PHY 314: Introduction To Quantum Mechanics, Varsha 2014

PHY 314: Introduction to Quantum Mechanics, Varsha 2014
Lecture 3
Anil Shaji
School of Physics, IISER TVM
Quantum amplitudes, probabilities and the Born rule. Operators, eigenvalues, eigenvectors, observables and expectation values. Measuring a quantum system
We have learned about Hilbert space, the ket vectors that populate Hilbert space and its dual
space with bra vectors. We have also seen how to identify a set of basis vectors in Hilbert space
and also how to write an arbitrary ket vector in that basis.
A ket |i in an N dimensional Hilbert space can be written down using the N -tuple of its
components relative to some basis as
|i
a1
a2
..
.
aN
In this way of representing kets, the inner product of two vectors, h|i is
h|i = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + . . . + aN bN .
where bi are the components of |i in the same basis.
I.
QUANTUM AMPLITUDES, PROBABILITIES AND THE BORN RULE
What is the meaning of the inner product h|i? A meaning to this number is given by the
Born rule. The Born rule was first proposed by Max Born in 1926 as a footnote in a paper. This
footnote turned out to be one of the central ideas in quantum mechanics and also the source of lot
of debate and discussion on the meaning of quantum mechanics.
One way of stating the Born rule is that the absolute value square of the inner product, |h|i|2
is to be interpreted as the probability of finding a system that is in a state |i in a state |psii. The
inner product, h|i itself is a complex number and it is called the quantum amplitude. Note that
the phase of this complex number does not play a part in determining the probability.
2
Let us look at what Born rule says in the context of the three stage Stern-Gerlach setup we have
already studied. After the atoms pass through the second stage with the magnetic field oriented
along the x-axis, one of the two beams is represented by the state
1
1
|Sx = h
/2i = |Sz = h
/2i + |Sz = h/2i.
2
2
In component notation, this state is
1 1
|Sx = h
/2i = ,
2 1
in the basis furnished by the states |Sz = h/2i.
Born rule says that the probability of finding the atom in the state |Sz = h
/2i is

2

1 2
1
1 1

2

|hSz = h
/2|Sx = h
/2i| = (1 , 0) = = .

2
2
2
1

Similarly the probability of finding the atom in the state |Sz = h/2i is

2

1
1
1

|hSz =
h/2|Sx = h
/2i|2 = (0 , 1) =

2
2
1

So Born rule predicts that if we send an atom in the state |Sx = h/2i through another magnetic
field that is oriented along the z-axis then there is a fifty-fifty chance for the atom ending up in
either one of the two states |Sz =
h/2i.
Born rule allows us to compute observable things from the description that we have of the
quantum system in terms of the state vector.
II.
OPERATORS
Now that we have a description of a quantum system in terms of a state vector we now have
to think of how to update that description when the state changes. Let us imagine a simple
transformation:
1
/2i + |Sz = h/2i)
|Sz = h
/2i |Sx = h
/2i = (|Sz = h
2
1
|Sz =
h/2i |Sx = h/2i = (|Sz = h
/2i |Sz = h/2i)
2
(1)
3
What is the mathematical tool we would have to use to implement this transformation. Let us
think in the component notation. We want the following transformation
1 1

2 1
0
1 1
0

.
2
(2)
The obvious choice for affecting this linear transformation is something from linear algebra, namely,
a matrix:
1 1 1
1 1
1

=
2 1 1
2 1
0
1 1 0
1 1
1

=
2 1 1
2 1
1
(3)
The matrix,
1 1
1

2 1 1
is an operator. It is an operator that rotates the spin of an atom counter-clockwise through an
angle of /2 around the y-axis and thereby exchanging the x and z axes.
Let us denote this rotation operator as Ry (/2) R. We can now concisely write
R|Sz = h
/2i = |Sx = h
/2i
R|Sz = h/2i = |Sx = h/2i
(4)
Realize that if the state of a quantum system does indeed undergo the change that we have
described above, where z and x are exchanged then that typically has observable consequences. In
the case of the atoms in the Stern-Gerlach experiment, we can imagine inserting such a rotation
between two magnetic fields oriented both along the z direction. The upper beam that we expect
to go straight through the second magnetic field will again split into two if we insert this rotation
on the atoms after they pass through the first set of magnets. The splitting of the beams at the
second magnet will be an observable consequence of this rotation. In short the rotation is an
observable
This brings us to an important element in the quantum formalism. Observables are represented
by operators. But all operators are not observables. Only a certain family of them are. We will see
which operators are observables and which are not soon.
4
Let us now list a few properties of operators
1. Operators act from the left on kets and an operator acting on a ket produces another ket
X(|i) = X|i = |i
2. Two operators X and Y are said to be equal if
X|i = Y |i
for any arbitrary ket |i.
3. We can identify a null operator for which
X|i = 0
for all |i.
4. Addition of operators is commutative and associative:
X + Y = Y + X,
X + (Y + Z) = (X + Y ) + Z
5. Operators act linearly

X
X
i
ci |i i =
ci X|i i
6. Operators act from the right on bras and an operator acting on a bra produces another bra
X(h|) = h|X = h|
is not dual to |i. The dual of X|i is h|X . The adjoint X of an operator
7. In general h|
X in matrix notation is the transpose of the complex conjugated matrix.
8. An operator is called Hermitian if it is its own adjoint:
X = X
Our matrix R is of this kind. In fact all observables correspond to Hermitian operators.
5
A.
Eigenvalues and eigenvectors
We said that the state |Sz = h

/2i has its z component of the spin equal to h/2. Let us look for
an operator such that
h
Sz |Sz = h/2i = |Sz = h/2i
2
Going to the matrix notation, it is easy to see that this operator must be
1 0
h
.
2 0 1
In practice, we approach this feature of operators from the opposite direction in the sense that
for any operator A, we can identify ket vectors |i i such that
A|i i = i |i i
. The (complex) numbers i are called the eigenvalues of the operator A and the kets |i i are
called the eigenvectors of A.
Observables (Hermitian operators) have real eigenvalues. The eigenvectors corresponding to
different eigenvalues are orthogonal
hj |i i = i,j
The Kronecker delta function:
i, =
1 i=j
0 i 6= j
We can easily check that Sz is an observable and also that indeed its eigenvalues are real and
equal to h/2. Its eigenvectors are
and
respectively as expected.

PHY 314: Introduction To Quantum Mechanics, Varsha 2014

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PHY 314: Introduction To Quantum Mechanics, Varsha 2014

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PHY 314: Introduction to Quantum Mechanics, Varsha 2014

QUANTUM AMPLITUDES, PROBABILITIES AND THE BORN RULE

5. Operators act linearly

Eigenvalues and eigenvectors

We said that the state |Sz = h

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