Final Experiment

Active Filter and LED Display Design

Aidan Murray

ECE 2110-32: Circuit Theory

GTA: Asha Rani
December 10, 2015

1. Introduction
The purpose of this project was to combine the students knowledge of active filters, operational
amplifiers, and LED systems. Each of these aspects contributed to the final goal of designing and
constructing a functioning filter system that produces sound when musical signals are passed through
2. Background Information
2.1 Filters
Two separate types of active filter were applied through this lab. Active filters are systems that control
output signals based on the frequency of the signal input, and the filter is able to provide an output based
on the average power of the circuit. This allows the filter to provide a gain greater than 1.
One type of filter is the Low-pass filter, which means that lower values of input frequency are able to pass
the filter without interference while high frequency values are limited by the filter. High-pass filters, the
other type used in the lab, act in the opposite way by allowing high frequency values to pass while
controlling low frequency values. The cutoff frequency for each type of filter is based on the values of the
components used to construct the circuit. [1]
!" =

1
! !

Equation 2.1 Cutoff Frequency Equation for Low-Pass Filter; Rf = Feedback Resistor Value, CL = Capacitance

!" =

1
! !

Equation 2.2 Cutoff Frequency Equation for High-Pass Filter; Rf = Feedback Resistor Value, CH = Capacitance

It is possible to connect multiple filters in series (called cascading filters) to create a Band-Pass filter,
which has both a low frequency and high frequency cutoff, allowing a bandwidth of frequency through the
filter.

Figure 2.1 Cascading Filters used to construct a Band-Pass Filter

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Bandwidth is defined as the width of frequencies that will pass through a band-pass filter, and is
calculated by subtracting the lower cutoff frequency from the higher cutoff frequency. This can be
visualized below.

Figure 2.2 Visualization of Bandwidth (B) of a Band-Pass Filter.

2.2 Operational Amplifiers

Operational Amplifiers (Op Amps) are components utilized in the lab to create active filters. As discussed
above, the filter is active because it works with the average power of the signal. The Op Amp enables this
to occur because it has a voltage supply (VCC) that represents both positive and negative values. The Op
Amp is also key to building filters because it enables a manipulation of the output voltage of the system
merely based on the build of the Op Amp involving different components. See Appendix 9.1 for full guide
to Op Amp Setup. The two Op Amps used throughout the Final Lab were the LM741 and the LM386.

Figure 2.3 LM 741 Op Amp Pinout Diagram; V+ and V- are VCC.

Figure 2.4 LM386 Op Amp Pinout Diagram; VS is VCC.

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The LM741 is a general purpose Operational Amplifier, while the LM386 is a power amplifier used for
sound applications.
2.3 LED Display
The LED display is set up as a voltage ladder with a comparator circuit. One input of the comparator is
the signal from the music, and the other is a voltage source, and when the music signal is greater than
the voltage signal, the appropriate LED will turn on. Four comparator circuits were used in parallel with a
voltage ladder to ensure that the LED Bar lit up.

Figure 2.1 Voltage Ladder Setup for LED Bar

PE =

NV MV
NV

*100

Equation 2.3 Percentage Error (PE) Equation, Nominal Value (NV), Measured Value (MV)

!"#
!"

Equation 2.4 Voltage Gain (K) equation

= 20!"

!"#
!"

Equation 2.5 Decibel Cutoff Value Equation in terms of VOUT and VIN

Circuit 2.1 Low Pass Filter Design

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Circuit 2.2 High Pass Filter design

Circuit 2.3 Band Pass Filter for Bass Selection

Circuit 2.4 Band Pass Filter for Treble Selection

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3. Methods and Materials

Equipment

Description

(1) DC Power Supply

Agilent E3631A Triple Output DC Power Supply

(1) Function Generator

Agilent 33522A Function/Arbitrary Waveform Generator

(1) Digital Multimeter

Keithley Model 175 Digital Multimeter (DMM)

(1) Digital Oscilloscope

Agilent DSO1024A Digital Oscilloscope

(1) Breadboard

Prototype Breadboard

(1) BNC T Connector

BNC to Double BNC Splitter

(4) Test Leads

Banana to Alligator Test Leads

(2) Test Leads

BNC to Alligator Leads

(1) BNC Cable

BNC Cable

(1) Headphone Jack

Standard 1/8 Headphone Jack

(1) Auxiliary Cord

Standard 1/8 Stereo Audio Cable

(1) Music Source

Music Source with Standard Audio Output

Table 3.1 Equipment List

Component

Value

Notation

(10) Resistor

Varying*

R1 R10

(8) Capacitor

Varying*

C1 C8

10k

P 1, P 2

--

LED

(4) Basic Op Amp

LM741

LM741

(2) Power Op Amp

LM386

LM386

6 / 18W

--

(2) Potentiometer
(2) LED Bar

(2) Speaker

Table 3.2 Component List

* Values can be found on diagram for Circuit 2.3 & Circuit 2.4
4. Experimental Procedures
4.1 Prelab 11
Students calculated values necessary for each component value in order to achieve the appropriate
output signal from the various filters. Each filter type (Low pass, High pass, and Band Pass) had separate
calculations necessary. The researchers then performed a Multisim Analysis of each filter type to serve
as a comparison for the experimental results.
4.2 Prelab 12
The students repeated the procedure for Prelab 11, but this time considering the values necessary to
output for the treble system of the circuit. Then, the students used Multisim analysis to calculate
necessary values for the LED Bar.

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4.3 Active Low Pass Filter

The researchers constructed Circuit 2.1 based on the calculated values from Prelab 11, then performed
and AC analysis of the circuit by altering the frequency value of the input signal to the filter. Results are
recorded in Table 5.1.1.
4.4 Active High Pass Filter
The researchers constructed Circuit 2.2 based on the values from Prelab 11, then performed and AC
analysis of the circuit by altering the frequency value of the input signal to the filter and measuring the
magnitude of the output. Results are recorded in Table 5.2.1.
4.5 Active Band Pass Filter
Circuits 2.2 and 2.1 were combined to cascade the filters and create the circuit in Figure 2.1. This is the
band pass filter, and the same AC analysis was performed where the input frequency was altered and its
output magnitudes recorded. Results are displayed in Table 5.3.1.
4.6 Active Band Pass Filter with Small Load
A small load resistor was placed on Figure 2.1s circuit, and its values recorded.
4.7 Building and Testing LED Display
Researchers utilized the values calculated in Prelab 12 to construct the LED Bar system such that the
LED lights would oscillate when exposed to a sinusoidal input.
4.8 Full Circuit Assembly
The students combined the elements from each previous part of the Lab, and completed construction of
Circuit 2.3 & Circuit 2.4. AC Analysis results displayed in Figures 5.4.1 & 5.4.2.
5. Measurements and Results
5.1 Active Low Pass Filter

Table 5.1.1 Low Pass filter Output Characteristics with 1k Resistor Load

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Low Pass Filter Characteris>cs

350

Magnitude (mV)

300
250
200

V_in Simulated

150

V_in Measured
V_out Simulated

100

V_out Measured

50
0
0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

Frequency (Hz)
Figure 5.1.1 Visualization of Low Pass Filter Characteristics

Figure 5.1.2 Graphical Representation of Output Magnitude (V) and Phase ()

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Sample Calculations: Resistance Values

Sample Calculation: Percent Error

=

Equation 2.1 Percent Error (PE); Nominal Value (NV); Measured Value (MV)

5.1835 5
= 3.54%
5.1835

5.2 Active High Pass Filter

Table 5.2.1 - High Pass filter Output Characteristics with 1k Resistor Load

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High Pass Filter Characteriza>on

350

Magnitude (mV)

300
250
200

V_in Simulated
V_in Measured

150

V_out Simulated

100

V_out Measured

50
0
0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

Frequency (Hz)
Figure 5.2.1 Visualization of High Pass Filter Characterization

Figure 5.2.2 Graphical Representation of Output Magnitude (V) and Phase ()

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Sample Calculation: Resistance value for High Pass Filter

5.3 Active Band Pass Filter

Table 5.3.1 - Band Pass filter Output Characteristics with 1k Resistor Load

Band Pass Filter Characteriza>on

3.5

Magnitude (V)

3
2.5
2

V_in Simulated

1.5

V_in Measured

V_out Simulated

0.5

V_out Measured

0
0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

Frequency (Hz)
Figure 5.3.1 Visualization of Band Pass Filter Characterization

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Figure 5.3.1 Graphical Representation of Output Magnitude (dB) and Phase ()

Sample Calculations: Bandwidth of Band-Pass Filter

= ! !
= 440 66.5
= 439.9
5.4 Full Circuit
5.4.1

Bass Circuit

Figure 5.4.1 Graphical Representation of Output Magnitude (V) and Phase ()

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5.4.2

Treble Circuit

Figure 5.4.2 Graphical Representation of Output Magnitude (V) and Phase ()

6. Analysis and Discussion

The exploration into amplification and sound was very successful, in that the final circuit was able to
clearly magnify the sound through the separate bass and treble amplifiers. This means that there was
effective circuit construction and development, which includes all initial calculations and any minor tweaks
made to the circuit after its initial construction. These minor tweaks included adding additional high-value
capacitors between the VCC and the ground for each Op Amp. The effect of this change was to reduce
extra sound that was present on the peaks of the sine wave during the AC analysis, which ensured that
when music was played through the circuit there was little to no static.
Moreover, the results displayed through the experiment show that the calculations into resistance values
and overall impedance of parts of the circuit were very accurate, accruing a percent error that was low for
the majority of the analysis. The only exception to this was calculations regarding the cutoff frequency (3dB) for the active high pass filter. The percent error for this measurement came to 39%, which is far
outside the realm where it can be dismissed as a result of the tolerance of the components. This error
likely arose due to the inaccuracy of the function generator, as throughout the experiment it would change
its amplitude values for the output signal between the 300mV VRMS that was needed and 150mV VRMS.
This change would have significant effect because the magnitude alteration directly effects the cutoff level
because as Equation 2.5 displays, the -3dB cutoff value is directly dependent on VIN to the system, which
is the value that was fluctuating. As VIN is in the denominator of the logarithmic function, when this value
drops by 50%, it could cause a fluctuation in the cutoff frequency by up to 50% Error, which is near where
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it was measured. Otherwise, the error throughout the lab stayed around 5% 8%, which is well within
the limitation where it can be attributed to the tolerance of each component.
Another source of error that could significantly contribute to the 39% error described above is the fact that
the researchers were forced to make substitutions on the resistor values because the lab did not have
exact values for the resistors. In most cases, the resistor values were rounded to the nearest 100, which
is very significant when working with 3183 resistor values, but less significant when working with resistor
values that are in excess of 58k.
A final source of potential error could be the additional capacitors used between the VCC and ground for
the LM741 Op amps. The nature of capacitors is that they charge up over time, eventually becoming an
open circuit when fully charged because no current can flow through the capacitor. This should not be of
concern because there was a sinusoidal input signal, but if the magnitude of the sinusoid surpasses the
value of VCC then the capacitors would start charging. If this pattern was constantly occurring, the
Capacitors could theoretically reach a full charge and eventually open the circuit, which would cause
there to be a lack of voltage supply to the active filters.
The Final result of all the simulations only confirms the expectations for the lab, as each circuit
successfully created a band pass frequency of the desired bandwidth. One small inconsideration that
caused slight error in the band-pass frequency set was the fact that the researchers did not consider that
there would be overlap in the frequency sets of the treble and bass filters, so the cutoff frequency used to
calculate the component values for the treble was 5kHz, instead of the 4kHz intended for use in the
circuit. This error proved unimportant because both circuits still amplified the appropriate signals and
provided sound that was clear and in the correct sound register.
Now to address some of the analysis questions:
1. Why was the LM741 incapable of driving a 6 load?
a. The LM741 is incapable of driving the 6 load because its output short circuit current
limit is between 10mA and 40mA, both of which are below the output current when there
is a 6 resistor in the load. Leaving a 6 load as the output for the LM741 resistors could
potentially blow the Op Amp, leaving the circuit inoperable.
2. Why is the LM386 capable of driving the 6 load?
a. The LM386 is a power Op Amp, and therefore is capable of dealing with higher output
currents than 40mA. This means that it is capable of delivering the current to the 6
Speaker used in the experiment

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3. Why did we use the speaker instead of a 6 resistor in Part IV?

a. The speaker is used instead of the 6 resistor because it is able to create an audio
output signal, instead of merely creating some nominal voltage drop across the resistor.
The speaker allowed the researchers to audibly determine if the different frequencies
were passing through the band-pass filter that was connected to the sinusoidal input.
Before the music source was added to the circuit, a basic sine wave was input, with
varying frequencies that would produce sounds with different pitch.
7. Conclusion
Completion of this lab required the researchers to overcome a number of difficulties in both simulation
and construction of the circuit. Due to the nature of the experiment, it required a significant amount of trial
and error, and often times little to no changes were made and there would be a significant change in the
outcome of the trial. This made for very frustrating work when attempting to create not one, but two
separate filters that would both amplify their selected bandwidth ranges. Initially, the researchers were
able to design the separate filters successfully, but upon connecting them to the speakers there was no
output. Upon making additional changes, the separate filters were finally creating an audible signal, but
the filters again failed when connected to the LED Display. All in all, it required constant changing and
monitoring of the results of the experimentation to ensure that the circuit was capable of accomplishing
the final goal of outputting separate signals and displays on the LED Bars. The challenges faced included
finding alternate Resistor values, finding ways to clear up the output signal, and the necessity to re-solder
the speakers because the connection broke a number of times, but these challenges were all effectively
overcome and the lab was completed successfully.
The conclusion that the lab was successfully carried out is justified by the fact that the speaker sound was
very clear upon the completion of the lab, and the LED bar displayed signal levels accordingly. The Errors
encountered early in the lab were overcome to produce a final product that was more than satisfactory.
Weaknesses in design of the experiment were minimal, as each challenge faced was merely due to slight
limitations in the availability of lab equipment. In the future, the researchers should prepare more
effectively for the lab by taking on a greater understanding as to the mechanisms of Op Amps and how
their output is modified, as that would allow the researchers to begin band-pass filter design earlier,
allowing more time to make final tweaks and changes to clear up the sound
8. References
[1]

GWU SEAS ECE Department. " Experiment #11: Final Project Preparation Lab 1 Active Filter
Design." The ECE 2110 Course Website, Summer 2015.
http://www.seas.gwu.edu/~ece11/summer15/labs/labs/ECE_2110_Experiment_11.pdf

[2]

GWU SEAS ECE Department. " Experiment #12: Final Project Preparation Lab 2 Active Filter
and LED Display Design." The ECE 2110 Course Website, Summer 2015.

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http://www.seas.gwu.edu/~ece11/summer15/labs/labs/ECE_2110_Experiment_12.pdf
[3]

GWU SEAS ECE Department. "Experiment #8: Operational Amplifiers and Applications." The
ECE 2110 Course Website, Summer 2015.
http://www.seas.gwu.edu/~ece11/summer15/labs/labs/ECE_2110_Experiment_8.pdf

[4]

Thomas, Roland E., Albert J. Rosa, and Gregory J. Toussaint. The Analysis and Design of Linear
th
Circuits. 7 ed. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2012.

9. Appendices
9.1 Operational Amplifier Setup

Figure 9.1 Op Amp Circuit Summary [3]

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