the code block below it, it will perform another check as if it was an if
statement. Below is an example:

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int some_number;
printf( Welcome to Guess the Magic Number program. \n );
printf( Guess the magic number to win. \n );
printf( "Type the magic number and press Enter: " );
scanf( %d, &some_number );
if ( some_number == 3 ) {
printf( "You guessed the right number! " );
}
else if ( some_number > 3 ){
printf( "Your guess is too high!" );
}
else {
printf( "Your guess is too low!" );
}
getchar();
return 0;
}

In case the if statement returns FALSE, the program will evaluate the else if statement. If it returns
TRUE, it will execute its code block and ignore the following else statements. However, if it is
FALSE, it will proceed on the last else statement, and execute its code block. And just like before, if
the first if statement returns true, it will disregard the following else and else if statements.

In the example, if the user inputs 3, he will get the You guessed the right number message. If the user
inputs 4 or higher, he will get the Your guess is too high message. And if he inputs any other number,
he will get a Your guess is too low message since any number aside from 3 and 4 or higher is
automatically lower than 3.

With the knowledge you have now, you can upgrade the example calculator program to handle
different operations. Look at the example and study it:

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int first_number, second_number, result, operation;
printf( "Enter the first number: " );
scanf( %d, &first_number );
printf( "\nEnter the second number: " );
scanf( %d, &second_number );
printf ( What operation would you like to use? \n );
printf ( Enter 1 for addition. \n );
printf ( Enter 2 for subtraction. \n );
printf ( Enter 3 for multiplication. \n );
printf ( Enter 4 for division. \n );
scanf( %d, &operation );
if ( operation == 1 ) {
result = first_number + second_number;
printf( "The sum is %d, result );
}
else if ( operation == 2 ){
result = first_number - second_number;
printf( "The difference is %d, result );
}
else if ( operation == 3 ){

result = first_number * second_number;

printf( "The product is %d, result );
}
else if ( operation == 4 ){
result = first_number / second_number;
printf( "The quotient is %d, result );
}
else {
printf( "You have entered an invalid choice." );
}
getchar();
return 0;
}

Chapter 4: Looping in C
The calculators code is getting better, right? As of now, it is possible that you are thinking about the
programs that you could create with the usage of the conditional statements.
However, as you might have noticed in the calculator program, it seems kind of painstaking to use.
You get to only choose one operation every time you run the program. When the calculation ends, the
program closes. And that can be very annoying and unproductive.
To solve that, you must create loops in the program. Loops are designed to let the program execute
some of the functions inside its code blocks. It effectively eliminates the need to write some same line
of codes. It saves the time of the programmer and it makes the program run more efficiently.
There are four different ways in creating a loop in C. In this chapter, two of the only used and
simplest loop method will be discussed. To grasp the concept of looping faster, check the example
below:

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int some_number;
int guess_result;
guess_result = 0;

printf( Welcome to Guess the Magic Number program. \n );

printf( Guess the magic number to win. \n );
printf( You have unlimited chances to guess the number. \n );

while ( guess_result == 0 ) {

printf( "Guess the magic number: " );

scanf( %d, &some_number );
if ( some_number == 3 ) {

printf( "You guessed the right number! \n" );

guess_result = 1;
}
else if ( some_number > 3 ){
printf( "Your guess is too high! \n" );
guess_result = 0;
}
else {
printf( "Your guess is too low! \n" );
guess_result = 0;
}
}
printf( "Thank you for playing. Press Enter to exit this program." );
getchar();
return 0;
}

While Loop
In this example, the while loop function was used. The while loop allows the program to execute the
code block inside it as long as the condition is met or the argument in it returns TRUE. It is one of the
simplest loop function in C. In the example, the condition that the while loop requires is that the
guess_result variable should be equal to 0.
As you can see, in order to make sure that the while loop will start, the value of the guess_result
variable was set to 0.
If you have not noticed it yet, you can actually nest code blocks within code blocks. In this case, the
code block of the if and else statements were inside the code block of the while statement.
Anyway, every time the code reaches the end of the while statement and the guess_result variable is
set to 0, it will repeat itself. And to make sure that the program or user experience getting stuck into
an infinite loop, a safety measure was included.
In the example, the only way to escape the loop is to guess the magic number. If the if statement within
the while code block was satisfied, its code block will run. In that code block, a line of code sets the
variable guess_results value to 1. This effectively prevent the while loop from running once more
since the guess_results value is not 0 anymore, which makes the statement return a FALSE.
Once that happens, the code block of the while loop and the code blocks inside it will be ignored. It
will skip to the last printf line, which will display the end program message Thank you for playing.
Press Enter to exit this program.

For Loop
The for loop is one of the most handy looping function in C. And its main use is to perform repetitive
commands on a set number of times. Below is an example of its use:

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int some_number;
int x;
int y;

printf( Welcome to Guess the Magic Number program. \n );

printf( Guess the magic number to win. \n );
printf( You have only three chance of guessing. \n );
printf( If you do not get the correct answer after guessing three times. \n );
printf( This program will be terminated. \n );

for (x = 0; x < 3; x++) {

y = 3 x;
printf( The number of guesses that you have left is: %d, y );
printf( "\nGuess the magic number: " );
scanf( %d, &some_number );
if ( some_number == 3 ) {
printf( "You guessed the right number! \n" );
x = 4;
}
else if ( some_number > 3 ){
printf( "Your guess is too high! \n " );
}
else {

printf( "Your guess is too low! \n " );

}
}
printf( Press the Enter button to close this program. \n );
getchar();
getchar();
return 0;
}

The for statements argument section or part requires three things. First, the initial value of the
variable that will be used. In this case, the example declared that x = 0. Second, the condition. In the
example, the for loop will run until x has a value lower than 3. Third, the variable update line. Every
time the for loop loops, the variable update will be executed. In this case, the variable update that
will be triggered is x++.

Increment and Decrement Operators

By the way, x++ is a variable assignment line. The x is the variable and the ++ is an increment
operator. The function of an increment operator is to add 1 to the variable where it was placed. In this
case, every time the program reads x++, the program will add 1 to the variable x. If x has a value of
10, the increment operator will change variable xs value to 11.
On the other hand, you can also use the decrement operator instead of the increment operator. The
decrement operator is done by place -- next to a variable. Unlike the increment operator, the
decrement subtracts 1 to its operand.
Just like the while loop, the for loop will run as long as its condition returns TRUE. However, the for
loop has a built in safety measure and variable declaration. You do not need to declare the value
needed for its condition outside the statement. And the safety measure to prevent infinite loop is the
variable update. However, it does not mean that it will be automatically immune to infinite loops.
Poor programming can lead to it. For example:

for (x = 1; x > 1; x++) {

/* Insert Code Block Here */
}

In this example, the for loop will enter into an infinite loop unless a proper means of escape from the

loop is coded inside its code block.

The structure of the for loop example is almost the same with while loop. The only difference is that
the program is set to loop for only three times. In this case, it only allows the user to guess three times
or until the value of variable x does not reach 3 or higher.
Every time the user guesses wrong, the value of x is incremented, which puts the loop closer in
ending. However, in case the user guesses right, the code block of the if statement assigns a value
higher than 3 to variable x in order to escape the loop and end the program.
The Do While Loop
This kind of loop is similar to the earlier-explained while loop but with a few more differences. Take
a look at this example.
#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
int counter, howmuch;
scanf("%d", &howmuch);
counter = 0;
do
{
counter++;
printf("%d\n", counter);
}
while ( counter < howmuch);
return 0;
}
If you would take a look at the while loop, you will notice that there is only a while statement that
provides two sets of outcomes, one that forces the program to refer back to another block of code and
another that brings about the termination of the program. With the do while loop, you are adding
another check at the end of a condition to keep the program from terminating. If you would
incorporate a do while loop into the example of the while loop, it would look like this.
#include <stdio.h>
int main()

{
int some_number;
int guess_result;
int counter;
guess_result = 0;
printf( Welcome to Guess the Magic Number program. \n );
printf( Guess the magic number to win. \n );
printf( You have unlimited chances to guess the number. \n );
do
{
counter++;
printf(%d\n", counter);
}
while (counter < guess_result) {
printf( "Guess the magic number: " );
scanf( %d, &some_number );
if ( some_number == 3 ) {
printf( "You guessed the right number! \n" );
guess_result = 1;
}
else if ( some_number > 3 ){
printf( "Your guess is too high! \n" );
guess_result = 0;
}
else {
printf( "Your guess is too low! \n" );
guess_result = 0;
}
}
printf( "Thank you for playing. Press Enter to exit this program." );
getchar();
return 0;

}
The main difference here is that instead of just having the cycle loop until one guesses the number, the
user now has a limited number of chances to guess the magic number because of the do while
statement.
The Break and Continue
Another looping method you can use in C is known as the break and continue. Take a look at the
following example.
#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
int i;
i = 0;
while ( i < 20 )
{
i++;
if ( i == 10)
break;
}
return 0;
}

This represents the basic syntax of a break. You will notice that it is inside a loop in itself. In most
cases, the break and continue method is mostly considered as a way to break out of loops instead of
creating them.
The main premise of the loop shows that the program will continue to operate as long as the value of i
is lower than twenty. Based on the way that the program has been designed, that might take a while. In
order to break from the loop and give a sense of termination to the program, another if condition will
be used.
if ( i == 10)
break;

This snippet of code will terminate the program because it adds another condition that stops the
operation of the code.

Chapter 5: Pointers, Arrays

Now that youre getting closer to fully understanding how C programming works, its time that you get
acquainted with the more complicated elements that give C language the dynamic range it provides
many programmers.
Pointers
In the realm of C language, pointers are considered as valuable pathways to memory banks of data
and other variables that programmers need to access several times within the code. In other cases,
pointers can direct the machine to repeatedly access a certain set of data and use them again and again
without having to write down the individual elements within the code. Think of them as shortcuts to
already-stored memory within your code.
Instead of using functions in order to work, pointers are used with two symbols: the asterisk (*) and
the ampersand (&).
Take a look at the following example:
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int* pc;
int c;
c=22;
printf("Address of c:%d\n",&c);
printf("Value of c:%d\n\n",c);
pc=&c;
printf("Address of pointer pc:%d\n",pc);
printf("Content of pointer pc:%d\n\n",*pc);
c=11;
printf("Address of pointer pc:%d\n",pc);
printf("Content of pointer pc:%d\n\n",*pc);
*pc=2;
printf("Address of c:%d\n",&c);
printf("Value of c:%d\n\n",c);
return 0;

}
You will notice that the function int under the line of code containing main is immediately followed
by an asterisk. By doing so, you have designated the variable pc as a pointer.
Running this program will show you sets of information pertaining to the addresses and the values for
both the variables pc and c. In the middle of each set, new statements are made to show what kind of
relationship lies in between the two variables.
Address of c: 2686784
Value of c: 22
Address of pointer pc: 2686784
Content of pointer pc: 22
Address of pointer pc: 2686784
Content of pointer pc: 11
Address of c: 2686784
Value of c: 2
This is what the earlier source code will generate. Take note that the address of both c and pc do not
change. This is because memory addresses used in code do not necessarily have to change, only the
content of the memory address changes.
If youll notice in the earlier sections of the code, the value of the variable c was declared to be 22.
That is why the first set of displayed lines of the program will show the address of the variable c and
the actual content which is 22.
printf("Address of c:%d\n",&c);
printf("Value of c:%d\n\n",c);
Take note that in order to show the memory address of the variable c, you would have to precede it
with the ampersand, right after the %d and quotation marks. Since the variable c was not listed as a
pointer, the machine had no other choice but to show the direct memory address of the variable.

pc=&c;
printf("Address of pointer pc:%d\n",pc);
printf("Content of pointer pc:%d\n\n",*pc);
On the other hand, by declaring pc as a pointer by adding an asterisk, you can use it to refer to another
value. In the example above, after declaring pc as a pointer, the value of pc was set as &c in the
line pc=&c. By doing so, referring to *pc in any other line of code would access the memory address
of the variable pc. Since the content of the memory address was a referenced as &c, then the value of
c would show, which was 22.
Another thing to note is that in order to get the address of pc, you didnt have to use ampersand. This
is because youve already designated the variable pc as a pointer by using an asterisk whereas the
variable c was not declared as a pointer.
*pc=2;
printf("Address of c:%d\n",&c);
printf("Value of c:%d\n\n",c);
This particular line of code changes the content of the memory address. Here you see that the variable
pointer pc now has a specific value assigned to it. Since the value of pc was just set to &c and
*pc was set to 2, the machine will still use the same memory address for the variable c but will
find another value instead of 22. This is because the value of the pointer pc was changed. That would
also change the value of c, which was what *pc was originally pointing to.
Arrays
Think of Arrays as an extension of pointers. With pointers, you are only using one variable as a
memory address. This limits the amount of things you can reference in your code. With arrays, you
have larger sets of data to play around with. That will come extremely handy when dealing with large
and complex programs.
Arrays are divided into two main categories: one-dimensional and multi-dimensional arrays.
Fortunately, you can declare the presence of an array in your code the same way that you declare
variables, with a slight addition:
int sample_array[array_size]

This line of code will introduce the set of data you plan to use for your code. You will start with the
int function and then name your array. Follow that with square brackets that enclose how many pieces
of data your set contains.
After you name your array, you will have to list the elements that are inside this array. It can be done
like this:
int sample[5] = {1000.0, 2.0, 3.4, 7.0, 50.0};
Start with a curly brace and then enumerate each element of your array. Separate each entry with a
comma and end with another brace. Each element in that array will be assigned with a specific
position. This will give each element a unique identifier that you can access within your code.
One way to make use of arrays in your programs is by having the user dictate the content of your
array. Take a look at this example:
#include <stdio.h>
int main(){
int marks[10],i,n,sum=0;
printf("Enter number of samples: ");
scanf("%d",&n);
for(i=0;i<n;++i){
printf("Enter value of sample%d: ",i+1);
scanf("%d",&marks[i]);
sum+=marks[i];
}
printf("Sum= %d",sum);
return 0;
}
Running this source code will prompt the user to first indicate the number of samples theyre working
with. After determining the number of samples, the user is asked to assign a value to each sample.
Once the user has assigned a value to all of the slots in the array, the program automatically adds all
of the values together and presents the sum.

You will notice that the name of the array is marks. This identifies the array as it is to be used
within the rest of the code. It is followed by the maximum number of allowable entries it can handle.
Despite asking the user to determine the size of their array, it is important to declare the limit so that
the code does not return any errors.
for(i=0;i<n;++i){
printf("Enter value of sample%d: ",i+1);
scanf("%d",&marks[i]);
In this bit of code from the example, you will notice the for loop method being used to avoid an
infinite number of entries requested from the user. The block of code under this loop is the portion
that asks the user to input the values of the array that they want to use.
Multi-dimensional Arrays
The earlier example of an array was linear. Imagine having the machine lay out all the data youve set
in front of you in a straight line. That is why its called linear.
On the other hand, multi-dimensional arrays set your data across more than one dimension and creates
a sort of table of data to present when the source code is compiled. Take a look at this example.
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int x;
int y;
int array[8][8];
for ( x = 0; x < 8; x++ ) {
for ( y = 0; y < 8; y++ )
array[x][y] = x * y;
}
printf( "Array Indices:\n" );
for ( x = 0; x < 8;x++ ) {
for ( y = 0; y < 8; y++ )
{

printf( "[%d][%d]=%d", x, y, array[x][y] );

}
printf( "\n" );
}
getchar();
}
Notice that the declaration of the array has two sizes indicated. Both of the sizes have the same value
set at 8. Each size represents the extension of that array in a particular direction, beginning
horizontally and then vertically. This will generate a square composed of data entries from the array.
for ( x = 0; x < 8; x++ ) {
for ( y = 0; y < 8; y++ )
array[x][y] = x * y;
This block of code from the example shows a loop that works like a multiplication table. The
machine multiplies the x and y variables until they reach a certain limit. This is also another
application of the increment and decrement operatives from earlier.

Chapter 6: P Strings, Structures, Unions and Typedef

Now that you have a considerable amount of exposure to the coding programs using integers, its time
to include characters into the mix.
Similar to arrays , strings operate the same way, its just that they work with characters. This
especially becomes useful when you need to have your user enter specific input into your program.
Take a look at this example.
#include <stdio.h>
int main(){
char name[30],ch;
int i=0;
printf("Enter name: ");
while(ch!='\n')
{
ch=getchar();
name[i]=ch;
i++;
}
name[i]='\0';
printf("Name: %s",name);
return 0;
}
When this code is run, it will ask the user to enter a name. This could be any name as long as the
amount of characters within that name does not go beyond the 30-character limit. The declaration for
the string is indicated as such:
char name[30]
You will notice that this is similar to the format of an array. Instead of using the usual int function, we
use the char function which is also provided by the <stdio.h> derivative at the beginning of the code.
Youve also set a variable i to help count the number of characters. The increment operative

indicated further below the code will limit the input and the while(ch!='\n') portion will immediately
grasp the user input as soon as they press the enter key. When this happens, the program will display
the input on a separate line, minus some of the characters that have come after the user hit the space
bar.
An interesting feature of strings is the name[i]=\0 appearance near the end of the source code. This
indicates a null set \o which is considered part of the string. This feature acts as a terminator for the
set, meaning that there is nothing left that follows.
Concatenate Strings
The program above simply displays the content of the string that the user provides. This is a very
simple yet somewhat meaningless thing to do. One way to add variation to this feature is by
concatenating two strings. This is known as the process of combining two strings into one sequence.
Take a look at the following example.
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
char s1[100], s2[100], i, j;
printf("Enter first string: ");
scanf("%s",s1);
printf("Enter second string: ");
scanf("%s",s2);
for(i=0; s1[i]!='\0'; ++i);
for(j=0; s2[j]!='\0'; ++j, ++i)
{
s1[i]=s2[j];
}
s1[i]='\0';
printf("After concatenation: %s",s1);
return 0;
}
This program will ask the user to enter characters for two different sets. Once the user enters input for

both sets, the machine puts them together in one sequence. You will notice that two strings have been
put together in a single display line, as if completing a sentence. The machine will take the string
input from both sources and lay them out in a linear fashion, similar to adding the two statements
together.
Structures
Much of the content youve covered so far deals with sets of data an input of the same kind. Pointers
and arrays are meant for integer-only groups while strings are for character-only sets of input.
Structures, on the other hand, are used to contain data from different types of input for easier access
within the code. A good application of such a function can be found when filling up a profile of a
particular person. By using a structure, you can combine their age, address, name and other variables
into one collective element to represent that person. Take a look at this example:
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
struct Books
{
char title[50];
char author[50];
char subject[100];
int book_id;
};
int main( )
{
struct Books Book1;
struct Books Book2;
strcpy( Book1.title, "C Programming");
strcpy( Book1.author, "Nuha Ali");
strcpy( Book1.subject, "C Programming Tutorial");

Book1.book_id = 6495407;
strcpy( Book2.title, "Telecom Billing");
strcpy( Book2.author, "Zara Ali");
strcpy( Book2.subject, "Telecom Billing Tutorial");
Book2.book_id = 6495700;
printf( "Book 1 title : %s\n", Book1.title);
printf( "Book 1 author : %s\n", Book1.author);
printf( "Book 1 subject : %s\n", Book1.subject);
printf( "Book 1 book_id : %d\n", Book1.book_id);
printf( "Book 2 title : %s\n", Book2.title);
printf( "Book 2 author : %s\n", Book2.author);
printf( "Book 2 subject : %s\n", Book2.subject);
printf( "Book 2 book_id : %d\n", Book2.book_id);
return 0;
}
The example above creates two separate structures, namely, Book1 and Book2. Youve also probably
noticed a new directive included in the beginning of the code.
#include <string.h>
This line includes the <string.h> library into your code which will allow you to use the function
strcpy which is a shorter version of string copy. Using this function tells the machine the obtain the
data from a particular element within your structure when you need to reference it after your
declaration.
You will also notice that referencing the string data from an entry requires a different syntax, namely
%s instead of the %d used for integers. As seen in this snippet of code below.
printf( "Book 1 title : %s\n", Book1.title);

printf( "Book 1 author : %s\n", Book1.author);

printf( "Book 1 subject : %s\n", Book1.subject);
printf( "Book 1 book_id : %d\n", Book1.book_id);
This chunk of code is responsible for this display when the code is run.
Book 1 title : C Programming
Book 1 author : Nuha Ali
Book 1 subject : C Programming Tutorial
Book 1 book_id : 6495407
Look at how the last display line contains both strings and integers in one line. This shows how
structures enable users to mix in different types of data groups into one classification without having
to create several different variables in multiple declarations. It saves programmers a lot of time when
it comes to programming.
Unions
Apart from structures, unions are another way to group different data types into one memory address.
Take a look at the following example.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
union Data
{
int i;
float f;
char str[20];
};
int main( )
{
union Data data;

data.i = 10;
printf( "data.i : %d\n", data.i);
data.f = 220.5;
printf( "data.f : %f\n", data.f);
strcpy( data.str, "C Programming");
printf( "data.str : %s\n", data.str);
return 0;
}
This set of code will generate the following lines of display
data.i : 10
data.f : 220.500000
data.str : C Programming
You would notice that unions are constructed the same way as structures. The main difference
between the two is that structures have different memory addresses for each of the members inside of
it. Unions, on the other hand, only hold one memory address that contains all of the members. In order
to use the individual items within the union, you would need a separate declaration of which member
you want to access such as this.
data.i = 10;
printf( "data.i : %d\n", data.i);
Typedef
You would notice in the examples that weve had so far that the variables we use belong to a specific
type of data input. It could be an integer or a character. Later on within this book you will also
encounter other data types that you can use within your codes.
Despite being limited to the kinds of data types you can use, you can actually dictate a new type of
data and assign it to a variable. This is known as a typedef. To understand how it works in detail,
take a look at the following example.

#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
typedef struct Books
{
char title[50];
char author[50];
char subject[100];
int book_id;
} Book;
int main( )
{
Book book;
strcpy( book.title, "C Programming");
strcpy( book.author, "Nuha Ali");
strcpy( book.subject, "C Programming Tutorial");
book.book_id = 6495407;
printf( "Book title : %s\n", book.title);
printf( "Book author : %s\n", book.author);
printf( "Book subject : %s\n", book.subject);
printf( "Book book_id : %d\n", book.book_id);
return 0;
}
You will notice that the typedef function in the earlier sections of the code introduced a new type of
data known as Books. The Books variable was assigned as a structure that contained different
members. By assigning the variable Books via typedef, you can now reference the various members
of the structure by using the variable Books as shown here:

strcpy( book.title, "C Programming");

strcpy( book.author, "Nuha Ali");
strcpy( book.subject, "C Programming Tutorial");
book.book_id = 6495407;
You will notice that you no longer have to use the term struct to reference your structure. Instead, you
simply use Books since you used tyedef to assign Books to represent the structure. By executing the
code above, you will get the following display.
Book
Book
Book
Book

title : C Programming
author : Nuha Ali
subject : C Programming Tutorial
book_id : 6495407

Typedef provides another way through which you can assign your variable if in case youre already
using many types of data input. It also prevents you from getting confused when you are typing in long
codes for larger programs.

Chapter 7: The other Header Files

So far, the programs and codes you have been dealing with contained the standard header #include at
the beginning of the code. This statement allows us to use the <stdio.h> library to use functions such
as printf and scanf. In the earlier chapter, you encountered a new inclusion which was <string.h>
which gave you access to the strctcpy function. The files <stdio.h> and <string.h> are known as
header files and they are declared at the beginning of you code to delineate the functions and
variables that you can use within your program.
As you might have noticed, there is a vast number of header files available for use. On top of that,
different compilers have their own set of header files that a programmer can use. Some header files
do not work on some compilers. A good example would be the header file <graphic.h>. This header
file contains shapes and figures that can be used to form pictures instead of text for a program.
Unfortunately, this header file does not work with some compilers such as Code::Blocks as it was
developed for Turbo C. When you attempt larger and more elaborate programs, youll find more
header files with functions that will suit your needs. For a meantime, we only need to understand a
few more of the basic header files in order to add more dimensions to your program.
<string.h>
Just as the file name implies, this header file allows you to take action on your strings. Another
inclusion in this header are the structure-specific functions such as strcpy. You will remember that the
strcpy function takes the original content of one of the strings in a structure so that you could use it
with a printf function. There are other functions within the <string.h> header that you can use with
strings. Take a look at this example.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
int main()
{
char a[100], b[100];

printf("Enter the first string\n");

gets(a);
printf("Enter the second string\n");
gets(b);
if( strcmp(a,b) == 0 )
printf("Entered strings are equal.\n");
else
printf("Entered strings are not equal.\n");
return 0;
}
If you run this code, it will prompt the user to provide two strings. If the user places a space in
between any of the characters, then the rest is not recorded. Once the user enters the two strings, the
program will tell you if both strings are equal or not.
strcmp
This is the function that does the comparison. Naturally, it has been named strcmp. It takes the value
of both of the strings and returns a value depending on the outcome. In the example above, the strcmp
function was designed to return the value of 0 if the value of the strings are equal. The if statement is
then followed by the printf function declaring that the strings were equal. The else statement was
created to display the opposite if in the case that strcmp did not return zero.
You will also notice the inclusion of a new function in this code, the get function. In C language, the
get function works the same way as the scanf function. It provides programmers with an easier
alternative for obtaining input from the user. This function is also part of the <stdio.h> header file and
can be used interchangeable with the scanf function.
strcat
The <string.h> function also has a shortcut function for lining two separate strings together into one

line of display. You will remember that this process is called concatenating strings. You can also do
this with the strcat function. Take a look at the example.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
int main()
{
char a[100], b[100];
printf("Enter the first string\n");
gets(a);
printf("Enter the second string\n");
gets(b);
strcat(a,b);
printf("String obtained on concatenation is %s\n",a);
return 0;
}
The beginning of the code shows that two strings are being identified, each with a limit of 100
characters. Each of these declarations are followed by a gets function to obtain input from the user.
Following the gets functions was the strcat function. Take note that the value placed within the
function combines the aptly-named strings a and b.
Instead of using more lines of code within the earlier example of concatenating strings with pointers,
you can simply use the strcat function to line them up.
There are programmers who choose to combine their lines using pointers instead of the strcat
function. This is because they already have a mastery of pointers and are well-aware of their
applications within C. You will also find other functions that can be substituted with the use of
pointers as you learn more about programming. You can use either pointers and functions to do what
you need because your compiler recognizes both methods.

strlen
Another function that comes with the <string.h> header is the ability to compute for the length of a
string. This can be done with the strlen function. Observe the following example.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
int main ()
{
char str[50];
int len;
printf("enter text to be measured here \n");
gets(str);
len = strlen(str);
printf("Length of |%s| is |%d|\n", str, len);
return(0);
}
This code will ask the user to enter a string of characters to be measured. Take note that we are now
using the gets function to obtain input from the user to make it easier.
After declaring the string and the integer representation for the length of the string, using the strlen
gets the length of the input and stores that data. Using the printf function allows you to draw that value
and display it in a separate line of code. When the user is done entering the string on the program, it
will return with the amount of characters within the string.
One thing to take note of, though, is that strings will always have one extra character to terminate their
lengths. This is known as the null set. When setting limits on your strings, be sure to account for then
null set at the end of your string by adding 1 to your total number. The example above can only
accommodate 49 characters in total on account of the null set taking then 50th slot.
<time.h>
Another interesting header file available in C is the <time.h> file. Naturally, this gives you access to

different functions that manipulate the time settings on your computer and few more interesting time
frames from other points. Take a look at this example.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <time.h>
int main ()
{
time_t sec;
sec = time ();
printf ("Number of hours since January 1, 1970 is %ld \n", sec/3600);
return 0;
}
When this code is run, it will only display a single line of text saying the number of hours since
January January 1, 1970 based on your computers clock.
You might be wondering what the significance of January 1, 1970 is in relation to C programming.
You will be surprised to know that the first UNIX computer system became operable on that same
date. This is known as the Big Bang for computers. The time mentioned in the example is called
UNIX time.
Take note that you would first have to declare the variable sec with the time_t function. This function
introduces a variable that will pull out data from the time register within the machine. Simply using
int in this case will no longer work if you want to display the time and date from a specific point.
time_t sec;
sec = time ();
The null set next to time in the above snippet of code retrieves the time that has passed since the Big
Bang for computers.
Ctime
Instead of using UNIX time as a reference point, you can also use the standard point in time right now

using the time function. Observe the following example.

#include <time.h>
#include <stdio.h>
int main(void)
{
time_t mytime;
mytime = time();
printf(ctime(&mytime));
return 0;
}
This code will produce a single display line that shows the current local time for your area based
your machine. Notice that the ctime function was not declared immediately in this example as this is
already a known function within the compiler.
The time_t function relays the time into a variable. When you give the variable a value such as time(),
that will prompt the system to display the current date and time within this format: www mmm dd
hh:mm:ss yyyy. This means it will show first the day of the week, followed by the month, the date, the
hour, minutes, seconds and the current year. Most programmers use this function to display the time
wherein their codes were created for credit purposes.
<math.h>
Despite having created a simple calculator program in the earlier chapters, your calculator would
need a lot more functions to become more useful. Although incorporating all the four basic operations
was tricky enough to do, there is another header file that can give you access to more complicated
procedures in math which is the <math.h>. Follow the example below.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>

int main()
{
int n, result;
printf("Enter an integer to calculate it's absolute value\n");
scanf("%d", &n);
result = abs(n);
printf("Absolute value of %d = %d\n", n, result);
return 0;
}
abs
This set of code, when executed, will ask the user to input an integer, regardless if it is positive or
negative. Once the user hits the enter key, the program will return the absolute value of the user input.
This is what the abs function is for, which is short for absolute. Be careful to notice that in order to
use the abs function, you would need to include the <math.h> header file at the beginning along with
the <stdio.h> file in order to get all the functions that you need.
Of course, finding the absolute value of an integer is easy enough done alone without the help of a
program. The math.h header file also has more complex operations at hand. Take a look at the
following example.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>
int main()
{
double c, d, result;
printf("Enter c and d to calculate c^d\n");
scanf("%lf%lf", &c, &d);

result = pow(c, d);

printf("%.2lf raised to %.2lf = %.2lf\n", c, d, result);
return 0;
}
pow
The above code will generate a computation for two variables that you combine. The variable c will
be the base of the equation and the variable d is considered the exponent or power to which youll be
raising the base. The pow function can be found as a value for the variable result.
You will also notice some changes within your code, namely, the absence of the int variables and the
presence of a new type which is double.
By the way, there are different ways through which you can introduce your variables into your code.
The function int is the most widely used but it is limited because it cannot store decimal places. It can
only store whole numbers.
On the other hand, there are floating data types that you can use to contain values that have decimal
places. The double function you see in the code is an example of a floating data-type. Take note that
all the variables can be expressed in decimals because they were all included within the double
classification. If you had used an int function, the program would have returned an error to you.
To use the pow function, be sure to delineate which two of your variables you plan to use in a
specific order. Start with your base followed by the exponent. That is how the machine will read your
command. After the user provides the values of c and d for the program, it will return with the result
which is c multiplied to itself d times.
sqrt
Although this may sound a bit funny, the sqrt function allows you to extract the sqare root of a given

value. Take a look at the following example.

#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>
int main()
{
double n, result;
printf("Enter a number to calculate it's square root\n");
scanf("%lf", &n);
result = sqrt(n);
printf("Square root of %.2lf = %.2lf\n", n, result);
return 0;
}
Notice that youre once again using floating data types in the form of double variables. Remember that
square roots are often expressed in long decimal points instead of whole numbers.
Another thing to notice is that you dont necessarily have to find the symbol of the square root in order
to use the sqrt function. All you have to do is to declare on which floating variable you want to use
the function.
log
You can attempt even more complicated processes by using the log function. Naturally, this function
extracts the natural logarithm of a number, using the base e. For the beginner, the natural logarithm for
any number is the results of raising the base e to the number itself. The base e is a mathematical
constant set at 2.718281
This program below shows a sample program that extracts the natural logarithm of a number.

#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>
int main()
{
double n, result;
printf("Enter a number to calculate it's natural log (base is e)\n");
scanf("%lf", &n);
result = log(n);
printf("Natural log of %.2lf = %lf\n", n, result);
return 0;
}
Again, notice the inclusion of the <math.h> header file. This will give you access to the log and pow
functions.

Chapter 8: Command Line Arguments, Recursion and Binary

Files
With the experience and practice that youve had from programming with C, youve mostly dealt with
the nitty-gritty of the code and less with the other lines of code found on the top. This chapter will
help you get acquainted with some of the symbols on top that you might have been wondering about.
Command Line Arguments
You have learned from this book that your programs should start with a main() line before you start
declaring your variables and functions. This is standard practice that most beginners just pass off as a
simple rule. But the main() function can also have values and parameters placed within the
parentheses. These are known as arguments.
When you place arguments within your main() declaration, you will end up with a command line
through which the user can modify the program from the outside instead of going back into the nittygritty of the code. These are command line arguments. Take a look at this example.
#include <stdio.h>
int main( int argc, char *argv[] )
{
printf("Program name %s\n", argv[0]);
if( argc == 2 )
{
printf("The argument supplied is %s\n", argv[1]);
}
else if( argc > 2 )
{
printf("Too many arguments supplied.\n");
}
else
{
printf("One argument expected.\n");

}
}
By running this code, the console will display a result depending on how many arguments you have in
your command line. The machine will most likely turn up with one argument expected because your
whole program is simply a calculation of the arguments in the code. Now let us add a more specific
action within the code. Take a look at this one.
#include <stdio.h>
int main ( int argc, char *argv[] )
{
if ( argc != 2 )
{
printf( "usage: %s filename", argv[0] );
}
else
{
FILE *file = fopen( argv[1], "r" );
if ( file == 0 )
{
printf( "Could not open file\n" );
}
else
{
int x;
while ( ( x = fgetc( file ) ) != EOF )
{
printf( "%c", x );
}
fclose( file );
}
}

This code prompts your computer to access a certain file. Given that there is no such file on your
computer, the program will return a message saying could not open file. On the other hand, if your
machine did have the file, the program would open each character in the file and display it on the
screen until the end of the file itself.
In order to incorporate command line arguments into your code, you would need to introduce some
parameters into the main() declaration, namely:
main ( int argc, char *argv[] )
In this line of code, the int argc portion refers to the number of arguments you place within the
program and the char *argv[] represents a pointer that leads to an array arguments to which to
compare the argc parameter. It may seem a little difficult to understand at first but it serves a very
important purpose.
As mentioned earlier, command line arguments allow your programs to tell you if there is something
wrong after you have them executed. Instead of going into the code to hard-wire everything, the
program will tell you what is wrong via the console. This in turn, will make it easier for you to locate
the bug and fix your problem.
Recursion
Another interesting feature of C programming is having functions perform functions within
themselves, or rather, declaring functions within functions. This is known as recursion. In order to get
a clear idea on how this works, take a look at the following example.
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
int fibonaci(int i)
{
if(i == 0)
{
return 0;

}
if(i == 1)
{
return 1;
}
return fibonaci(i-1) + fibonaci(i-2);
}
int main()
{
int i;
for (i = 0; i < 10; i++)
{
printf("%d\t%n", fibonaci(i));
}
return 0;
}
Take note that the variable has been named Fibonaci, does this sound familiar? Also known as one of
the more interesting facets of mathematics, a Fibonacci sequence is linear representation of numbers
that follow a unique pattern. This pattern is simply the result of the two preceding numbers. The
example above is a program that will initiate a Fibonacci sequence when run.
The program will display the numbers 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8 in order. This is the most basic Fibonacci
sequence starting with the number 1.
return fibonaci(i-1) + fibonaci(i-2);
This statement above shows the recursive function in the program. It adds two values while adding
two more values within each addend. Most programming schools use the Fibonacci sequence to
illustrate recursive functions.
But the most practical aspect of recursive functions lie within a more complicated and helpful feature
allowed on C, Binary Trees.
Binary Trees
Besides checking your work and setting parameters to your code, more complicated C programs make
use of something known as binary trees.
From the term itself, binary trees are structured forms of information that stem from an original parent.
This is called a parent node. From the parent node, two smaller child nodes branch out into the left

and right. Each node is aptly named the left child node and the right child node.
Before diving into the code part of Binary trees, it is important to understand how they are
represented. Imagine having the one parent element or key value known as X.
X
Your binary tree shall start out as such. With that image in mind, try extending the tree by making
branch out into the left and right sides, each side with another value different than X.

X
/\
(x>c)

(x<c)

With that image in mind, youll notice that the new branches have different values in relation to X.
The left node c, contains a value that is greater than X while the right node c contains a value that is
larger than X. This is how a binary tree operates within the C language. Each parent node contains
something that is known as a key_value that is supposed to be declared. From the parent key_value,
the left and right branches contain values that are respectively lower and higher than the original
key_value of X.
Using trees in C programming allows users to create a simple yet efficient model through which they
can insert elements, find elements and even delete their elements. Take a look at this example.
#include<stdlib.h>
#include<stdio.h>

struct tree_el {
int val;
struct tree_el * right, * left;
};
typedef struct tree_el node;
void insert(node ** tree, node * item) {
if(!(*tree)) {
*tree = item;
return;
}

if(item->val<(*tree)->val)
insert(&(*tree)->left, item);
else if(item->val>(*tree)->val)
insert(&(*tree)->right, item);
}

void printout(node * tree) {

if(tree->left) printout(tree->left);
printf("%d\n",tree->val);
if(tree->right) printout(tree->right);
}

void main() {
node * curr, * root;
int i;
root = NULL;
for(i=1;i<=10;i++) {
curr = (node *)malloc(sizeof(node));
curr->left = curr->right = NULL;
curr->val = rand();
insert(&root, curr);
}
printout(root);
}
This code, when run, will display a list of numbers on several lines. This represents the structure of
the binary tree. The numbers on the lines represent amounts of information stored in each child node.
Take note that there was a new header file used which was <stdlib.h> This header file allows us to
use certain functions that instruct the machine to place data in the form of a binary tree that has two
child nodes branching out from the parent node.
Knowledge on Binary trees is going to play an important role in helping you prepapre for more
aggressive and complicated programs through the C programming language. Remember that

this book only covers the basics which will serve as a foundation to help you master the
language and move on to more complicated programming methods.

Chapter 9: File Handling Creating and Opening Files

Creating files that can be saved on a storage device (such as a hard drive, a USB pen drive, or some
other external storage) will greatly enhance your programming skills. It increases the usefulness of
any software system that you create. A lot of computer programs make use of files for a lot of
different reasons. Files can serve as records of the processes that have been performed by a program
you wrote.
The C programming language allows you to create a file, open any file that exists on storage, read the
data stored in those files, write any necessary data into said files that have been opened, and close a
file after all processes have been performed. This programming language allows your programs to
handle both binary files (i.e. system oriented data) as well as text files (i.e. stream oriented data).

System Oriented vs. Stream Oriented Data Files

Text data files are usually called stream oriented data while binary files are also called system
oriented data. Sometimes you get to wonder how these two terms differ. The following are quick and
easy definitions:
Stream oriented data in C language refers to any form of data that is stored just the way you see it on a
console (i.e. your computer screen). When you use this type of data file everything else takes place
automatically. This means that data conversions, buffering, as well as input and output operations
become automatic.
System oriented data on the other hand doesnt work that way. Files or data that is system oriented are
the ones that an operating system usually works on. Well, theyre called binary files simply because
youre dealing with strings of ones and zeroes. This type of data is usually stored first in a computers
memory. This type of data doesnt have to be translated into text for it to be stored on your hard drive
or external storage.

File Creation and Manipulation Process in C Language

There are five steps in order to create, access, and make changes to files that are kept in storage. They
are the following:
1. Use a pointer variable to declare a file.
2. Open the created or a file that is already on disk. The fopen library function is used just
for that.
3. Use any suitable function in order to manipulate and process the data stored in a file (or
files). You will need to use read and write functions in this step.
4. Close the file. To close a file, use the fclose() function.

Functions in C That You Can Use for File Handling

The following are the functions that you can use in order to handle a file. Note that a lot of these are
input and output functions. There is no need to use any other header since these functions are all
available in the standard input/output library (i.e. stdio).
fopen This is used to open a file.
feof This function is for the end of file marker.
fputs This one is used to write a character string.
fgets This one reads a character string.
fscanf This is the function used for any formatted input coming from a file.
fprintf This one is for writing or saving any formatted output to a file.
putw This one is used to write an integer to a file.
getw This is the function youll use to read integers.
putc This one is used to write a character instead of a string.
getc This one is used to read a character instead of a string.
fclose This one is the opposite of the fopen function it closes a specified file.

The fopen Function in C

It is obvious that you cannot read data from or write data to a file that doesnt exist. In C language and
other programming languages out there, you also need to open a file that already exists in storage first
before you can make use of any data stored in it. In order to perform both functions, you will need to
use the fopen function.
The syntax for this function is as follows:
file *fopen( const char * filename, const char * mode );
That is the the standard syntax youll find in many documentations and program code in C language.
The following are the parameters used in the above mentioned syntax:
filename This part of the syntax will be a literal string argument. You will be specifying
a specific directory where the file is located, so to speak. Consider the following sample:
fp=fopen("c:\\sample.txt", "r");
Note that you need to use double backslashes (i.e. \\) to identify a directory. In the example
above, youre referring to the root directory of a drive c: which is where the sample.txt file
is located. Dont worry too much about the double backslashes; thats just the way C language
handles quoted strings. It basically helps compilers distinguish this code with the \ key.

mode This is the argument that will define the type of access mode.
This function uses a pointer data structure (please review the discussion of pointers mentioned in this
book if needed). It points to a file that needs to be opened or a file that will be created. Given the
syntax of the fopen function, you can see that it gives a value to the pointer which points to a file. This
pointer allows the program to keep track of the file being used. Think of it as a type of memory
address that identifies the existence of a file. Once the file is opened, the FILE pointer will allow the
compiler to perform various functions. The program can then perform both read and write functions
on the file that was opened.
Access Modes
As you can see from the code above, there is a second argument in the syntax of the fopen function.
That second argument refers to the access mode that fopen() will use. The syntax will only accept six
possible entries, which are the following:
a+

w+

r+
a

w
r

This access mode opens a file that already exists in the drive path expressed in the first argument. If
that file does not exist then this function will create the file using the name provided in the filename
argument. This also means that reading any data will begin at the start of the file but any data to be
added can only be appended at the end.
This mode also creates a file if it does not yet exist in the drive path provided in the initial argument. It
also opens any existing file both for reading and writing data. If the file already exists in the drive, any
data contained in it will be erased when you use this switch.
This switch will open a file that is already on the drive for reading and writing.
This access mode also creates a file if it does not exist in the indicated drive path. However, this
switch will only open a file for appending, which means any new data will only be added at the end of
the file.
This access mode only opens a file for writing. If the file does not exist in the drive, then a new file
will be created.
This access mode only opens an existing text file.

Errors and Possible Return Values

As you write your codes in C language, you may sometimes enter the wrong switches or strings in
either the mode or filename arguments. One common error is using a value for the access mode
that does not create a file. Another possible error is when a user specifies a file name and your
program tries to open it and doesnt find in on the drive. Other errors can be caused by a write
protected file and other possible conditions. If the file does not exist, an error occurs, or the process
returns a failure then the fopen() function returns a NULL. However, if the function is a success, then
it result in a file stream pointer.
Heres a sample code using fopen().

#include<stdio.h>

int main()
{
FILE *fp;
fp = fopen("c:\\thisisatest.txt","w");
return 0;
}

This example will create a file in the root directory of drive c: with a file name of thisisatest.txt.
Since the code includes a w for the access mode then a new file will be created in case it doesnt
yet exist in the drive. The file that is opened or created will then be ready for writing new data.

Chapter 10: File Reading and Writing Data

You have seen how a new file is created in C language. Along with the sample codes provided and
the syntax of the fopen() function, you have also learned how to open files for reading, writing, and
appending. In this chapter well look into the other file access functions included in the standard
input/output library.

Closing a File
All files that have been opened needs to be closed. Remember that fopen() opens a memory stream
and that needs to be released since it is a resource that should also be usable by other programs if it is
no longer needed by the one you created. To release any memory stream opened by the fopen function,
you should include an fclose function at the end of your code after all file processes have been
completed.
The fclose Function
The fclose() function has the following declaration:
int fclose( FILE * stream );
If the fclose() function fails then it result in an EOF. If it is successful then it gives a 0 value.
Here is a sample code that uses the fclose function.
#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
FILE *fp;
fp = fopen("c:\\thisisatest.txt","w");
fclose(fp);
return 0;
}

The getc() Function

Another file handling function that was mentioned earlier was getc. This function reads one character

from an already opened file. Note that the file should have been opened for reading. Note the
following syntax:
int getc( file *stream );
If the function is successful then it returns the next object that is requested. It can also return an EOF,
when all the characters in the stream have been accessed. It can also return an error in case it is
unable to get a character or if something goes wrong during the process.
The following is a sample code that uses the getc() function:
#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
FILE *fp = fopen("samplefile.txt", "r");
int samk1 = getc(fp);
while (samk1 != EOF)
{
putchar(samk1);
ch = getc(fp);
}
if (feof(fp))
printf("\n this is the end of the file.");
else
printf("\n encountered error while accessing file.");
fclose(fp);
getchar();
return 0;
}

The putc() Function in C

You can say that the putc function is the opposite of the getc function. If getc reads a character from
the specified stream then putc adds a character to the stream in the open file. This function has the
following syntax:
int putc( int char, file *stream );
As you can see, this function has two arguments. The first one is for char, which is the character
that will be written to the file. Note that this will be passed to the file in its int promotion.
The other argument in this syntax is stream. It is a pointer you should have guessed that correctly
by now by simply looking at the syntax of the code. It identifies the stream where the character in the
first argument (i.e. char) should be written.
If the function results in an error then it returns an EOF. However, most of the time, it returns an
unsigned character. Note that the character it will also be cast as an int.
The following is a sample code that demonstrates the use of the putc() function:

#include <stdio.h>
int main ()
{
FILE *fp;
int xy;
fp = fopen("sample.txt", "w");
for( xy = 33 ; ch <= 100; xy++ )
{
putc(xy, fp);
}
fclose(fp);
return(0);
}

The getw Function vs. putw Function

You can also write codes that will read and write integer data into files. The getw and the putw are
two file handling functions in C that will perform the said operations. Writing integer data to file will
require the putw function and reading integer data will require the getw function.

The getw function has the following syntax:

int getw( file * );
This function, obviously, returns an integer value. It has a single argument, which is file, which
actually indicates the location of the file that will be read by your program. The following is a sample
code that illustrates how the getw function is used:
void main()
{
FILE *fp;
int x;
fp = fopen("sampleintfile.txt","r");
x = getw(fp);
printf("%d",x);
fclose(fp);
}
In this sample code, the integer value of the file sampleintfile.txt will be accessed. It will then be
stored in an int variable called x. The value of x will be printed. There will be cases when the value
of x will return a character when you use printf(). The character of course is the ASCII value of the
int. So, dont be surprised if the output on your screen using the above code returns a letter or some
other character. Check out its ASCII equivalent, thats what the code is actually showing you.
Moving on to the putw function; it has the following syntax:
int putw(integer, file*);
Unlike the getw function, putw has two arguments. The integer argument indicates the integer that
will be written on the file. The second argument, file*, will indicate the location of the file where the
new data should be added.
As you can see from the declaration above, this function will return an integer. The following is a
sample code that illustrates how the putw function is used:
void main()
{

FILE *fp;
fp=fopen("sampleintfile1.txt","w");
putw(66,fp);
fclose(fp);
}
Of course, you wont see what actually happens since this code does not provide any output to the
screen. What you can do to verify if your code was a success is to open sampleintfile1.txt and see if
the value 66 was added. Another way to see if the code was a success is to add a printf to the code
above so that the value of fp can be displayed on screen.

The fprintf Function

As stated in an earlier section of this book, fprintf returns a formatted output. The formatted output is
actually sent to a stream data contained in the file. The syntax or declaration of the fprintf function is
as follows:
int fprintf ( file *stream, const char *format, ...)
This function has two arguments and parameters. The first parameter in the syntax above is stream; it
is a pointer data structure. It identifies the file object. The other parameter in the syntax above is
format. Simply put, it is the text or the string that should be written to the indicated in the first
parameter, i.e. stream.
This parameter may have embedded tags. As you can see in the syntax, the fprintf function actually
waits for additional arguments, which can actually make the format of the stream more complex. The
tags have the following basic structure:
%[flags][width][.precision][length]specifier
As you can see, this parameter has the following tags: flags, width, precision, and length. Let us begin
with the first tag. The following are the flags that may be used in this parameter:
0
#
<space>
+
-

Pads the number with zeroes. The zero padding is to the left. The amount of zero pads will be
specified by the sub-specifier called width (i.e. the tag that follows flags)
This forces the output to contain a decimal point. Note that if there will be no decimal added if
no digits follow. This flag is used with the following specifiers: o,x, 0x, X, 0X, g, G, e, and E.
Inserts a blank space before the specified value if there will be no sign written.
Forces a + or to precede the functions result. Note that the result is presumed positive and
it will only show a negative sign when the actual output is a negative number.
Changes the default right justification of the output to left justification.

The following are the widths (i.e. the second tag) that may be used in this parameter:

*
<number>

Use this to that the width is not indicated. It acts as an extra integer value that precedes
the actual argument that should be formatted.
Specifies the minimum amount of numbers that should be written. In case the number that
should be written is shorter than the number indicated in this tag, then the number to be
written will be padded with blank spaces. Note that the number will not be truncated even
the actual number to be written is larger than the number specified here.

The following are the values that can be used in the .precision tag:
.*
.number

This indicates that the precision is not specified. This acts as an extra int value argument
that precedes the actual argument that needs formatting.
This is used for the following integer specifiers: X, x, u, o, i, and d. This specifies what the
minimum number of digits that should appear. If the actual value is larger than this
precision tag, it will not be truncated. If it is shorter then it will be padded with leading
zeroes. If a 0 is specified for the precision tag then no number is written. Note that all the
numbers will be printed until the null character is reached.
A default precision of 1 is assumed when there is no precision value specified. A value of 0
is assumed if only a period . is indicated.
Note that the precision can also be used with G and g specifiers, which indicates the
maximum number of significant digits that should be written. It may also be used with the
specifiers f, E, and e, which will indicate the number of decimal places. Finally, when used
with an s specifier, this precision will indicate the total possible amount of digits that will be
written.

The next tag in this parameter is length. This tag may contain the following values:
L
l
h

This tag indicates a long double. This also means that it only applies to floating point
numbers.
This tag indicates an unsigned or long int. It works with all integer specifiers. It can also
work as a specifier for wide characters, such as the case for the s and c specifiers.
Indicates an unsigned short int or short int. This means it works in tandem with integer
specifiers.

Note that additional arguments can be made, as stated earlier. Each of the extra arguments must
contain a value that should be included in the place of a tag. The rule is that there should be the same
number of arguments as there are tags that are actually expecting a value to be returned.
If this function is successful, supply the characters that were written on the file. If it fails then a
negative number will be returned by this function.
The following is a sample code that demonstrates the fprintf function:

#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>

int main()
{
FILE * fp;
fp = fopen ("sample.txt", "w+");
fprintf(fp, "%s %s %s %d", "This", "is", "the year", 5022);
fclose(fp);
return(0);
}

The fscanf Function

The fscanf() function is the opposite of the fprintf function. Simply put, it reads any formatted data
from a file. Notice that the syntax for both functions is very much alike:
int fscanf(FILE *stream, const char *format, ...)
This function also has the same parameters. The format parameter is a string. This string contains
format specifiers, non-whitespace characters, and white space characters. The format argument also
has tags. The stream parameter above refers to a pointer that defines a file object. This file object is
also used to identify the stream.
The following are the arguments used in the fscanf function:
type
modifiers

width
*

This is a character that will specify the data type that should be read from the file. It also
determines which way the data should be read. There are seven type specifiers.
This argument indicates a different size. It is used in conjunction with long doubles, doubles,
unsigned long int, long int, unsigned short int, short int, float, unsigned int, and int data
structures.
This argument simply specifies the total amount of characters that will be allowed in each
time the program reads from a file.
This is an optional argument. When used, it signifies that data can be read from the stream;
however, the data should be ignored, which means its value will not be stored in argument
that corresponds to it.

The following are the type specifiers in the fscanf function:

X, x
u
s

This specifies a hexadecimal integer. Type of argument is int*

Specifies an unsigned integer (unsigned int*)
This specifies a character string. It will make the function keep on reading until white space
is encountered. This is a char* type of argument. White space includes tabs, new lines, and

o
G, g, f, E, e
d
c

blanks.
This specifies an octal integer. It is an int* type of argument.
This is for numbers containing decimals. These numbers may be preceded by + or - signs.
This is a float* type of argument.
Denotes a decimal integer. It may or may not have a preceding + or - sign. It is an int* type
of argument.
Denotes a single character to be read from file. Usually reads the next following character in
the opened file. It may read width characters as well.

Just like the fprintf function, this one can also have additional arguments (see the syntax and observe
the at the end). The additional arguments may be included in lieu of any of the tags mentioned
above. However, there should be the same number of extra arguments and tags as specified in the
syntax of this function.
The following is a sample code that shows how the fscanf function is used:
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>

int main()
{
char s1[10], s2[10], s3[10];
int yr;
FILE * fp;
fp = fopen ("sample.txt", "w+");
fputs("This is the year 5199", fp);
rewind(fp);
fscanf(fp, "%s %s %s %d", s1, s2, s3, &yr);
printf("This is the first string |%s|\n", s1 );
printf("This is the second string |%s|\n", s2 );
printf("This is the third |%s|\n", s3 );
printf("And this is the last entry |%d|\n", yr );
fclose(fp);
return(0);
}

The fgets Function

The fgets fuction will read a line from a stream that was specified in the declaration. That line of data
will be stored in a string variable and a pointer structure will be pointing to that string. It has the
following syntax:
char *fgets(char *str, int n, FILE *stream)
Note that certain conditions will stop this function from reading from file. It will stop reading when
the final character is reached. It will also stop reading when it gets to the null character. It will also
stop when a new line is reached. Of course, just like all functions that read from a file, when it
reaches the EOF then it will also stop reading.
As you can see from the syntax, this library function has three different parameters. The first one is
*str. Judging by the syntax, this refers to a pointer data structure. It points to an array of characters
where the string that was read from file is stored.
The next parameter in the syntax is n, which is an integer. It represents the total number of character
that should be read. This maximum value will include the null character. The length of the array is
used to determine this value. The last parameter is *stream, which is a pointer that refers to a file
object.
Return Value
If the fgets function gives back a null pointer when it encounters an error. However, when it is
successful it will give an str parameter. The contents of the str pointer will remain as it is in the case
of an EOF or if it encounters zero character contents (i.e. empty file). In such cases a null pointer is
also returned.
The following code is an example of how the fgets function is used:
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
FILE * tstfile;
char tststring [100];
tstfile = fopen ("thisfile.txt" , "r");
if (tstfile == NULL) perror ("Error opening file");
else {
if ( fgets (tststring , 100 , tstfile) != NULL )
puts (tststring);
fclose (tstfile);
}
return 0;

The fputs Function

The fputs() function has the following syntax:
int fputs(const char *str, FILE *stream)
This function will write a string value to *stream. Note that the null character will not be included in
the string that will be written to the file. According to the syntax, this function has two parameters:
*stream and *str. The first one that appears on the declaration, *str, is an array, which contains the
string that will be written. The second one, *stream, is the pointer that points to the file object where
the stored string is to be written.
This function will return a positive value when it is successful. In case of failure or when it
encounters an error, it will instead return an EOF. The following is a sample code that shows how
fputs is used:
#include <stdio.h>
int main ()
{
FILE *fp;
fp = fopen("mysample.txt", "w+");
fputs("This is the first string.", fp);
fputs("This is the second string.", fp);
fclose(fp);
return(0);
}

The feof Function

This library function is used to check for the end of a file. Its only value will be either true or false.
If the EOF is reached then this function will return true, if the EOF has not been reached in a file then
it returns false.
Here is the syntax and declaration of this function:
int feof(FILE *stream)

Here is a sample code that shows how the feof function is used:
while(1)
{
c = fgetc(fp);
if( feof(fp) )
{
break ;
}
printf("%c", c);
}
In the example above, the feof function is used as the conditional for the if-statement. It means that the
program will continue to print the contents of the integer c until the EOF is reached in file fp.

Chapter 11: Graphics Programming Basics in C

One of the best things about the C programming language is that it can also be used to code graphics.
Some programmers have even created games using this language. Although a lot of these things may
sound really complicated, theyre actually not that hard to learn. In fact even if you have no prior
background to graphics and visual arts programming, you can learn how to do that in C.
Of course, if your objective is to learn game programming then learning how to do C graphics
programming will become an important precursor. Since this book is designed to help beginners,
dont expect to be able to make stunning visual displays on your screen with the information
contained in here. We will only go over the very basics. After learning the basics, you can move on to
more advanced graphics programming.
Note that when you start doing graphics programming in C, you will still need to use the standard
library functions. Other than that, you will also make use of the functions that come with the
graphics.h and the conio.h headers/library.

The Functions of the graphics.h Header

The first function that you should learn to use is the initgraph function in C. This is the function that
will change the screen mode so that it will be ready to output graphics drawings. Needless to say, this
is actually the first step that any code will have to take in C. The graphics mode as well as the
graphics driver will be passed to the initgraph function.
A different graphics mode will be used once it is initialized, which includes both VGA mode and
VGAHI mode (changes the resolution of the screen to 640 x 480 pixels).
The following is a sample code that initializes the graphics mode using the initgraph function:
#include<graphics.h>
#include<conio.h>

int main()
{
int samk1 = DETECT, samk2;
initgraph(&samk1, & samk2, "c:\\tc\\bgi");
getch();
closegraph();

return 0;
}

In C programming, you will use the graphics.h header or if youre using Windows 7, then youll be
using WinBGIM. Either way, the functions you will be using will be used to display different fonts,
draw different shapes, and even change the colors on the screen. Using the different functions
available, you can make games, animations, and other graphics programs.
Some functions can be used to create shapes like bars, rectangles, lines, circles, and other
geometrical figures. You can change line colors and fill colors as well.

The Line Function

One of the very first things that new programmers learn in graphics programming is making a line
appear on the screen. This is one of the most basic things that you will be doing. The way this
function works is pretty much the same way you will actually draw a line in real life. It begins to
create a line from one point and moves off in a straight direction to the other point two points make
a line.
The syntax of the line function is as follows:
line(int x1, int y1, int x2, int y2);
According to this syntax, all you need is to supply the values for x1, y1, x2, y2. You can use constants
or variables in each of those arguments. Note that the syntax also specifies that they should all be
integers.
Heres a sample code that shows how the line function is used:

#include <graphics.h>
#include <conio.h>
main()
{
int samk1 = DETECT, samk2;
int x1 = 100, y1 = 100;
int x2 = 100, y2 = 100;
initgraph(&samk1, & samk2, "c:\\tc\\bgi");
line(x1, y1, x2, y2);
closegraph();

return 0;
}

Note that the code above will flash a line on the screen and then disappear. If you want to make the
line to pause on the screen a little longer then add a getch line before the closegraph() function.

The arc Function

Lets move the geometry skills up a notch well, just a little bit. The arc function, as you might have
guessed, draws an arc on the screen. It has the following syntax:
arc(int x, int y, int stangle, int endangle, int radius);
The x and y values in this function denotes the center of the arc. The "stangle" integer specifies the
starting angle of the arc while the "endangle" integer specifies the ending angle of the arc. The last
parameter, "radius," obviously holds the value of the radius of the arc. You can actually use this
function to draw a square. You just have to give the starting angle a value of 0 while the ending angle
should have a value of 360 (try to review a little geometry to help with that).
The following is a sample code that shows how the arc function is used:
#include <graphics.h>
#include <conio.h>

main()
{
int samk1 = DETECT, samk2;
initgraph(&samk1, & samk2, "c:\\tc\\bgi");
arc(98,98, 45, 125, 75);
closegraph();
return 0;
}

The closegraph Function in C

So far, youve seen the glosegraph() function several times now. Well, heres a short explanation
what it is for. This function simply closes the graphics mode that was initialized by the initgraph()
function. This same function also frees up the memory that have been allocated by the graphics
system. It also restores the screen mode to the original mode. The syntax is simple since all you have

to do is to declare the following:

closegraph();
And thats pretty much it. Remember that you should include a closegraph() at the end of your
graphics code. You can check out the previous code above to see how this function is used.
The circle Function in C Language
Since you have already seen how the arc function works, then you ought to know how the circle
function works. You cant always use the arc function to create circles in C programming. This
library function has the following syntax:

circle(int x, int y, int radius);

The x and y integers in this syntax provides the center of the circle. The last parameter in this function
indicates the length of the radius. If you notice, the syntax of this function is kind of reminiscent of the
formula for a circle in geometry.
The following is a sample code to draw a circle in C language:
#include<graphics.h>
#include<conio.h>

main()
{
int mydriver = DETECT, mymode;
initgraph(&mydriver, & mymode, "c:\\tc\\bgi");
circle(50, 50, 100);
closegraph();
return 0;
}

The bar Function in C

This function draws a rectangle on the screen. The bar is two dimensional and it is filled. It has the
following syntax:
bar(int left, int top, int right, int bottom);

As you can see in the syntax or declaration, this function requires both the bottom right corner and the
top left corner of the rectangle. Remember that this rectangle will be filled. The current fill pattern
will be used. Note that you can change the default fill pattern and fill color as well. To do that you
need to use the setfillstyle() function

#include <graphics.h>
#include <conio.h>
main()
{
int mydriver = DETECT, mymode;
initgraph(&mydriver, &mymode, "C:\\TC\\BGI");
bar(50, 50, 120, 120);
closegraph();
return 0;
}

The setfillstyle Function

As stated earlier, this function changes both the fill pattern as well as the fill color used by other
functions. It has the following syntax declaration:
setfillstyle( int pattern, int color);
This function has two parameters. The first one is for the fill pattern while the second one is for the
fill color. The following are the different fill styles that you can use:
USER_FILL
CLOSE_DOT_FILL
WIDE_DOT_FILL
INTERLEAVE_FILL
XHATCH_FILL
HATCH_FILL
LTBKSLASH_FILL
BKSLASH_FILL
SLASH_FILL
LTSLASH_FILL
LINE_FILL
SOLID_FILL
EMPTY_FILL
The following is a sample code that uses the bar function. Note that you can change the values of the

parameter for pattern. Experiment on the different fill patterns to see how each one of them behaves.
#include <graphics.h>
#include <conio.h>
main()
{
int mydriver = DETECT, mymode;
initgraph(&mydriver, &mymode, "c:\\tc\\bgi");
setfillstyle(XHATCH_FILL, red);
bar(50, 50, 120, 120);
closegraph();
return 0;
}

The bar3d Function

The bar3d function has the following syntax:
bar3d(int left, int top, int right, int bottom, int depth, int topflag);
As you can see, its syntax is pretty much the same as the one for the bar function. It has two additional
arguments, though. Depth returns an int value that will specify the bars depth. The last argument,
topflag, is used to determine whether a three dimensional top should be placed on the bar or not. Note
that this function will make use of the current fill pattern and fill color, which can be adjusted as well.
The following code shows how to use the bar3d function:
#include<graphics.h>
#include<conio.h>
main()
{
int samk1 = DETECT, samk2;
initgraph(&samk1, & samk2, "c:\\tc\\bgi");
bar3d(98, 98, 120, 120, 10, 1);
closegraph();
return 0;
}

The ellipse Function

The ellipse function has the following syntax or declaration:
ellipse(int x, int y, int stangle, int endangle, int xradius, int yradius);
This function is used to draw an ellipse at the coordinates x and y, which is the center of the figure.
Just like the arc function, it has a start angle and an end angle. The last two parameters of this function
indicate the horizontal and vertical radius of the ellipse that will be drawn.
The following is a sample code that demonstrates the use of the ellipse function:
#include<graphics.h>
#include<conio.h>
main()
{
int samk1 = DETECT, samk2;
initgraph(&samk1, & samk2, "c:\\tc\\bgi");
ellipse(45, 45, 0, 360, 75, 35);
closegraph();
return 0;
}

The fillellipse Function

An alternative to the ellipse function is the fillellipse function. It has a simpler syntax, though the
parameters sort of look alike. Try both the ellipse and the fillellipse functions to see how each would
display on the screen. The fillellipse function has the following syntax:
fillellipse(int x, int y, int xradius, int yradius);
As usual, the x and y values denote the center of the ellipse and the two remaining parameters denote
the radii of the ellipse. Try the following sample code and change the values to see what happens to
the object on the screen.
#include <graphics.h>
#include <conio.h>
int main()
{
int samk1 = DETECT, samk2;

initgraph(&samk1, & samk2, "c:\\tc\\bgi");

fillellipse(75, 75, 35, 23);

getch();
closegraph();
return 0;
}

The cleardevice Function

The syntax for this library function is as follows:
cleardevice();
This function simply clears your screen of any graphics that are displayed. It also sets the position of
the coordinates at (0,0). The screen is also filled with the background color that is currently being
used.
The following code will show what happens if you use the cleardevice() function:

#include <graphics.h>
#include <conio.h>
main()
{
int samk1 = DETECT, samk2;
initgraph(&samk1, & samk1, "c:\\tc\\bgi");
outtext("To clear screen, press a key");
getch();
cleardevice();
closegraph();
return 0;
}
To make the code more interesting, you can draw any of the objects that we have already covered
(circle, ellipse, bar, etc.) and then use the cleardevice function to clear the screen. Make sure to add a
getch() line before cleardevice(). Now, even though this function acts a lot like the clrscr() function,

you shouldnt use that in graphics mode.

The floodfill Function
There are times when you just need to fill a certain section or figure in the screen. You can do that
using the floodfill function. Just make sure that the area you intend to fill is enclosed or else the colors
will flood and wreak havoc on the screen. This function also uses the current fill color and fill style,
which you can modify using the setfillstyle function. The floodfill function has the following syntax:
floodfill(int x, int y, int border);
The x and y parameters will be used to determine the coordinates on the screen. You can call that as
the target area or the starting area that should be filled. The last parameter, border, is used to specify
the color of the boundary. The following is a sample code that uses the floodfill() function.

#include <graphics.h>
#include <conio.h>
main()
{
int samk1 = DETECT, samk2;
initgraph(&samk1, & samk2, "c:\\tc\\bgi");
setcolor(RED);
circle(75,75,100);
floodfill(75,75,RED);
getch();
closegraph();
return 0;
}
In this sample code, a circle will be drawn first. After that, floodfill will fill the circle with the
current background color. The boundary of the circle will then be colored red. So, you end up with a
circle filled with color with its perimeter colored red. Best practice is to use the same x and y
coordinates of the figure you are intending to fill (well, so you wont miss and mess up the fill
colors).

The getbkcolor Function in C

This library function fetches the current background color in use. It has the following

syntax/declaration:
int getbkcolor();
This function returns an integer for the corresponding background color (e.g. if it returns a value of 2
then the current background color is green).

Note that not all of the graphics functions in C language have been covered here. Only the most basic
ones have been discussed. If you have gained some interest in creating graphics using this
programming language, then you may look for more extensive sources that have been dedicated to this
very subject.

Conclusion
Thank you again for downloading this book!
I hope this book was able to help you to learn the basics of C programming. The next step is to learn
the more complex concepts and projects within C.
Finally, if you enjoyed this book, please take the time to share your thoughts and post a review on
Amazon. We do our best to reach out to readers and provide the best value we can. Your positive
review will help us achieve that. Itd be greatly appreciated!
Thank you and good luck!

Check Out My Other Books

Below youll find some of my other popular books that are popular on
Amazon and Kindle as well. Simply click on the links below to check
them out. Alternatively, you can visit my author page on Amazon to see
other work done by me.
Click here to check out Android Programming in a Day on Amazon.
Click here to check out Python Programming in a Day on Amazon.
Click here to check out C Programming Success in a Day on Amazon.
Click here to check out C Programming Professional Made Easy on
Amazon.
Click here to check out JavaScript Programming Made Easy on Amazon

Click here to check out PHP Programming Professional Made Easy on

Amazon.
Click here to check out C ++ Programming Success in a Day on
Amazon
Click here to check out Windows 8 Tips for Beginners on Amazon.

Click here to check out HTML Professional Programming Made Easy

on Amazon
If the links do not work, for whatever reason, you can simply search for
these titles on the Amazon website to find them.