Advanced SQL

1
Syllabus
F. Y. B. Sc. (Information Technology)
Paper - III, SEM - III
ADVANCED SQL
Unit - I
Structured Query Language :

Writing Basic SQL Select Statements, Restricting and
Sorling Data, Single-Row Functions, Joins (Displaying
Data from Multiple Tables), Aggregating Data using
Group Functions, Subqueries, Manipulating Data,
Creating and Managing Tables, Including Constraints,
Creating Views, Creating other Database Objects
(Sequences, Indexes and Synomyms)
Unit - II
Advanced SQL :
Controlling user Access, using SET operators, Data Time
Functions, Enhancements to Group by clause (cube,
Rollup and Grouping), Advanced Subqueries (Multiple
column subqueries, Subqueries in FROM clause, Scalar
and correlated subqueries), WITH Clause, Hierarchical
retrieval.
Unit - III
PLSQL :
Introduction, Overview and benefits of PL/SQL,
Subprograms, types of PL/SQL blocks, Simple
Anonymous Block, Identifiers, types of identifiers,
Declarative Section, variables, Scalar Data Types, The %
Type attribute, bind variables, sequences in PL/SQL
expressions, Executable statements, PL/SQL block
syntax, comment the code, deployment of SQL functions
in PL/SQL, Convert Data Types, newted blocks,
operators. Interaction with the oracle server, Invoke
SELECT Statements in PL/SQL, SQL cursor concept,
Data Manipulation in the Server using PL/SQL, SQL
Cursor Attributes to obtain Feedback on DML, Save and
discard transactions.
Unit- IV
Control Structures :
Conditional processing using IF statements and CASE
statements, Loop Statement, while loop statement, for
loop statement, the continue statement composite data
types : PL/SQL records, The % ROWTYPE attribute,
insert and update with PL/SQL records, INDEX by tables,
INDEX BY Table Methods, Use INDEX BY Table of
Records, Explicit Cursors, Declare the Cursor, Open the
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Cursor, Fetch data from the Cursor, Close the Cursor,
Cursor FOR loop, The % NOTFOUND and %
ROWCOUNT Attributes, the FOR UPDATE Clause and
WHERE CURRENT Clause, Exception Handling, Handle
Exceptions with PL/SQL, Trap Predefined and nonpredefined Oracle Server Errors, User - Defined
Exceptions,
Propagate
Exceptions,
RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR Procedure.
Unit-V
Stored Procedures :
Create a Modularized and Layered Subprogram Design,
the PL/SQL Execution Environment, differences between
Anonymous Blocks and Subprograms, Create, Call, and
Remove Stored Procedures, Implement Procedures
Parameters and Parameters Modes, View Procedure
Information,
Stored
Functions
and
Debugging
Subprograms, Create, Call, and Remove a Stored
Function, advantages of using Stored Functions, the
steps to create a stored function, Invoke User-Defined
Functions in SQL Statements, Restrictions when calling
Functions, Control side effects when calling Functions,
View Functions Information, debug Functions and
Procedures, Packages, advantages of Packages,
components of a Package, Develop a Package, enable
visibility of a Packages Components, Create the Package
Specification and Body using the SQL CREATE
Statement and SQL Developer, Invoke the Package
Constructs, View the PL/SQL Source Code using the
Data Dictionary, Deploying Packages, Overloading
Subprograms in PL/SQL, Use the STANDARD Package,
Use Forward Declarations, Implement Package Functions
in SQL and Restrictions, Persistent State of Packages,
Persistent State of a Package Cursor, Control side effects
of PL/SQL Subprograms, Invoke PL/SQL Tables of
Records in Packages
Unit-VI
Dynamic SQL :
The Execution Flow of SQL, Declare Cursor Variables,
Dynamically Executing a PL/SQL Block, Configure Native
Dynamic SQL to Compile PL/SQL Code, invoke
DBMS_SQL Package, Implement DBMS_SQL with a
Parameterized DML Statement, Dynamic SQL Functional
Completeness, Triggers, the Triggers, Create DML
Triggers using the CREATE TRIGGER Statement and
SQL Developer, Identify the Trigger Event Types, Body,
and Firing (Timing), Statement Level Triggers and Row
Level Triggers, Create Instead of and Disabled Triggers,
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Manage, Test and Remove Triggers. Creating
Compound, DDL and Event Database Triggers,
Compound Trigger Structure for Tables and Views,
Compound Trigger to Resolve the Mutating Table Error,
Comparison of Database Triggers and Stored
Procedures, Create Triggers on DDL Statements, Create
Database-Event and System-Events Triggers, System
Privileges Required to Manage Triggers
Books:
Murachs Oracle SQL and PLSQL by Joel Murach, Murach and
Associates.
Oracle Database 11g PL/SQL Programming Workbook, ISBN :
9780070702264, By : Michael McLaughlin, John Harper, Tata McGrawHill.
Reference :
Oracle PL/SQL Programming, Fifth Edition By Steven Feuerstein, Bill
Pribyl
Oracle 11g : SQL Reference Oracle press
Oracle 11g : PL/SQL Reference Oracle Press.
Expert Oracle PL/SQL, By : Ron Hardman, Michael McLaughlin, Tata
McGraw-Hill
Oracle database 11g : hands on SQL/PL SQL by Satish Asnani (PHI)
EEE edition
Unit - I
1
BASIC STRUCTURED QUERY
LANGUAGE I
Unit Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 What is RDBMS?
1.2.1 Concepts of Relational Database
1.3 Introduction to SQL
1.4 What can SQL do?
1.5 SQL Language Elements
1.6 Classification of SQL commands
1.6.1 Data Query Language
1.6.2 Data Definition Language
1.6.3 Data Manipulation Language
1.6.4 Data Control Language
1.6.5 Transaction Control Language
1.7 Creating and Managing Tables
1.7.1 How to create a table?
1.8 Applying Constraints
1.8.1 Classification of Constraints
1.8.2 Primary Key
1.8.3 NOT NULL
1.8.4 UNIQUE
1.8.5 DEFAULT
1.8.6 CHECK
1.8.7 FOREIGN KEY
1.8.8 Adding, Removing and Altering Constraints
1.8.9 Enabling and Disabling Constraints
1.9 Summary
1.10 Review Questions
1.11 Lab Assignment
1.12 Bibliography, References and Further Reading
1.13 Online References
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1.0 OBJECTIVES
After going through this chapter, you will be able to
Understand RDBMS
What SQL can do?
Classify SQL elements
Classify SQL Commands
Understand common data types in SQL
Create and Manage Tables
Apply Constraints to Tables
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The amount of information available to us is literally
exploding, and the value of data as an organizational asset is
widely recognized. To get the most out of their large and complex
datasets, users require tools that simplify the tasks of managing the
data and extracting useful information in a timely fashion.
Otherwise, data can become a liability, with the cost of acquiring it
and managing it far exceeding the value derived from it.
A database management system, or DBMS, is software
designed to assist in maintaining and utilizing large collections of
data. The collection of data, usually referred to as database,
contains information relevant to an enterprise. The primary goal of
a DBMS is to provide a way to store and retrieve database
information that is both convenient and efficient.
A data model is a collection of high-level data description
constructs that hide many low-level storage details. A DBMS allows
a user to define the data to be stored in terms of a data model.
Most database management systems today are based on the
relational data model. A relational database consists of a
collection of tables (mathematical concept of relation). A row in a
table represents a relationship among a set of values. Informally, a
table is an entity set, and a row is an entity.
The relational model is very simple and elegant: a database
is a collection of one or more relations, where each relation is a
table with rows and columns. This simple tabular representation
enables even novice users to understand the contents of a
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database, and it permits the use of simple, high-level languages to
query the data.
1.2 What is RDBMS?

RDBMS stands for Relational Database Management
System. RDBMS is the basis of SQL, and for all modern database
system like MS SQL Server, IBM DB2, Oracle, MySQL, and
Microsoft Access. It is a software system that manages the storage
of data contained in a database. The relational model was first
proposed by Dr. E. F. Codd in 1970. The data in RDBMS is stored
in database objects called tables. A table is a collection of related
data entries and it consists of columns and rows.
1.2.1 Concepts of Relational Database
Relational Database is a structure consisting of a set of
objects related together and data integrity methods which aims in
the efficient storage of electronic data. In other words, it is a place
to store the data, a way to create and retrieve the data, and a way
to make sure that the data is logically consistent. The objects can
be of various types like tables, indexes, queries etc.
1.3 INTRODUCTION TO SQL

SQL stands for Structured Query Language and can be
pronounced as SQL or sequel (Structured English Query
Language). It is a query language used for accessing and
modifying information in the database. It has become a Standard
Universal Language used by most of the relational database
management systems (RDBMS). SQL is tied very closely to the
relational model. Few of the SQL commands used in SQL
programming are SELECT Statement, UPDATE Statement,
INSERT INTO Statement, DELETE Statement, WHERE Clause,
ORDER BY Clause, GROUP BY Clause, ORDER Clause, Joins,
Views, GROUP Functions, Indexes etc.
In a simple manner, SQL is a non-procedural, English-like
language that processes data in groups of records rather than one
record at a time. Few functions of SQL are:
store data
modify data
retrieve data
delete data
create tables and other database objects
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The SQL language has several parts:
Data-Definition Language (DDL): The SQL DDL provides
commands for defining relation schemas, deleting relations, and
modifying relation schemas.
Interactive Data-Manipulation Language (DML): The SQL DML
includes a query language based on both the relational algebra and
the tuple relational calculus. It also includes commands to insert
into tuples, delete tuples from, and modify tuples in the database.
View Definition: The SQL DDL includes commands for defining
views.
Transaction Control: SQL includes commands for specifying the
beginning and ending of transactions.
Embedded SQL and Dynamic SQL: Embedded and Dynamic
SQL define how SQL statements can be embedded within generalpurpose programming languages, such as C, C++, Java, PL/I,
Cobol, Pascal, and Fortran.
Integrity: The SQL DDL includes commands for specifying integrity
constraints that the data stored in the database must satisfy.
Updates that violate integrity constraints are disallowed.
Authorization: The SQL DDL includes commands for specifying
access rights to relations and views.
1.4 WHAT CAN SQL DO?

SQL can execute queries against a database
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
SQL can retrieve data from a database

SQL can insert records in a database
SQL can update records in a database
SQL can delete records from a database
SQL can create new databases
SQL can create new tables in a database
SQL can create stored procedures in a database
SQL can create views in a database
SQL can set permissions on tables, procedures, and views
1.5 SQL LANGUAGE ELEMENTS

The SQL language is subdivided into several language
elements, including:
Clauses, which are constituent components of statements and
queries.
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Expressions, which can produce either scalar values or tables
consisting of columns and rows of data.
Predicates, which specify conditions that can be evaluated to
SQL three-valued logic (3VL) or Boolean (true/false/unknown)
truth values and which are used to limit the effects of statements
and queries, or to change program flow.
Queries, which retrieve the data based on specific criteria. This
is the most important element of SQL.
Statements, which may have a persistent effect on schemata
and data, or which may control transactions, program flow,
connections, sessions, or diagnostics.
SQL statements also include the semicolon (";") statement
terminator.
Insignificant whitespace is generally ignored in SQL
statements and queries, making it easier to format SQL code for
readability.
The following table shows the most common data types
Data Type
Description
NUMBER
Holds numeric data of any precision. The precision

can range from 1 to 38.
CHAR(W)
Holds fixed length alphanumeric data up to w

width
VARCHAR2(W)
Holds variable length alphanumeric data up to w

width. A varchar2 value can contain up to 4000
bytes of data
DATE
DATE is a data type used to store date and time

values in a 7-byte structure
RAW(size)
Raw binary data of varying length(size) bytes.

Maximum size is 2000 bytes
TIMESTAMP
Timestamp is an extension of the Date data type

that can store date and time data
1.6 CLASSIFICATION OF SQL COMMANDS

In order to learn SQL we will have to learn various
commands or statements supported by SQL language. All the SQL
commands can be broadly classified into five categories as shown
in the figure below.
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SQL
DQL
DDL
DML
TCL
DCL
1.6.1 Data Query Language (DQL)

These commands are used to view records from tables. The
actual data in the form of tables is stored onto the hard disk and
DQL commands enable us to view the information/records stored in
the database, for example, using the SELECT command.
1.6.2 Data Definition Language (DDL)
DDL is a subset of SQL commands that allows you to make
changes to the structure of the database. The DDL part of SQL
permits database tables to be created or deleted. It also defines
indexes (keys), specifies links between tables, and imposes
constraints between tables. Table structure refers to the number of
columns and the data types of columns and constraints which can
be applied or revoked as desired, using commands like CREATE,
DROP, ALTER.
1.6.3 Data Manipulation Language (DML)
DML describes the portion of SQL that allows you to
manipulate or control your data. For adding new records, removing
existing records or changing values of existing records we will use
DML statements like INSERT, DELETE, UPDATE.
1.6.4 Data Control Language (DCL)
Database Management Systems are multi user oriented.
Each user has his own assigned area where his data is stored. By
default one user cannot view, modify or delete the information
stored in another user's area. The owner can grant the privilege of
modifying the data owned by him to another user. These
commands control how and to what extent one user can view,
modify and delete information in another user's area using
commands like GRANT, REVOKE.
1.6.5 Transaction Control Language (TCL)
Each operation which is done on database is called a
Transaction. Transaction can be addition of new record,
modification in values of existing records or deletion of existing
records. Each transaction can be done permanently or can be
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undone by using the transaction control statements, like COMMIT,
ROLLBACK, SAVEPOINT.
1.7 CREATING AND MANAGING TABLES

Structured Query Language (SQL) is the language used to
manipulate relational databases. In the relational model data is
stored in structures called relations or tables. A table is the
fundamental building block of a database application. Tables are
used to store data on various entities like employees, products,
customers, orders, sales etc.
There are a few things that one should note before typing and
executing SQL commands:
Commands may be on a single line, or many lines.
For the sake of readability, place different clauses on
separate lines and make use of tabs and indents.
SQL command words cannot be split or abbreviated.
SQL commands are not case sensitive.
Place a semicolon(;) at the end of the last clause.
1.7.1 How to create a table?
Data Definition Language statements mentioned in the
previous chapter allows you to make changes to the structure of the
database. The create table statement is used to create a table
object.
Syntax:
CREATE TABLE <tablename>
(<attribute1 name> <data type> (size),
<attribute2 name> <data type> (size),);
For example to create a STUDENT table, the command will be as

follos:
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CREATE TABLE student
(
rollno char(4),
name varchar2(10),
date_of_birth date,
marks number(3)
);
Rules for creating tables are as follows:
The name of the table can be of 30 characters at the
maximum.
Alphabets from A to Z and 0 to 9 are allowed.
Special characters like under score (_) are allowed.
SQL reserved keywords like SELECT, WHERE etc are not
allowed.
1.8 APPLYING DATA CONSTRAINTS

To maintain database integrity we need to enforce some rules on
data being stored in a table. There are several ways of controlling
what kind of data can be input into a table. The various
controls/constraints are as follows:
PRIMARY KEY
NOT NULL
UNIQUE
DEFAULT
CHECK
FOREIGN KEY
1.8.1 Classification of Constraints

Constraints can be broadly classified as:
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Column Level
Table Level
Column Level Constraints
When a constraint is applied to a single column then it is
called a Column Level Constraint. This constraint will affect the
values being entered for that particular column only irrespective of
values of other columns.
Table Level Constraints
When a single constraint is applied to more than one column
then it is called Table Level Constraint. These constraints impact
the values being entered for a combination of column values, for
example, salary can never be less than the commission is a table
level constraint.
1.8.2 Primary Key
Primary key can be defined as the single column or
combination of columns which uniquely identify a row in a table, for
example, the rollno column in the student table is the primary key.
No two students can have the same rollno. The following are the
features of a primary key:
A table can have one and only one primary key.
Primary key implies UNIQUE as well as NOT NULL values,
UNIQUE implies duplicate values cannot be entered.
NOT NULL implies value cannot be unknown (NULL) for any
of the records.
Primary key columns are automatically indexed.
A Primary Key can contain more than 1 column known as a
Composite Key.
Primary Key = UNIQUE + NOT NULL + Automatic Indexed
An example of Primary key constraint:
(
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rollno CHAR(4)
PRIMARY KEY,
name VARCHAR2(10),
date_of_birth DATE,
marks NUMBER(3)
);
OR
(
rollno char(4),
name varchar2(10),
date_of_birth date,
marks number(3),
CONSTRAINT stud_pk PRIMARY KEY (rollno)
);
An example of Composite key constraint:

(
rollno char(4),
name varchar2(10),
date_of_birth date,
marks number(3),
CONSTRAINT stud_ck PRIMARY KEY (rollno, name)
);
1.8.3 NOT NULL
Specifying NOT NULL as constraint means that NULL
values cannot be inserted for that particular field although duplicate
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values for that column can be entered. It is a type of Domain
Integrity Constraint.
An example of NOT NULL constraint:
(
rollno char(4),
name varchar2(10)
NOT NULL,
date_of_birth date NOT NULL,

marks number(3)
);
1.8.4 UNIQUE
UNIQUE implies duplicate values for the same field cannot
be entered but NULL values can be inserted for that column. Since
two NULL values cannot be compared, UNIQUE constraint does
not prevent from supplying NULL values. It is a type of Domain
Integrity Constraint.
An example of UNIQUE constraint:
(
rollno char(4)
name varchar2(10)
UNIQUE,
NOT NULL,

marks number(3)
);
1.8.5 DEFAULT
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DEFAULT implies that if we do not specify a value for a
column in the INSERT statement, then the value specified in the
Default clause will get inserted.
An example of DEFAULT constraint:
(
rollno char(4)
UNIQUE,
name varchar2(10)
NOT NULL,

marks number(3) DEFAULT 0
);
1.8.6 CHECK
The CHECK constraint allows verifying the values being
supplied against specified conditions. For example, marks cannot
be negative and also cannot exceed the maximum marks (i.e.
marks should be between 0 and 100).
An example of CHECK constraint:
(
rollno char(4)
UNIQUE,
name varchar2(10)
NOT NULL,
date_of_birth date
NOT NULL,
marks number(3)CHECK (marks >= 0 AND marks <= 100)

);
1.8.7 FOREIGN KEY
The FOREIGN KEY constraint is used to define a foreign
key which represents relationships between tables. The foreign key
is used to enforce referential integrity. Features of foreign key are:
A foreign key can refer to a primary key.
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A table can have multiple foreign keys referring to different
tables for different columns.
Defining foreign key establishes a PARENT/CHILD relationship
between the two tables.
Defining foreign key implies two conditions:
We can insert only those records in the CHILD table for
which corresponding records exist in the PARENT table.
We can delete only those records from the PARENT
table for which there are no corresponding records in the
CHILD table.
An example of FOREIGN KEY constraint:
CREATE TABLE stud_detail
(
rollno char(4)
PRIMARY KEY,
name varchar2(10)
address date
NOT NULL,
NOT NULL,
phone_no number(3) UNIQUE NOT NULL,

CONSTRAINT std_fk FOREIGN KEY (rollno)
REFERENCES student (rollno)
);
If you want to delete records from the PARENT table for
which there are corresponding records in the CHILD table then you
need to specify the ON DELETE CASCADE option while defining
the Foreign Key relation. If you do not specify this option then the
database server will not allow you to delete data if other table
references it. If you specify this option then the corresponding
records of the CHILD table will also be deleted with the records
from the PARENT table.
An example of FOREIGN KEY constraint using ON DELETE
CASCADE option:
CREATE TABLE stud_detail
17
(
rollno char(4)
PRIMARY KEY,
name varchar2(10)
address date
NOT NULL,
NOT NULL,
phone_no number(3) UNIQUE NOT NULL,

CONSTRAINT std_fk FOREIGN KEY (rollno)
REFERENCES student (rollno) ON DELETE CASCADE
);
1.8.8 Adding, Removing and Altering Constraints
The constraints we applied at the time of table creation can
also be specified after the table has been created (without
constraints).
(
rollno char(4),
name varchar2(10),
date_of_birth date,
marks number(3)
);
The above table has been created without any constraints. An

example for adding constraints after table creation:
ALTER TABLE student
ADD PRIMARY KEY (rollno, name);
ALTER TABLE student
ADD CONSTRAINT def_mark marks DEFAULT 0;
Suppose we do not want roll no and name to be the primary key in
the above mentioned table. The constraint can be removed using
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the ALTER
constraints:
TABLE
command.
An
example
for
removing
ALTER TABLE student

DROP PRIMARY KEY;
1.8.9 Enabling and Disabling Constraints
It is not a good programming practice to remove constraints.
Removing constraints can lead to problems in the table like data
redundancy. Instead of dropping or removing constraints we can
temporarily disable constraints. We can disable constraints when
we need to and then enable the constraints when required.
Consider the following example about the table STUDENT which
has the primary key as ROLL NO. We can disable the primary key
constraint using the DISABLE CONSTRAINT command with the
ALTER TABLE statement and in order to enable the constraint we
need to use the ENABLE CONSTRAINT command with the ALTER
TABLE statement.
(
rollno char(4),
name varchar2(10),
date_of_birth date,
marks number(3),
CONSTRAINT stud_pk PRIMARY KEY (rollno)
);
Disabling Constraints
ALTER TABLE student DISABLE CONSTRAINT stud_pk;
Enabling Constraints
ALTER TABLE student ENABLE CONSTRAINT stud_pk;
1.9 SUMMARY
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A database management system, or DBMS, is software
designed to assist in maintaining and utilizing large
collections of data.
The collection of data, usually referred to as database,
contains information relevant to an enterprise.
A relational database consists of a collection of tables.
Relational Database is a structure consisting of a set of
objects related together and data integrity methods which
aims in the efficient storage of electronic data.
SQL stands for Structured Query Language and is a query
language used for accessing and modifying information in
the database.
SQL can execute queries against a database to store,
retrieve, modify and delete data.
SQL commands can be categorized into Data Query
Language (DQL), Data Definition Language (DDL), Data
Manipulation Language (DML), Data Control Language
(DCL) and Transaction Control Language (TCL).
A table is the fundamental building block of a database
application. Tables are used to store data on various entities
like employees, products, customers, orders, sales etc.
The CREATE TABLE statement is used to create a table
object.
The various constraints that can be applied on a table are as
follows:
PRIMARY KEY
NOT NULL
UNIQUE
DEFAULT
CHECK
FOREIGN KEY
The structure of a table can be changed after its creation
using the ALTER TABLE statement.
Constraints can also be applied to table after its creation
using the ALTER TABLE statement.
Constraints can be enabled or disabled
ENABLE/DISABLE CONSTRAINT statement.
using
the
1.10 REVIEW QUESTIONS
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(1) What is SQL? What can be done using SQL?
(2) List and Explain the common data types in SQL.
(3) List and Explain the different elements in SQL language.
(4) Explain the parts of SQL language?
(5) Explain the classification of SQL statements?
(6) List the rules for creating a table? How can you create a
table?
(7) List and Explain the different types of constraints with
examples?
(8) Explain the commands used to alter table?
1.11 LAB ASSIGNMENT

1. Create table DEPT with the following columns and constraints
Column name
Data type
Size
Constraint
DEPTNO
NUMBER
PRIMARY KEY
DNAME
VARCHAR2
10
UNIQUE + NOT NULL
LOCATION
VARCHAR2
10
UNIQUE + NOT NULL
2. Create table EMPLOYEE with the following columns and

constraints
Column name
Data type
Size
Constraint
EMPNO
CHAR
PRIMARY KEY
ENAME
VARCHAR2
10
NOT NULL
JOB
VARCHAR2
10
MGR
CHAR
HIREDATE
TIMESTAMP
GENDER
CHAR
'M' OR 'F' ONLY
SAL
NUMBER
8,2
DEFAULT 0
COMM
NUMBER
8,2
DEFAULT 0
DEPTNO
NUMBER
FOREIGN KEY REFERRING

TO DEPTNO of DEPT table
NOT NULL
3. Insert 5 records in both the tables.
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4. Add table level constraint such that commission cannot be
greater than 30% of salary after the table has been created.
Assign the constraint name COMM_30_SAL.
5. Add new constraint with the name DEPT_CHK_LOCATION
to DEPT table such that LOCATION can be any one of the
following cities MUMBAI, PUNE, BENGALURU, LONDON,
SAN FRANSISCO only.
6. Remove the UNIQUE constraint from the LOCATION
column.
1.12 BIBLIOGRAPHY, REFERENCES AND FURTHER

READING
Database Management Systems,

RamaKrishnan, Gehre. McGraw Hill
Database System Concepts, Fifth Edition by Silberschatz,

Korth, Sudarshan. McGraw Hill
Murach's Oracle SQL and PL/SQL by Joel Murach. Shroff

Publishers & Distributors
Oracle Database 11g by Satish Asnani. PHI Learning Private

Limited
Oracle 11g: PL/SQL Reference Oracle Press.
Expert Oracle PL/SQL, By:

McLaughlin, Tata McGraw-Hill
SQL, PL/SQL The programming language of Oracle,

Bayross Ivan, BPB Publications
Fundamentals of Database Systems, Elmasri Ramez and

Navathe B. Shamkant, Pearson
Ron
Third
Edition
by
Hardman,Michael
1.13 ONLINE REFERENCES

Wikipedia Link
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SQL
Oracle Database PL/SQL language Reference 11g Release 2 (11.2), part
number E25519-05
http://docs.oracle.com/cd/E11882_01/appdev.920/a96590/adg09dyn.htm
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2
BASIC STRUCTURED QUERY
LANGUAGE II
Unit Structure
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Basic Data Retreival
2.2.1 Column Aliases
2.2.2 Duplicate Rows
2.3 Restricting and Sorting Data
2.3.1 Ordering Data
2.4 Dual Table
2.5 Single Row Functions
2.5.1 Numeric Functions
2.5.2 Character Functions
2.5.3 DateTime Functions
2.5.4 Conversion Functions
2.6 Joins
2.6.1 Inner Equi Join
2.6.2 Inner Non-Equi Join
2.6.3 Self Join
2.6.4 Outer Joins
2.6.5 Left Outer Join
2.6.6 Right Outer Join
2.6.7 Full Outer Join
2.6.8 Cartesian Product
2.7 Summary
2.9 Lab Assignment
2.10 Bibliograpy, References and Further Reading
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2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this chapter, you will be able to
Retreive data using SELECT statement

Restrict and Sort Data
Manipulate Data using Single Row functions
Display Data from Multiple Tables using Joins
2.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous chapter, we created tables using CREATE
TABLE statement and managed tables. In this chapter, we will
manipulate data from a single table and also retreive data and join
multiple tables.
2.2 BASIC DATA RETREIVAL

The SELECT statement retreives data from the database
and returns in the form of query results.
The syntax is:
SELECT [ALL/DISTINCT] select-item
FROM table-specification
[WHERE search-condition]
[GROUP BY grouping-column]
[HAVING search-condition]
[ORDER BY sort-specification]
The SELECT and FROM clauses are required and remaining four
clauses are optional.
SELECT statement forms a part of the Data Query Language
(DQL). SELECT statement is used to query the database in order
to find data. SELECT is the most complex statement in SQL, with
optional keywords and clauses that include:
The FROM clause which indicates the table(s) from which
data is to be retrieved. The FROM clause can include
optional JOIN subclauses to specify the rules for joining
tables.
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The WHERE clause includes a comparison predicate, which
restricts the rows returned by the query. The WHERE clause
eliminates all rows from the result set for which the
comparison predicate does not evaluate to true.
The GROUP BY clause is used to project rows having
common values into a smaller set of rows. GROUP BY is
often used in conjunction with SQL aggregation functions or
to eliminate duplicate rows from a result set. The WHERE
clause is applied before the GROUP BY clause.
The HAVING clause includes a predicate used to filter rows
resulting from the GROUP BY clause. Because it acts on the
results of the GROUP BY clause, aggregation functions can
be used in the HAVING clause predicate.
The ORDER BY clause identifies which columns are used to
sort the resulting data, and in which direction they should be
sorted (options are ascending or descending). Without an
ORDER BY clause, the order of rows returned by an SQL
query is undefined.
To illustrate the SQL commands in this chapter we consider the
records in the following tables
Student Table:
Rollno
Name
Course_no
Grade
201
Rohit
SC01
209
Raj
SC01
325
Rita
COM02
355
Parag
SC02
365
Mohini
SC03
Stud_details Table:
Rollno
Name
Age
Address
201
Rohit
25
MG road, Goregaon
209
Raj
27
Thakur City, Kandivali
310
Manisha
24
Vasai(W)
325
Rita
26
Borivali(W)
355
Parag
23
Thane(E)
365
Mohini
22
Aarey Colony, Goregaon
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Course Table:
Course_no
Course_name
Major
SC01
B.Sc IT
Information Technology
SC02
B.Sc CS
Computer Science
SC03
B.Sc Maths
Mathematics
COM01
B.Com
Accounts
COM02
B.M.S
Management Studies
We need to execute the following queries

To display all student records from table student
SELECT * FROM Student;
To display name and address of the Students
SELECT Name, Address FROM Stud_Details;
To display all course details
SELECT * FROM Course;
2.2.1 Column Aliases
The column headings are by default based on the column
name, but sometimes we may want a customized column heading.
It can be done using Column Aliases.
Syntax:
SELECT <column name1> column alias1, <column
name2> column alias2, <column name3> column alias3......
FROM <tablename>;
Rules for declaring Column Aliases
10. Column aliases must not contain any whitespace.
11. The case is ignored.
12. The Alias must be enclosed in double quotes.
2.2.2 Duplicate Rows
Many columns in a table can contain duplicate data. When
querying data the duplicate data can come more than once in the
query solution. For example, in an EMPLOYEE table the names of
a few employees can same or repeated. Duplicate rows can be
avoided by simply using the keyword DISTINCT.
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Syntax:
SELECT DISTINCT <column name> FROM <table name>;
For Example:
SELECT DISTINCT Course_no, Name Student Name
FROM Student;
2.3 RESTRICTING AND SORTING DATA

A simple SELECT statement will return all rows from a
particular table, but if we need to list a record on the basis of some
conditions we need to use the WHERE clause.
Rules of using a WHERE clause:
The WHERE clause MUST appear after the FROM clause.

WHERE clause consists of the keyword WHERE followed by
a search condition that specifies the rows to be retrieved.
Character strings and date values are enclosed with single
quote.
Character values are case sensitive and date values are
format sensitive.
An column alias cannot be used in the WHERE clause.
Consider the following queries
To display all records of students whose grade = 'A'
SELECT * FROM Student WHERE Grade = 'A';
To display records of students who have enrolled for course
'SC02'
SELECT * FROM Student
WHERE Course_no = 'SC02';
Apart from using the WHERE clause for equality conditions, we can
use it for other conditions like:
Comparison Test (<>, <, >, <=, >=)
Compares the value of one expression to the value of
another expression.
Syntax: SELECT <list> FROM <table name> WHERE <column
name> comparison-operator <value>;
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Range Test (BETWEEN)
Tests whether the value of an expression falls within a
specified range of values.
name> BETWEEN <lower-limit> AND <higher-limit>
Set Membership Test (IN)
Tests whether a data value matches one of a list of target
values.
name> IN (list of constants separated by comma);
NULL Value Test (IS NULL)
Used to check explicitly for NULL values in a search
condition.
name> IS NULL;
Pattern Matching Test (LIKE)
Checks to see whether the data value in a column matches
a specified pattern. The pattern is a string that may include one or
more wildcard characters.
Symbol
Represents
It matches any sequence of zero or more characters.
The under score matches any single character.
[]
Any single character within the specified range ([a-f]).
[^]
Any single character not within the specified range ([^a-f]).
2.3.1 Ordering Data

When SELECT statement is executed, the order of rows
returned in the output is undefined. To define a specific order in the
output, we need to use the ORDER BY clause with the SELECT
statement. Using the ORDER BY clause, records can be arranged
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in a specified sequence may be alphabetically or by value. The
ORDER BY clause needs to be added to the end of the SELECT
statement.
Syntax: SELECT <list> FROM <table name> ORDER BY <column
name> [ASC | DESC]
2.4 DUAL TABLE

The Dual table is a special one-row table present by default
in all Oracle database installations. It is suitable for use in selecting
a pseudo-column such as SYSDATE or USER. The table has a
single VARCHAR2(1) column called DUMMY that has a value of
X. The Dual table can also be used to understand the functioning
of various single row functions. In the next section we will learn
about single row functions using the DUAL table.
2.5 SINGLE ROW FUNCTIONS
Single row functions, as the name suggests, operates on

single row and returns a single result row for every row of a queried
table. These functions can appear in SELECT lists, WHERE
clause, and other SQL statements. There are various types of
single row functions as shown in the diagram below.
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2.5.1 Numeric Functions:
Numeric functions accept numeric values as input and return
numeric values as output.
ABS: The ABS function calculates the absolute value of an
expression. Since, the absolute value of a real number is its
numeric value without regard to its sign (for example, 3 is the
absolute value of both 3 and -3), this function always returns a
positive value.
Syntax: ABS(expression)
Usage: SELECT ABS (expression/column name) FROM <table
name>;
CEIL: The CEIL function returns the smallest whole number greater
than or equal to a specified number.
Syntax: CEIL(n)
Usage: SHOW CEIL(15.7);
RESULT: 16
FLOOR: The FLOOR function returns the largest whole number
equal to or less than a specified number.
Syntax: FLOOR(n)
Usage: SHOW FLOOR(15.7);
RESULT: 15
ROUND: When a number is specified as an argument, the ROUND
function returns the number rounded to the nearest multiple of a
second number you specify or to the number of decimal places
indicated by the second number.
Syntax: ROUND(number_exp, roundvalue)
Usage: SHOW ROUND(2/3, .1);
RESULT: 0.70
TRUNC: When you specify a number as an argument, the
TRUNCATE function truncates a number to a specified number of
decimal places.
Syntax: TRUNC (number, truncvalue)
Usage: SHOW TRUNC (15.79, 1);
RESULT: 15.7
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2.5.2 Character Functions:
Character functions accept character values as input and
can return character or numeric values as output.
LOWER: The LOWER function converts all alphabetic characters in
a text expression into lowercase.
Syntax: LOWER(text-expression)
UPPER: The UPPER function converts all alphabetic characters in

a text expression into uppercase.
Syntax: UPPER (text-expression)
CONCAT: CONCAT returns char1 concatenated with char2. Both

char1 and char2 can be any of the data types CHAR, VARCHAR2,
NCHAR, NVARCHAR2, CLOB, or NCLOB. The string returned is in
the same character set as char1. Its data type depends on the data
types of the arguments.
Syntax: CONCAT (char1, char2)
SUBSTR: The SUBSTR function return a portion of char, beginning
at character position, substring_length characters long.
Syntax: SUBSTR (char, position, substring_length)
LENGTH: The LENGTH functions return the length of char.
Syntax: LENGTH (char)
2.5.3 DateTime Functions:
DateTime functions operate on date, timestamp and interval
values.
CURRENT_DATE: CURRENT_DATE returns the current date in
the session time zone, in a value in the Gregorian calendar of data
type DATE.
Syntax: SELECT CURRENT_DATE FROM dual;
CURRENT_TIMESTAMP: CURRENT_TIMESTAMP returns the
current date and time in the session time zone, in a value of data
type TIMESTAMP WITH TIME ZONE.
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Syntax: SELECT CURRENT_TIMESTAMP FROM dual;
Note: DateTime Functions have been covered in more detail in
later chapters.
2.5.4 Conversion Functions:
Conversion function converts a value from one datatype to
another datatype.
TO_CHAR: This function converts number or date data type to
character data type.
Syntax: TO_CHAR (value, [format mask])
TO_DATE: This function converts string data type to date data
type.
Syntax: TO_DATE (string, [format mask])
TO_NUMBER: This function converts string data type to number
data type.
Syntax: TO_NUMBER (string, [format mask])
Note: For more information about different functions and the
various categories of functions please refer to the Oracle
Documentation available on the Oracle web site.
2.6 JOINS
Till now we have been selecting records from a single table
at a time. However, in real life we do not work only on a single table
but we need to select columns from two or more tables at a time for
a single query. In order to combine two or more tables for a single
query we have to use a concept called JOIN to acheive the
desired result.
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Joins can be classified as shown in the figure.
JOIN
OUTER
INNER
EQUI
CARTESIAN PRODUCT
NON-EQUI
RIGHT
FULL
LEFT
A
A Inner
Join B
B
2.6.1 INNER EQUI JOIN

When two tables are joined using the EQUAL TO operator
then that join is called Inner Equi Join.
2.6.2 INNER NON-EQUI JOIN
When two tables are joined using any comparison operator
(<, >, <=, >=, !=) other than EQUAL TO operator then that join is
called Inner Non-Equi Join.
Example for Inner Equi Join
We want to display the course_name and major subject alongwith
the name and rollno of the student from the tables mentioned
above as reference.
SELECT student.rollno,
course.major
student.name,
course.course_name,
FROM student, course
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WHERE student.course_no = course.course_no;
Rollno
Name
Course_name
Major
201
Rohit
B.Sc IT
209
Raj
B.Sc IT
325
Rita
B.M.S
Management Studies
355
Parag
B.Sc CS
Computer Science
365
Mohini
B.Sc Maths
Mathematics
Notice the WHERE clause specifying the join of two tables based
on the matching course_no column is known as the JOIN condition.
The Join condition may involve more than one column.
Above query can also be written as
SELECT student.rollno,
course.major
student.name,
course.course_name,
FROM student INNER JOIN course

ON student.course_no = course.course_no;
Aliasing
Aliasing is the process whereby we can assign a short name
to the tables being joined and use those alias names for preceding
the column names. The above given Inner Equi Join can be written
in the following manner:
SELECT s.rollno, s.name, c.course_name, c.major
FROM student s, course c
WHERE s.course_no = c.course_no;
Example for Inner Non-Equi Join
We want to display the course_name and major subject alongwith
the name and rollno of the student whose age is greater than 25
from the tables mentioned above as reference.
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SELECT s.rollno, s.name, c.course_name, c.major
FROM student s, course c
WHERE s.course_no = c.course_no AND s.age > 25;
Rollno
Name
Course_name
Major
209
Raj
B.Sc IT
325
Rita
B.M.S
Management Studies
2.6.3 Joining a Table to itself using Self Join

When a table is joined with its own then it is called Selfjoin. Although self joins are rare, some queries are best solved
using self joins. In a self join instead of duplicating the table, SQL
lets you refer to it by a different table alias.
Example of Self Join
SELECT s1.rollno, s1.name, s2.age, s2,address
FROM stud_details s1, stud_details s2
WHERE s1.rollno = s2.rollno;
Note: Although the same table has been used, SQL considers them
as two different tables because separate aliases have been used.
2.6.4 Outer Joins
An outer join extends the result of an inner join. An outer join
returns all rows that satisfy the join condition and also returns some
or all of those rows from one table for which no rows from the other
satisfy the join condition.
Outer Joins can be classified as
(9) Left Outer Join
(10)
Right Outer Join
(11)
Full Outer Join
2.6.5 LEFT OUTER JOIN
A query that performs a join on two tables A and B, and
returns all rows from table A and only matching rows from table B is
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called as LEFT OUTER JOIN. The result set contains all rows from
the first or the left table and only matching records from the second
table.
Table
A
Table
B
Syntax:
SELECT <list>
FROM <table name1> LEFT OUTER JOIN <table name2>
ON JOIN CONDITION
Example for Left Outer Join
Suppose we want to display the list of names and addresses of all
students alongwith their course_no and grade.
SELECT sd.rollno, sd.name, sd.address, s.course_no, s.grade
FROM stud_details st LEFT OUTER JOIN student s
ON sd.rollno = s.rollno;
Rollno
Name
Address
Course_no
Grade
201
Rohit
MG road, Goregaon
SC01
209
Raj
Thakur City, Kandivali
SC01
310
Manisha
Vasai(W)
325
Rita
Borivali(W)
COM02
355
Parag
Thane(E)
SC02
365
Mohini
Aarey Colony, Goregaon
SC03
In the above result, all columns from the stud_details table have
been listed and only matching columns from the student table have
been listed.
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2.6.6 RIGHT OUTER JOIN
returns all rows from table B and only matching rows from table A is
called as RIGHT OUTER JOIN. The result set contains all rows
from the second or the right table and only matching records from
the first table.
Table
Table
Syntax:
SELECT <list>
FROM <table name1> RIGHT OUTER JOIN <table name2>
ON JOIN CONDITION
Example for Right Outer Join

Suppose we want to display the list of names of all students
alongwith their course_name and major subject.
SELECT s.rollno, s.name, c.course_no, c.course_name, c.major
FROM student s RIGHT OUTER JOIN course c
ON s.course_no = c.course_no;
Rollno Name
Course_no
Course_name
Major
201
Rohit
SC01
B.Sc IT
209
Raj
SC01
B.Sc IT
325
Rita
COM02
B.M.S
Management Studies
355
Parag
SC02
B.Sc CS
Computer Science
365
Mohini
SC03
B.Sc Maths
Mathematics
COM01
B.Com
Accounts
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In the above result, all columns from the course table have been
listed and only matching columns from the student table have been
listed.
2.6.7 FULL OUTER JOIN
returns all rows from table A and B alonwith the non-matching rows
is called as FULL OUTER JOIN. The result set contains all rows
from both the tables.
Table
Table
Syntax:
SELECT <list>
FROM <table name1> FULL OUTER JOIN <table name2>
ON JOIN CONDITION
2.6.8 CARTESIAN PRODUCT
A join in which each record from table 1 gets associated with
each and every record of table 2 is called as Cartesian Product. A
Cartesian product always generates many rows and is rarely
useful. For example, the Cartesian product of two tables, each with
100 rows, has 10,000 rows.
Syntax:
SELECT <list>
FROM <table name1>, <table name2>
Note: In a cartesian product, no WHERE clause is used. Cartesian

Product can also be called as CROSS JOIN.
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2.7 SUMMARY
The SELECT statement retreives data from the database and
returns in the form of query results.
Duplicate rows can be avoided by simply using the keyword
DISTINCT.
We need to use the WHERE clause in order to list a record on
the basis of some conditions.
WHERE clause can be used for
Equality conditions
Comparison Test
Range Test
Set Membership Test
NULL Value Test
Pattern Matching Test
To define a specific order in the output, we need to use the
ORDER BY clause with the SELECT statement.
Single row functions operate on a single row and returns a
single result row for every row of a queried table.There are
various types of single row functions
Numeric Functions
Character Functions
DateTime Functions
Conversion Functions
In order to combine two or more tables for a single query we

have to use a concept called JOIN to acheive the desired
result.
Joins can be classified as
Inner - Equi & Non-Equi
Self
Outer - Left, Right, & Full
Cartesian Product
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Explain the Where clause. List and explain the conditions under
which you can use it.
What is a single row function? Explain and give examples.
What is a join? Explain the various categories of joins that can
be used to join two tables?
2.9 LAB ASSIGNMENT

1. Create a CUSTOMER table with the following columns and constraints
Column name
Data type
Size
Constraint
CUSTOMER_ID
CHAR
PRIMARY KEY.
BEGIN WITH 'C'
CUSTOMER_NAME
VARCHAR2
20
NOT NULL
ADDRESS
VARCHAR2
20
UNIQUE
CITY
VARCHAR2
20
PINCODE
NUMBER
STATE
VARCHAR2
20
BALANCE_DUE
NUMBER
8,2
MUST
2. Create a PRODUCT table with the following columns and

constraints
Column name
Data type
Size
Constraint
PRODUCT_CODE
CHAR
PRIMARY KEY
PRODUCT_NAME
VARCHAR2
20
UNIQUE
QTY_AVAIL
NUMBER
COST_PRICE
NUMBER
8,2
SELLING_PRICE
NUMBER
8,2
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3. Create a ORDER table with the following columns and constraints
Column name
Data type
Size
ORDER_NO
CHAR
ORDER_DATE
TIMESTAMP
CUSTOMER_ID
CHAR
PRODUCT_CODE
CHAR
QUANTITY
NUMBER
PRIMARY
KEY
=
ORDER_NO
CUSTOMER_ID + PRODUCT_CODE
Constraint
ORDER_DATE
Insert 5-10 records in all the tables.

Apply
UNIQUE
constraint
on
CUSTOMER_ID+
PRODUCT_CODE on the ORDER table.
Define a foreign key on CUSTOMER_ID of ORDER table
referring to CUSTOMER_ID of CUSTOMER table.
Define a foreign key on PRODUCT_CODE of ORDER table
referring to PRODUCT_CODE of PRODUCT table.
List the customer names whose balance due is more than
4000/-.
For all products display the product name along with Net Profit
as Selling price Cost price.
Calculate the profit earned on each order.
Display the orders placed during 2008.
[Hint: TO_CHAR(ORDER_DATE, 'YYYY') = '2008')
Arrange the customers first by STATE and then by NAME.
Display the customers from CUSTOMER table such that the
customer with maximum due balance is displayed at the top.
Find out the product names and their quantity which have been
delivered in the month of February.
Find the product name, customer name and total quantity
purchased by various customers.
Display the total sale amount and quantity for each customer.
The report should display customer name instead of
customer id.
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READING
Database Management Systems, Third Edition by

Limited
Expert Oracle PL/SQL, By: Ron Hardman,Michael
SQL, PL/SQL The programming language of Oracle, Bayross
Ivan, BPB Publications
Wikipedia Link
Oracle Database PL/SQL language Reference 11g Release 2

(11.2), part number E25519-05
http://docs.oracle.com/cd/E11882_01/appdev.920/a96590/adg09dy
n.htm
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3
ADVANCED QUERIES AND DATABASE
OBJECTS
Unit Structure
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Aggregate Functions
3.3 Group by Having Clause
3.3.1 Comparing Having clause and where clause
3.4 Creating Other Database Objects
3.4.1 Views
3.4.1.1 Classification of Views
3.4.1.2 Updateable Views
3.4.1.3 Non-updateable Views
3.4.2 Indexes
3.4.3 Sequences
3.4.4 Synonyms
3.5 Sub queries
3.5.1 Sub query in DDL and DML commands
3.6 Summary
3.8 Lab Assignment
3.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this chapter you will be able to:
Aggregate Data using Group Functions

Aggregate Data using Group By Having clause
Create Database Objects like Views, Sequences,
Indexes and Synonyms
Use Subqueries
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3.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous chapter, you were introduced to scalar
(single row) functions, which operate on a single value and return a
single value. In this chapter, you'll learn how to code queries that
summarize data.
3.2 AGGREGATE FUNCTIONS

Aggregate functions operate on a series of values and return
a single summary value. Aggregate functions allow you to do jobs
like calculate averages, summarize totals, or find the highest value
for a given column. Aggregate functions can appear in select lists
and in ORDER BY and HAVING clauses. They are commonly used
with the GROUP BY clause in a SELECT statement, where the
rows of a queried table are divided into groups.
Many (but not all) aggregate functions that take a single argument
accept these clauses:
DISTINCT causes an aggregate function to consider only
distinct values of the argument expression.
ALL causes an aggregate function to consider all values,
including all duplicates.
For example, the DISTINCT average of 1, 1, 1, and 3 is 2. The ALL
average is 1.5. If you specify neither, then the default is ALL. Null
values are always excluded from these functions.
The table given below presents the syntax of the most common
aggregate functions.
Syntax
Description
AVG ([ALL | DISTINCT] expression)
Returns the average of nonnull values in the expression.
SUM ([ALL | DISTINCT] expression)
Returns the total of non-null

values in the expression.
MIN ([ALL | DISTINCT] expression)
Returns the lowest non-null

value in the expression.
MAX ([ALL | DISTINCT] expression)
Returns the highest non-null

value in the expression.
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COUNT
([ALL
expression)
DISTINCT] Returns the number of nonnull values in the expression.
COUNT(*)
Returns the number of rows

selected by the query.
Since the purpose of these functions are self-explanatory, we'll focus

mainly on how to use them.
Assume records in the EMP table as shown below.
EMPNO
ENAME
HIREDATE
DEPTNO GENDER
SALARY COMM
111
Satish
19-DEC-2008
10
10,000
1000
222
Rashmi
01-JAN-1987
20
8000
550
333
Rishi
05-JUN-1976
10
7000
450
444
Anil
16-APR-1967
10
12,000
2000
555
Anita
30
8000
1000
666
Nilesh
20-MAY-1987
20
13,000
777
Ruchi
11-JUN-2000
30
5000
888
Sarika
20
4000
Find the number of distinct departments from emp table.

SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT deptno) FROM emp;
Result:
COUNT(DISTINCT deptno)
3
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Find the number of employees in the emp table.
SELECT COUNT(*) FROM emp;
Result:
COUNT(*)
8
Find the total salary and the average commission from the emp
table.
SELECT SUM(salary), AVG(comm) FROM emp;
Result:
SUM(salary) AVG(comm)
67000
1000
3.3 GROUP BY HAVING CLAUSE

GROUP BY clause forms groups on the specified columns. The
GROUP BY clause is used alongwith the aggregate functions to retreive
data grouped according to one or more columns. The group by clause
should contain all the columns to be displayed except those used
alongwith the aggregate functions. The GROUP BY clause groups rows
but does not guarantee the order of the result set. To order the groupings,
use the ORDER BY clause.
For example,
Display the number of employees from each department.
SELECT deptno, count(*)
FROM emp
GROUP BY deptno;
DEPTNO
COUNT(*)
10
30
20
Display department wise total salary from the emp table.

SELECT deptno, sum(salary)
FROM emp
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GROUP BY deptno;
DEPTNO
SUM(salary)
10
29,000
30
13,000
20
25,000
The HAVING clause to restrict the groups of returned rows to

those groups for which the specified condition is TRUE. In other words,
the HAVING clause is used to filter the records which a GROUP BY
clause returns. This is similar to the WHERE clause but is used with the
GROUP BY clause. The WHERE clause cannot be used with the GROUP
BY clause.
For example,
(12) Display department wise total salary from the emp table such that
only those departments are displayed where the total salary is
greater than 20,000.
SELECT deptno, sum(salary)
FROM emp
GROUP BY deptno
HAVING SUM(salary) > 20000;
DEPTNO
SUM(salary)
10
29,000
20
25,000
(13) Display the number of employees from each department where

the number of employees is equal to 2.
SELECT deptno, count(empno) empcount
FROM emp
GROUP BY deptno
HAVING COUNT(empno) = 2;
DEPTNO
30
EMPCOUNT
2
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3.3.1 Comparing HAVING clause and WHERE clause
A WHERE clause in a SELECT statement that uses grouping
& aggregates, the search condition is applied before rows are
grouped and aggregates are calculated. That way, only rows that
satisfy the condition are grouped. A HAVING clause in a SELECT
statement that uses grouping & aggregates, the search condition is
applied after rows are grouped and aggregates are calculated. That
way, only groups that satisfy the condition are included in the result
set.
A WHERE clause can refer to any column in the table. A
HAVING clause can only refer to a column included in the SELECT
clause.
A WHERE clause cannot contain aggregate functions.
Aggregate functions can only be coded in the HAVING clause.
3.4 CREATING OTHER DATABASE OBJECTS

SQL allows you to create various database objects other than
table like views, sequences, indexes, synonyms. We will understand
these different database objects in this section.
Assume table PRODUCT with the following records
product_id
product_name
company_name
unit_price
100
Shampoo
Pantene
180
101
Deospray
Denim
400
102
Tooth paste
Colgate
150
103
Soap
Lux
75
104
Hair gel
Laureal
300
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Assume table ORDER with the following records
order_id
product_id
total_units
Customer
O1
101
30
Lifestyle
O2
101
Shoppers stop
O3
103
25
Spencer
O4
101
10
Food bazaar
O5
103
200
Big bazaar
3.4.1 VIEWS
A view is a logical representation of one or more tables. In
essence, a view is a stored query. A view derives its data from the
tables on which it is based,called base tables. Base tables can be
tables or other views. All operations performed on a view actually
affect the base tables. You can use views in most places where
tables are used. You can query, insert, update and delete from
views. Views can be handled as any other table but they do not
occupy any space.
Unlike a table, a view is not allocated storage space, nor

does a view contain data. Rather, a view is defined by a query that
extracts or derives data from the base tables referenced by the
view. Because a view is based on other objects, it requires no
storage other than storage for the query that defines the view in the
data dictionary.
Benefits of using Views

Views enable you to tailor the presentation of data to different types
of users. Views are often used to:
Provide an additional level of table security by restricting
access to a predetermined set of rows or columns of a table.
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Hide data complexity.
For example, a single view can be defined with a join, which
is a collection of related columns or rows in multiple tables.
However, the view hides the fact that this information
actually originates from several tables. A query might also
perform extensive calculations with table information. Thus,
users can query a view without knowing how to perform a
join or calculations.
Present the data in a different perspective from that of the
base table.
For example, the columns of a view can be renamed without
affecting the tables on which the view is based.
Isolate applications from changes in definitions of base
tables.
For example, if the defining query of a view references three
columns of a four column table, and a fifth column is added
to the table, then the definition of the view is not affected,
and all applications using the view are not affected.
3.4.1.1 Classification of Views
Views can be classified as updateable views and non-updateable
views.
3.4.1.2 Updateable Views
By updateable we mean to say that one can insert, update
and delete records from the view. Actually all the DML operations
are performed on the base table.
View with the following characteristics is called an
updateable view.
It is created from a single table.
It includes all PRIMARY KEYS and NOT NULL columns of
the base table.
Aggregate functions like SUM, AVG have not been used.
It should not have DISTINCT, GROUP BY, HAVING
clauses.
It must not use constants, strings or value expressions like
salary * 2.
It must not any function calls (e.g. RPAD, SUBSTR, etc.).
If a view is defined from another view then that view must
also be updateable.
3.4.1.3 Non-updateable Views
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Non-updateable means we cannot insert, update and delete
records from that view.
View with the following characteristics is called a nonupdateable view.
7. It is created from more than one table.
8. It has DISTINCT, GROUP BY, HAVING clause. Even if
view is derived from a single table but contains any of
these clauses then it is not updateable.
9. It does not include all the PRIMARY KEYS and NOT NULL
columns of base tables.
CREATING VIEWS
Syntax:
CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW <view name> AS
(SELECT query)
[WITH READ ONLY CONSTRAINT <constraint name>];
Create a view showing the details of the products which have been
ordered by the customers.
CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW prod_ordered AS
SELECT product_name, company_name, total_units
FROM product INNER JOIN order
ON product.product_id = order.product_id;
To see the details of the products ordered
SELECT * FROM prod_ordered
product_name
company_name total_units
Deospray
Denim
30
Deospray
Denim
Soap
Lux
25
Deospray
Denim
10
Soap
Lux
200
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VIEW WITH READ ONLY CONSTRAINT
The WITH READ ONLY option allows the user to create a
read-only view. You cannot use the DELETE, INSERT or UPDATE
commands to modify data for the view.
To create a read only view prodreadonly for all products in the

product table which have a unit_price more than 100.
CREATE or REPLACE VIEW prodreadonly AS
SELECT * FROM product WHERE unit_price > 100
WITH READ ONLY CONSTRAINT view_no;
Dropping VIEWS
To remove views we use the command DROP VIEW. You can
change the definition of a view by dropping and re-creating it. If you
delete a view, you can no more access the virtual tables based on
the view.
Syntax:
DROP VIEW <view name>
3.4.2 INDEXES
Index is an object which can be defined as the ordered list of
values of a column or combination of columns used for faster
searching and sorting of data. An index speeds up joins and
searches by providing a way for a database management system to
go directly to a row rather than having to search through all the
rows until it finds the one you want. By default, indexes are created
for primary keys and unique constraints of a table. However,
creating indexes must be avoided on columns that are updated
frequently since this slows down insert, update and delete
operations.
Creating Indexes
To create an index, you need to use the CREATE INDEX
command. In addition, you can use the UNIQUE keyword to specify
that an index contains only unique values.
Syntax:
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CREATE [UNIQUE] INDEX index_name
ON table_name (column_name1 [ASC | DESC] [, column_name2
[ASC | DESC]]......)
Removing Indexes
To remove or delete an index, we need to use the DROP INDEX
command.
Syntax:
DROP INDEX <index name>
3.4.3 SEQUENCES
SEQUENCE is a type of database object which can be used to
generate numbers in a sequence. This can be used to generate
values for primary keys.
Create Sequence
Sequences can be created using the CREATE SEQUENCE
command which has the following syntax:
CREATE SEQUENCE <sequence name>
START WITH <integer-value>
INCREMENT BY <integer-value>
MAXVALUE <integer-value> OR NOMAXVALUE
MINVALUE <integer-value> OR NOMINVALUE
CYCLE OR NOCYCLE
CACHE OR NOCACHE
ORDER OR NOORDER
START WITH <integer-value>: specifies the 1st sequence number
to be generated.
INCREMENT BY <integer-value>: The integer number by which
sequence number should be incremented for generating the next
number. If it is positive then values are ascending and if it is
negative then values are descending. The default value is 1.
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MAXVALUE <integer-value>: If the increment value is positive then
MAXVALUE determines the maximum value up to which the
sequence numbers will be generated.
NOMAXVALUE: Specifies the maximum value of 10^27 for an
ascending sequence or -1 for a descending sequence.
MINVALUE <integer-value>: If the increment value is negative then
MINVALUE determines the minimum value up to which the
sequence numbers will be generated.
NOMINVALUE: Specifies the minimum value of 1 for an ascending
sequence or -10^26 for a descending sequence.
CYCLE: Causes the sequences to automatically recycle to
minvalue when maxvalue is reached for ascending sequences; for
descending sequences, it causes to recycle from minvalue back to
maxvalue.
NOCYCLE: Sequence numbers will not be generated after
reaching the maximum value for ascending sequences or minimum
value for descending sequences.
CACHE: Specifies how many values are pre-allocated in buffers for
faster access. Default value is 20.
NOCACHE: Sequence numbers are not pre-allocated.
ORDER: Generates the number in a serial order.
NOORDER: Generates the number in a random order.
Initializing and Accessing Sequence
A sequence needs to be initialized before being used. Every
sequence is initialized by a pseudo column NEXTVAL. Once you've
created a sequence, you typically use it within an INSERT
statement. The NEXTVAL pseudo column gets the next value from
the sequence so it can be inserted into the table. The CURRVAL
pseudo column is used to check the current value of the sequence.
Modifying Sequence
It may be required later on to change certain parameters of an
already created sequence. This can be done using the ALTER
SEQUENCE command.
Syntax:
ALTER SEQUENCE <sequence name>
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[sequence attributes]
Dropping Sequence
A sequence can be deleted using the DROP SEQUENCE
command.
Syntax:
DROP SEQUENCE <sequence name>
3.4.4 SYNONYMS
Synonyms are alternative names for an existing object which are
permanently stored in the database. We have used alias names for
accessing tables with shorter names in various queries. The
difference is that these alias names are of temporary nature and
are lost from one query to another, whereas synonyms are
permanent alias names for objects.
Advantages of using synonyms
Synonyms are often used for security and convenience.
They can do the following things:
They can hide or mask the name and owner of an object.
Provide location transparency for remote objects of a
distributed database.
Simplify SQL statements for database users.
With the help of synonyms the user can insert, update or
retreive records from any database object. Synonyms cannot
be used in a DROP TABLE, DROP VIEW or TRUNCATE
TABLE statement.
The various objects for which synonyms can be created are as
follows:
Tables
Views
Materialized Views
Stored Function
Stored Procedures
Packages
Sequences
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Synonyms
There are two kinds of synonyms public and private.
Public Synonym: These are accessible to all users provided they
have the appropriate object privilege on the object on which the
synonym is created.
Private Synonym: These belong only to the user who creates it.
Creating Synonyms
Synonyms can be created using the CREATE SYNONYM
command
Syntax:
CREATE [PUBLIC] SYNONYM <synonym name> FOR <object
name>
Renaming Synonyms
Only Private Synonyms can be renamed using the Rename
statement.
Syntax:
RENAME <old synonym name> TO <new synonym name>
Modifying a Synonym
To modify or alter or change a synonym use the OR REPLACE
clause. You can use this clause to change the definition of an
existing synonym without dropping it.
Syntax:
CREATE OR REPLACE [PUBLIC] SYNONYM <synonym name>
FOR <object name>
Removing a Synonym
Synonyms can be removed or deleted using the DROP SYNONYM
statement.
Syntax:
DROP SYNONYM <synonym name>
3.5 SUBQUERIES
Queries can be nested so that the results of one query can
be used in another query via a relational operator or aggregation
function. A nested query is known as a subquery. While joins and
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other table operations provide computationally superior (i.e. faster)
alternatives in many cases, the use of subqueries introduces a
hierarchy in execution which can be useful or necessary.
Since you know how to code SELECT statements, you
already know how to code a subquery. It's simply a SELECT
statement that's coded within another SQL statement. A subquery
can return a single value, a result set that contains a single column
(single row subquery), or a result set that contains one or more
columns (multiple row subquery).
The following is the list of comparison operators used in a

single row subquery.
Symbol
Description
Equal
>
Greater than
>=
Greater than or equal
<
Less than
<=
Less than or equal
<>
Not equal
!=
Not equal
The following is the list of comparison operators used in multiple

row subquery.
Subquery
Operator
Description
IN, =ANY
Look for a match in any of the subquery rows
>ANY
Look for a value greater than any of the

subquery rows
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<ANY
Look for a value less than any of the

subquery rows
>ALL
Look for a value greater than all of the

subquery rows
<ALL
Look for a value less than all of the subquery

rows
!=ALL, NOT IN
Look for a value not present in any of the

subquery rows
Four ways to introduce a subquery in a SELECT statement

In a WHERE clause as a search condition.
In a HAVING clause as a search condition.
In a FROM clause as a table specification.
In a SELECT clause as a column specification.
Examples for subqueries:

Get the product name and company name of the products
which have the maximum price.
SELECT product_name, company_name FROM product
WHERE unit_price = (SELECT MAX(unit_price) FROM product);
Get the names of products which have a unit price less than
or equal to the average price of the products.
SELECT product_name FROM product
WHERE unit_price <= (SELECT AVG(unit_price) FROM product);
Get the names of the product which has the highest price.
WHERE unit_price >= ALL (SELECT unit_price FROM product);
Get the names of the products which have been ordered.

WHERE product_id IN (SELECT product_id FROM order_prod);
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Or
WHERE product_id
order_prod);
ANY
(SELECT
product_id
FROM
Get the names of the products which have not been ordered
by any customers.
WHERE product_id
order_prod);
NOT
IN
(SELECT
product_id
FROM
product_id
FROM
Or
WHERE product_id
order_prod);
!=
ALL
(SELECT
Get the names of the products which have been ordered in

maximum quantity.
WHERE product_id IN (SELECT product_id FROM order_prod
GROUP BY product_id HAVING SUM(total_units) > = ALL
(SELECT SUM(total_units) FROM order_prod GROUP BY
product_id));
3.5.1 SUBQUERY in DDL and DML commands

Subqueries can be used in DDL commands to create a new
table from an existing table. The subquery is used to retreive the
data using which the new table is created. The structure of the new
table will be same as the structure of the query.
Subquery can be used to insert, update and delete rows
from the existing table.
For example,
To create a table student_new containing roll, name and grade
of students enrolled in semester 3.
CREATE TABLE student_new AS
(SELECT roll, name, grade FROM student WHERE semester = 3);
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To insert a record in the table student_new (created above) with

roll number 1 more than the maximum roll number of the table.
INSERT INTO student_new VALUES
((SELECT MAX(roll) + 1 FROM student_new), 'Pravin', 'A');
3.6 SUMMARY
Aggregate functions operate on a series of values and return a
single summary value.
Aggregate functions are commonly used with the GROUP BY
clause in a SELECT statement, where the rows of a queried
table are divided into groups.
The most common aggregate functions are
AVG
SUM
MIN
MAX
COUNT
GROUP BY clause forms groups on the specified columns. The
GROUP BY clause is used alongwith the aggregate functions to
retreive data grouped according to one or more columns.
The HAVING clause to restrict the groups of returned rows to
those groups for which the specified condition is TRUE.
A view is a logical representation of one or more tables. In
essence, a view is a stored query.
Views can be classified as updateable views and nonupdateable views.
Index is an object which can be defined as the ordered list of
values of a column or combination of columns used for faster
searching and sorting of data.
By default, indexes are created for primary keys and unique
constraints of a table.
Creating indexes must be avoided on columns that are updated
frequently since this slows down insert, update and delete
operations.
SEQUENCE is a type of database object which can be used to
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generate numbers in a sequence. This can be used to generate

values for primary keys.
Synonyms are alternative names for an existing object which
are permanently stored in the database.
There are two kinds of synonyms public and private.
Queries can be nested so that the results of one query can be
used in another query via a relational operator or aggregation
function. A nested query is also known as a subquery.
Subqueries can be used in DDL commands to create a new
table from an existing table.
Subquery can be used to insert, update and delete rows from
the existing table.

1. What are aggregate functions? explain in detail.
2. Explain the Group By Having clause with examples.
3. Differentiate between the WHERE clause and HAVING
clause?
4. What is view? What are the benefits of using views?
5. Explain the types of views in detail.
6. Write a short note on indexes.
7. What is a sequence? Explain the syntax for creating a
sequence.
8. What is a synonym? Why should you use a synonym?
9. Explain the different types of synonyms? List the objects for
which synonyms can be created.
10. What is a subquery? Explain in detail with examples.
3.8 LAB ASSIGNMENT

Column name
Data type
Size
Constraint
CUSTOMER_ID
CHAR
PRIMARY KEY.
BEGIN WITH 'C'
CUSTOMER_NAME
VARCHAR2
20
NOT NULL
MUST
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ADDRESS
VARCHAR2
20
UNIQUE
CITY
VARCHAR2
20
PINCODE
NUMBER
STATE
VARCHAR2
20
BALANCE_DUE
NUMBER
8,2
2. Create a PRODUCT table with the following columns and constraints

Column name
Data type
Size
Constraint
PRODUCT_CODE
CHAR
PRIMARY KEY
PRODUCT_NAME
VARCHAR2
QTY_AVAIL
NUMBER
COST_PRICE
NUMBER
8,2
SELLING_PRICE
NUMBER
8,2
UNIQUE

Column name
Data type
Size
ORDER_NO
CHAR
ORDER_DATE
TIMESTAMP
CUSTOMER_ID
CHAR
PRODUCT_CODE
CHAR
QUANTITY
NUMBER
Constraint
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PRIMARY
KEY
=
ORDER_NO
ORDER_DATE
4. Insert 5-10 records in all the tables.

5. Apply
UNIQUE
constraint
on
CUSTOMER_ID+PRODUCT_CODE on the ORDER table.
6. Define a foreign key on CUSTOMER_ID of ORDER table
7. Define a foreign key on PRODUCT_CODE of ORDER table
8. Count the customerwise number of orders.
9. Calculate the average selling price of all products.
10. List the customer names for which we have orders in hand.
11. List the yearwise number of orders placed.
12. Display the customers who have placed some order. Use IN
and EXISTS operator.
13. Find the customer who has placed maximum number of orders.
14. Create unique index on ORDER_NO, CUSTOMER_ID and
PRODUCT_CD of ORDER table.
15. Create a non unique index on STATE of CUSTOMER table.
16. Create a view named vw_balance which will display customer
names with balances more than 4000.
17. Add two new customers through the view.
18. Create a view named vw_city which will contain citywise total
balances.
3.9 BIBLIOGRAPY, REFERENCES AND FURTHER

READING
Database Management Systems,




Limited
Expert Oracle PL/SQL, By:

Ron
Third
Edition
by
Hardman,Michael
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Wikipedia Link
(11.2), part number E25519-05
n.htm
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Unit - II
4
SECURITY PRIVILEGES, SET
OPERATORS & DATETIME FUNCTIONS
Unit Structure
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Enhancements to GROUP BY function
4.2.1 ROLLUP Operator
4.2.2 CUBE Operator
4.2.3 GROUPING Function
4.3 SET OPERATORS
4.3.1 INTERSECT Operator
4.3.2 UNION Operator
4.3.3 UNION ALL Operator
4.3.4 MINUS Operator
4.4 DATETIME FUNCTIONS
4.4.1 Parsing Date and Time
4.5 Controlling User Access
4.5.1 System privileges
4.5.2 Object Privileges
4.5.3 What a user can grant?
4.5.4 GRANT/REVOKE PRIVILEGES
4.5.4.1 GRANT COMMAND
4.5.4.2 REVOKE COMMAND
4.6 Summary
4.8 Lab Assignment
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4.0 OBJECTIVES
Get summary information using CUBE, ROLLUP and
GROUPING
Combine queries using SET operators
Use DateTime Functions
Control User Access
4.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous unit, we saw basic SQL operators,
statements, queries and subqueries. In this unit, we shall see
advanced subqueries, various advanced operators and security
privileges.
In the previous chapter we discussed SQL keywords and
functions. In this chapter we will see the extensions of GROUP BY
clause: ROLLUP and CUBE operators, and GROUPING function.
Also we will combine queries using SET operators and see various
DateTime functions.
4.2 ENHANCEMENTS TO GROUP BY FUNCTION

In the previous chapter we saw that the GROUP BY clause
forms groups on specified columns. The HAVING clause filters
these groups depending on some conditions.
Assume the records in the EMP table as shown below.
EMPNO
ENAME HIREDATE
DEPTNO JOB
SALARY
COMM
111
Satish
19-DEC-2008
10
CLERK
7000
1000
222
Rashmi
01-JAN-1987
20
ANALYST
8000
550
333
Rishi
05-JUN-1976
10
MANAGER
10,000
450
444
Anil
16-APR-1967
10
PRESIDENT
15,000
2000
555
Anita
30
MANAGER
8000
1000
666
Nilesh
20-MAY-1987
20
MANAGER
13,000
777
Ruchi
11-JUN-2000
30
SALESMAN
5000
888
Sarika
20
SALESMAN
4000
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A simple GROUP BY clause will show the following result.
Display the amount of salary being paid jobwise for each

department.
SELECT deptno, job, SUM(sal) FROM emp
GROUP BY deptno, job
ORDER BY deptno, job;
DEPTNO
JOB
SUM(SAL)
10
CLERK
7000
10
MANAGER
10000
10
PRESIDENT
15000
20
ANALYST
8000
20
MANAGER
13000
20
SALESMAN
4000
30
MANAGER
8000
30
SALESMAN
5000
4.2.1 ROLLUP Operator

The ROLLUP operator can be used to add one or more
summary rows to a result set that uses grouping and aggregates. A
summary is provided for each aggregate column included in the
select list. All other columns, except the ones that identify which
group is being summarized, are assigned null values. It also adds a
summary row to the end of the result set that summarizes the entire
result set.
department.
GROUP BY ROLLUP (deptno, job)
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DEPTNO
JOB
SUM(SAL)
10
CLERK
7000
10
MANAGER
10000
10
PRESIDENT
15000
10
(null)
32000
20
ANALYST
8000
20
MANAGER
13000
20
SALESMAN
4000
20
(null)
25000
30
MANAGER
8000
30
SALESMAN
5000
30
(null)
13000
(null)
(null)
70000
4.2.2 CUBE Operator

The CUBE operator is similar to the ROLLUP operator,
except it adds summary rows for every combination of groups
specified in the GROUP BY clause. It also adds a summary row to
the end result set that summarizes the entire result set.
(14)
Display the amount of salary being paid jobwise for
each department.
GROUP BY CUBE (deptno, job)
DEPTNO
JOB
SUM(SAL)
10
CLERK
7000
10
MANAGER
10000
10
PRESIDENT
15000
10
(null)
32000
20
ANALYST
8000
20
MANAGER
13000
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20
SALESMAN
4000
20
(null)
25000
30
MANAGER
8000
30
SALESMAN
5000
30
(null)
13000
(null)
ANALYST
8000
(null)
CLERK
7000
(null)
MANAGER
31000
(null)
PRESIDENT
15000
(null)
SALESMAN
9000
(null)
(null)
70000
4.2.3 GROUPING Function

Using the ROLLUP and CUBE operator introduces a null
value to the column in a summary row that hasn't been
summarized. If you want to assign a value other than null to these
columns, you can do it by using the GROUPING function. The
GROUPING function determines when a null value is assigned to a
column as a result of the ROLLUP or CUBE operator. The column
named in this function must be one of the columns named in the
GROUP BY clause.
If a null value is assigned to the specified column as a result
of the ROLLUP or CUBE operator, the GROUPING function returns
a value of 1. Otherwise it returns a value of 0.
department.
SELECT
CASE
WHEN GROUPING (deptno) = 1 THEN '=========='
ELSE deptno
END AS dept_no,
CASE
WHEN GROUPING (job) = 1 THEN '=========='
ELSE job
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END AS job,
SUM(sal)
FROM emp
GROUP BY ROLLUP (deptno, job)
DEPTNO
JOB
SUM(SAL)
10
CLERK
7000
10
MANAGER
10000
10
PRESIDENT
15000
10
==========
32000
20
ANALYST
8000
20
MANAGER
13000
20
SALESMAN
4000
20
==========
25000
30
MANAGER
8000
30
SALESMAN
5000
30
==========
13000
==========
==========
70000
4.3 SET OPERATORS

Set operators combine the results of two component
queries into a single result. Queries containing set operators are
called compound queries. Like joins, set operators combine data
from two or more tables but there is a big difference. Joins try to
combine columns from the base tables, however, set operators
combine rows from two or more result sets.
Generally SET operations are applied on multiple SELECT
statements. The records returned by each SELECT statement are
treated as a SET of values and the final result is obtained
depending on the SET operator used. There are four SET
operators available:
UNION
UNION ALL
INTERSECT
MINUS
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Conditions for SET operations
Two SELECT statements can be combined into a compund query
by a SET operation if they satisfy the following conditions:
The result set of both the queries must have the same
number of columns.
The data type of each column in the first result set must
match with the data types of the columns of the second
result set.
Restrictions on SET operations
The column names for the resultant data set will come from
the first query.
If you want to use the ORDER BY clause in the query
involving SET operations, you must place the ORDER BY
clause only once at the end of the compound query. The
component queries can't have individual ORDER BY
clauses.
Syntax:
<query 1>
[SET OPERATOR]
<query 2>
Assume two tables student and student_details as shown below.
CLASS
ROLLNO
NAME
201
Satish
201
Rashmi
205
Rishi
205
anil
ROLLNO
SUBJECT
MARKS
Maths
12
Physics
23
Maths
34
Maths
35
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4.3.1 INTERSECT Operator
Returns only those rows which are common to both queries.
Display the rollnos of students that are in both the student
and student_details table.
SELECT rollno FROM student
INTERSECT
SELECT rollno FROM student_details;
ROLLNO
1
2
3
Display the details of students from the student table for which
marks have been entered in the student_details table.
SELECT * FROM student
WHERE rollno IN
(
INTERSECT
SELECT rollno FROM student_details
);
CLASS
ROLLNO
NAME
201
Satish
201
Rashmi
205
Rishi
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4.3.2 UNION Operator
Returns the values which exist in either of the two queries. By
default, a UNION eliminates duplicate rows.
10. Display all the rollnos which exist either in the student or in
the student_details table.
UNION
RO
LLNO
1
2
3
4
4.3.3 UNION ALL Operator

Returns the values which exist in either of the two queries. The
UNION operator has an additional clause ALL which displays the
duplicate values also.
Display all the rollnos which exist either in the student or in the
student_details table.
UNION ALL
ROLLNO
1
2
3
4
1
1
2
3
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Using ORDER BY clause
In order to arrange the final result of any SET operator, we can use
the ORDER BY clause at the end of the last SELECT statement.
Display all the rollnos which exist either in the student or in
the student_details table.
UNION ALL
SELECT rollno FROM student_details
ORDER BY rollno;
ROLLNO
1
1
1
2
2
3
3
4
4.3.4 MINUS Operator

The MINUS operator takes the result set of one SELECT
statement, and removes those rows that are also returned by a
second SELECT statement. It removes the records that are
common to both the queries and displays the remaining records
from the query 1.
19. Display the rollnos whose marks have not been entered in the
student_details table.
MINUS
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ROLLNO
4
4.4 DATETIME FUNCTIONS

We saw a brief overview of DateTime functions in chapter 2.
In this section we discuss about these functions in greater detail.
Datetime functions operate on date (DATE), timestamp
(TIMESTAMP, TIMESTAMP WITH TIME ZONE, and TIMESTAMP
WITH LOCAL TIME ZONE), and interval (INTERVAL DAY TO
SECOND, INTERVAL YEAR TO MONTH) values.
Two operators, plus and minus signs, can be used to work
with dates. Summary of these operators is provided in the table
below.
Operato Description
r
+
Adds the specified number of days to a date
Subtracts the specified number of days from a date.

Or, subtracts one date from another and returns the
number of days between the two dates.
The table given below gives the syntax of commonly used

date time functions and also their explanation. If you study the
summaries and examples of these functions, you shouldn't have
much trouble using them.
Function
Description
SYSDATE
Returns the current local date

and time based on the
operating system's clock
CURRENT_DATE
Returns the local date and time

adjusted for the current session
time zone
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ROUND (date [, date_format])
Returns the date rounded to the

unit specified by the date
format. If the format is omitted,
rounds to the nearest day.
TRUNC (date [, date_format])
Works like the ROUND function

but truncates the date.
MONTHS_BETWEEN
date2)
ADD_MONTHS
integer_months)
(date1, Returns the number of months

between date1 and date2.
(date, Adds the specified number of
months to the specified date
and returns the resulting date.
LAST_DAY (date)
Returns the date for the last

day of the month for the
specified date.
NEXT_DAY (date, day_of_week) Returns the date for the next

day of the week that comes
after the specified date.
Examples that use date/time functions

Example
Result
SYSDATE
19-OCT-09 04:23:36 PM
ROUND (SYSDATE)
20-OCT-09 12:00:00 AM
ROUND (SYSDATE, 'MI')
19-OCT-09 04:24:00 PM
TRUNC (SYSDATE, 'MI')
19-OCT-09 04:23:00 PM
MONTHS_BETWEEN ('15-SEP-08', '01- 1.45161290.........

AUG-08')
ADD_MONTHS ('19-OCT-09', -1)
19-SEP-09
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LAST_DAY ('15-FEB-09')
28-FEB-09
NEXT_DAY ('15-AUG-08', 'THURS')
21-AUG-08
SYSDATE 1
18-OCT-09
For Example, let us find out the number of years for various
employees who served the company. (refer to the emp table)
SELECT empno, ename,
hiredate)/365) no_of_years
hiredate,
ROUND((sysdate
FROM emp;
EMPNO
ENAME
HIREDATE
NO_OF_YEARS
111
Satish
19-DEC-2008
01
222
Rashmi
01-JAN-1987
22
333
Rishi
05-JUN-1976
33
444
Anil
16-APR-1967
42
666
Nilesh
20-MAY-1987
22
777
Ruchi
11-JUN-2000
Note: The employees whose hire date is NULL are not listed. Since
the ROUND function is used without any specified format, rounding
is done for the next year (i.e. for the first row the time between
hiredate (19/12/08) and sysdate (19/10/2009) is 10 months).
4.4.1 Parsing Date and Time
TO_CHAR function can be used to return various parts of a DATE
value as a string. To do that you need to specify the appropriate
date format element for the part of the DATE value that you want to
return.
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Example
Result
TO_CHAR (SYSDATE, 'DD-MON-RR HH:MI:SS')
19-OCT-09 04:23:36 PM
TO_CHAR (SYSDATE, 'YEAR')
TWO THOUSAND NINE
TO_CHAR (SYSDATE, 'YYYY')
2009
TO_CHAR (SYSDATE, 'YY')
09
TO_CHAR (SYSDATE, 'MONTH')
OCTOBER
TO_CHAR (SYSDATE, 'MON')
OCT
TO_CHAR (SYSDATE, 'MM')
10
TO_CHAR (SYSDATE, 'DAY')
MONDAY
TO_CHAR (SYSDATE, 'DY')
MON
TO_CHAR (SYSDATE, 'DD')
19
TO_CHAR (SYSDATE, 'HH24')
16
TO_CHAR (SYSDATE, 'HH')
04
TO_CHAR (SYSDATE, 'MI')
23
TO_CHAR (SYSDATE, 'Q')
4.5 CONTROLLING USER ACCESS

Oracle is a multi-user RDBMS and provides a secure
environment such that the objects owned by a user are by default
not accessible to the other users. It provides the facility that the
owner of an object can grant various permissions to other database
users as per requirements.
Authorization includes primarily two processes:
Permitting only certain users to access, process, or alter data.
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Applying varying limitations on user access or actions. The
limitations placed on (or removed from) users can apply to
objects such as schemas, tables, or rows or to resources such
as time (CPU, connect, or idle times).
A user privilege is the right to run a particular type of SQL
statement, or the right to access an object that belongs to another
user, run a PL/SQL package, and so on.
Roles are created by users (usually administrators) to group
together privileges or other roles. They are a way to facilitate the
granting of multiple privileges or roles to users.
There are two types of privileges: system privileges and object
privileges.
4.5.1 System privileges:
A system privilege is the right to perform a particular action or to
perform an action on any schema objects of a particular type. For
example, the privileges to create tablespaces and to delete the
rows of any table in a database are system privileges.
Some of the most common system privileges are:
CREATE / ALTER / DROP USER
CREATE SESSION
CREATE / ALTER / DROP TABLE
CREATE VIEWS
CREATE PROCEDURE
CREATE SEQUENCE
CREATE PUBLIC SYNONYM
4.5.2 Object Privileges:
An object privilege is a right that you grant to a user on a
database objects like tables, views, sequences, packages,
procedures. Some examples of object privileges include the right
to:
Use an edition
Update a table
Select rows from another user's table
Execute a stored procedure of another user
4.5.3 What a user can grant?

A user can grant privileges on any object he/she owns. Different
objects have different permissions to be assigned to other users as
specified in the table below.
79
Object
Privileges
Table
SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE,

DELETE, ALTER, INDEX
View, Materialized Views
SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE,

DELETE
Sequence
SELECT, ALTER
Functions, Procedures, Packages
EXECUTE
Index
EXECUTE
4.5.4 GRANT/REVOKE PRIVILEGES

The Data Control Language commands are used to enforce
database security in a multiple user database environment. The
Data Control Language (DCL) authorizes users and groups of
users to access and manipulate data. Its two main statements are:
13.
GRANT: authorizes one or more users to perform an
operation or a set of operations on an object.
14.
REVOKE: eliminates a grant, which may be the
default grant.
4.5.4.1 GRANT COMMAND
The GRANT command is used to grant system and object
privileges to a role or a user.
Granting System Privileges
You can grant system privileges to users and roles. If you grant
system privileges to roles, then you can use the roles to exercise
system privileges.
The syntax of GRANT statement for system privileges
GRANT <system_privilege>
TO <user_or_role>
[WITH ADMIN OPTION]
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The WITH ADMIN OPTION clause allows the user or role to grant
the specified system privileges to other users or roles.
For example,
A statement that grants a system privilege to a role
GRANT CREATE SESSION TO ap_user;
A statement that grants a system privilege to a role with the
admin option
GRANT CREATE SESSION TO ap_developer WITH ADMIN
OPTION;
Granting Object Privileges
Each type of object has different privileges associated with it.
Object privileges can be granted to users and roles. If you grant
object privileges to roles, then you can make the privileges
selectively available.
The syntax of GRANT statement for object privileges
GRANT <object_privilege>
ON <[schema_name.]object_name [(column [,.....])]>
TO <user_or_role>
[WITH GRANT OPTION]
The WITH GRANT OPTION clause allows the user or role to grant
the specified object privileges to other users or roles.
Consider the following examples,
A statement that grants an object privilege to a role
GRANT SELECT ON emp TO ap_user;
A statement that grants all object privileges to a role with the
grant option
GRANT SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE ON emp TO
ap_developer WITH GRANT OPTION;
4.5.4.2 REVOKE COMMAND

The REVOKE command is used to revoke system or object
privileges from a role or user.
Revoking System Privileges

You can revoke system privileges from roles or users.
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The syntax of REVOKE statement for system privileges
REVOKE <system_privilege>
FROM <user_or_role>
A statement that revokes a system privilege from a role
REVOKE DROP ANY VIEW FROM ap_user;
Revoking Object Privileges
Each type of object has different privileges associated with it.
Object privileges can be revoked from users and roles.
The syntax of REVOKE statement for object privileges

REVOKE [GRANT OPTION FOR] <object_privilege>
ON <[schema_name.]object_name [(column [,.....])]>
FROM <user_or_role>
[RESTRICT | CASCADE]
The GRANT OPTION FOR clause allows the user or role to revoke
the specified object privileges from other users or roles.
The RESTRICT clause revokes all privileges for the user.
The CASCADE clause revokes all privileges for the user and given
by the user to other users.
A statement that revokes an object privilege from a role
REVOKE SELECT ON emp FROM ap_user;
A statement that revokes selected object privileges from a
role with the grant option
REVOKE GRANT OPTION FOR SELECT, INSERT, ON emp
FROM ap_developer RESTRICT;
NOTE:
You can specify ALL [PRIVILEGES] to grant or revoke all available
object privileges for an object. ALL is not a privilege; rather, it is a
shortcut, or a way of granting or revoking all object privileges with
one GRANT and REVOKE statement. If all object privileges are
granted using the ALL shortcut, then individual privileges can still
be revoked.
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Similarly, you can revoke all individually granted privileges by
specifying ALL.
A statement that grants all object privileges to a role.
GRANT ALL ON emp TO ap_developer;
A statement that revokes all object privilege from a role

REVOKE ALL ON emp FROM ap_user;
4.6 SUMMARY
The ROLLUP operator can be used to add one or more
summary rows to a result set that uses grouping and
aggregates.
The CUBE operator is similar to the ROLLUP operator, except it
adds summary rows for every combination of groups specified
in the GROUP BY clause.
The GROUPING function determines when a null value is
assigned to a column as a result of the ROLLUP or CUBE
operator.
Set operators combine the results of two component queries
into a single result. Queries containing set operators are called
compound queries.
The summary of various SET operators is as follows:
Operator
Description
UNION ALL
Combines the results of two SELECT statements

into one result set.
UNION
Combines the results of two SELECT statements

into one result set, and then eliminates any
duplicate rows from that result set.
MINUS
Takes the result set of one SELECT statement,

and removes those rows that are also returned
by the another SELECT statement.
INTERSECT Returns only those rows that are returned by

each of the two SELECT statements.
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Datetime functions operate on date, timestamp, and interval
values.
TO_CHAR function can be used to return various parts of a
DATE value as a string.
A user privilege is the right to run a particular type of SQL
statement, or the right to access an object that belongs to
another user, run a PL/SQL package, and so on.
There are two types of privileges: system privileges and object
privileges.
A system privilege is the right to perform a particular action or to
perform an action on any schema objects of a particular type.
An object privilege is a right that you grant to a user on a
database objects like tables, views, sequences, packages,
procedures.
The GRANT command is used to grant system and object
privileges to a role or a user.
The REVOKE command is used to revoke system or object
privileges from a role or user.

1. Explain the ROLLUP and CUBE operator with examples.
2. What are SET operators? List and explain the different types of
SET operators.
3. Using DateTime functions, how to calculate age from date of
birth?
4. What is a privilege? Explain the different types of privileges.
5. Explain the GRANT command in detail with examples.
6. Explain the REVOKE command in detail with examples.
4.8 LAB ASSIGNMENT

1. Create a CUSTOMER table with the following columns and
constraints
Column name
Data type
Size
Constraint
CUSTOMER_ID
CHAR
PRIMARY
MUST
WITH 'C'
CUSTOMER_NAME
VARCHAR2
20
NOT NULL
ADDRESS
VARCHAR2
20
UNIQUE
CITY
VARCHAR2
20
KEY.
BEGIN
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PINCODE
NUMBER
STATE
VARCHAR2
20
BALANCE_DUE
NUMBER
8,2

Column name
Data type
Size
Constraint
PRODUCT_CODE
CHAR
PRIMARY KEY
PRODUCT_NAME
VARCHAR2
20
UNIQUE
QTY_AVAIL
NUMBER
COST_PRICE
NUMBER
8,2
SELLING_PRICE
NUMBER
8,2

Column name
Data type
Size
ORDER_NO
CHAR
ORDER_DATE
TIMESTAMP
CUSTOMER_ID
CHAR
PRODUCT_CODE
CHAR
QUANTITY
NUMBER
PRIMARY
KEY
=
ORDER_NO
Constraint
ORDER_DATE
4. Insert 5-10 records in all the tables.

5. Apply
UNIQUE
constraint
on
CUSTOMER_ID+PRODUCT_CODE on the ORDER table.
6. Define a foreign key on CUSTOMER_ID of ORDER table
7. Define a foreign key on PRODUCT_CODE of ORDER table
8. Find the total number of orders and the customerwise number of
orders from the ORDER table.
9. Display the orders placed during the year '2008'.
10. What would be the date 10 days from today.
11. 28/02/2010 would fall on which day (Mon, Tue, .....)?
12. List the customer codes that have placed orders using SET
operators.
13. Display the customer codes that have not placed any order
using SET operators.
14. Display the customer codes that have placed some order using
SET operators.
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15. Permit the user Ram to be able to INSERT and DELETE
commands in the CUSTOMER table.
16. Grant INSERT permission to the user Ravi such that he can
further grant the INSERT permission to other users for the
CUSTOMER table.
17. Withdraw the DELETE permission from Ram.
18. Give the UPDATE permission on ADDRESS and STATE
column of the CUSTOMER table to Kishan.

READING
Database
Management
Systems,



Limited
Expert Oracle PL/SQL, By: Ron Hardman,Michael McLaughlin,

Tata McGraw-Hill


Third
Edition
by

Wikipedia Link
(11.2), part number E25519-05
n.htm
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5
ADVANCED SUBQUERIES
Unit Structure
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Multiple Column Subqueries
5.2.1 Coding Subqueries in the FROM clause
5.3 Scalar Subqueries
5.4 Correlated Subquery
5.5 WITH clause
5.5.1 Functions of the WITH clause
5.6 Hierarchical Queries
5.7 Summary
5.9 Lab Assignment
5.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this chapter you will be able to,
15. Understand Scalar and Correlated Subqueries
16. Write and Execute Multiple Column Subqueries
17. Understand WITH clause
18. Understand Hierarchical queries
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5.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous chapters we learnt that, queries can be nested so that the
results of one query can be used in another query via a relational
operator or aggregation function. This type of nested query is known as a
subquery. In this chapter we will discuss more about the specifics of using
subqueries.
To illustrate the concepts in this chapter, assume the tables EMP and
EMP_DETAILS having the following records.
Table EMP:
EMPID
DESIGNATION
DEPT
SALARY
1001
Manager
Finance
50000
1002
Executive
Finance
25000
1003
Senior Executive
Finance
35000
1004
Manager
HR
20000
1005
Executive
HR
20000
1006
Senior Executive
HR
30000
1007
Manager
Admin
55000
1008
Executive
Finance
25000
1009
Executive
Finance
25000
1010
Executive
HR
25000
Table EMP_DETAILS:
EMPID
ENAME
AGE
1001
Rajesh
23
1002
Tejal
25
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1003
Himesh
35
1004
Himali
37
1005
Rehan
40
1006
Kiran
28
1007
Ashima
21
1008
Vikram
31
1009
Ridhi
26
5.2 MULTIPLE COLUMN SUBQUERIES

Multiple column subquery returns the rows on the basis of matching of a
pair of given columns for a given row. It first selects the row on the basis
of the WHERE clause and then finds the other rows on the basis of a
matching pair of columns of the particular row. There are two types of
comparison in multiple column subqueries.
Pair wise: In pair wise comparison we search both the columns match in
the same subquery, e.g. WHERE (column1, column2) IN (subquery1)
Non Pair wise: In non pair wise comparison we search the columns in
separate subqueries, e.g. WHERE (column1) IN (subquery1) AND
(column2) IN (subquery2).
List the empid of employees who have the same salary and
designation as the employee having empid 1009.
SELECT DISTINCT empid FROM emp
WHERE (designation, salary)
IN (SELECT designation, salary FROM emp WHERE empid =
1009)
ORDER BY empid;
Or
SELECT DISTINCT empid FROM emp
WHERE ((designation) IN (SELECT designation, salary FROM
emp WHERE empid = 1009)) AND ((salary) IN (SELECT
designation, salary FROM emp WHERE empid = 1009))
ORDER BY empid;
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Both the queries above will give the same result set. The first query is the
pair wise comparison while the second query is the non pair wise
comparison. The output of the above query is:
EMPID
1002
1008
1009
1010
5.2.1 CODING SUBQUERIES IN THE FROM CLAUSE

A subquery can be coded in place of a table specification i.e. in the
FROM clause. The results of the subquery are joined with another table.
When you use a subquery in this way, it can return any number of rows
and columns. This type of subquery, in the FROM clause of a SELECT
statement, is referred to as an inline view since it works like a view that
is temporarily created and stored in the memory. Inline views are most
useful when you need to summarize the results of a summary query.
When you create an inline view, you must assign an alias to it. Then, you
can use the inline view within the outer query just as you would any other
table.
For example,
To find the department in which the maximum number of

employees work.
SELECT MAX (inview.total_emp)
FROM (SELECT COUNT (empid) as total_emp FROM emp
GROUP BY dept) inview;
MAX(INVIEW.TOTAL_EMP)
5
In the above query, we use the alias 'inview' for the subquery that begins
after the FROM clause. The subquery counts the number of employees
that work in each department & the outer query takes the values from the
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subquery using the MAX function finds the maximum number of
employees to give the result set.
5.3 SCALAR SUBQUERIES

A scalar subquery expression is a subquery that returns exactly one
column value from one row. The value of the scalar subquery expression
is the value of the select list item of the subquery. If the subquery returns
0 rows, then the value of the scalar subquery expression is NULL. If the
subquery returns more than one row, then Oracle returns an error.
You can use a scalar subquery expression in most syntax that calls for an
expression (expr).
For example,
Get the name and age of the employee enjoying maximum salary.
SELECT ename, age FROM emp_details
WHERE empid = (SELECT empid FROM emp WHERE salary =
(SELECT MAX(salary) FROM emp));
ENAME
AGE
Ashima
21
In the above example, the innermost scalar subquery gets

executed first providing the maximum salary from the EMP table, then the
empid of the employee is selected and given to the outer query to get the
name and age of the employee.
5.4 CORRELATED SUBQUERY

A correlated subquery is a subquery that is executed once for
each row processed by the outer query. It's similar to using a loop to do
repetitive processing in a procedural programming. In contrast, a
noncorrelated subquery is executed only once. In correlated subquery,
the outer query executes first and the inner query will execute second.
Each subquery is executed once for every row of the outer query.
For example,
Get the list of employees whose salary are higher than or equal to
the average salary of their respective departments.
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SELECT e1.empid, e1.dept FROM emp e1
WHERE salary >= (SELECT AVG(salary) FROM emp e2 GROUP
BY e2.dept
HAVING e1.empid = e2.empid);
EMPID
DEPT
1001
Finance
1003
Finance
1006
HR
1007
Admin
To run the inner query we need to know the dept of the employee
selected in the outer query. For each and every department value coming
from the outer query the average salary of the department is calculated in
the inner query and compared with the salary of the employee in the outer
query.
5.5 WITH
CLAUSE)
CLAUSE
(SUBQUERY
FACTORING
The WITH query_name clause lets you assign a name to a subquery

block. You can then reference the subquery block multiple places in
the query by specifying query_name. SQL optimizes the query by
treating the query name as either an inline view or as a temporary
table.
Syntax:
WITH query_name ([c_alias [, c_alias]...]) AS (subquery)
[, query_name ([c_alias [, c_alias]...]) AS (subquery) ]...
The column aliases following the query_name and the set

operators separating multiple subqueries in the AS clause are valid.
You can specify this clause in any top-level SELECT statement and
in most types of subqueries. The query name is visible to the main
query and to all subsequent subqueries. To code multiple subquery
factoring clauses, separate them with commas. Then each clause
can refer to itself and any previously defined subquery factoring
clauses in the same WITH clause.
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5.5.1 FUNCTIONS OF THE WITH CLAUSE
(15)
A named query can be referenced any number of times.
(16)
Any number of named queries can be created.
(17)
Named queries can reference other named queries that
came before them and even correlate to previous named queries.
(18)
The scope of the WITH clause is local to the SELECT in
which they are defined.
Get the empid of the employee who works in the HR department
and gets the maximum salary.
WITH hr_sal AS
(SELECT empid, salary FROM emp WHERE dept = HR)
SELECT MAX (salary) FROM hr_sal;
MAX (SALARY)
30000
Get the average age of employees working in the Finance

department.
WITH fin_age AS
(SELECT empid, salary FROM emp WHERE dept = Finance
SELECT AVG (age) FROM emp_details
WHERE empid IN (SELECT empid FROM fin_age);
5.6 HIERARCHICAL QUERIES

A hierarchical query loops through a result set and returns rows
in a hierarchical sequence. If a table contains hierarchical data, then you
can select rows in a hierarchical order using the hierarchical query
clause.
Syntax:
SELECT select_list
FROM table_name
[WHERE search_condition]
START WITH row_specification
CONNECT BY PRIOR connect_expr
SELECT statements that contain hierarchical queries can contain the
LEVEL pseudocolumn in the select list. LEVEL returns the value 1 for
a root node, 2 for a child node of a root node, 3 for a grandchild,
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and so on. The number of levels returned by a hierarchical query
may be limited by available user memory.
START WITH Clause used to specify a condition that
identifies the row(s) to be used as the root(s) of a hierarchical
query.
CONNECT BY Clause followed by the PRIOR keyword is used to
specify a condition that identifies the relationship between parent
rows and child rows of the hierarchy.
Assume the records in the EMP_NEW table
EMPID
ENAME
DESIGNATION
DEPT
SALARY
MGRID
1001
Rajesh
Manager
Finance
50000
1007
1002
Tejal
Executive
Finance
25000
1003
1003
Himesh
Senior Executive
Finance
35000
1001
1004
Himali
Manager
HR
20000
1010
1005
Rehan
Executive
HR
20000
1010
1006
Kiran
Senior Executive
HR
30000
1007
1007
Ashima
President
Admin
55000
1008
Vikram
Executive
Finance
25000
1003
1009
Ridhi
Executive
Finance
25000
1001
1010
Prakash
Executive
HR
25000
1006
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Ashima
(1007)
Rajesh
Kiran
Himesh
Ridhi
Prakash
(1003)
(1009)
(1010)
Tejal
Vikram
Himali
Rehan
A query that returns hierarchical data

SELECT LEVEL, empid, ename, mgrid FROM emp_new
START WITH ename = Ashima
CONNECT BY PRIOR empid = mgrid
ORDER BY LEVEL, empid;
LEVEL
EMPID
ENAME
MGRID
1007
Ashima
1001
Rajesh
1007
1006
Kiran
1007
1003
Himesh
1001
1009
Ridhi
1001
1010
Prakash
1006
1002
Tejal
1003
1004
Himali
1010
1005
Rehan
1010
1008
Vikram
1003
The EMP_NEW table uses the MGR column to identify the

manager for each employee. Here, Ashima is the top level manager since
she doesnt have a manager. Rajesh and Kiran report to Ashima and so
on.
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The hierarchical query uses the LEVEL pseudo-column to return a
column that identifies the level of the employee within the hierarchy. In
addition, this query uses the LEVEL pseudo-column in the ORDER BY
clause to sort by this column.
After the FROM clause, this query uses the START WITH clause to
identify the row to be used as the root of the hierarchy. Finally the
CONNECT BY clause specifies the condition that identifies the
relationship between the parent rows and the child rows.
5.7 SUMMARY
Multiple column subquery returns the rows on the basis of matching

of a pair of given columns for a given row. It first selects the row on
the basis of the WHERE clause and then finds the other rows on the
basis of a matching pair of columns of the particular row.
There are two types of comparison in multiple column subqueries Pair-Wise and Non Pair-wise.
A subquery can be coded in place of a table specification i.e. in the
FROM clause. The results of the subquery are joined with another
table.
A scalar subquery expression is a subquery that returns exactly one
column value from one row.
A correlated subquery is a subquery that is executed once for each
row processed by the outer query. It's similar to using a loop to do
repetitive processing in a procedural programming.
The WITH query_name clause lets you assign a name to a subquery
block.
To code multiple subquery factoring clauses, separate them with
commas. Then each clause can refer to itself and any previously
defined subquery factoring clauses in the same WITH clause.
If a table contains hierarchical data, then you can select rows in a
hierarchical order using the hierarchical query clause.
Explain multiple column subqueries with suitable examples.

What is an inline view? When can you use it? Explain with
example.
What is a scalar subquery? Explain with suitable example.
What is a correlated subquery? Explain with suitable example.
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Explain the WITH clause. Why should you use the WITH clause?
What is a hierarchical query? Illustrate with the help of an
example.
5.9 LAB ASSIGNMENT

Column name
Data type
Size
Constraint
CUSTOMER_ID
CHAR
PRIMARY KEY. MUST

BEGIN WITH 'C'
CUSTOMER_NAME
VARCHAR2
20
NOT NULL
ADDRESS
VARCHAR2
20
UNIQUE
CITY
VARCHAR2
20
PINCODE
NUMBER
STATE
VARCHAR2
20
BALANCE_DUE
NUMBER
8,2

Column name
Data type
Size
Constraint
PRODUCT_CODE
CHAR
PRIMARY KEY
PRODUCT_NAME
VARCHAR2
20
UNIQUE
QTY_AVAIL
NUMBER
COST_PRICE
NUMBER
8,2
SELLING_PRICE
NUMBER
8,2
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Column name
Data type
Size
ORDER_NO
CHAR
ORDER_DATE
TIMESTAMP
CUSTOMER_ID
CHAR
PRODUCT_CODE
CHAR
QUANTITY
NUMBER
Constraint
PRIMARY KEY = ORDER_NO + ORDER_DATE + CUSTOMER_ID +

PRODUCT_CODE
Insert 5-10 records in all the tables.

Apply UNIQUE constraint on CUSTOMER_ID+PRODUCT_CODE on
the ORDER table.
Define a foreign key on CUSTOMER_ID of ORDER table referring to
CUSTOMER_ID of CUSTOMER table.
Define a foreign key on PRODUCT_CODE of ORDER table referring
to PRODUCT_CODE of PRODUCT table.
List the customer names in the order of decreasing quantity ordered.
Calculate the average selling price of all products.
List the customer names for which we have orders in hand.
List the details of all products whose price is less than average price
of the products.
List the customers who have ordered for the same products.
Get the name, price and quantity in stock of the costliest product.

READING
Database Management Systems, Third Edition by RamaKrishnan,

Gehre. McGraw Hill
Database System Concepts, Fifth Edition by Silberschatz, Korth,

Sudarshan. McGraw Hill

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Limited
Expert Oracle PL/SQL, By: Ron Hardman,Michael McLaughlin, Tata

McGraw-Hill
SQL, PL/SQL The programming language of Oracle, Bayross Ivan,

BPB Publications
Fundamentals of Database Systems, Elmasri Ramez and Navathe

B. Shamkant, Pearson

Wikipedia Link
Oracle Database PL/SQL language Reference 11g Release

(11.2), part number E25519-05
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Unit - III
6
INTRODUCTION TO PL/SQL
Unit Structure
6.0 Objectives
6.1 Introduction
6.2 PL/SQL Overview
6.2.1 PL/SQL Engine
6.2.2 Advantages of PL/SQL
6.3 PL/SQL blocks
6.3.1 PL/SQL Block Structure
6.3.2 PL/SQL Subprograms
6.3.3 PL/SQL Anonymous Blocks
6.4 PL/SQL Identifiers
6.4.1 Reserved words and Keywords
6.4.2 Predefined Identifiers
6.4.3 User-defined Identifiers
6.4.3.1 Ordinary User-Defined Identifiers
6.4.3.2 Quoted User-Defined Identifiers
6.5 PL/SQL Placeholders
6.5.1 PL/SQL Variables
6.5.2 PL/SQL Constants
6.6 PL/SQL DATA TYPES
6.6.1 SCALAR DATA TYPE
6.6.1.1 Character Data Type
6.6.1.2 Numeric Data Type
6.6.1.3 Boolean Data Type
6.6.1.4 DateTime Data Type
6.7 %TYPE attribute
6.8 USING BIND VARIABLES
6.9 SEQUENCES in PL/SQL Expressions
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6.10 Summary
6.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this chapter you will be able to
11. Understand Basic Concepts of PL/SQL coding,
12. Understand variables, identifiers and its types,
13. Different data types,
14. Different types of PL/SQL blocks,
15. The %TYPE Attribute and Sequences in PL/SQL Expressions.
6.1 INTRODUCTION
In Oracle, there is a special language available for developers to
code stored procedures that seamlessly integrate with database object
access via the language of database objects, SQL. However, this
language offers far more execution potential than simple updates, selects,
inserts, and deletes. This language offers a procedural extension that
allows for modularity, variable declaration, loops and other logic
constructs, and advanced error handling. This language is known as
PL/SQL. PL/SQL stands for Procedural Language extension of SQL.
6.2 PL/SQL OVERVIEW

PL/SQL was developed by Oracle Corporation in the early 90s
to enhance the capabilities of SQL. PL/SQL is a combination of SQL
along with the procedural features of programming languages. In other
words, it is a database-oriented programming language that is a powerful
extension of SQL with procedural capabilities. The key strength of
PL/SQL is its tight integration with the Oracle database.
Being a procedural language, it has many standard capabilities including
Variable Definition and Assignment
Conditional Processing
Loop Constructs
Error Handling
Seamless Integration of SQL and SQL Functions
6.2.1 PL/SQL Engine
The PL/SQL engine is the tool used to define, compile, and

run PL/SQL program units. The engine can be installed in the
database or in an application development tool, such as Oracle
Forms. In either environment, the PL/SQL engine accepts as input
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any valid PL/SQL unit. The engine runs procedural statements, but
sends SQL statements to the SQL engine in the database, as
shown in the figure below.
Typically, the database processes PL/SQL units. When an

application development tool processes PL/SQL units, it passes
them to its local PL/SQL engine. If a PL/SQL unit contains no SQL
statements, the local engine processes the entire PL/SQL unit. This
is useful if the application development tool can benefit from
conditional and iterative control.
For example, Oracle Forms applications frequently use SQL
statements to test the values of field entries and do simple
computations. By using PL/SQL instead of SQL, these applications
can avoid calls to the database.
6.2.2 Advantages of PL/SQL

PL/SQL has these advantages:
Block Structure: PL SQL consists of blocks of code, which can be

nested within each other. Each block forms a unit of a task or a logical
module. PL/SQL Blocks can be stored in the database and reused.
Tight Integration with SQL: PL/SQL is tightly integrated with SQL,

the most widely used database manipulation language. For example:
PL/SQL lets you use all SQL data manipulation, cursor control, and
transaction control statements, and all SQL functions, operators, and
pseudo-columns. It also fully supports SQL data types.
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Procedural Language Capability: PL SQL consists of procedural

language constructs such as conditional statements (if else
statements) and loops like (FOR loops).
High Performance: PL/SQL lets you send a block of statements to

the database, significantly reducing traffic between the application and
the database.
High Productivity: PL/SQL lets you write compact code for

manipulating data. Just as a scripting language like PERL can read,
transform, and write data in files, PL/SQL can query, transform, and
update data in a database.
Portability: You can run PL/SQL applications on any operating

system and platform where Oracle Database runs.
Scalability: PL/SQL stored subprograms increase scalability by

centralizing application processing on the database server. The
shared memory facilities of the shared server let Oracle Database
support thousands of concurrent users on a single node.
Manageability: PL/SQL stored subprograms increase manageability

because you can maintain only one copy of a subprogram, on the
database server, rather than one copy on each client system. Any
number of applications can use the subprograms, and you can
change the subprograms without affecting the applications that invoke
them.
Support for Object-Oriented Programming: PL/SQL supports

object-oriented programming with "Abstract Data Types".
Support for Developing Web Applications: PL/SQL lets you create

applications that generate web pages directly from the database,
allowing you to make your database available on the Web and make
back-office data accessible on the intranet.
Support for Developing Server Pages: PL/SQL Server Pages

(PSPs) let you develop web pages with dynamic content. PSPs are an
alternative to coding a stored subprogram that writes the HTML code
for a web page one line at a time.
Error Handling: PL/SQL handles errors or exceptions effectively
during the execution of a PL/SQL program. Once an exception is
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caught, specific actions can be taken depending upon the type of the
exception or it can be displayed to the user with a message.
6.3 PL/SQL BLOCKS
PL/SQL provides a server-side, stored procedural language

that is easy-to-use, seamless with SQL, robust, portable, and
secure. You can access and manipulate database data using
procedural schema objects called PL/SQL blocks. The basic unit in
PL/SQL is a block, which groups related declarations and
statements. All PL/SQL programs are made up of blocks, which can
be nested within each other.
PL/SQL blocks generally are categorized as follows:
A subprogram is a PL/SQL block that is stored in the database

and can be called by name from an application. When you
create a subprogram, the database parses the subprogram and
stores its parsed representation in the database. You can
declare a subprogram as a procedure or a function.
An anonymous block is a PL/SQL block that appears in your

application and is not named or stored in the database. In many
applications, PL/SQL blocks can appear wherever SQL
statements can appear.
6.3.1 PL/SQL Block Structure

HEADER
-- Header part (optional)
<< label >> (optional)

DECLARE
-- Declarative part (optional)
-- Declarations of local types, variables, & subprograms

BEGIN
-- Executable part (required)
-- Statements (which can use items declared in declarative part)

[EXCEPTION -- Exception-handling part (optional)
-- Exception handlers for exceptions (errors) raised in executable part]
END;
A PL/SQL Block consists of the following sections:
(19)
(20)
The Header section (optional).

The Declaration section (optional).
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(21)
The Execution section (mandatory).
(22)
The Exception (Error Handling) section (optional).
Header Section:
The Header section of a PL/SQL Block is relevant only for

subprograms. The Header determines the way that the subprogram must
be called. The header includes the name, parameter list and RETURN
clause (for a function only).
Declaration Section:
The Declaration section of a PL/SQL Block starts with the

reserved keyword DECLARE. This section is optional and is used to
declare any placeholders like variables, constants, records and cursors,
which are used to manipulate data in the execution section. Placeholders
may be any of Variables, Constants and Records, which stores data
temporarily. Cursors are also declared in this section.
Execution Section:
The Execution section of a PL/SQL Block starts with the reserved

keyword BEGIN and ends with END. This is a mandatory section and is
the section where the program logic is written to perform any task. The
programmatic constructs like loops, conditional statement and SQL
statements
form
a
part
of
execution
section.
Exception Section:
The Exception section of a PL/SQL Block starts with the reserved

keyword EXCEPTION. This section is optional. Any errors in the program
can be handled in this section, so that the PL/SQL Blocks terminates
gracefully. If the PL/SQL Block contains exceptions that cannot be
handled, the Block terminates abruptly with errors.
Every statement in the above three sections must end with a
semicolon (;). PL/SQL blocks can be nested within other PL/SQL blocks.
Comments can be used to document code.
6.3.2 PL/SQL Subprograms
A PL/SQL subprogram is a named PL/SQL block that permits the
caller to supply parameters that can be input only, output only, or input
and output values. A subprogram solves a specific problem or performs
related tasks and serves as a building block for modular, maintainable
database applications.
A subprogram is either a procedure or a function. Procedures and
functions are identical except that functions always return a single value
to the caller, whereas procedures do not. Procedures and functions are
explained in detail in UNIT V.
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6.3.3 PL/SQL Anonymous Blocks
An anonymous block is an unnamed, non-persistent PL/SQL unit. It

is a block of PL/SQL thats coded within a script. Typical uses for
anonymous blocks include:
19. Initiating calls to subprograms and package constructs
20. Isolating exception handling
21. Managing control by nesting code within other PL/SQL
blocks
Anonymous blocks do not have the code reuse advantages of
stored subprograms.
The syntax for an anonymous PL/SQL block:
DECLARE
Variable declaration
BEGIN
Program Execution
EXCEPTION
Exception handling
END;
An anonymous block begins with the DECLARE optional section,
the header section is altogether missing from an anonymous block.
For Example,
To print a message Hello, Welcome to the world of PL SQL
BEGIN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE (Hello, Welcome to the world of PL SQL);
END;
/
To execute a PL/SQL block you must code a front slash (/) after the END
keyword.
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE is a function that is used to generate output
on the screen. There are built-in packages that offer a number of ways to
generate output from within the PL/SQL program.
6.4 PL/SQL IDENTIFIERS

Identifiers are used to name PL/SQL program items & units which
include
Constants
Variables
Exceptions
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Cursors
Subprograms
Packages
Keywords
Labels
Reserved words
Rules for naming identifiers

20. It must start with a letter optionally followed by more letters, numerals,
dollar signs, underscores, and number signs.
21. Other characters such as hyphens, slashes, and spaces are not
allowed.
22. Any reserved keyword in PL/SQL cannot be used as an identifier
23. Identifiers in PL/SQL are not case sensitive. For e.g. the identifiers
lastname, LastName and LASTNAME are the same.
Identifiers can be divided into the following types:

Reserved words and keywords
Predefined identifiers
User-defined identifiers
6.4.1 Reserved words and Keywords
Reserved words and keywords are identifiers that have special
syntactic meaning in PL/SQL. You cannot use them as ordinary
user-defined identifiers. Some examples of reserved words and
keywords are ALL, ALTER, BEGIN, ADD, CALL, GENERAL, HEAP,
HASH etc.
6.4.2 Predefined Identifiers
Predefined identifiers are declared in the predefined package
STANDARD. An example of a predefined identifier is the exception
INVALID_NUMBER.
For a list of predefined identifiers, use this query:
SELECT
TYPE_NAME
PREDEFINED='YES';
FROM
ALL_TYPES
WHERE
You can use predefined identifiers as user-defined identifiers, but it is not

recommended. Your local declaration overrides the global declaration
6.4.3 User-defined Identifiers
A user-defined identifier is:

Composed of characters from the database character set
Either ordinary or quoted
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6.4.3.1 Ordinary User-Defined Identifiers
An ordinary user-defined identifier:
Begins with a letter
Can include letters, digits, and these symbols:
Dollar sign ($)
Number sign (#)
Underscore (_)
Is not a reserved word.
Examples of acceptable ordinary user-defined identifiers:
X
t2
phone#
credit_limit
LastName
oracle$number
money$$$tree
SN##
try_again_
6.4.3.2 Quoted User-Defined Identifiers
A quoted user-defined identifier is enclosed in double
quotation marks. Between the double quotation marks, any
characters from the database character set are allowed except
double quotation marks, new line characters, and null characters.
For example, these identifiers are acceptable:
"X+Y"
"last name"
"on/off switch"
"employee(s)"
"*** header info ***"
6.5 PL/SQL Placeholders
Placeholders are temporary storage area. Placeholders can be

any of Variables, Constants and Records. Oracle defines placeholders
to store data temporarily, which are used to manipulate data during the
execution
of
a
PL
SQL
block.
Depending on the kind of data you want to store, you can define
placeholders with a name and a datatype. Few of the datatypes used to
define
placeholders
are
as
given
below.
Number (n,m) , Char (n) , Varchar2 (n) , Date , Long etc.
6.5.1 PL/SQL Variables
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These are placeholders that store the values that can change
through the PL/SQL Block. In order to use a variable, you need to declare
it
in
the
declaration
section
of
the
PL/SQL
block.
The General Syntax to declare a variable is:
variable_name datatype [NOT NULL := value ];

variable_name is the name of the variable.
datatype is a valid PL/SQL datatype.
NOT NULL is an optional specification on the variable that is used
when you want to compulsorily initialize a variable with a value
before using it.
value is also an optional specification, where you can initialize a
variable.
Each variable declaration is a separate statement and must be
terminated by a semicolon.
For example, if you want to store the current salary of an employee, you
can use a variable.
DECLARE
salary number (6);
salary is a variable of datatype number and of length 6.
The value of a variable can change in the execution or exception
section of the PL/SQL Block. We can assign values to variables in the two
ways given below.
We
can
directly
assign
values
to
variables.
The General Syntax is:
variable_name:= value;
We can assign values to variables directly from the database
columns by using a SELECT.. INTO statement. The General
Syntax is:
SELECT column_name
INTO variable_name
FROM table_name
[WHERE condition];
Example: The below program will get the salary of an employee with id
'1116' and display it on the screen.
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DECLARE
var_salary number(6);
var_emp_id number(6) = 1116;
BEGIN
SELECT salary
INTO var_salary
FROM employee
WHERE emp_id = var_emp_id;
dbms_output.put_line(var_salary);
dbms_output.put_line('The employee ' || var_emp_id || ' has
salary ' || var_salary);
END;
/
Scope of Variables
PL/SQL allows the nesting of Blocks within Blocks i.e, the
Execution section (BEGIN block) of an outer block can contain inner
blocks. Therefore, a variable which is accessible to an outer Block is also
accessible to all nested inner Blocks. The variables declared in the inner
blocks are not accessible to outer blocks. Based on their declaration we
can classify variables into two types.
Local variables - These are declared in a inner block and cannot
be referenced by outside Blocks.
Global variables - These are declared in a outer block and can
be referenced by its itself and by its inner blocks.
6.5.2 PL/SQL Constants

A constant is the name of a memory location which stores a value
used in a PL/SQL block that remains unchanged throughout the program.
Similar to a variable a constant also needs to be declared in the
declaration section.
The General Syntax to declare a constant is:
constant_name CONSTANT data_type := VALUE;
constant_name is the name of the constant.
datatype is a valid PL/SQL datatype.
CONSTANT is a reserved word that ensures that the value of the
memory location does not change.
value is a specification, where you can initialize the constant.
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For example:
pi CONSTANT NUMBER (5,4) := 3.1412;
6.6 PL/SQL DATA TYPES

Every PL/SQL constant, variable, parameter, and function return value
has a data type that determines its storage format and its valid values and
operations.
Data types in PL/SQL can be divided into:
Scalar Data Types used to store single value with no internal
components. Examples: boolean, number, etc.
Composite Data Types used to store values that have internal
components. Examples: collections and records.
Reference Data Types used to hold values, called pointers, used to
designate other program items.
LOB Data Types use to hold values, called LOB locators, that
specify the location of large objects, such as text blocks or graphic
images, that are stored separately from other database data.
Note: In this chapter, we will discuss only about scalar data types. The
remaining data types will be discussed in further chapters.
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6.6.1 SCALAR DATA TYPE
A scalar type has no internal components. It holds a single value,

such as number or character string. The scalar types fall into 4
families, which store numeric, character, boolean, & datetime
data.
6.6.1.1 Character Data Type
The PL/SQL data type Character stores character (alphanumeric) data in
strings. The most commonly used character data type is VARCHAR2,
which is the most efficient option for storing character data. The different
character data types available for use in PL/SQL programs are
CHAR, NCHAR, VARCHAR2, NVARCHAR2, LONG, RAW, STRING,
ROWID etc.
6.6.1.2 Numeric Data Type

The PL/SQL data type Numeric stores fixed and floating-point
numbers, zero, and infinity. Some numeric types also store values that
are the undefined result of an operation, which is known as "not a
number" or NAN. The most commonly used numeric data type is
NUMBER. The different numeric data types available for use in PL/SQL
programs are
BINARY_FLOAT, BINARY_INTEGER, DECIMAL, FLOAT, INTEGER,
NUMBER, PLS_INTEGER, REAL, SMALLINT, NATURAL, etc.
6.6.1.3 Boolean Data Type

The PL/SQL data type BOOLEAN stores logical values, which are
the Boolean values TRUE and FALSE and the value NULL. NULL
represents an unknown value.
The only value that you can assign to a BOOLEAN variable is a
BOOLEAN expression. Because SQL has no data type equivalent to
BOOLEAN, you cannot:
Assign a BOOLEAN value to a database table column.
Select or fetch the value of a database table column into a
BOOLEAN variable.
Use a BOOLEAN value in a SQL statement, SQL function, or
PL/SQL function invoked from a SQL statement.
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6.6.1.4 DateTime Data Type
The PL/SQL data type DateTime stores date and time values with
fractional precision of seconds. The different DateTime data types
available for use in PL/SQL programs are
DATE, TIME, TIMESTAMP, TIMESTAMP WITH TIME ZONE, INTERVAL
YEAR TO MONTH, INTERVAL DAY TO SECOND, etc.
6.7 %TYPE ATTRIBUTE

In general, the variables that deal with table columns should have
the same datatype as the column itself. Rather than look it up, the
developer can use PL/SQLs special syntactic feature that allows the
developer simply to identify the table column to which this variables
datatype should correspond. This syntax uses a special keyword known
as %TYPE.
The %TYPE attribute lets you declare a data item of the same
data type as a previously declared variable or column (without knowing
what that type is). The item declared with %TYPE is the referencing
item, and the previously declared item is the referenced item.
The referencing item inherits the following from the referenced item:
Data type and size
Constraints (unless the referenced item is a column)
The referencing item does not inherit the initial value of the
referenced item.
If the declaration of the referenced item changes, then the
declaration of the referencing item changes accordingly.
The %TYPE attribute is particularly useful when declaring variables to
hold database values. The syntax for declaring a variable of the same
type as a column is:
variable_name table_name.column_name%TYPE;
For Example, Declaring Variable of Same Type as Column
DECLARE
surname employees.last_name%TYPE;
BEGIN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('surname=' || surname);
END;
/
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6.8 USING BIND VARIABLES

With a regular variable, each time a new entry occurs at the cache
even if the statements are similar. Each new statement must be verified,
parsed and have an execution plan generated and stored. Further holding
so many similar statements is a waste of memory.
Bind variable is a special type of variable that has several
advantages over a regular variable.
First, SQL statements that use bind variables usually run more
efficiently than SQL statements that use regular variables. As the bind
variables reuse the SQL statements by only changing the value of the
bind variable resulting in faster and efficient processing.
Second, a bind variable can be used in regular SQL statements that are
executed outside of the PL/SQL block.
Third, a bind variable stays in scope for an entire script. More accurately,
the bind variable stays in scope for the entire session. As a result, you
can use a bind variable across all statements in a script.
You can create bind variables with the VARIABLE command. The syntax
is:
VARIABLE variable_name data_type;
For example,
VARIABLE ret_value NUMBER;
After you declare a bind variable, you can reference it by prefacing it with
a colon (:). For example,
:ret_val := 1;
6.9 SEQUENCES IN PL/SQL EXPRESSIONS

Sequences in PL/SQL expressions execute in a similar way as
sequences in SQL expressions. After a sequence is created, you can
access its values in SQL statements with the CURRVAL pseudocolumn,
which returns the current value of the sequence, or the NEXTVAL
pseudocolumn, which increments the sequence and returns the new
value.
Earlier to Oracle 11g referring to Sequence values within PL/SQL
required using SELECT INTO variable clause which is not very intuitive.
Consider the following PL/SQL code:
CREATE SEQUENCE seq_temp START WITH 100 INCREMENT BY 1;
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SET SERVEROUTPUT ON
DECLARE
a number;
BEGIN
SELECT seq_temp.NEXTVAL INTO a FROM dual;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(a);
END;
/
Note that before Oracle 11g we could not assign a sequence value to a
variablein PL/SQL. The only way to use sequence values within PL/SQL
was to use SELECT sequence.NEXTVAL INTO variable.
Oracle 11g allows to refer to sequence values in a very intuitive way
using variables. Consider the above code rewritten as follows:
CREATE SEQUENCE seq_temp START WITH 100 INCREMENT BY 1;
SET SERVEROUTPUT ON
DECLARE
a number;
BEGIN
a := seq_temp.NEXTVAL;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(a);
END;
/
As of Oracle Database 11g Release 1, you can use
sequence_name.CURRVAL and sequence_name.NEXTVAL in a PL/SQL
expression wherever you can use a NUMBER expression. However:
Using sequence_name.CURRVAL or sequence_name.NEXTVAL
to provide a default value for an ADT method parameter causes a
compilation error.
PL/SQL
evaluates
every
occurrence
of
sequence_name.CURRVAL
and
sequence_name.NEXTVAL
(unlike SQL, which evaluates a sequence expression for every
row in which it appears).
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Note: Each time you reference sequence_name.NEXTVAL, the
sequence is incremented immediately and permanently, whether you
commit or roll back the transaction.
6.10 SUMMARY
PL/SQL was developed by Oracle Corporation in the early 90s to
enhance the capabilities of SQL.
PL/SQL is a combination of SQL along with the procedural features of
programming languages.
The PL/SQL engine is the tool used to define, compile, and run
PL/SQL program units.
The basic unit in PL/SQL is a block, which groups related declarations
and statements. All PL/SQL programs are made up of blocks, which
can be nested within each other.
PL/SQL blocks are categorized into subprograms (procedures and
functions) and anonymous block.
A PL/SQL Block consists of the following sections:
The Header section.
The Declaration section.
The Execution section.
The Exception (Error Handling) section.
A PL/SQL subprogram is a named PL/SQL block that is either a
procedure or a function.
An anonymous block is an unnamed, non-persistent PL/SQL unit.
Identifiers are used to name PL/SQL program items & units.
Identifiers can be divided into the following types:
Reserved words and keywords
Predefined identifiers
User-defined identifiers
Oracle defines placeholders to store data temporarily, which are used
to manipulate data during the execution of a PL SQL block.
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Placeholders can be any of Variables, Constants and Records.
Every PL/SQL constant, variable, parameter, and function return
value has a data type that determines its storage format and its valid
values and operations.
Data types in PL/SQL can be divided into
Scalar Data Types
Composite Data Types
Reference Data Types
LOB Data Types
A scalar type has no internal components. It holds a single value,
such as number or character string.
The scalar types fall into 4 families, which store numeric, character,
boolean, & datetime data.
The %TYPE attribute lets you declare a data item of the same data
type as a previously declared variable or column (without knowing
what that type is).
Bind variable is a special type of variable that runs more efficiently
than SQL statements that use regular variables.
Sequences in PL/SQL expressions execute in a similar way as
sequences in SQL expressions using the CURRVAL pseudocolumn
and the NEXTVAL pseudocolumn.

Explain PL/SQL engine in detail.
List and explain the advantages of PL/SQL.
What is a PL/SQL block. Explain its types.
Explain the structure of PL/SQL block.
Explain PL/SQL anonymous block.
What is an identifier? What are the rules for naming them.
Explain the different types of identifiers.
Explain PL/SQL variables in detail.
Explain the different data types in PL/SQL.
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Explain the different types of scalar data types used in PL/SQL.
Why is %TYPE attribute used?

READING

Gehre. McGraw Hill



Limited

McGraw-Hill

BPB Publications

O'Reilly "Mastering Oracle SQL"

http://oreilly.com/catalog/mastorasql/
number E25519-05
Chapter 5 Introducing PL/SQL
http://www.cs.kent.edu/~wfan/link/dbapre/dbatest/54905f.htm
Oracle SQL & PL/SQL
http://sql-plsql.blogspot.in/2007/05/oracle-plsql-cursors-withparameters.html
http://sql-plsql.blogspot.in/2007/03/plsql-introduction.html
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PL/SQL tutorial
http://plsql-tutorial.com/index.htm
http://www.academictutorials.com/pl-sql/introduction.asp
Wikipedia links
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PL/SQL
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7
WRITING EXECUTABLE STATEMENTS
Unit Structure
7.0 Objectives
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Basic Guidelines for PL/SQL block syntax
7.2.1 Rules of block Structure
7.2.2 Scope and Visibility of Identifiers
7.2.3 Handling variables in PL/SQL
7.2.4 Guidelines for PL/SQL coding
7.3 Comments in Code
7.4 Nested Blocks
7.5 DATA CONVERSION
7.6 Operators in PL/SQL
7.6.1 Mathematical Operators
7.6.2 Comparison or Relational Operators
7.6.3 Logical or Boolean Operators
7.6.4 Special Operators
7.7 Summary
7.9 Lab Assignment
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7.0 OBJECTIVES

(23)
(24)
(25)
(26)
(27)
Understand guidelines for PL/SQL block syntax

Convert Data Types
Use Nested Blocks
Add Comments to your code
Understand Operators used in PL/SQL
7.1 INTRODUCTION
PL/SQL stands for Procedural Language/SQL. PL/SQL extends
SQL by adding constructs found in procedural languages, resulting in a
structural language that is more powerful than SQL. In other words,
PL/SQL is a procedural programming language that enhances the
functionalities of SQL. We can write various types of queries with SQL
statements but with PL/SQL we can group the related queries together to
perform a particular task or an activity.
PL/SQL offers many advantages over other programming
languages for handling the logic and business rule enforcement of
database applications. It is a straightforward language with all the
common logic constructs associated with a programming language, plus
many things other languages dont have, such as robust error handling
and modularization of code blocks. The PL/SQL code used to interface
with the database is also stored directly on the Oracle database, and is
the only programming language that interfaces with the Oracle database
natively and within the database environment.
7.2 BASIC GUIDELINES FOR PL/SQL BLOCK SYNTAX

We have already discussed the basic steps of how to create a
PL/SQL block. Following are certain guidelines to PL/SQL programming
to improve readability and maintainability of code.
7.2.1 Rules of block Structure
Every unit of PL/SQL must constitute a block. As a minimum there
must be the delimiting words BEGIN and END around the executable
statements.
SELECT statements within PL/SQL blocks are embedded SQL (an
ANSI category). As such they must return one row only. SELECT
statements that return no rows or more than one row will generate an
error. If you want to deal with groups of rows you must place the
returned data into a cursor. The INTO clause is mandatory for
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SELECT statements within PL/SQL blocks (which are not within a
cursor definition), you must store the returned values from a SELECT.
If PL/SQL variables or objects are defined for use in a block then you
must also have a DECLARE section.
If you include an EXCEPTION section the statements within it are only
processed if the condition to which they refer occurs. Block execution
is terminated after an exception handling routine is executed.
PL/SQL blocks may be nested, nesting can occur wherever an
executable statement could be placed (including the EXCEPTION
section).
7.2.2 Scope and Visibility of Identifiers
The scope of an identifier is the region of a PL/SQL unit from

which you can reference the identifier. The visibility of an identifier is the
region of a PL/SQL unit from which you can reference the identifier
without qualifying it. An identifier is local to the PL/SQL unit that declares
it. If that unit has subunits, the identifier is global to them.
If a subunit redeclares a global identifier, then inside the subunit,
both identifiers are in scope, but only the local identifier is visible. To
reference the global identifier, the subunit must qualify it with the name of
the unit that declared it. If that unit has no name, then the subunit cannot
reference the global identifier.
A PL/SQL unit cannot reference identifiers declared in other units
at the same level, because those identifiers are neither local nor global to
the block.
7.2.3 Handling variables in PL/SQL
22. Variables must be declared first before the usage. The PL/SQL
variables can be a scalar type such as DATE, NUMBER, VARCHAR2,
BOOLEAN, LONG and CHAR, or a composite type, such as
VARRAY.
23. Only TRUE, FALSE or NULL can be assigned to BOOLEAN type of
variables.
24. AND, OR, NOT operators can be used to connect BOOLEAN values.
25. %TYPE attribute can be used to define a variable which is of the
same type as a database column's type definition.
7.2.4 Guidelines for PL/SQL coding
Capitalize all keywords, and use lowercase for the other code in
a PL/SQL statement.
Separate the words in names with underscores, as in
last_name, first_name.
Start each clause on new line.
Break long clauses into multiple lines and indent continued
lines.
Use comments only for portions of code that are difficult to
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understand. Make sure comments are correct and up-to-date.

Line breaks, white space, indentation and capitalization have no
effect on the operation of statement.
Comments can be used to document what a statement does or
what specific parts of a statement do.
Variables and function identifiers should not have the same
name as a database column name.
Identifiers must begin with an alphabet.
Code blocks can be nested.
It is recommended that variable names are prefixed by v_, and
parameter names in procedures/functions are prefixed by _p.
7.3 COMMENTS IN CODE

When executing PL/SQL program, comments are ignored by the
PL/SQL compiler. Adding comments promotes readability and
maintainability of the code. Comments are also used to provide
information about the various logics applied for better understanding of
the program code. Some programmers even specify the name and date
on which a program was developed along with the purpose for proper
documentation. Comments cannot be nested within each other. PL/SQL
supports two types of comments.
Single-Line comments: Begins with double hyphen (--) anywhere on
a line and extends to the end of line.
Multi-Line comments: Begins with slash-asterisk (/*), ends with an
asterisk-slash (*/), and can span multiple rows.
The following program illustrates the use of comments to improve
readability of the PL/SQL program.
DECLARE
some_condition BOOLEAN;
pi
NUMBER := 3.1415926;
radius
NUMBER := 15;
area
NUMBER;
BEGIN
-- Perform some simple tests and assignments
IF 2 + 2 = 4 THEN
some_condition := TRUE;
/* We expect this THEN to always be performed */
END IF;
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/* This line computes the area of a circle using pi,
which is the ratio between the circumference and diameter.
After the area is computed, the result is displayed. */
area := pi * radius**2;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('The area is: ' || TO_CHAR(area));
END;
/
7.4 NESTED BLOCKS

The block, which groups related declarations and statements, is
the basic unit of a PL/SQL source program. It has an optional declarative
part, a required executable part, and an optional exception-handling part.
Declarations are local to the block and cease to exist when the block
completes execution. Blocks can be nested. Because a block is an
executable statement, it can appear in another block wherever an
executable statement is allowed.
PL/SQL allows the nesting of blocks within blocks i.e., the

Execution section of an outer block can contain inner blocks. Therefore, a
variable which is accessible to an outer block is also accessible to all
nested inner blocks. The variables declared in the inner blocks are not
accessible to outer blocks. Based on their declaration we can classify
variables into two types.
Local variables - These are declared in a inner block and cannot be
referenced by outside Blocks.
Global variables - These are declared in a outer block and can be
referenced by its itself and by its inner blocks.
Consider the following program.
We are creating two variables (x, y) in the outer block and using
them in the inner block. We are also creating two variables (v_sum,
v_avg) in the inner block and using them in the inner block. The variables
created in the outer block are global variables and can be used in any
part of the program. While variables declared in the inner block cannot be
accessible
in
the
outer
block.
SET SERVEROUTPUT ON
DECLARE
x NUMBER (10);
y NUMBER (10);
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BEGIN
DECLARE
v_sum NUMBER (10);
v_avg NUMBER (10,2);
BEGIN
x := 10;
y := 20;
v_sum := x+y;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('sum := '|| v_sum);
v_avg := (x+y)/2;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('average := '|| v_avg);
END;
END;
7.5 DATA CONVERSION

Oracle provides conversion functions that will easily convert
values of one data type to another. Two types of conversion are allowed
in Oracle.
Implicit Conversion
Explicit Conversion
Oracle will automatically perform implicit conversions of data
types for you, but it can lead to performance problems in your
applications. Oracle can perform explicit conversions by using
conversion functions discussed in Chapter 2. The following program
illustrates the implicit conversion from NUMBER to VARCHAR2 and from
VARCHAR2 to DATE in Oracle.
SET SERVEROUTPUT ON
/* To test implicit conversion in Oracle */
DECLARE
x NUMBER (10);
-- declare number 1
y NUMBER (10);
-- declare number 2
z NUMBER (10);
p VARCHAR2 (10); -- declare p as character variable
q VARCHAR2 (10);
r VARCHAR2 (10);
d DATE;
cd VARCHAR2 (20);
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BEGIN
x := 10;
y := 20;
z := x+y;--adding 2 numeric values and storing result in z
p := x;
q := y;
r := p+q;--adding 2 character values and storing result in r
cd := '10-NOV-2011';
d := cd; --converts character data into date type of format
-- printing sum of two numbers
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('sum of x and y := '|| z);
-- printing sum of two VARCHAR2 data type values
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('sum of p and q := '|| r);
-- printing date in system format
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Meeting is on '|| d);
END;
/
Oracle has several built-in functions that are designed to convert
information from one data type to another data type. The most commonly
used conversion functions are:
Function Name
Description
Example
TO_CHAR()
The TO_CHAR() conversion TO_CHAR(10101)

function
converts
both
numerical values and date
values
to
data
type
VARCHAR2.
TO_DATE()
The TO_DATE() conversion TO_DATE('31/07/2009')

function converts character
data to data type DATE.
TO_NUMBER
The
TO_NUMBER TO_NUMBER('1010')
conversion function converts
character data to data type
number.
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7.6 OPERATORS IN PL/SQL

To perform various mathematical, logical and comparison
operations on variables and constants we need operators. An operator
manipulates data items and returns a result. Syntactically, an operator
appears before or after an operand or between two operands. Operators
are represented by special characters or by keywords. For example, the
multiplication operator is represented by an asterisk (*). Operators
manipulate individual data items called operands or arguments. An
operand can be a variable, constant, literal, operator, function invocation,
or placeholderor another expression.
PL/SQL operators can be divided into the following categories:
Mathematical Operators
Comparison/Relational Operators
Logical/Boolean Operators
Special Operators
7.6.1 Mathematical Operators

Mathematical Operators are used for computational purposes.
Operator
Description
**
Exponentiation Operator. Computes to the power of a

given number.
Multiplication Operator.
Division Operator.
Addition Operator. Add two or more operands.
Subtraction Operator. Subtract two or more operands.
Negation Operator. Denotes a negative expression.
Plus Operator. Denotes a positive expression.
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7.6.2 Comparison or Relational Operators
These operators are used to compare values.
Operator
Description
Equal to
<
Less than
>
Greater than
<=
Less than or equal to
>=
Greater than or equal to
<>, !=, ~=, ^= Not equal to
7.6.3 Logical or Boolean Operators

If we want to check for more than one condition in a single select
query then we need to use Boolean operators. Boolean operators can
return only True or False for a given condition.
Operator
Description
AND
If any condition is False, then it returns False else True.
OR
If any condition is True, then it returns True else False.
NOT
Negates the given condition.
Following is the truth table for logical operators.
X AND Y
X OR Y
NOT X
TRUE
TRUE
TRUE
TRUE
FALSE
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TRUE
FALSE
FALSE
TRUE
FALSE
FALSE
TRUE
FALSE
TRUE
TRUE
FALSE
FALSE
FALSE
FALSE
TRUE
7.6.4 Special Operators

Oracle provides some special operators which enhance the
capabilities of SQL statements. The special operators are: IN, IS NULL,
LIKE, BETWEEN and || (Concatenation).
Operator
Description
IN
Used to compare multiple values. Returns TRUE if value lies

within the specified set. Can be used with the NOT boolean
operator to negate the given condition.
BETWEEN
Used to check whether a value lies in a specified range.
LIKE
Used for pattern matching searches and returns TRUE if the

value matches the pattern and FALSE if it does not.
IS NULL
Returns the BOOLEAN value TRUE if its operand is NULL or

FALSE if it is not NULL.
||
Used to concatenate character strings.
7.7 SUMMARY
PL/SQL is a procedural programming language that enhances the

functionalities of SQL.
We can write various types of queries with SQL statements but with
PL/SQL we can group the related queries together to perform a
particular task or an activity.
PL/SQL is the only programming language that interfaces with the
Oracle database natively and within the database environment.
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Every unit of PL/SQL must constitute a block. As a minimum there
must be the delimiting words BEGIN and END around the executable
statements.
If PL/SQL variables or objects are defined for use in a block then you
must also have a DECLARE section.
PL/SQL blocks may be nested, nesting can occur wherever an
executable statement could be placed (including the EXCEPTION
section).
The scope of an identifier is the region of a PL/SQL unit from which
you can reference the identifier.
The visibility of an identifier is the region of a PL/SQL unit from which
you can reference the identifier without qualifying it.
An identifier is local to the PL/SQL unit that declares it. If that unit has
subunits, the identifier is global to them.
Variables must be declared first before the usage.
%TYPE attribute can be used to define a variable which is of the
same type as a database column's type definition.
When executing PL/SQL program, comments are ignored by the
PL/SQL compiler.
Adding comments promotes readability and maintainability of the
code.
PL/SQL supports two types of comments: Single-Line comments and
Multi-Line comments.
PL/SQL allows the nesting of blocks within blocks i.e., the Execution
section of an outer block can contain inner blocks.
Based on their declaration we can classify variables into two types:
Local variables and Global variables.
Two types of conversion, from one data type to another, are allowed
in Oracle: Implicit Conversion and Explicit Conversion.
An operator manipulates data items and returns a result. Operators
are represented by special characters or by keywords.
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PL/SQL operators can be divided into the following categories
Mathematical Operators
Comparison/Relational Operators
Logical/Boolean Operators
Special Operators
Write the various categories of operators used in PL/SQL.

How is explicit conversion different from implicit conversion?
Discuss about the scope of variables in the nested block of PL/SQL.
Discuss the rules about the block structure in PL/SQL.
Write a short note on comments in PL/SQL.
7.9 LAB ASSIGNMENTS

1. Write an anonymous PL/SQL block to take the first name and last
name from the user and print the variables using concatenation operator.
Assume records in the EMP table as shown below.
EMPNO
ENAME
HIREDATE
DEPTNO
111
Satish
19-DEC-2008 10
10,000
1000
222
Rashmi
01-JAN-1987 20
8000
550
333
Rishi
05-JUN-1976 10
7000
450
444
Anil
16-APR-1967 10
12,000
2000
555
Anita
30
1000
666
Nilesh
20-MAY-1987 20
13,000
777
Ruchi
11-JUN-2000 30
888
Sarika
GENDER SALARY
COMM
Retrieve ALL records from the EMP table.

Retrieve the empno, ename and salary for all employees.
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Retrieve the deptno, ename, salary and comm for all employees.
Retrieve the deptno, empno and total salary as salary + 10% of
(salary+comm) for all employees.
List the employees who have joined after 1st May 1987.
List the male employees of department number 10 and 30.
Display the employees who earned commission more than 1000 and
belong to department 10 or have salary more than 10,000/- but do not
belong to department 10.
List employees with zero salary.
List employees with either salary or commission unknown.
Display the employees whose name contains 'SA'.
Display the salary of employees as ZERO if unknown.

READING

Gehre. McGraw Hill

Murach's Oracle SQL and PL/SQL by Joel Murach. Shroff Publishers

& Distributors
Oracle Database 11g by Satish Asnani. PHI Learning Private Limited

McGraw-Hill

BPB Publications
Fundamentals of Database Systems, Elmasri Ramez and Navathe B.

Shamkant, Pearson

number E25519-05
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Oracle SQL & PL/SQL
PL/SQL tutorial
Wikipedia links
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8
INTERACTION WITH THE ORACLE
SERVER
Unit Structure
8.0 Objectives
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Invoking SELECT statement
8.2.1 Restrictions in SELECT INTO clause
8.3 Data Manipulation in the server using PL/SQL
8.4 SQL Cursor Concept
8.4.1 Implicit Cursors
8.5 Save And Discard Transactions
8.5.1 Implicit Rollbacks
8.5.2 Ending Transactions
8.6 Summary
8.8 Lab Assignment
8.0 OBJECTIVES
Invoke SELECT Statements in PL/SQL,
Manipulate Data in the Server using PL/SQL,
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Understand the SQL Cursor concept,
Use SQL Cursor Attributes to Obtain Feedback on DML,
Save and Discard Transactions.
8.1 INTRODUCTION
No usage of PL/SQL is complete without presenting the ease of
use involved in interacting with the Oracle database. Any data
manipulation or change operation can be accomplished within PL/SQL
without the additional overhead typically required in other programming
environments. There is no ODBC interface, and no embedding is required
for use of database manipulation with PL/SQL.
In this chapter we will invoke SELECT statements in PL/SQL and
also manipulate data in the server. Then we will discuss the concept of
cursor in SQL along with how to use cursor attributes in DML. Finally we
shall have a look on how to save and discard transactions in a database.
8.2 INVOKING SELECT STATEMENT

The SELECT statement in SQL is used to extract data from the
one or more tables or views in the database. However, the SQL SELECT
statement cannot be used inside a PL/SQL block to retrieve records. In
order to retrieve data from one or more tables in Pl/SQL we need to use
the SELECT INTO statement.
The SELECT INTO statement retrieves values from one or more
database tables (as the SQL SELECT statement does) and stores them
in variables (which the SQL SELECT statement does not do). Using the
INTO clause we can specify the variables or record in which to store the
column values that the statement returns.
Syntax:
SELECT <column_name1>, <column_name2> INTO <var_name1>,
<var_name2>
FROM table_name;
8.2.1 Restrictions in SELECT INTO clause:
(28)
Columns selected in the query must be returned into local
variables.
(29)
The variables used must be matching with the columns in
data type.
(30)
It is used in the executable section (BEGIN ..... END) of a
PL/SQL block.
(31)
The SELECT query must return only one row.
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Consider the following example:
To get the details of employees who work for the HR department and gets
salary of 30000.
SET SERVEROUTPUT ON
DECLARE
v_name emp_detail.ename%TYPE;
v_age emp_detail.age%TYPE;
BEGIN
SELECT ename, age INTO v_name, V_age
FROM emp_detail WHERE empid =
( SELECT empid FROM emp
WHERE dept = 'HR' AND salary = 30000);
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE ('name: ' || v_name || 'Age: ' || v_age);

END;
/
8.3 DATA MANIPULATION IN THE SERVER USING

PL/SQL
PL/SQL blocks can be used to manipulate data in the server using
INSERT, DELETE and UPDATE statements. PL/SQL provides the
following functionalities:
Using SQL data manipulation languages in PL/SQL, data in the
tables can be manipulated.
Using SQL data transactional commands in PL/SQL, changes of
data in the tables can be made permanent or revoked.
All sorts of SQL functions can be used in PL/SQL.
All operators that we are using in SQL statements can also be
used in PL/SQL.
We can declare variables and constants in PL/SQL to store results
of a query during the process, which can be used later in PL/SQL
block.
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In the following program, a row is added, updated and deleted from the
EMPLOYEE table using variables in PL/SQL to manipulate data in the
database tables.
SET SERVEROUTPUT ON
DECLARE
My_employee employee%ROWTYPE;
My_lastname VARCHAR2 := SAMSON;
My_firstname VARCHAR2 := DELILAH;
My_salary NUMBER := 49500;
BEGIN
SELECT *
INTO my_employee
FROM employee
WHERE empid = 49594;
UPDATE employee
SET salary = my_employee.my_salary + 10000
WHERE empid = my_employee.my_empid;
INSERT INTO employee (empid, lastname, firstname, salary)
VALUES (emp_sequence.nextval, my_lastname, my_firstname,
my_salary);
My_empid := 59495;
DELETE FROM employee
WHERE empid = my_empid;
END;
/
8.4 SQL CURSOR CONCEPT

Oracle performs a set of tasks for executing any SQL statement.
Reserves an area in memory called private SQL area.
Populates this area with appropriate data.
Frees the memory area when execution completes.
Cursor is a pointer to the private SQL area that stores information
about processing a specific SELECT or DML statement. Within PL/SQL a
SELECT statement cannot return more than one row at a time. So in
order to process some group of rows for implementing certain logic to all
the records of that group, we need to use cursors. The set of rows
retrieved is called the active set; its size depends on how many rows
meet the query search condition.
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For SQL statements, there are two types of cursors:
Implicit cursor
Explicit cursor
In this chapter we will discuss about implicit cursors. Explicit cursors have
been explained in the later chapters.
8.4.1 Implicit Cursors
An implicit cursor is a session cursor that is constructed and
managed by PL/SQL. PL/SQL opens an implicit cursor every time you run
a SELECT or DML statement. You cannot control an implicit cursor, but
you can get information from its attributes. An implicit cursor closes after
its associated statement runs; however, its attribute values remain
available until another SELECT or DML statement runs. Cursor
attributes return information about the state of the cursor.
The syntax for the value of an implicit cursor attribute is SQLattribute (for
example, SQL%FOUND). SQLattribute always refers to the most recently
run DML or SELECT INTO statement.
The implicit cursor attributes are:
SQL%ISOPEN Attribute: Is the Cursor Open?

SQL%FOUND Attribute: Were Any Rows Affected?
SQL%NOTFOUND Attribute: Were No Rows Affected?
SQL%ROWCOUNT Attribute: How Many Rows Were Affected?
The table given below lists the cursor attributes and the values that they
can return.
Cursor Attribute Cursor Variable
Values for Cursor
%FOUND
SQL%FOUND
If no DML or SELECT INTO

statement has run, NULL.
If the most recent DML or
SELECT INTO statement
returned a row, TRUE.
SELECT INTO statement did
not return a row, FALSE.
%NOTFOUND
SQL%NOTFOUND
If no DML or SELECT INTO

statement has run, NULL.
returned a row, FALSE.
SELECT INTO statement did
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not return a row, TRUE.
%ROWCOUNT
SQL%ROWCOUNT
NULL if no DML or SELECT

INTO statement has run;
otherwise, a number greater
than or equal to zero.
%ISOPEN
SQL%ISOPEN
Always FALSE. The Oracle

database automatically opens
and closes the implicit cursor
associated with any DML or
SELECT statement and so
SQL%ISOPEN always returns
FALSE.
Consider the following program where we will display the values of

various CURSOR attributes.
SET SERVEROUTPUT ON
BEGIN
UPDATE tbl_bank_account SET status = 'INACTIVE'
WHERE branch = 'SAKI NAKA';
IF SQL%FOUND THEN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE ('Accounts Found for branch Saki Naka');
END IF;
IF SQL%NOTFOUND THEN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE ('No Accounts Found for
branch Saki Naka');
END IF;
IF SQL%ROWCOUNT > 0 THEN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE (SQL%ROWCOUNT ' ||
account(s) inactivated');
ELSE
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE ('No account(s) inactivated');
END IF;
END;
/
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8.5 SAVE AND DISCARD TRANSACTIONS

A transaction is a logical, atomic unit of work that contains one or
more SQL statements. A transaction groups SQL statements so that they
are either all committed, which means they are applied to the database,
or all rolled back, which means they are undone from the database.
Transaction processing is a feature that lets multiple users work on the
database concurrently, and ensures that each user sees a consistent
version of data and that all changes are applied in the right order.
A database transaction consists of one or more statements.
Specifically, a transaction consists of one of the following:
One or more data manipulation language (DML) statements that
together constitute an atomic change to the database
One data definition language (DDL) statement
Now each and every transaction has a specific beginning and end
point. A transaction begins when the user connects to the database and
performs the first DML statement or when the last transaction has ended
and a new DML query has started to execute. The COMMIT operation is
automatically executed when you execute a DDL or DCL or the user exits
normally by typing EXIT statement. In contrast, in order to guarantee that
the changes made by the DML statements are actually saved in the
database, the PL/SQL code should explicitly contain a commit statement.
The three transaction specifications available in PL/SQL are

commit, roll back and savepoint.
Transaction control is the management of changes made by

DML statements and the grouping of DML statements into transactions. In
general, application designers are concerned with transaction control so
that work is accomplished in logical units and data is kept consistent.
Transaction control involves using the following statements:
26. The COMMIT statement ends the current transaction and makes all
changes performed in the transaction permanent. COMMIT also
erases all savepoints in the transaction and releases transaction locks.
27. The ROLLBACK statement reverses the work done in the current
transaction; it causes all data changes since the last COMMIT or
ROLLBACK to be discarded. The ROLLBACK TO SAVEPOINT
statement undoes the changes since the last savepoint but does not
end the entire transaction.
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28. The SAVEPOINT statement identifies a point in a transaction to which
you can later roll back.
The session in the following table illustrates the use of the above
statements
Time Session
Explanation
t0
COMMIT;
This statement ends any

transaction in the session.
t1
SET TRANSACTION
'sal_update';
t2
t3
existing
NAME This statement begins a transaction
UPDATE employees
SET salary = 7000
WHERE
last_name
'Sharma';
and names it sal_update.

This statement updates the salary for
Sharma to 7000.
SAVEPOINT after_sharma_sal; This statement creates a savepoint

named after_sharma_sal, enabling
changes in this transaction to be rolled
back to this point.
t4
UPDATE employees
SET salary = 12000
WHERE last_name = 'Naik';

Naik to 12000.
t5
SAVEPOINT after_naik_sal;
This statement creates a savepoint

named
after_naik_sal,
enabling
changes in this transaction to be rolled
back to this point.
t6
ROLLBACK TO SAVEPOINT
after_sharma_sal;
This statement rolls back the

transaction to t3, undoing the update to
Naik's salary at t4. The sal_update
transaction has not ended.
t7
UPDATE employees
SET salary = 11000
WHERE
last_name
'Mehta';
t8
ROLLBACK;

Mehta
to
11000
in
= transactionsal_update.
This statement rolls back all changes in
transaction sal_update, ending the
transaction.
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Time Session
Explanation
NAME This
statement begins a new

transaction in the session and names
itsal_update2.
t9
SET TRANSACTION
'sal_update2';
t10
UPDATE employees
SET salary = 7050
WHERE last_name = 'Lal';

Lal to 7050.
t11
UPDATE employees
SET salary = 10950
WHERE
last_name
'Yadav';

Yadav to 10950.
t12
COMMIT;
=
This statement commits all changes
made in transaction sal_update2,
ending the transaction. The commit
guarantees that the changes are saved
in the online redo log files.
Consider the following program that shows the use of COMMIT,

SAVEPOINT and ROLLBACK statements.
DROP TABLE emp_name;

CREATE TABLE emp_name AS
SELECT employee_id, last_name, salary
FROM employees;
CREATE UNIQUE INDEX empname_ix
ON emp_name (employee_id);
DECLARE
emp_id
employees.employee_id%TYPE;
emp_lastname employees.last_name%TYPE;
emp_salary employees.salary%TYPE;
BEGIN
SELECT employee_id, last_name, salary
INTO emp_id, emp_lastname, emp_salary
FROM employees
WHERE employee_id = 120;
SAVEPOINT my_savepoint1;
UPDATE emp_name
SET salary = salary * 1.1
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WHERE employee_id = emp_id;
DELETE FROM emp_name
WHERE employee_id = 130;
SAVEPOINT my_savepoint2;
INSERT INTO emp_name (employee_id, last_name, salary)
VALUES (emp_id, emp_lastname, emp_salary);
COMMIT;
EXCEPTION
WHEN DUP_VAL_ON_INDEX THEN
ROLLBACK TO my_savepoint2;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Transaction rolled back.');
END;
/
8.5.1 Implicit Rollbacks
Before running an INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE statement, the
database marks an implicit savepoint (unavailable to you). If the
statement fails, the database rolls back to the savepoint. Usually, just the
failed SQL statement is rolled back, not the whole transaction. If the
statement raises an unhandled exception, the host environment
determines what is rolled back.
The database can also roll back single SQL statements to break
deadlocks. The database signals an error to a participating transaction
and rolls back the current statement in that transaction.
Before running a SQL statement, the database must parse it, that
is, examine it to ensure it follows syntax rules and refers to valid schema
objects. Errors detected while running a SQL statement cause a roll back,
but errors detected while parsing the statement do not.
8.5.2 Ending Transactions
You should explicitly commit or roll back every transaction. If you
do not commit or roll back a transaction explicitly, then Oracle determines
its final state. For example,
A user issues a COMMIT or ROLLBACK statement without a
SAVEPOINT clause.
In a commit, a user explicitly or implicitly requested that the
changes in the transaction be made permanent. Changes made
by the transaction are permanent and visible to other users only
after a transaction commits.
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A user runs a DDL command such as CREATE, DROP,
RENAME, or ALTER.
The database issues an implicit COMMIT statement before and
after every DDL statement. If the current transaction contains DML
statements, then Oracle Database first commits the transaction
and then runs and commits the DDL statement as a new, singlestatement transaction.
A user exits normally from most Oracle Database utilities and
tools, causing the current transaction to be implicitly committed.
A client process terminates abnormally or executes a ROLLBACK
statement, causing the transaction to be implicitly or explicitly
rolled back.
8.6 SUMMARY
The SELECT statement in SQL is used to extract data from the one or
more tables or views in the database.
The SELECT INTO statement retrieves values from one or more
database tables (as the SQL SELECT statement does) and stores
them in variables (which the SQL SELECT statement does not do).
PL/SQL blocks can be used to manipulate data in the server using
INSERT, DELETE and UPDATE statements.
Oracle performs a set of tasks for executing any SQL statement.
Reserves an area in memory called private SQL area.
Populates this area with appropriate data.
Frees the memory area when execution completes.
Cursor is a pointer to the private SQL area that stores information

about processing a specific SELECT or DML statement.
For SQL statements, there are two types of cursors:
Implicit cursor
Explicit cursor
An implicit cursor is a session cursor that is constructed and managed

by PL/SQL.
You cannot control an implicit cursor, but you can get information from
its attributes.
Cursor attributes return information about the state of the cursor.
A transaction is a logical, atomic unit of work that contains one or
more SQL statements.
Transaction processing is a feature that lets multiple users work on
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the database concurrently, and ensures that each user sees a
consistent version of data and that all changes are applied in the right
order.
Transaction control is the management of changes made by DML
statements and the grouping of DML statements into transactions.
Transaction control involves using the following statements:
The COMMIT statement ends the current transaction and makes

all changes performed in the transaction permanent.
The ROLLBACK statement reverses the work done in the current

transaction.
The SAVEPOINT statement identifies a point in a transaction to

which you can later roll back.
Before running an INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE statement, the

database marks an implicit savepoint (unavailable to you). If the
statement fails, the database rolls back to the savepoint.
You should explicitly commit or roll back every transaction. If you do
not commit or roll back a transaction explicitly, then Oracle determines
its final state.

Explain the concept of implicit cursor in PL/SQL.
What is a transaction?
SAVEPOINT in transaction.
Explain
COMMIT,
ROLLBACK
and
What is a cursor? Discuss the different attributes of a cursor?
8.8 LAB ASSIGNMENT

Consider the following table schema and write a PL/SQL block performing
the following:
EMPID
ENAME
DEPT
DESG
SALARY
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
NUMBER
Print the EMPID, ENAME, DEPT, DESG and SALARY of the

employee whose name is Prakash. If the record is not found then
print There is no employee with name Prakash.
Print the details of the employee getting lowest salary.
Print the details of the employee getting highest salary.
Print the average salary of the employees belonging to Finance
department.
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Delete all the records of employees from the department HR getting
salary less than 10,000/- and also print the total number of records
deleted.
Modify the salary of the employees in the Admin department to give
them a hike of 25%.

READING

Gehre. McGraw Hill



Limited

BPB Publications


McGraw-Hill


number E25519-05

Oracle SQL & PL/SQL
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PL/SQL tutorial
Wikipedia links
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UNIT - IV
9
CONTROL STRUCTURES
Unit Structure
9.1 Objectives
9.2 Control Structure
9.2.1 IF and CASE Statements
A) If Statement
B) IF-THEN Statement
C) IF-THEN-ELSE Statement
D) NESTED IF-THEN- ELSE statements:
9.3 CASE Statement
A) Simple CASE Syntax
B) Searched CASE Syntax
9.4 Loop Statement
9.5 Exit Statement
9.6 Labeling a PL/SQL Loop
9.7 WHILE Statement
9.8 FOR Statement
9.9 Continue Statement
A) CONTINUE Statement:
B) CONTINUE-WHEN Statement:
9.10 Questions
9.11 Further Reading
9.1 OBJECTIVE
After completing this chapter, you will be able to:
Understand how to use the conditional and looping
structures using PLSQL.
Understand how to utilize the control structures in queries.
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Aware of the syntax and examples for manipulating the
database using queries with the help of various control and
looping structures.
Understand the Continue statement for updating the
processes after a successful call.
9.2 CONTROL STRUCTURE

The Control Structures are used to decide the execution flow
of the program depending on the programmer defined conditions.
The control structures are the necessary commands over the
execution of the PL/SQL program. Any computer program can be
written using the basic control structures shown in Figure. They can
be combined in any way necessary to deal with a given problem.
In selection structure it tests a condition, then executes one

sequence of statements instead of another, depending on whether
the condition is true or false. A condition can be any variable or
expression that returns a BOOLEAN value (TRUE or FALSE). Also
after the particular condition we can execute a complete block of
statements. The selection statements include IF and CASE
Statements.
The iteration structure executes a sequence of statements
repeatedly as long as a condition holds true. Also here they give us
the facility to increment or decrement of counters to achieve the
proper results.
The sequence structure simply executes a sequence of
statements in the order in which they occur. They are the simplest
form of control structures which executes on by one.
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9.2.1 IF and CASE Statements
A) IF Statements:
The IF statements executes a sequence of statements,
depending on the value of a condition. When the condition is
satisfied, the necessary option will be executed. There are three
forms of IF statements: IF-THEN, IF-THEN-ELSE, and IF-THEN-ELSIF.
We can form the Condition using relational operators given in
following table. These operators help us to define different kind of
conditions or combination of conditions using following operator
Symbols.
The IF & CASE statements are used in various kinds of
operations on the database. These can be used to sort the data as
well as to find out the exact entry from the table cell depending on
its value. These two operations can used together if the need arise
in operation.
Operator
Meaning
>
Greater than Operator
>=
Greater than or equal to Operator
<
Less than Operator
<=
Less than or equal to Operator
Equal to Operator
<>, !=, ~=, ^=
Not equal to Operator
LIKE
This Operator return true if the character pattern

matches the given value.
BETWEEN..AND
These Operator returns true if the value is in the

given range.
IN
This Operator returns true if the value is in the

list.
IS NULL
This Operator return true if the value is NULL.
B) IF-THEN Statement:
This statement uses the simple condition to evaluate, then it
executes the statement or a block of statements if the condition
returns true. The simplest form of IF statement associates a
condition with a sequence of statements enclosed by the keywords
THEN and END IF (not ENDIF).
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The general format of an IF statement is:
IF condition THEN
ex_statements
END IF;
Example:
SQL> DECLARE
2 a NUMBER(6);
3 b NUMBER(6);
4 BEGIN
5 a := 24;
6 b := 34;
7 IF a < b THEN
8 DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(a || 'is less than' || b);
9 END IF;
10 END;
11 /
24 is less than 34
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.
Example:
SQL> DECLARE
2 a VARCHAR(12);
3 b VARCHAR(12);
4 BEGIN
5 a := 'YASHASHREE';
6 b := 'YASHASHREE';
7 IF a LIKE b THEN
8 DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(a || 'is Same as ' || b);
9 END IF;
10 END;
11 /
YASHASHREE is Same as YASHASHREE
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.a
C) IF-THEN-ELSE Statement:
In second type of IF statement it adds the keyword ELSE
followed by an alternative sequence of statements. In this if the
condition returns true then first block of statement executes and if
the condition returns false then second block of statement
executes.
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The general format of an IF-THEN-ELSE statement is:
IF condition THEN
true_ ex_statement;
ELSE
false_ ex_statement;
END IF;
Example:
SQL> DECLARE
2 marks NUMERIC;
3 BEGIN
4 marks := '45';
5 IF marks>35 THEN
6
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('PASS');
7 ELSE
8
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('FAIL');
9 END IF;
10 END;
11 /
PASS
Example:
SQL> DECLARE
2 a VARCHAR(12);
3 b VARCHAR(12);
4 BEGIN
5 a := 'YASHASHREE';
6 b := 'yashashree';
7 IF a LIKE b THEN
8 DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(a || 'is Same as ' || b);
9 ELSE
10 DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(a || 'is not Same as ' || b);
11 END IF;
12
13 END;
14 /
YASHASHREE
is not Same as yashashree

D) NESTED IF-THEN- ELSE statements:
We can also put IF statements inside other IF statements.
This statement gives us ability to check more than one condition in
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a series and execute the appropriate block of statements
depending on the conditions.
The general format of an IF-THEN-ELSE statement is:
IF <condition1>
THEN
...
ELSIF <condition2>
THEN
...
ELSIF <condition2>
THEN
...
END IF;
Example :
SQL>
DECLARE
2 marks NUMERIC;
3 BEGIN
4
marks := '67';
5
IF marks >= 75 THEN
6
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('YOU GOT DISINCTION');
7
ELSIF marks >= 60 AND marks<75 THEN
8
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('YOU GOT FIRST CLASS');
9
ELSIF marks >= 50 AND marks<60 THEN
10
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('YOU GOT SECOND CLASS ');
11
ELSIF marks >= '40' AND marks<50 THEN
12
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('YOU GOT PASS CLASS ');
13
ELSE
14 DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Sorry. You are fail..... ');
15
16 END IF;
17 END;
18 /
YOU GOT FIRST CLASS
Example :
SQL> DECLARE
2
D VARCHAR(10):= TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,'DY');
3 BEGIN
4 IF D= 'SAT' THEN
5 DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('ENJOY YOUR WEEKEND');
6 ELSIF D= 'SUN' THEN
7 DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('ENJOY YOUR WEEKEND');
8 ELSE
9 DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('HAVE A NICE DAY ');
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10 END IF;
11 END;
12 /
HAVE A NICE DAY
9.3: CASE STATEMENT :

The CASE statement is a compact way to evaluate a single
condition and choose between many alternative actions. This
statement is very useful when we have multiple conditions as well
as the expected input is also multiple and changeable according to
the situation. It makes sense to use CASE when there are three or
more alternatives to choose from. The CASE Statements in PL/SQL
has two forms
i) Simple CASE :
In Simple CASE we have to specify a SELECTOR, which
determines which group of actions to get executed. It simply
executes if the match is found otherwise it executes the default
statement
block.
ii) Searched CASE :
In Searched Case, the SELECTOR is not present, it has
search conditions that are evaluated in order to determine which
group of actions to take place.
A) Simple CASE Syntax:
CASE SELECTOR
WHEN Expr1 THEN ex_statements 1;
WHEN Expr2 THEN ex_statements2;
:
ELSE ex_statements n;
END CASE;
Example
To compare the IF and CASE statements, consider the code
in example that outputs descriptions of school grades. Note the five
Boolean expressions. In each instance, we test whether the same
variable, grade, is equal to one of five values: 'A', 'B', 'C', 'D', or 'F'.
You can rewrite the code in above example using the CASE
statement, as shown in following Example.
Example Using the CASE-WHEN Statement
SQL> DECLARE
2 grade CHAR(1);
3 BEGIN
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4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
grade := 'D';
CASE grade
WHEN 'A' THEN DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Excellent');
WHEN 'B' THEN DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Very Good');
WHEN 'C' THEN DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Good');
WHEN 'D' THEN DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Fair');
WHEN 'F' THEN DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Poor');
ELSE DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('No such grade');
END CASE;
END;
/
Fair
Example:
SQL> DECLARE
2
Product VARCHAR(20);
3 BEGIN
4
Product := 'PEN';
5
CASE Product
6
WHEN 'PEN' THEN DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('PRICE IS
20 RS.');
7
WHEN 'PENCIL' THEN DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('PRICE
IS 10 RS.');
8 WHEN 'ERASER' THEN DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('PRICE
IS 5 RS.');
9
WHEN
'SHARPNER'
THEN
DBMS_
OUTPUT.
PUT_LINE('PRICE IS 10 RS.');
10
WHEN 'NOTEBOOK' THEN DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('PRICE

IS 25 RS.');
11
12
13
14
ELSE DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('No such grade');

END CASE;
END;
/
PRICE IS 20 RS.
B) Searched CASE Syntax:
CASE
WHEN SearchCondition THEN
ex_statements 1;
WHEN SearchCondition THEN
ex_statements 2;
:
END StatementN;
END CASE;
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Example :
SQL> DECLARE
2 grade CHAR(1):='C';
3 apprisal VARCHAR(20);
4 id number:=124;
5 attnd NUMBER:=150;
6 min_days CONSTANT NUMBER:=200;
7 BEGIN
8 apprisal:=
9 CASE
10
WHEN grade = 'F' OR attnd<min_days
11
THEN 'Poor'
12
WHEN grade = 'A' THEN 'Excellent'
13
WHEN grade = 'B' THEN 'Very Good'
14
WHEN grade = 'C' THEN 'Good'
15
WHEN grade = 'D' THEN 'Fair'
16
WHEN grade = 'F' THEN 'Poor'
17
ELSE 'No such grade'
18
END;
19
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE ('Result for student '||id||' is
'||apprisal);
20 END;
21 /
Result for student 124 is Poor
9.4 LOOP STATEMENT :

This is used to repeatedly execute a set of statements. This is the
simplest form of looping structures. The loop statements also
execute continuously until the exit condition is not reached.
LOOP
Statements;
END LOOP;
Loop End Loop has no termination point. So unless we terminate
loop using EXIT command (discussed next) it becomes an infinite loop.
9.5 EXIT STATEMENT :

This is used to exit out of a Loop. This is mainly used with LOOP
statement, as there is no other way of terminating the LOOP.
The following is the syntax of EXIT command.
EXIT [WHEN condition];
If EXIT is used alone, it will terminate the current loop as and when
it is executed.
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If EXIT is used with WHEN clause, then the current loop is
terminated only when the condition given after WHEN is satisfied.
We can put EXIT statements anywhere inside a loop, but not outside
a loop. To complete a PL/SQL block before it reaches its normal
end, use the RETURN statement.
Example:
SQL> DECLARE
2 c NUMBER(6);
3 BEGIN
4 c := 1;
5 LOOP
6 DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('aI:' || c);
7 c := c + 1;
8 IF c > 5 THEN
9 EXIT;
10 END IF;
11 DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('bI:' || c);
12 END LOOP;
13 END;
14 /
aI:1
bI:2
aI:2
bI:3
aI:3
bI:4
aI:4
bI:5
aI:5
Example :
SQL> DECLARE
2 num NUMBER(6);
3 BEGIN
4 num := 4;
5 LOOP
6 DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Table of 4:' || num);
7 num := num + 4;
8 IF num > 40 THEN
9 EXIT;
10 END IF;
11 END LOOP;
12 END;
13 /
Table of 4:4
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Table of 4:8
Table of 4:12
Table of 4:16
Table of 4:20
Table of 4:24
Table of 4:28
Table of 4:32
Table of 4:36
Table of 4:40
9.6 LABELING A PL/SQL LOOP

We are also able to give or apply the labels to PLSQL loops.
The optional label, an undeclared identifier enclosed by double
angle brackets, must appear at the beginning of the LOOP
statement. The label name can also appear at the end of the LOOP
statement. When we nest the labeled loops, ending label names
are used to improve readability.
Simply label the enclosing loop to complete. Use the label in
an EXIT statement, as shown in following Example. Every
enclosing loop up to and including the labeled loop is exited.
Example Using EXIT with Labeled Loops
SQL> DECLARE
2 a
PLS_INTEGER := 0;
3 b
PLS_INTEGER := 0;
4 c
PLS_INTEGER;
5 BEGIN
6 <<outer >>
7 LOOP
8
b := b + 1;
9
c := 0;
10
<<inner >>
11
LOOP
12
c := c + 1;
13
a := a +b * c;
14
EXIT inner WHEN (c > 5);
15
EXIT outer WHEN ((b *c) > 15);
16
END LOOP inner;
17 END LOOP outer;
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18
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('The sum of products is
equals to: ' || TO_CHAR(a));
19 END;
20 /
sum of products is equals to: 166
9.7: WHILE STATEMENT

The while statement execute series of statements as long as the
given condition is true. When the given condition is reached the
loop terminates automatically
WHILE condition LOOP
Statements;
END LOOP;
As long as the condition is true then statements will be repeatedly
executed. Once the condition is false then loop is terminated.
Example
SQL> DECLARE
2 a NUMBER(7);
3 BEGIN
4 a := 1;
5 WHILE a <= 5
6 LOOP
7 DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Initial:' || a);
8 a := a + 1;
9 DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('After:' || a);
10 END LOOP;
11 END;
12 /
Initial:1
After:2
Initial:2
After:3
Initial:3
After:4
Initial:4
After:5
Initial:5
After:6
Example :
SQL> DECLARE
2 num NUMBER(4);
3 BEGIN
4 num := 10;
5 WHILE num <= 100
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6 LOOP
7 DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Table of 10 :' || num);
8 num := num + 10;
9 END LOOP;
10 END;
11 /
Table of 10 :10
Table of 10 :20
Table of 10 :30
Table of 10 :40
Table of 10 :50
Table of 10 :60
Table of 10 :70
Table of 10 :80
Table of 10 :90
Table of 10 :100
9.8: FOR STATEMENT

The FOR loops iterate over a specified range of integers.
The number of iterations is known before the loop is entered. A
double dot (..) serves as the range operator. The range is evaluated
when the FOR loop is first entered and is never re-evaluated. If the
lowerrange equals the upperrange, the loop body is executed once.
Following is the syntax for the FOR loop.
FOR counter IN [REVERSE] lowerrange ..
upperrange LOOP
Statements;
END LOOP;
Steps
The following is the sequence in which FOR will take the steps.
1. Counter is set to lowerrange.
2. If counter is less than or equal to upperrange then statements
are executed otherwise loop is terminated.
3. Counter is incremented by one and only one. It is not possible to
increment counter by more than one.
4. Repeats step2.
Example:
SQL> DECLARE
2
num1 NUMBER(4);
3 BEGIN
4
num1 :=19;
5
FOR num IN 1..10 LOOP
6
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Table of 19 :' || num1);
7
num1:= num1 + 19;
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8
END LOOP;
9
END;
10 /
Table of 19 :19
Table of 19 :38
Table of 19 :57
Table of 19 :76
Table of 19 :95
Table of 19 :114
Table of 19 :133
Table of 19 :152
Table of 19 :171
Table of 19 :190
Example :
SQL> CREATE
VARCHAR(20));
Table created.
TABLE
temp(num
NUMERIC,
str
SQL> BEGIN
2 FOR i IN 1..10 LOOP
3
IF MOD(i,2) = 0 THEN
4
INSERT INTO temp VALUES(i,'number is even');
5
ELSE
6
INSERT INTO temp VALUES(i,'number is odd');
7
END IF;
8
END LOOP;
9 END;
10 /
SQL> SELECT * FROM temp;
NUM
-------1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
STR
-------------------number is odd
number is even
number is odd
number is even
number is odd
number is even
number is odd
number is even
number is odd
number is even
10 rows selected.
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If REVERSE option is used the following steps will take place:
1. Counter is set to upper range.
2. If counter is greater than or equal to lower range then statements
are executed otherwise loop is terminated.
3. Counter is decremented by one.
4. Go to step 2.
Example
SQL> DECLARE
2
n NUMBER := 10;
3
BEGIN
4
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('RESULT');
5
FOR i IN REVERSE 1..n LOOP
6
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(i);
7
END LOOP;
8
END;
9 /
RESULT
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
9.9: CONTINUE STATEMENT

To exit the current iteration of a loop, PL/SQL provides the following
statements:
CONTINUE
Continue-When(Condition)
A) CONTINUE Statement:
You can put CONTINUE statements anywhere inside a loop, but
not outside a loop. To complete a PL/SQL block before it reaches its
normal end, use the RETURN statement .
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Continue statement support in only Oracle 11g.
A CONTINUE statement cannot cross a subprogram or method

boundary.
When a CONTINUE statement is encountered, the current iteration
of the loop completes immediately and control passes to the next
iteration of the loop.
Example :
SQL>BEGIN
2
FOR a IN 1 .. 10 LOOP
3
IF MOD(a,2) = 0 THEN
4
CONTINUE;
5
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(' Even Number := ' || a);
6
END IF;
7
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(' Odd Number := ' || a);
8
END LOOP;
9
END;
Odd Number := 1
Even Number := 2
Odd Number := 3
Even Number := 4
Odd Number := 5
Even Number := 6
Odd Number := 7
Even Number := 8
Odd Number := 9
Even Number := 10
B) CONTINUE-WHEN statement
Syntax
Continue-When(Condition)
Once the condition in the When clause is evaluated and if found
true, the current iteration of the loop completes and control passes
to the next iteration.
Example :
SQL> BEGIN
2 FOR a IN 1 .. 10 LOOP
3 CONTINUE WHEN MOD(a,2) = 0;
4 DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Odd Num := ' ||a);
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5 END LOOP;
6 END;
7 /
Odd Num := 1
Odd Num := 3
Odd Num := 5
Odd Num := 7
Odd Num := 9
9.10 QUESTIONS
1. Explain the PLSQL control Structure with its types and Syntax.
2. What are the different Operators used in IF statement?
3. Explain IF-THEN-ELSE Statement with help of Example.
4. Write a short example to demonstrate use of Case Statement in
PLSQL.
5. Explain Searched CASE statement in PLSQL with Help of
Example.
6. Write Short note on EXIT and Continue Statement in PLSQL.
7. How to Label PLSQL loop?
8. Write a short example to demonstrate use of WHILE loop in
PLSQL.
9. Write a short example to demonstrate use of FOR loop in
PLSQL.
Practice Questions:
10. Write a PL/SQL block of code for reverse number(e.g. 123=321)
11. If there are no transaction taken place in the last 365 days then
mark the account status as inactive and then record the account
number, opening date and the type of account in new table.
12. Write a PL/SQL block of code for area of a Triangle two times
with different values. Store the values in a table.
13. Write a PL/SQL block of code for area of a Circle three times
with different values. Store the values in a table.
14. Write a PL/SQL block of code that will accept an ID number of a
student check if students presence is less than 75% then
declared not eligible for exam. (Create Student table with proper
fields.)
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9.11 FURTHER READING

Associates.
Oracle Database 11g PL/SQL Programming Workbook, ISBN:
9780070702264,
By: Michael McLaughlin,John Harper, TATAMCGRAW-HILL
Oracle PL/SQL Programming,
Feuerstein, Bill Pribyl
Fifth
Edition
By
Steven
Oracle 11g: SQL Reference Oracle press

TATAMCGRAW-HILL
Oracle database 11g: hands on SQL/PL SQL by Satish Asnani
(PHI) EEE edition
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10
COMPOSITE DATA TYPE & CURSORS
Unit Structure
10.1 Objectives
10.2 Introduction to Composite Data types
10.3 Collection
10.4 Index by Tables
10.5 Collection Methods
10.6 How to use INDEX BY Table of Records?
10.7 Introduction to PLSQL Record
A) %TYPE and %ROWTYPE
B) Use of %TYPE
10.8 Writing Insert and Update with PL/SQL Records
10.9 Cursor
10.10 Classification of CURSORS
10.11 Using Cursor in FOR loop
10.12 The %NOTFOUND and %ROWCOUNT Attributes
10.13 FOR UPDATE Clause and WHERE CURRENT Clause
10.14 Questions
10.1 OBJECTIVES
After completing this chapter, we will be able to:
Learn and understand the Composite Data types.
Understand the structure and working of Collections.
Implement Collection Methods
Understand the PLSQL Records
Understand the Cursor implementation
Implement the Cursor in FOR loop
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10.2 INTRODUCTION TO COMPOSITE DATA TYPES:

Composite datatypes can be compileled as the joint venture
of the existing data type. Composite datatypes are the datatypes
that are build with the combination of the other available datatypes
of PL/SQL. We can use this as the collection of the datatypes used
to represent the one unique structure that can be used in the
PL/SQL block.
10.3 COLLECTION:
A collection is referred as a sequence of multiple elements. It
is an ordered group of elements, all of the same type. It is a general
concept that includes lists, arrays, and other datatypes used in
classic programming algorithms. Each element is addressed by a
unique subscript.
PL/SQL offers following collection types:
Associative arrays: These are also known as index-by tables;

that let us look up elements using arbitrary numbers and strings
for subscript values. (They are similar to hash tables in other
programming languages.)
Nested tables: These hold a random number of elements. They

use sequential numbers as subscripts. We can define equivalent
SQL types, allowing nested tables to be stored in database
tables and manipulated through SQL.
Varrays (Variable-size arrays): These hold a fixed number of

elements (although we can change the number of elements at
runtime). They use sequential numbers as subscripts. We can
define equivalent SQL types, allowing Varrays to be stored in
database tables. They can be stored and retrieved through SQL,
but with less flexibility than nested tables.
10.4: INDEX-BY TABLES

The first type of collection is known as index-by tables.
These behave in the same way as arrays except that have no
upper bounds, allowing them to constantly extend. As the name
implies, the collection is indexed using BINARY_INTEGER values,
which do not need to be consecutive. The collection is extended by
assigning values to an element using an index value that does not
currently exist.
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SQL> DECLARE
2 TYPE table_type IS TABLE OF NUMBER(10)
3
INDEX BY BINARY_INTEGER;
4
5 v_tab table_type;
6 v_idx NUMBER;
7 BEGIN
8 -- Initialise the collection.
9 << load_loop >>
10 FOR i IN 1 .. 5 LOOP
11
v_tab(i) := i;
12 END LOOP load_loop;
13
14 -- Delete the third item of the collection.
15 v_tab.DELETE(3);
16
17 -- Traverse sparse collection
18 v_idx := v_tab.FIRST;
19 << display_loop >>
20 WHILE v_idx IS NOT NULL LOOP
21
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('The number ' || v_tab(v_idx));
22
v_idx := v_tab.NEXT(v_idx);
23 END LOOP display_loop;
24 END;
25 /
The number 1
The number 2
The number 4
The number 5
10.5: COLLECTION METHODS

The collection in PLSQL comes with huge support by various
methods. A variety of methods exist for collections, but not all are
relevant for every collection type. The methods are specific for
specific collections.
A) EXISTS:- If nth element is present in a collection, it returns
true.
Example:
IF sub.EXISTS(a) THEN sub(a) := new_sub;
END IF;
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B) COUNT:- This method help to count the number of elements
in a collection.
Example:
IF subs.COUNT = 24 THEN ...
C) LIMIT:- This method is used in varrays, LIMIT returns the
bound value or maximum number of elements the varray can
contain.
Example:
IF subs.LIMIT = 24 THEN ...
D) FIRST:- This method returns the first member of the
collection.
Example:
IF sub.FIRST = sub.LAST THEN ...
E) LAST:- This method returns the last member of the
collection.
Example:
IF sub.FIRST = sub.LAST THEN ...
F) PRIOR:- This method returns the preceding index number of
nth element.
Example:
n := subs.PRIOR(subs.FIRST);
G) PRIOR:- This method returns the next or succeeding index
number of nth element.
Example:
a := subs.NEXT(a);
H) EXTEND:- This method is used to increase the size of
nested table or varray. It either appends one null element to
a collection, n null elements or n copies of ith element of a
collection.
Example :
subs.EXTEND(5,1); // It appends 5 copies of element 1.
I) TRIM:- this method is used to decrease the size of collection
by removing one element from end of collection or n
elements.
Example:
subs.TRIM(3);
J) DELETE:- This method deletes the collection elements. It
either deletes all elements, nth element from an array, all
elements in the range m, n.
Example:
subs.DELETE(2);
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Example on collection methods:
1 DECLARE
2 TYPE my_office IS TABLE OF VARCHAR2 (100);
3
4 office_staff
names_t := names_t ( );
5 clerk
6 manager
7 BEGIN
8 office_staff.EXTEND (4);
9 office_staff (1) := Takshak;
10 office_staff (2) := Viraj;
11 office_staff (3) := Sonal;
12 office_staff (4) := pooja;
13
14 clerk.EXTEND;
15 clerk(clerk.LAST) := Sonal;
16 clerk.EXTEND;
17 clerk(clerk.LAST) := Viraj;
18
19 manager: = office_staff MULTISET EXCEPT clerk;
20
21 FOR l_row IN 1 .. manager.COUNT
22 LOOP
23
DBMS_OUTPUT.put_line (manager (l_row));
24 END LOOP;
25 END;
10.6 HOW TO USE INDEX BY TABLE OF RECORDS?

Example : Declare an index-by table variable to hold the employee
records in cursor
SQL> CREATE TABLE EMP (EMPNO NUMBER(4) NOT NULL,
2
ENAME VARCHAR2(10),
3
JOB VARCHAR2(9),
4
MGR NUMBER(4),
5
HIREDATE DATE,
6
SAL NUMBER(7, 2),
7
COMM NUMBER(7, 2),
8
DEPTNO NUMBER(2));
Table created.
SQL> INSERT INTO EMP VALUES (736, 'Sonali', 'CLERK', 790,
TO_DATE('17-DEC-2000', 'DD-MON-YYYY'), 800, NULL, 20);
1 row created.
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SQL> INSERT INTO EMP VALUES (749, 'Tushar', 'SALESMAN', 769,
TO_DATE('20-FEB-2001', 'DD-MON-YYYY'), 1600, 300, 30);
1 row created.
SQL> INSERT INTO EMP VALUES (752, 'Priya', 'SALESMAN', 769,
TO_DATE('22-FEB-2000', 'DD-MON-YYYY'), 1250, 500, 30);
1 row created.
SQL> INSERT INTO EMP VALUES (756, 'Tanu', 'MANAGER', 783,
TO_DATE('2-APR-2001', 'DD-MON-YYYY'), 2975, NULL, 20);
1 row created.
SQL> INSERT INTO EMP VALUES (765, 'Sara', 'SALESMAN',
769,TO_DATE('28-SEP-2001', 'DD-MON-YYYY'), 1250, 1400, 30);
1 row created.
SQL> INSERT INTO EMP VALUES (769, 'Sana', 'MANAGER',
783,TO_DATE('1-MAY-2001', 'DD-MON-YYYY'), 2850, NULL, 30);
1 row created.
SQL> INSERT INTO EMP VALUES (778, 'Tejas', 'MANAGER',
783,TO_DATE('9-JUN-2001','DD-MON-YYYY'), 2450, NULL, 10);
1 row created.
SQL> INSERT INTO EMP VALUES (778, 'Akhi', 'ANALYST',
756,TO_DATE('09-DEC-2002','DD-MON-YYYY'), 3000, NULL, 20);
1 row created.
SQL> INSERT INTO EMP VALUES (783, 'Amol', 'PRESIDENT',
NULL,TO_DATE('17-NOV-2001', 'DD-MON-YYYY'), 5000, NULL, 10);
1 row created.
SQL> INSERT INTO EMP VALUES (784, 'Sandip', 'SALESMAN',
769,TO_DATE('8-SEP-2001', 'DD-MON-YYYY'), 1500, 0, 30);
1 row created.
SQL> DECLARE
2
CURSOR all_emps IS
3
SELECT *
4
FROM emp
5
ORDER BY ename;
6
7
TYPE emp_table IS TABLE OF emp%ROWTYPE
8
INDEX BY BINARY_INTEGER;
9
emps emp_table;
10
emps_max BINARY_INTEGER;
11 BEGIN
12
emps_max := 0;
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13
FOR emp IN all_emps LOOP
14
emps_max := emps_max + 1;
15
emps(emps_max).empno := emp.empno;
16
emps(emps_max).ename := emp.ename;
17
emps(emps_max).JOB
:= emp.JOB;
18
emps(emps_max).HIREDATE := emp.HIREDATE;
19
emps(emps_max).DEPTNO := emp.DEPTNO;
20
END LOOP;
21 END;
22 /
10.7 INTRODUCTION TO PL/SQL RECORD:

The PLSQL record is a group of related data items stored in
fields, each with its own name and datatype. The record is special
type of PLSQL variable that can hold a table row, or some columns
from a table row. The fields of record correspond to table columns.
The %ROWTYPE attribute lets us declare a record that
represents a row in a database table, without listing all the columns.
Our code keeps working even after columns are added to the table.
If we want to represent a subset of columns in a table, or columns
from different tables, we can define a view or declare a cursor to
select the right columns and do any necessary joins, and then
apply %ROWTYPE to the view or cursor.
The important thing while using %TYPE or %ROWTYPE is
the table name and the column name must already exist in
database.
A) %TYPE and %ROWTYPE:
The %TYPE and %ROWTYPE attributes are used to define
variables in PL/SQL , as it is defined within the database. If the
datatype or precision of a column changes, the program
automatically picks up the new definition from the database without
having to make any code changes.
The %TYPE and %ROWTYPE constructs the variable,
provide data independence, reduces maintenance costs, and
allows programs to adapt as the database changes to meet new
business needs.
%TYPE
The %TYPE attribute is used to declare a field with the same
type as that of a specified table's column. % TYPE provides the
data type of a variable or a database column to that variable. This is
very useful because we do not have to declare the parameter data
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type and also, when the column data type changes in the table, we
do not come to procedure and change the data type.
Syntax :
record_name record_type_name;
Example :
SQL> DECLARE
2 v_name student.name%TYPE;
3 BEGIN
4 SELECT name INTO v_name FROM student WHERE
ROWNUM = 1;
5 DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Name = ' || v_name);
6 END;
7 /
Name = abc
%ROWTYPE
The %ROWTYPE attribute is used to declare a record with
the same types as found in the specified database table, view or
cursor. % ROWTYPE provides the record type that represents a
entire row of a table or view or columns selected in the cursor. We
normally use %ROWTYPE to retrieve the record which contains all
of the columns from a specified database table.
Syntax :
record_name table_name%ROWTYPE;
Example :
SQL> DECLARE
2 v_stud student%ROWTYPE;
3 BEGIN
4
v_stud.rollno := 6;
5
v_stud.name := 'xyz';
6
v_stud.mark1 := 35;
7
v_stud.mark2 := 56;
8
v_stud.mark3 := 67;
9 DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('rollno : '||v_stud.rollno);
10 DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('name : '||v_stud.name);
11 DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('mark1 : '||v_stud.mark1);
12 DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE( 'mark2 : '||v_stud.mark2);
13 DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE( 'mark3 : '||v_stud.mark3);
14 END;
15 /
rollno : 6
name : xyz
mark1 : 35
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mark2 : 56
mark3 : 67
C) Using of %type :
create table student(
2 rollno number(4) primary key, name varchar(4),
3 mark1 number(4),
4 mark2 number(4),
5 mark3 number(4)
6 );
SQL> declare
2
v_rollno student.rollno%type := &rollno;
3
v_name student.name%type := '&name';
4
v_mark1 student.mark1%type := &mark1;
5
6
7 begin
8
insert into student(rollno , name,mark1 , mark2 , mark3)
9
values(v_rollno, v_name, v_mark1 , v_mark2 , v_mark3);
10
dbms_output.put_Line('Inserted Successfully');
11 end;
12 /
Enter value for rollno: 4
old 2:
v_rollno student.rollno%type := &rollno;
new 2:
v_rollno student.rollno%type := 4;
Enter value for name: Sana
old 3:
v_name student.name%type := '&name';
new 3:
v_name student.name%type := 'Sana';
Enter value for mark1: 24
old 4:
new 4:
v_mark1 student.mark1%type := 24;
old 5:
new 5:
old 6:
new 6:
Inserted Successfully
10.8 WRITING INSERT AND UPDATE WITH PL/SQL

RECORDS :
PLSQL gives us flexibility to write INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE
statements directly in PL/SQL programs, without any special
notation:
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SQL> CREATE TABLE I1( a INTEGER, b INTEGER);
Table created.
SQL> INSERT INTO I1 VALUES(1, 3);
1 row created.
SQL> INSERT INTO I1 VALUES(2, 4);
1 row created.
SQL> DECLARE
2
x I1.a%TYPE:=64;
3
y I1.b%TYPE:=54;
4 BEGIN
5 INSERT INTO I1 VALUES(x,y);
6 END;
7 /
SQL> SELECT * FROM I1;
A
B
---------- ---------1
3
2
4
64
54
SQL> DECLARE
2
x I1.a%TYPE:=64;
3
y I1.b%TYPE:=54;
4 BEGIN
5 UPDATE I1 SET a = x WHERE b < y;
7 END;
8 /
A
B
---------- ---------64
3
64
4
64
54
SQL> DECLARE
2
x I1.a%TYPE:=64;
3
y I1.b%TYPE:=54;
4 BEGIN
5 DELETE FROM I1 WHERE a = x;
6 END;
7 /
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no rows selected
10.9: CURSOR
A cursor in PL/SQL means a specific private SQL area
where information for the specific statement is kept for processing.
PL/SQL uses both implicit and explicit cursors. PL/SQL implicitly
declares a cursor for all SQL data manipulation statements on a set
of rows, including queries that return only one row. For queries that
return more than one row, we can explicitly declare a cursor to
process the rows individually.
In the simplest form, a cursor is defined as the pointer into a
table in the database. This simplifies the task of finding proper
values among the huge set of database tables.
In PL/SQL block , SELECT statement cannot return more
than one row at a time. So Cursor use to some group of rows(more
than one row) for implementing certain logic to all the records of
group are show.
10.10: CLASSIFICATION OF CURSORS

Cursors can be classified as:
Implicit Cursor or Internal Cursor These are managed
by Oracle itself or it is the Internal Process of oracle for itself.
Explicit Cursor or User-defined Cursor these are used
to manage for User/Prgrammer or External Processing.
A) Implicit Cursor:
Oracle uses implicit cursors for its internal processing. Even if we
execute a SELECT statement Oracle reserves a private SQL area
in memory called cursor.
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Implicit cursor variables
Cursor
Attribute
%ISOPEN
%FOUND
Cursor Variable
Description
SQL%ISOPEN
The
Oracle
engine
automatically opens the
cursor
If cursor open return true
otherwise return false.
SQL%FOUND
If selected return one or

more
than
one
row
INSERT,
UPDATE,
DELETE opration affect
If
affect
return
true
If selected return one or

more
than
one
row
INSERT,
UPDATE,
%NOTFOUND SQL%NOTFOUND DELETE opration not affect
If not affect the row return
true
otherwise
return
false.
It return the number of rows
affected by an insert,
%ROWCOUNT SQL%ROWCOUNT
update, delete or select
statement.
SQL> DECLARE var_rows number(5);
2 BEGIN
3
UPDATE student
SET mark1 = mark1 + 10;
IF SQL%NOTFOUND THEN
6
7
8
dbms_output.put_line('None of the marks where updated');

ELSIF SQL%FOUND THEN
var_rows := SQL%ROWCOUNT;
9
dbms_output.put_line('Marks for ' || var_rows || 'students are
updated');
10
END IF;
11 END;
12 /
177
Marks for 6 students are updated
Drawbacks of Implicit Cursors
When we use implicit cursor, if our query returns only a single row,
we can still decide to use an explicit cursor. The implicit cursor has
the following drawbacks:
Implicit cursors are less efficient than an explicit cursor.
Implicit cursors are more vulnerable to data errors.
Implicit cursors gives us less programmatic control.
B) Explicit Cursor:
The Cursors which are declared by user are called Explicit Cursor.
The user has to declare the cursor, open cursor to reserve the
memory are and populate data, fetch the records from the active
data set one at a time, apply logic and last close the cursor.
How to use Explicit Cursor?
There are four steps for using an Explicit Cursor.
We have to DECLARE the cursor in the declaration section.
OPEN the cursor in the Execution Section.
FETCH the data from cursor into PL/SQL variables or

records in the Execution Section.
CLOSE the cursor in the Execution Section before we end

the PL/SQL Block.
Cursor Declaration :
CURSOR c_student IS SELECT
RollNo,mark1,mark2,mark3 FROM student;
In above syntax we have created a cursor with name c_student
which is associated with student table.
Once we declared the cursor, we can open it as:
OPEN c_student;
Then we can fetch rows from it as:
FETCH c_student INTO
var_rollno,var_mark1,var_mark2,var_mark3 ;
After finishing the use of cursor we can close it as:
CLOSE c_student;
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Explicit cursor variables
Cursor
Attribute
Cursor
Variable
Description
Oracle engine automatically open

the
cursor
%ISOPEN
c%ISOPEN
If cursor open return true
If selected return one or more
than one row INSERT, UPDATE,
%FOUND
c%FOUND
DELETE
opration
affect
If affect return true otherwise
return false.
If selected return one or more
than one row INSERT, UPDATE,
%NOTFOUND c%NOTFOUND DELETE opration not affect
If not affect the row return true
Return the number of rows
%ROWCOUNT c%ROWCOUNT affected by an insert, update,
delete or select statement.
SQL> create table student(
3 mark1 number(4),
4 mark2 number(4),
5 mark3 number(4)
6 );
Table created.
SQL> insert into student values(1,'Hitesh',56,78,89);
1 row created.
SQL> insert into student values(2,'Suresh',55,44,66);
1 row created.
SQL> insert into student values(3,'Kamal',56,78,89);
1 row created.
SQL> insert into student values(4,'Varun',55,44,66);
1 row created.
SQL> insert into student values(5,'Anu',56,78,89);
1 row created.
SQL> insert into student values(6,'Dinu',55,44,66);
179
1 row created.
SQL> select * from student;
ROLLNO NAME MARK1 MARK2 MARK3
-- -------- ---- ---------- ---------- ---------1 Hitesh
56
78
89
2 Suresh
55
44
66
3 Kamal
56
78
89
4 Varun
55
44
66
5 Anu
56
78
89
6 Dinu
55
44
66
6 rows selected.
SQL> create table student_performance
2 (
3 Rollno number(4),
4 Total number(4),
5 Average number(4),
6 Grade varchar(15)
7 );
Table created.
SQL> Declare
var_total number(4);
var_average number(4);
var_grade varchar(15);
var_rollno number(4);
var_mark1 number(4);
cursor c_student is
select RollNo,mark1,mark2,mark3 from student;
begin
open c_student;
loop
fetch c_student into var_rollno,var_mark1,var_mark2,var_mark3 ;
exit when c_student%notfound;
var_total:=var_mark1+var_mark2+var_mark3;
var_average:=var_total/3;
if var_average<35 then
var_grade:='fail';
else
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var_grade:='pass';
end if;
insert into student_performance
values(var_rollno,var_total,var_average,var_grade);
end loop;
close c_student;
end;
/
SQL> select * from student_performance;
ROLLNO TOTAL AVERAGE GRADE
---------- ---------- ---------- --------------1
223
74 pass
2
165
55 pass
3
223
74 pass
4
165
55 pass
5
223
74 pass
6
165
55 pass
6 rows selected.
10.11 USING CURSOR IN FOR LOOP :

When we use FOR LOOP, we need not declare a record or
variables to store the cursor values, need not open, fetch and close
the cursor. These functions are accomplished by the FOR LOOP
automatically.
General Syntax for using FOR LOOP:
FOR record_name IN cusror_name
LOOP
process the row...
END LOOP;
Example
SQL> declare
2 cursor s_stud (rno NUMBER) is
3
select * from student where rollno = rno;
4 begin
5
for r_stud in s_stud(5) loop
6
update student
7
set mark2=mark2+5
8
where rollno = r_stud.rollno;
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9
DBMS_OUTPUT.put_line('Student RollNo: '||

r_stud.rollno||' Student Name: '||
r_stud.name);
10
end loop;
11 end;
12 /
Student RollNo: 5 Student Name:iop
10.12 THE %NOTFOUND AND %ROWCOUNT

ATTRIBUTES
A) %NOTFOUND
The %NOTFOUND attribute works opposite of %FOUND. It
returns TRUE if the cursor is unable to fetch another row because
the last row was fetched. If the cursor is unable to return a row
because of an error, the appropriate exception is raised. If the
cursor has not yet been opened, a reference to the %NOTFOUND
attribute raises the INVALID_CURSOR exception. We can evaluate
the %NOTFOUND attribute of any open cursor, because we
reference the cursor by name.
B) %ROWCOUNT
The %ROWCOUNT is a cursor attribute. The value of
%ROWCOUNT is set after the FETCH command is executed or an
INSERT, UPDATE or DELETE implicit cursor is used. The
%ROWCOUNT attribute (for EXPLICIT and IMPLICIT cursors) does not
return the total number of rows for a query prior to the first fetch. It does
return:
The number of rows fetched so far following a fetch.
The number of rows affected by a INSERT, UPDATE, and
DELETE.
The attribute can be used in procedural statements but not in SQL
statements.
Statement
%ROWCOUNT value
FETCH
Number of rows returned by the fetched

cursor, incremented 1 time for each
successful fetch.
SELECT INTO
1, even if TOO_MANY_ROWS is raised
UPDATE
Number of rows effected
DELETE
INSERT
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Example :
SQL> DECLARE
2 TYPE item_record IS RECORD
3 ( id NUMBER, title VARCHAR2(60));
4 item ITEM_RECORD;
5 CURSOR c IS
6 SELECT rollno, name
7 FROM student
8 WHERE rollno = 1;
9 BEGIN
10 OPEN c;
11 LOOP
12 FETCH c INTO item;
13 IF c%NOTFOUND THEN
14 IF c%ROWCOUNT = 0 THEN
15 dbms_output.put_line('No Data Found');
16 END IF;
17 EXIT;
18 ELSE
19 dbms_output.put_line('Name of student :'||item.title);
20 END IF;
21 END LOOP;
22 END;
23 /
Name of student :abc
10.13 FOR UPDATE CLAUSE AND WHERE CURRENT

CLAUSE
A) FOR UPDATE clause
The FOR UPDATE clause is an optional part of a SELECT
statement. Cursors are read-only by default. The FOR UPDATE
clause specifies that the cursor should be updatable, and enforces
a check during compilation that the SELECT statement meets the
requirements for an updatable cursor. For more information about
updatability, see Requirements for updatable cursors and updatable
ResultSets.
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Syntax
FOR
{
READ ONLY | FETCH ONLY |
UPDATE [ OF Simple-column-Name [ , Simple-columnName]* ]
}
Simple-column-Name refers to the names visible for the table
specified in the FROM clause of the underlying query.
Note: The use of the FOR UPDATE clause is not mandatory to
obtain an updatable JDBC ResultSet. As long as the statement
used to generate the JDBC ResultSet meets the requirements for
updatable cursor, it is sufficient for the JDBC Statement that
generates the JDBC ResultSet to have concurrency mode
ResultSet.CONCUR_UPDATABLE for the ResultSet to be
updatable.
The optimizer is able to use an index even if the column in the
index is being updated.
Example :
SQL> create table ftbl (a number, b varchar2(10));
Table created.
SQL> insert into ftbl values (5,'five');
1 row created.
SQL> insert into ftbl values (6,'six');
1 row created.
SQL> insert into ftbl values (7,'seven');
1 row created.
SQL> insert into ftbl values (8,'eight');
1 row created.
SQL> insert into ftbl values (9,'nine');
1 row created.
SQL> create or replace procedure pincr as
2 cursor c_ftbl is
3
select a,b from f where length(b) = 5 for update;
4
v_a ftbl.a%type;
5
v_b ftbl.b%type;
6 begin
7 open c_ftbl;
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8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
loop
fetch c_ftbl into v_a, v_b;
exit when c_ftbl%notfound;
update ftbl set a=v_a+5 where current of c_ftbl;
end loop;
close c_ftbl;
end;
/
Procedure created.
SQL> exec pincr;
B) WHERE CURRENT Clause:
The WHERE CURRENT OF clause is a clause in some
UPDATE and DELETE statements. It allows we to perform
positioned updates and deletes on updatable cursors. For more
information about updatable cursors, see SELECT statement
Syntax
WHERE CURRENT OF cursor-Name
Example
SQL> create table testc ( n number(3), c varchar(50));
Table created.
SQL> insert into testc values (1, 'one');
1 row created.
SQL> insert into testc values (10, 'ten');
1 row created.
SQL> insert into testc values (15, 'one five');
1 row created.
SQL> insert into testc values (99, 'nine nine');
1 row created.
SQL> insert into testc values (42, 'four two');
1 row created.
SQL> declare
2 cursor cur_test is
3
select n, c from testc for update;
4 n number(3);
5 c varchar(50);
6 begin
7 open cur_test;
8 loop
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9
fetch cur_test into n, c;
10
exit when cur_test%notfound;
11
if n>12 then
12
update testc set n=n*2, c=upper(c) where current of
cur_test;
13
end if;
14 end loop;
15 end;
16 /
10.14 QUESTIONS
1
Write a short note on Collections in PLSQL.
Explain Index By Tables with help of Example.
Write and explain Collection methods in PLSQL.
How to use INDEX BY Table of Records?
Write a short note on PL/SQL Records and its types.
How to Insert and Update with PL/SQL Records?
What are cursors in PLSQL? Write short note on Classification

of Cursors.
Explain cursor with FOR loop.
Write a short note on %NOTFOUND and %ROWCOUNT

Attributes.
10 Explain For UPDATE Clause and WHERE CURRENT Clause.

11 How to use WHERE CURRENT Clause? Explain with help of
Example.
Practice Questions:
12 Create Table the employee with 6 fields and 10 records. Apply
the various collection methods of PLSQL on the records of the
table.
13 Update the above table records using the PLSQL record.
14 Use the %NOTFOUND and %ROWCOUNT attributes on the
same table.
15 The bank manager of Ghansoli branch decides to activate all
those accounts, which were previously marked as inactive for
performing no transactions in last 365 days. Write a PL/SQL
block to update the status of accounts. Display an appropriate
message based on the number of rows affected by the update
fired (use SQL%ROWCOUNT).
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Associates.
9780070702264,
Fifth
Edition
By
Steven

TATAMCGRAW-HILL
(PHI) EEE edition
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11
EXCEPTIONS HANDLING
Unit Structure
11.1 Objective
11.2 Introduction to Exception
11.3 Coding Structure of Exception Handling.
11.4 Rules for PL/SQL Exceptions
11.5 PRAGMA EXCEPTION_INIT
11.6 Classification of PLSQL Exception
A) The Named System Exceptions
B) The Unnamed System Exceptions
C) The Named Programmer-defined Exceptions
1.7 WHEN OTHERS clause
1.8 The SQLCODE Function
1.9 The SQLERRM Function
1.10 The RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR ( )
1.11 Questions
11.1 OBJECTIVE
Understand the Errors and Handling Errors in PLSQL
Understand the Structure of Exception Handling
Implement the different types of Exception Handling Code
Understand the PLSQL Functions like SQLCODE and
SQLEERM
Using the RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR ( )
11.2 INTRODUCTION TO EXCEPTION
In simple words the Exception means the problem which may

cause to interrupt the program execution.
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The Exception can be defined as an error situation, which arises

during program execution. When an error occurs exception is
raised, normal execution is stopped and control transfers to
exception-handling part (If it is written in the code).
Exceptions are defined as the condition that can cause the

application into inconsistent state.
A warning or error condition is called an Exception. Exceptions

can be internally defined or user defined. Some common
internal exceptions have predefined names, such as
ZERO_DIVIDE and STORAGE_ERROR.
We can define exceptions of our own in the declarative part of

any PL/SQL block, subprogram, or package. For example, we
might define an exception named low_balance to flag
overdrawn bank accounts. Unlike internal exceptions, userdefined exceptions must be given names.
To handle raised exceptions, we have to write separate block

called Exception Handlers. After an exception handler is start its
work, the current block stops executing and the enclosing block
resumes with the next statement. If there is no enclosing block,
control returns to the current environment.
When an error occurs, an exception is raised. That means

normal execution stops and control transfers to the exception
handling part of our PL/SQL block or subprogram. Internal
exceptions are raised automatically by the run-time system.
User-defined exceptions must be raised explicitly by RAISE
statements, which can also raise predefined exceptions.
Using exceptions for error handling has several advantages.

Without exception handling, every time we issue a command,
we must check for execution errors.
BEGIN
SELECT ...
-- -- check for 'name not found' error
SELECT ...
SELECT ...
The Error handling is not clearly different from normal

processing; nor is it stout. If we neglect to code a check, the
error goes undetected and is likely to cause other apparently
unrelated errors.
Using exceptions, we can handle errors with very ease without

the need to code multiple checks, as follows:
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BEGIN
SELECT ...
SELECT ...
SELECT ...
...
EXCEPTION
WHEN NAME_NOT_FOUND THEN -- catches all ' name not
found errors
The Exceptions brings readability in code by separate ErrorHandling blocks.The Exceptions also improve reliability. We
need not worry about checking for an error at every point it
might occur. We just have to add an Exception Handler to
our PL/SQL block. If the exception is ever raised in that
block (or any sub-block), we can make sure it will be
handled.
PL/SQL Exception message consists of three parts.

1) Type of Exception
2) An Error Code
3) A message
By Handling the exceptions we can ensure that the

PL/SQL block does not exit unexpectedly.
11.3 CODING STRUCTURE OF EXCEPTION

HANDLING.
The coding of Exception handling section in PLSQL is quite
simple and easy to understand. The General Syntax for coding the
exception section
DECLARE
Declaration section // Here we can declare any PLSQL
variables etc
BEGIN
Exception section // This is the section which we have to
monitor for errors
EXCEPTION
WHEN First_Exception THEN
-The statements to handle the errors
WHEN Second_Exception THEN
- The statements to handle the errors
WHEN Others THEN
- The statements to handle the errors
END;
/
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We can use normal, general PL/SQL statements in the
Exception block. When an Exception is raised, Oracle searches for
an appropriate exception handler in the exception section. For
example in the above example, if the error raised is
'First_Exception ', then the error is handled according to the
statements under it. Since, We cannot assume all the errors at
once while coding and it is not possible to determine all the
possible runtime errors during testing our code, the 'WHEN Others'
exception is used to manage the exceptions that are not explicitly
handled. Only one exception can be raised in a Block and the
control does not return to the execution section after the error is
handled.
If there exists, nested PL/SQL blocks as given in the following:
DELCARE
variables etc
BEGIN
DECLARE
variables etc
BEGIN
Execution section // This is the section which we have
to monitor for outer errors
EXCEPTION
Exception section // Here we have to write the PLSQL
inner Exception Handling code
END;
EXCEPTION
Exception section // Here we have to write the PLSQL
inner Exception Handling code
END;
/
In the above case, if the exception is raised in the inner

block it should be handled in the exception block of the inner
PL/SQL block otherwise the control moves to the Exception block
of the next upper PL/SQL block. If none of the blocks handle the
exception the program ends abruptly with an error.
Example of PLSQL Exception Handling block :

EXCEPTION
WHEN NO_DATA_FOUND THEN
v_msg := 'No company for id ' || TO_CHAR (v_id);
v_err := SQLCODE;
v_prog := 'fixdebt';
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INSERT INTO errlog VALUES (v_err, v_msg, v_prog,
SYSDATE, USER);
WHEN OTHERS THEN
v_err := SQLCODE;
v_msg := SQLERRM;
v_prog := 'fixdebt';
INSERT INTO errlog VALUES (v_err, v_msg, v_prog,
SYSDATE, USER);
RAISE;
11.4 RULES FOR PL/SQL EXCEPTIONS
The Exceptions declared in one block are considered local to

that block and global to all its sub-blocks. Because a block
can reference only local or global exceptions, enclosing
blocks cannot reference exceptions declared in a sub-block.
We should not declare an exception more than once in the

similar block. We can declare the same exception in two
different separate blocks.
If we re-declare a global exception in a sub-block, the local

declaration prevails. So, the sub-block cannot reference the
global exception unless it was declared in a labeled block, in
which case the following syntax is valid:
Block_name_label.name_of_exception
The following example illustrates the scope rules:

DECLARE
balance EXCEPTION;
customer_id NUMBER;
BEGIN
DECLARE // --- here the inner block begins
balance EXCEPTION; // -- this declaration prevails
customer_id NUMBER;
BEGIN
...
IF ... THEN
RAISE balance; // -- this is not handled because raised in
outer block
END IF;
END; // -- Here inner block ends
EXCEPTION
WHEN balance THEN // -- handle raised exception
...
END;
/
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The enclosing block does not handle the raised exception
because the declaration of balance in the sub-block prevails.
Though they share the same name, the two balance
exceptions are different, just as the two customer_id variables
share the same name but they are different variables. Therefore,
the RAISE statement and the WHEN clause refer to different
exceptions. To have the enclosing block handle the raised
exception, we must remove its declaration from the sub-block or
define an OTHERS handler.
11.5 PRAGMA EXCEPTION_INIT( ) :

Associating a PL/SQL Exception with a Number: Pragma
EXCEPTION_INIT to handle error conditions (typically ORAmessages) that have no predefined name, we must use the
OTHERS handler or the pragma EXCEPTION_INIT. A pragma is a
compiler directive that is processed at compile time and not at run
time. In PL/SQL, the pragma EXCEPTION_INIT tells the compiler
to associate an exception name with an Oracle error number. This
allows to refer to any internal exception by name and to write a
specific handler for it. When we see an error stack, or sequence of
error messages, the one on top is the one that we can trap and
handle. We code the pragma EXCEPTION_INIT in the declarative
part of a PL/SQL block, subprogram or package using the syntax
as ..
PRAGMA EXCEPTION_INIT(Name of Exception, Oracle_error_number);
Where Name of Exception is the name of a previously declared
exception and the number is a negative value corresponding to an
ORA- error number. The pragma must appear somewhere after
the exception declaration in the same declarative section, as shown
in the following example:
DECLARE
problem_found EXCEPTION;
PRAGMA EXCEPTION_INIT(problem_found, -57);
BEGIN
... // -- here is Some code that causes an ORA-00057 error
EXCEPTION
WHEN problem_found THEN
// -- here we have to write the code to handle the error
END;
/
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11.6 CLASSIFICATION OF PLSQL EXCEPTION.

There are 3 types of Exceptions.
a) The Named System Exceptions
b) The Unnamed System Exceptions
c) The Named Programmer-defined Exceptions
A) The Named system exception

The Named system exceptions are exceptions that have
been already given names by PL/SQL. They are named in the
STANDARD package in PL/SQL and do not need to be defined by
the programmer.
Named system exceptions are not declared explicitly, that are
raised implicitly when a predefined Oracle error occurs, also that
are caught by referencing the standard name within an exceptionhandling routine.
Oracle has a standard set of exceptions already named as
follows:
Exception Name
Oracle Error
Explanation
DUP_VAL_ON_INDEX
ORA-00001
We tried to execute an
INSERT
or
UPDATE
statement that has created
a duplicate value in a field
restricted by a unique
index.
TIMEOUT_ON_RESOURCE
ORA-00051
We are waiting for a

resource and we timed out.
TRANSACTION_BACKED_OUT ORA-00061
The remote portion of a

transaction
has
rolled
back.
INVALID_CURSOR
ORA-01001
We tried to reference a
cursor that does not yet
exist. This may have
happened because we've
executed a FETCH cursor
or CLOSE cursor before
OPENing the cursor.
NOT_LOGGED_ON
ORA-01012
We tried to execute a call

to Oracle before logging in.
ORA-01017
We tried to log into Oracle

with
an
invalid
username/password
combination.
LOGIN_DENIED
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ORA-01403
We tried one of the

following:
We executed a SELECT
INTO statement and no
rows are returned.
We
referenced
an
uninitialized row in a table.
We read past the end of
file with the UTL_FILE
package.
TOO_MANY_ROWS
ORA-01422
We tried to execute a
and more than one row
was returned.
ZERO_DIVIDE
ORA-01476
We tried to divide
number by zero.
INVALID_NUMBER
ORA-01722
We tried to execute an
SQL statement that tried to
convert a string to a
number,
but
it
was
unsuccessful.
STORAGE_ERROR
ORA-06500
We ran out of memory or

memory was corrupted.
ORA-06501
This is a generic "Contact

Oracle support" message
because
an
internal
problem was encountered.
VALUE_ERROR
ORA-06502
We tried to perform an
operation and there was a
error on a conversion,
truncation,
or
invalid
constraining of numeric or
character data.
CURSOR_ALREADY_OPEN
ORA-06511
We tried to open a cursor

that is already open.
NO_DATA_FOUND
PROGRAM_ERROR
The syntax for the named system exception in a procedure is:

CREATE [OR REPLACE] PROCEDURE
name_of_procedure
[ (param1 [,param2]) ]
IS
[declaration_section]
BEGIN
executable_section // The code of this section will be
monitored for errors
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EXCEPTION
WHEN exception_name1 THEN
[statements] // Exception handling code
WHEN exception_name_n THEN
WHEN OTHERS THEN
END [procedure_name];
/
The syntax for the Named System exception in a function is:
CREATE [OR REPLACE] FUNCTION function_name
RETURN return_datatype
IS | AS
BEGIN
executable_section // The code of this section will be
monitored for errors
EXCEPTION
WHEN OTHERS THEN
END [function_name];
/
For Example: Suppose a NO_DATA_FOUND exception is raised

in a procedure, then we can write a code to handle the exception as
shown below.
BEGIN
--Execution section // The code of this section will
be monitored for errors
EXCEPTION
WHEN NO_DATA_FOUND THEN
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dbms_output.put_line ('Sorry the given statement
dose not return any row ');
END;
/
Here is an example of a procedure that uses a Named System
Exception:
Example:
CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE new_customer (cust_id IN
NUMBER, cust_name IN VARCHAR2)
IS
BEGIN
INSERT INTO customer (cid,csname ) VALUES ( cust_id,
cust_name );
EXCEPTION
raise_application_error (-20001,'We have tried to insert a
duplicate customer' id);
WHEN OTHERS THEN
raise_application_error (-20002,'An error has occurred
inserting a customer.');
END;
/
In this example, we are trying to trap the Named System Exception
called DUP_VAL_ON_INDEX.
Example: NO_DATA_FOUND EXCEPTION
SQL> DECLARE
2 uid all_users.username%TYPE := 10;
3 uname all_users.username%TYPE;
4 BEGIN
5 SELECT username
6 INTO uname
7 FROM all_users
8 WHERE user_id = uid;
9
10 DBMS_OUTPUT.put_line('uname=' || uname);
11 EXCEPTION
12 WHEN NO_DATA_FOUND THEN
13
DBMS_OUTPUT.put_line('No users have a user_id=' || uid);
14 END;
15 /
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No users have a user_id=10
Example: ZERO_DIVIDE EXCEPTION
SQL> declare
2 n number;
3 begin
4 n:=10/0;
5 exception
6 when ZERO_DIVIDE then
7 dbms_output.put_line('zero divide error');
8 end;
9 /
zero divide error
B) The Unnamed System Exceptions

In simple terms we can refer these exceptions as exception
without proper, standard system names. Those system exception
for which oracle does not provide a name is known as unnamed
system exception. These exceptions do not occur frequently. These
Exceptions have a code and an associated message.
There are two ways to handle unnamed system exceptions:
Using the WHEN OTHERS exception handler, or
Associating the exception code to a name and using it as a
named exception.
We can assign a name to unnamed system exceptions using
a Pragma called EXCEPTION_INIT. EXCEPTION_INIT will
associate
a
predefined
Oracle
error
number
to
a
programmer_defined exception name.
We have to follow some steps to use unnamed system
exceptions are also we have to keep some points in our mind while
using them as
They are raised implicitly.
If they are not handled in WHEN OTHERS they must be handled
explicitly.
To handle the exception explicitly, they must be declared using
Pragma EXCEPTION_INIT as given above and handled
referencing the user-defined exception name in the exception
section.
The general syntax to declare unnamed system exception using
EXCEPTION_INIT is as follows.
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Syntax:
DECLARE
exception_name EXCEPTION;
PRAGMA
EXCEPTION_INIT (exception_name, Err_code);
BEGIN
Execution section
EXCEPTION
WHEN exception_name THEN
handle the exception
END;
/
Consider the customer and the order table from sql joins.
Here cid is a primary key in customer table and a foreign key in
order table. If we try to delete cid from the product table while it has
child records in oid table an exception will be thrown with oracle
code number -1517. We can provide a name to this exception and
handle it in the exception section as given below.
DECLARE
Child_record_exception EXCEPTION;
PRAGMA
EXCEPTION_INIT (Child_record_exception, -1517);
BEGIN
Delete FROM customer where cid= 345;
EXCEPTION
WHEN Child_record_exception
THEN dbms_output.put_line('Child records are present for
this product_id.');
END;
/
C) The Named Programmer-defined exception.

The database programming sometimes becomes critical due
to large number of tables present in the database and also due to
relations among the tables. So sometimes, it is not possible to
handle all the unwanted exceptions using Named and Un-named
exceptions. Thats why we need to name and trap our own
exceptions - ones that aren't defined already by PL/SQL. These are
called Named Programmer-defined exceptions.
Points to ponder while using Named Programmer-defined
exceptions:
Named Programmer-defined exceptions should be explicitly
declared in the declaration section.
They should be explicitly raised in the execution section.
They should be handled by referencing the user-defined exception
name in the exception section.
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The syntax for the Named Programmer-Defined Exception in a
procedure is:
CREATE [OR REPLACE] PROCEDURE procedure_name
IS
exception_name EXCEPTION; // programmer defined
exception
BEGIN
executable_section
RAISE exception_name ; // rasing the programmer
defined exception
EXCEPTION
[statements]
// handling the programmer defined
exception
WHEN OTHERS THEN
[statements]
/
The syntax for the Named programmer-defined exception in a
function is:
IS | AS
exception_name EXCEPTION;
BEGIN
executable_section
RAISE exception_name ;
EXCEPTION
[statements]
WHEN OTHERS THEN
[statements]
/
Here is an example of a procedure that uses a Named
Programmer-Defined Exception:
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Example:
CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE new_customer(cut_id IN
NUMBER, CP_in IN VARCHAR)
IS
no_customer EXCEPTION;
BEGIN
IF CP_in = 'NULL' THEN
RAISE no_customer;
ELSE
INSERT INTO customerer (cid, CP )VALUES (cust_id, CP_in );
END IF;
EXCEPTION
WHEN no_customer THEN
raise_application_error (-20001,'We must have customer
Product in order to submit customer.');
WHEN OTHERS THEN
inserting an Supplier.');
END;
/
In this example, we have declared a Named programmerdefined Exception called no_customer in our declaration
statement with the following code:
no_ customer EXCEPTION;
We've then raised the exception in the executable section of the
code:
IF CP_in = NULL THEN
RAISE no_ customer;
Now if the CP_in variable contains a NULL, our code will jump
directly to the Named programmer-defined exception called no_
customer.
Finally, we can tell the procedure what to do when the no_
customer exception is encountered by including code in the WHEN
clause:
WHEN no_ customer THEN
raise_application_error (-20001,'We must have Customer
Product in order to submit customer.');
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11.7 WHEN OTHERS CLAUSE:

The WHEN OTHERS, clause is used to trap all the
remaining exceptions that not been handled by our Named System
Exceptions and Named Programmer-Defined Exceptions. In simple
words we can say that WHEN OTHERS, clause is used to handle
all the unknown exception or default exception handling block.
The syntax for the WHEN OTHERS clause in a procedure is:
IS
BEGIN
executable_section // section to monitor for errors
EXCEPTION
[statements]
// handling the exception
[statements] // handling the exception
WHEN OTHERS THEN
[statements] // handling the all uncaught exception
/
The syntax for the WHEN OTHERS clause in a function is:

IS | AS
BEGIN
executable_section // Section to monitor for errors
EXCEPTION
[statements]
// handling the exception
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WHEN OTHERS THEN
[statements]
// handling the all uncaught exception
/
Here is an example of a procedure that uses a WHEN OTHERS
clause:
CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE new_customer(cust_id IN
NUMBER, CP_in IN VARCHAR)
IS
no_cust EXCEPTION;
BEGIN
IF CP_in = 'NULL' THEN
RAISE no_cust;
ELSE
INSERT INTO customer(cid, cp ) VALUES ( cust_id, CP_in );
END IF;
EXCEPTION
raise_application_error (-20001,'We have tried to insert a
duplicate cid.');
WHEN no_cust THEN
raise_application_error (-20001,'We must have CP in order to
submit the customer.');
WHEN OTHERS THEN
inserting an customer.');
END;
/
In this example, if an exception is encountered that is not a
DUP_VAL_ON_INDEX or a no_cust, it will be trapped by the
WHEN OTHERS clause.
11.8 THE SQLCODE FUNCTION

The SQLCODE function returns the error number associated
with the most recently raised error exception. This function should
only be used within the Exception Handling section of our code:
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EXCEPTION
[statements]
[statements]
[statements]
WHEN OTHERS THEN
[statements] // Here we can use the SQLCODE
function
/
We could use the SQLCODE function to raise an error as follows:
Example :
EXCEPTION
WHEN OTHERS THEN
raise_application_error(-20001,'An error was encountered '||SQLCODE||' -ERROR- '||SQLERRM);
END;
/
Or we could log the error to a table as follows:
Example:
EXCEPTION
WHEN OTHERS THEN
err_code := SQLCODE;
err_msg := substr(SQLERRM, 1, 200);
INSERT INTO audit_table (error_number,
error_message)
VALUES (err_code, err_msg);
END;
/
11.9 THE SQLERRM FUNCTION

The SQLERRM function returns the error message
associated with the most recently raised error exception. This
function should only be used within the Exception Handling section
of our code:
EXCEPTION
[statements]
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[statements]
[statements]
WHEN OTHERS THEN
[statements] // Here we can use the SQLERRM
function
/
We could use the SQLERRM function to raise an error as follows:
Example:
EXCEPTION
WHEN OTHERS THEN
raise_application_error(-20001,'An error was encountered '||SQLCODE||' -ERROR- '||SQLERRM);
END;
/
Or we could log the error to a table as follows:
Example:
EXCEPTION
WHEN OTHERS THEN
err_code := SQLCODE;
err_msg := substr(SQLERRM, 1, 200);
INSERT INTO audit_table (error_number,
error_message)
VALUES (err_code, err_msg);
END;
/
11.10 THE RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR ( )

The RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR is a built-in procedure
in oracle which is used to display the user-defined error messages
along with the error number whose range is in between -20000 and
-20999.
Whenever
a
message
is
displayed
using
RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR, all previous transactions which
are not committed within the PL/SQL block are rolled back
automatically (i.e. change due to INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE
statements).
RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR raises an exception but does not
handle it.
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RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR is used for the following reasons,
a) Used to create a unique id to the user-defined exception.
b) Used to make the user-defined exception look like an Oracle
error.
The General Syntax to use this procedure is:
RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR (error_number, error_message);
The Error number must be between -20000 and -20999

The Error_message is the message we want to display when the
error occurs.
Steps to be followed to use RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR
procedure:
1. Declare a user-defined exception in the declaration section.
2. Raise the user-defined exception based on a specific business
rule in the execution section.
3. Finally, catch the exception and link the exception to a userdefined error number in RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR.
Using the following example we can display a error message using
RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR.
DECLARE
large_quantity EXCEPTION;
CURSOR product_quantity is
SELECT p.pname as name, sum(o.total_unit) as units
FROM orders o, product p
WHERE o.pid = p.pid;
quantity orders.total_unit%type;
up_limit CONSTANT orders.total_unit%type := 20;
message VARCHAR2(50);
BEGIN
FOR product_rec in product_quantity LOOP
quantity := product_rec.units;
IF quantity > up_limit THEN
RAISE large_quantity;
ELSIF quantity < up_limit THEN
message:= 'The number of unit is below the discount
limit.';
END IF;
dbms_output.put_line (message);
END LOOP;
EXCEPTION
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WHEN large_quantity THEN
raise_application_error(-2100, 'The number of unit is
above the discount limit.');
END;
/
11.11 QUESTIONS
1. Explain Exception. Explain the syntax of exception handling in
PL/SQL.
2. Explain the parts of exception message in PL/SQL.
3. Write short note on scope rules of PL/SQL exception.
4. List and explain types of PL/SQL exception in short.
5. List and explain NAMED System exceptions.
6. What UNNAMED exception? Explain with examples.
7. Explain in detail programmer defined exception with examples.
8. Explain use of WHEN OTHER clause with example.
9. Write short note on SQLCODE and SQLERRM functions.
10. Explain in detail use of RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR ( ).
Practice Questions:
11. Write a PL/SQL block of code which shows the use of exception
handling.
12. Write a PL/SQL block of code which shows the use of user
define exception.

Associates.
9780070702264,
Oracle PL/SQL Programming, Fifth Edition By Steven
TATAMCGRAW-HILL
(PHI) EEE edition
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UNIT - V
12
STORED PROCEDURE
Unit Structure
12.1
Objectives
12.2 Creating a Modularized and Layered Subprogram Design

12.2.1 Modularize code into subprograms.
12.2.2 Create subprogram layers for your application.
12.3 The benefits of using modular program constructs:
12.4 What is a Stored Procedure?
12.5 Comparison of anonymous blocks and sub programs in PL
SQL:
12.5.1 Stored Program Units (The Procedures & Functions)
12.5.2 Naming Procedures and Functions
12.6 PROCEDURE PARAMETERS:
12.6.1 IN and OUT MODE
12.6.2 IN OUT MODE
12.7 EXAMPLE OF PROCEDURE:
12.8 Stored Functions:
12.9 FUNCTION PARAMETERS:
12.10 EXAMPLE OF FUNCTION :
12.11 Difference between Procedures & Functions :
12.12 Questions :
12.13 Further Reading :
12.1 OBJECTIVES:
Create a Modularized and Layered Subprogram
Understand the advantages of modular program constructs
Understand the Creation and use of Stored Procedure
Understand the Functions and its parameters
Understand the Difference between Procedures & Functions
Utilizing the stored procedures in critical PLSQL queries
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12.2 CREATING A MODULARIZED AND LAYERED

SUBPROGRAM DESIGN
The modularized and layered subprogram design is nothing
but the appropriate arrangement of PLSQL blocks or procedures
while writing the code. This arrangement gives the readability to
code as well as ease to handle and modify the code for developer.
With this code anybody can have the sense to understand the code
and its execution hierarchy.
12.2.1 Modularize code into subprograms.

1. Locate code sequences repeated more than once.
2. Create subprogram P containing the repeated code.
3. Modify original code to invoke the new subprogram.
12.2.2 Create subprogram layers for your application.
1. Data access subprogram layer with SQL logic
2. Business logic subprogram layer, which may or may not use
data access layer
PL/SQL is a block-structured language. The PL/SQL code block
helps modularize code by using:
1. Anonymous blocks
2. Procedures and functions
3. Packages
4. Database triggers
12.3 THE
BENEFITS
OF
PROGRAM CONSTRUCTS:
USING
MODULAR
The PLSQL modular programs Subprograms support

reusability. Once tested, a subprogram can be reused in any
number of applications. We can call PL/SQL subprograms from
many different environments, so we can use it in any new language
or API to access the database.
Subprograms promote maintainability. We can change the
internals of a subprogram without changing other subprograms that
call it. Subprogram plays a major role in other maintainability
features, such as packages and object types.
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The PLSQL modular programs allow us to extend the
PL/SQL language. Procedures act like new statements. Functions
act like new expressions and operators. Subprogram allows us to
break a program down into manageable, well-defined modules. We
can use stepwise refinement approach to problem solving.
Model subprograms allow us to distinguish the definition of
procedures and functions unless the main program is tested. You
can design applications with the top down approach without
worrying about implementation details.
When we use PL/SQL subprograms to define an API, we
can make our code even more reusable and maintainable by
grouping the subprograms into a PL/SQL package.
We can summarize the benefits of PLSQL modular program
construct as follows:
1. Easy to maintain: Because the code is well arranged so it very
easy to maintain for the developers.
2. Better data security and integrity: The code is separated in
layered paradigm so that it helps to improve the security and the
data integrity.
3. Better performance: Due to separation and sequential
arrangement the code suppose to give improved performance.
4. Better code clarity: The code is layered and every layer
contains the self explanatory code which improves the code
readability and clarity.
12.4 WHAT IS A STORED PROCEDURE?

A stored procedure or in simple a subroutine or a proc or a
subprogram is a named PL/SQL block which performs one or more
specific task. The stored procedures are written in advance and
compiled before its use. This improves the speed of execution. This
is similar to a procedure or functions in other programming
languages. A procedure has a header and a body. The header
consists of the name of the procedure and the parameters or
variables passed to the procedure. The body consists or
declaration section, execution section and exception section similar
to a general PL/SQL Block. A procedure is similar to an anonymous
PL/SQL Block but it is named for repeated usage.
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12.5 COMPARISON OF ANONYMOUS BLOCKS AND

SUB PROGRAMS IN PL SQL:
Anonymous is unnamed PL/SQL block, cannot save in

database, cannot allow any mode of parameter.
Stored programs are saved into database and we can recall
them whenever program requires it, it accepts the mode of
parameter like in, in out, out.
An anonymous block is a PL/SQL block that appears in our
application and is not named. A stored procedure or a named
block is a PL/SQL block that oracle stores in the database and
can be called by name from any application.
Anonymous blocks are not stored in the database so they
cannot be called from other blocks; whereas stored
subprograms are stored in the database they can be called from
other blocks many times.
Anonymous blocks are compiled each time they are executed,
where as stored subprograms compile only one time when they
are created.
12.5.1 Stored
Functions)
Program
Units
(The
Procedures
&
The
A stored procedure and functions are PL/SQL program unit

which has a name, which can take parameters, and can return
values, which are stored in the data dictionary and also they can be
called by many users.
The term stored procedure is sometimes used generically for
both stored procedures and stored functions. The only difference
between procedures and functions is that functions always return a
single value to the caller, while procedures do not return a value to
the caller.
12.5.2 Naming Procedures and Functions
A PLSQL procedure or function must be named because it is
stored in the database. Each publicly-visible procedure or function
in a schema must have a unique name, and the name must be a
legal PL/SQL identifier.
If we plan to call a stored procedure using a stub generated
by SQL*module, then the stored procedure name must also be a
legal identifier in the calling host 3GL language, such as Ada or C.
The point here to remember that, the name of PLSQL procedure is
the unique identifier in database system. So we are not able to
make more than one procedure with similar name.
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CREATE PROCEDURE :
The general format of a create procedure statement is :
IS
[declaration_section] // Application variables
BEGIN
[executable_section] // Application Logic
EXCEPTION
[ exception_section] // Exception handling statements
/
The following is a simple example of a procedure:
Example 1: (Simple procedure without parameter)
SQL> set serveroutput on
SQL> CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE DEMO AS
2 BEGIN
3 DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('HELLO WORLD');
4 END;
5 /
Procedure created.
Example 2 : (Simple procedure with parameters)
Note:(This procedure can be called Using PLSQL block as shown
below point 3rd of CALL procedure section.)
SQL> CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE Square(sq_num INT,
sq OUT INT) AS
2 BEGIN
3 sq:= sq_num*sq_num;
4 DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Square of entered number is ' ||
sq );
5 END;
6 /
Procedure created.
CALL PROCEDURE :
You can call procedure in three ways1.Using EXECUTE
Example 1 Executl :
SQL> EXECUTE DEMO
HELLO WORLD
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2.Using CALL
Example 1 Call:
SQL> call HELLO();
Hello World
Call completed.
3.Using PL/SQL block
Example 1 call :
SQL> begin
2 HELLO();
3 end;
4 /
Hello World
Example 2 call :
SQL> Declare
2 my_num int;
3 Begin
4 SQUARE(4,my_num);
5 END;
6 /
Square of entered number is 16
12.6 PROCEDURE PARAMETERS

The Parameter modes define the behavior of formal
parameters. The three parameter modes, IN (That is always
Default), OUT, and IN OUT, can be used with any subprogram
wherever necessary. However, avoid using the OUT and IN OUT
modes with functions. The purpose of a function is to take no
arguments and return a single value. There are three types of
parameters that can be declared:
IN
OUT
It is the default.
It
must
specified.
IN OUT
be It must be specified.
Passes values to a Returns values to Passes initial values to

subprogram.
the caller.
a subprogram; returns
updated values to the
caller.
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Formal
parameter Formal parameter Formal parameter acts
acts like a constant.
acts
like
an like
an
initialized
uninitialized
variable.
variable.
Formal
parameter Formal parameter Formal
parameter
cannot be assigned a cannot be used in should be assigned a
value.
an
expression; value.
must be assigned
a value.
Actual parameter can Actual parameter Actual parameter must
be
a
constant, must
be
a be a variable.
initialized
variable, variable.
literal, or expression.
Example 1:
12.6.1 IN and OUT MODE
SQL> CREATE OR REPLACE
2 PROCEDURE SUM_AB (A IN INT, B IN INT, C OUT INT) IS
3 BEGIN
4 C := A + B;
5 END;
6 /
Procedure created.
SQL> DECLARE
2 R INT;
3 BEGIN
4 SUM_AB(23,29,R);
5 DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('SUM IS: ' || R);
6 END;
7 /
SUM IS: 52
Example 2:
SQL> CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE CONCAT
( subchars1 IN STRING, subchars2 IN STRING, ConcChar OUT
STRING ) IS
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2 BEGIN
3 ConcChar:= subchars1 + subchars2;
4 DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('After Concatination of characters word
is ' || ConcChar );
5 END;
6 /
Procedure created.
SQL> DECLARE
2 my_char STRING(10);
3 BEGIN
4 CONCAT('SONA','LI', my_char);
5 END;
6 /
After Concatination of characters word is SONALI
12.6.2 IN OUT MODE
Example 1 :
SQL> CREATE OR REPLACE
2 PROCEDURE DOUBLEN (N IN OUT INT) IS
3 BEGIN
4 N := N * 2;
5 END;
6 /
Procedure created.
SQL> DECLARE
2 R INT;
3 BEGIN
4 R := 7;
5 DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('BEFORE CALL R IS: ' || R);
6 DOUBLEN(R);
7 DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('AFTER CALL R IS: ' || R);
8 END;
9 /
BEFORE CALL R IS: 7
AFTER CALL R IS: 14
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Example 2 :
SQL> CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE DIVISION
(my_num1 int,my_num2 IN OUT INT) IS
2 BEGIN
3 my_num2 := my_num1 / my_num2;
4 END;
5 /
Procedure created.
SQL> DECLARE
2 num1 INT;
3 num2 INT;
4 BEGIN
5 num1 := 180;
6 num2 := 18;
7 DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('BEFORE IN OUT DIVISION NUMBER
IS: ' || num2);
8 DIVISION(num1,num2);
9
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('AFTER CALL to DIVSION IN OUT
NUMBER IS: ' || num2);
10
11
END;
/
BEFORE IN OUT DIVISION NUMBER IS: 18

AFTER CALL to DIVSION IN OUT NUMBER IS: 10
HOW TO VIEW SOURCE CODE OF PROCEDURE?
SQL> SELECT TEXT FROM USER_SOURCE

NAME='HELLO';
TEXT
----------------------------------------------------------PROCEDURE HELLO IS
BEGIN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Hello World');
END;
WHERE
DROP PROCEDURE
If were interested in getting rid of a procedure totally, we can
DROP it. The general
format of a DROP is:
DROP PROCEDURE procedure_name;
SQL>DROP PROCEDURE DEMO;
Procedure dropped.
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VIEW LIST OF ALL PROCEDURE
SQL> SELECT OBJECT_NAME

2 FROM USER_OBJECTS
3 WHERE OBJECT_TYPE = 'PROCEDURE';
OBJECT_NAME
---------------------------------------DISPLAYINFO
DEMO
DOUBLEN
SUM_AB
DISP_AB
5 rows selected.
12.7 EXAMPLE OF PROCEDURE

SQL> create table student(
3 mark1 number(4),
4 mark2 number(4),
5 mark3 number(4)
6 );
Table created.
SQL> insert into student values(1,'abc',56,78,89);
1 row created.
SQL> insert into student values(2,'pqr',55,44,66);
1 row created.
SQL> insert into student values(3,'xyz',56,78,89);
1 row created.
SQL> insert into student values(4,'qwe',55,44,66);
1 row created.
SQL> insert into student values(5,'iop',56,78,89);
1 row created.
SQL> insert into student values(6,'tgb',55,44,66);
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1 row created.
SQL> select * from student;
ROLLNO NAME
MARK1
------------- ---------1
abc
56
2
pqr
55
3
xyz
56
4
qwe
55
5
iop
56
6
tgb
55
MARK2
MARK3
---------- ---------78
89
44
66
78
89
44
66
78
89
44
66
===========================================
CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE displayinfo(
p_rollno IN student.rollno%TYPE,
o_name OUT student.name%TYPE,
o_mark1 OUT student.mark1%TYPE,
o_mark3 OUT student.mark3%TYPE)
IS
BEGIN
SELECT name,mark1,mark2,mark3
INTO o_name,o_mark1,o_mark2 ,o_mark3
FROM student WHERE rollno = p_rollno;
END;
/
=============================================
DECLARE
o_name student.name%TYPE;
o_mark1 student.mark1%TYPE;
total NUMERIC;
BEGIN
displayinfo(1,o_name,o_mark1,o_mark2 ,o_mark3);
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('name : ' || o_name);
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('mark1 : ' || o_mark1);
total:=o_mark1+o_mark2 +o_mark3 ;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Total : ' || total);
END;
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name : abc
mark1 : 56
mark2 : 78
mark3 : 89
Total : 223
12.8 STORED FUNCTIONS

A stored function (also called a user function or user
defined function) is a set of PL/SQL statements you can call by
name. Stored functions are very similar to procedures, except that a
function returns a value to the environment in which it is called.
User functions can be used as part of a SQL expression. Use the
CREATE FUNCTION statement to create a standalone stored function.
Functions are special types of procedures that have the
capability to return a value. It is very oblivious question of when to
use what, either functions or procedures. If were interested in the
results of the code, then we use a function, and return those
results. If we are interested in the side effects (like table updates,
etc.) and not about the result, then use a procedure. Usually it
doesnt affect the code all that much if we use a procedure or a
function.
The general format of a create function statement is :
IS | AS
[declaration_section] // Application variables
BEGIN
[ executable_section] // Application logic
EXCEPTION
[ exception_section] // Exception handling Code
/
EXAMPLE 1 :
SQL> CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION ADD2 (X INT, Y INT)
RETURN INT IS
2 BEGIN
3 RETURN (X + Y);
4 END;
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5 /
Function created.
Example 2:
SQL> CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION STRINGRETURN (
myname STRING) RETURN STRING IS
2 BEGIN
3 RETURN (myname);
4 END;
5 /
Function created.
CALL FUNCTION :
Call for Example 1:
SQL> BEGIN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE ('RESULT IS:' || ADD2 (25,50));
END;
/
RESULT IS:75
Call for Example 2:
SQL> BEGIN
1 DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE ('MY NAME IN FUNCTION IS: ' ||
STRING_RETURN('YASHASHREE'));
3 END;
4 /
MY NAME IN FUNCTION IS: YASHASHREE
12.9 FUNCTION PARAMETERS

The Parameter modes define the behavior of formal
parameters. The three parameter modes, IN (That is always
Default), OUT, and IN OUT, can be used with any subprogram
wherever necessary. However, avoid using the OUT and IN OUT
modes with functions. The purpose of a function is to take no
arguments and return a single value.. There are three types of
parameters that can be declared:
1. IN - The parameter can be referenced by the procedure or
function. The value of the parameter cannot be overwritten by
the procedure or function.
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2. OUT - The parameter cannot be referenced by the procedure or
function, but the value of the parameter can be overwritten by
3. IN OUT - The parameter can be referenced by the procedure or
function and the value of the parameter can be overwritten by
SOURCE CODE OF FUNCTION
SQL> SELECT TEXT FROM USER_SOURCE
NAME='ADD2';
TEXT
------------------------------------------------------FUNCTION ADD2 (X INT, Y INT) RETURN INT IS
BEGIN
RETURN (X + Y);
END;
WHERE
DROP FUNCTION
If youre interested in getting rid of a function totally, you can DROP
it.
The general format of a DROP is:
DROP FUNCTION function_name;
SQL>DROP FUNCTION ADD2;
Procedure dropped.
LIST OF ALL FUNCTION
SQL> SELECT OBJECT_NAME
2
FROM USER_OBJECTS
3
WHERE OBJECT_TYPE = 'FUNCTION';
OBJECT_NAME
----------------------------------------------DISPLAY1
ADD2
5 rows selected.
12.10 EXAMPLE OF FUNCTION

SQL> CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION display(
2
p_rollno IN student.rollno%TYPE,
3
o_name OUT student.name%TYPE,
4
5
6
o_mark3 OUT student.mark3%TYPE)
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7 RETURN NUMBER
8 IS total NUMBER;
9 BEGIN
10 SELECT name,mark1,mark2,mark3
11 INTO o_name,o_mark1,o_mark2 ,o_mark3
12 FROM student WHERE rollno = p_rollno;
13 total:=o_mark1+o_mark2 +o_mark3 ;
14 RETURN(total);
15 END;
16 /
Function created.
SQL> DECLARE
2 o_name student.name%TYPE;
3 o_mark1 student.mark1%TYPE;
6
total NUMERIC;
7 BEGIN
8 total:= display(1,o_name,o_mark1,o_mark2 ,o_mark3);
9 DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('name : ' || o_name);
10 DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('mark1 : ' || o_mark1);
13 DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Total : ' || total);
14 END;
15 /
name : abc
mark1 : 56
mark2 : 78
mark3 : 89
Total : 223
12.11
DIFFERENCE
FUNCTIONS
BETWEEN PROCEDURES
&
Procedures are traditionally the workhorse of the coding

world and functions are traditionally the smaller, more specific
pieces of code. In general, if you need to update the chart of
accounts, you would write a procedure. If you need to retrieve the
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organization code for a particular GL account, you would write a
function.
Here are a few more differences between a procedure and a
function:
A function MUST return a value.
A procedure cannot return a value.
Procedures and functions can both return data in OUT and

IN OUT parameters
The return statement in a function returns control to the

calling program and returns the results of the function
The return statement of a procedure returns control to the

calling program and cannot return a value
Functions can be called from SQL, procedure cannot
Functions are considered expressions, procedure are not
12.12 QUESTIONS
1. How to create Modularized and Layered Subprogram?
2. What is a Stored Procedure?
3. Explain Difference between anonymous blocks and sub
programs in PL SQL.
4. How to create and call Stored Procedure Explain with help of
Example.
5. Write short note on PROCEDURE PARAMETERS.
6. Give the example for using PARAMETERS in Procedures.
7. What are stored functions? Write its Creation and calling
Example.
8. Write short note on Function PARAMETERS.
9. Give a brief example of Stored Function.
10. Explain the Difference between Procedures & Functions.

Associates.
9780070702264,
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Fifth
Edition
By
Steven

TATAMCGRAW-HILL
(PHI) EEE edition
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224
13
PACKAGE
Unit Structure :
13.1
13.2
13.3
13.4
13.5
13.6
13.7
13.8
13.9
13.10
13.11
13.12
13.12
Objectives
What is Package?
Contents of PL/SQL Package:
Introduction to PL/SQL Package:
Advantages of Package:
Components of Packages
Data Dictionary and PL/SQL Source Code:
Overloading Subprograms in PL/SQL:
The STANDARD Package
Product-Specific Packages:
Points to ponder for Writing Packages:
Questions:
Further reading
13.1 OBJECTIVES
Learn and understand the Complete Structures of Packages
Understand the advantages of Packages
Understand the Components of packages
Overload Subprograms in PL/SQL etc.
13.2 WHAT IS PACKAGE?

The PLSQL package is nothing but logical grouping of
functions and stored procedures that can called and referenced by
the single name.
The package is an encapsulated collection of related
program objects for example, procedures, functions, variables,
constants, cursors, and exceptions stored together in the database.
Also a package is a schema object that groups logically related
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PL/SQL types, variables, and subprograms. Using packages is an
alternative to creating procedures and functions as standalone
schema objects.
Packages have two parts, a specification and a body;
sometimes the body is unnecessary. The specification is the
interface to the package. It declares the types, variables, constants,
exceptions, cursors, and subprograms that can be referenced from
outside the package. The body defines the queries for the cursors
and the code for the subprograms. We can think of the specification
as an interface and of the body as a black box. We can debug,
enhance, or replace a package body without changing the package
spec (specification). To create package specs, we have to use the
SQL statement CREATE PACKAGE. A CREATE PACKAGE
BODY statement defines the package body. The spec holds public
declarations, which are visible to stored procedures and other code
outside the package. We must declare subprograms at the end of
the spec after all other items.
The body holds implementation details and private
declarations, which are hidden from code outside the package.
Following the declarative part of the package body is the optional
initialization part, which holds statements that initialize package
variables and do any other one-time setup steps. The AUTHID
clause determines whether all the packaged subprograms execute
with the privileges of their definer or invoker, and whether their
unqualified references to schema objects are resolved in the
schema of the definer or invoker.
A call spec lets we map a package subprogram to a Java
method or external C function. The call spec maps the Java or C
name, parameter types, and return type to their SQL counterparts.
13.3 CONTENTS OF PL/SQL PACKAGE:

The following things are contained in a PL/SQL package:
Declarations of cursor with the text of SQL queries:

Reusing exactly the same query text in multiple locations is
faster than retyping the same query each time with slight
differences. It is also easier to maintain if we need to change
a query that is used in many places.
Get and Set methods for the package variables, if we want

to avoid letting other procedures read and write them
directly.
Procedures and functions declaration that call each

other: We do not need to worry about compilation order for
packaged procedures and functions, making them more
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convenient than standalone stored procedures and functions
when they call back and forth to each other.
Exceptions declarations: Normally, we need to be able to

reference these from different procedures, so that we can
handle exceptions within called subprograms. The naming
and declaration should be in the proper block and scope.
Declarations for overloaded procedures and functions:

We can create multiple variations of a procedure or function,
using the same names but different sets of parameters.
Variables that we want to remain available between

procedure calls in the same session. We can treat variables
in a package like global variables.
Only the declarations in the package spec are visible and

accessible to applications. Implementation details in the
package body are hidden and inaccessible. We can change
the body (implementation) without having to recompile
calling programs.
Type declarations for PL/SQL collection types: To pass a

collection as a parameter between stored procedures or
functions, we must declare the type in a package so that
both the calling and called subprogram can refer to it.
13.4 INTRODUCING TO PL/SQL PACKAGE:

PL/SQL package is a group of related stored functions,
procedures, types, cursors and etc. PL/SQL package is like a
library once written stored in the Oracle database and can be used
by many applications. A package has two parts:
A package specification is the public interface of your

applications. The public here means the stored function,
procedures, type are accessible by other applications.
A package body contains the code that implements the
package specification.
PL/SQL Package
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13.5 ADVANTAGES OF PACKAGE:

1. All related function and procedure can be grouped together in a
single unit called packages and also all the things can be
referred by using single name.
2. Packages are reliable to granting privileges.
3. All function and procedure within a package can share variable
among them.
4. Package enables to perform "overloading" of functions and
procedures.
5. Package improve performance by loading the multiple object
into memory at once, therefore , subsequent calls to related
program do not required physical I/O.
6. Package is reduce the traffic because all block execute all at
once
13.6 COMPONENTS OF PACKAGES

Specification: It contains the list of various functions, procedure
names which will be a part of the package.
Body: This contains the actual PL/SQK statement code
implementing the logics of functions and procedures declared in
"specification".
Defining Package Specification
CREATE or REPLACE PACKAGE <Package Name>
{is,as}
PROCEDURE [Schema..] <ProcedureName>
(<argument> {IN,OUT,IN OUT} <Data Type>,..);
FUNCTION [Schema..] <Function Name>
(<argument> IN <Data Type>,..)
RETURN <Data Type>);
Creating Package Body
CREATE or REPLACE PACKAGE BODY <Package Name>
{is,as}
PROCEDURE [Schema..] <ProcedureName>
(<argument> {IN,OUT,IN OUT} <Data Type>,..)
{IS, AS}
<variable> declarations;
<constant> declarations;
BEGIN
<PL/SQL subprogram body> // Application logic goes here
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EXCEPTION
<PL/SQL Exception block> // Exception handling code goes
here
END;
FUNCTION [Schema..] <FunctionName>(<argument> IN
<Data Type>,..)
return <Data Type> {IS,AS}
<variable> declarations;
<constant> declarations;
BEGIN
<PL/SQL subprogram body> // Application code goes here
EXCEPTION
<PL/SQL Exception block> // Exception handling code
goes here
END;
END;
/
Example 1 :
Defining Package Specification
SQL> create or replace package pkg_demo
2 as
3
function cArea (r NUMBER) return NUMBER;
4
procedure pPrint (str1 VARCHAR2 :='hello',
5
str2 VARCHAR2 :='world',
6
str3 VARCHAR2 :='!' );
7 end;
8 /
Package created.
Defining Package Body
SQL> create or replace package body pkg_demo
2
as
3
function cArea (r NUMBER)return NUMBER
4
is
5
pi NUMBER:=3.14;
6
begin
7
return (pi * r *r);
8
end;
9
procedure pPrint(str1 VARCHAR2 :='hello',
10
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11
12
13
14
15
str3 VARCHAR2 :='!' )

is
begin
DBMS_OUTPUT.put_line(str1||','||str2||str3);
end;
Empname empage
salary
Job_title
Hiredate
Amol
29
29000
Manager
23/11/1998 1
Suresh
27
26000
Developer 16/10/1999 2
Kapil
28
28000
Designer
05/08/2000 3
Pappu
22
17000
Designer
18/06/2001 4
Prashant
25
18000
Tester
11/10/2002 5
KomaL
23
18500
Executive
23/10/2003 6
16
17
empid
end;
/
Package body created.

Example 2 :
To use following Example we need to create table as shown in
following digram:
Table : emp
SQL> CREATE SEQUENCE empid;
Sequence created.
SQL> CREATE OR REPLACE PACKAGE emp_constraints
AS -- spec
2
TYPE emprectype IS RECORD (empid INT, salary
REAL);
3 CURSOR draw_salary RETURN emprectype;
4 PROCEDURE hire_emp (
5 empname VARCHAR2,
6 empage VARCHAR2,
7 salary NUMBER,
8 Hiredate date,
9 job VARCHAR2,empid int );
10
11 PROCEDURE fire_employee (emp_id NUMBER);
12 END emp_constraints ;
13 /
Package created.
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SQL> CREATE OR REPLACE PACKAGE BODY emp_ constraints
AS -- body
2 CURSOR draw_salary RETURN emprectype IS
3 SELECT empid, salary FROM emp ORDER BY salary DESC;
4
PROCEDURE hire_emp (
5 empname VARCHAR2,
6 empage VARCHAR2,
7 salary NUMBER,
8 Hiredate date,
9 job VARCHAR2,
10 empid int) IS
11 BEGIN
12 INSERT INTO emp VALUES
13
(empname,empage,salary,SYSDATE,job,empid_seq.NEXTVAL);
14 END hire_emp;
15
16 PROCEDURE fire_employee(emp_id NUMBER) IS
17 BEGIN
18
DELETE FROM emp WHERE eid = empid;
19 END fire_employee;
20 END emp_ constraints ;
21 /
Call Package Function( For Example 1)
SQL> SELECT pkg_demo.cArea(2) FROM DUAL;
PKG_DEMO.CAREA(2)
----------------12.56
Call Package Procedure( For Example 1)
SQL> call pkg_demo.pPrint();
hello,world!
Call completed.
Package Alter
Package Alter Syntax
ALTER PACKAGE <Package Name> COMPILE BODY;
/
Package Alter Code:
SQL>ALTER PACKAGE pkg1 COMPILE BODY;
Package body Altered.
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Package Drop
Package Drop Syntax:
DROP PACKAGE <Package Name>;
Package Drop Code:
SQL>DROP PACKAGE pkg1;
Package dropped.
13.7 DATA DICTIONARY AND PL/SQL SOURCE

CODE:
Oracle's data dictionary provides information that Oracle
needs to perform its tasks. This information consists of definition,
allocated and used storage size for database objects, default
column values, integrity constraints, names of and privileges
granted to users, auditing information and more.
The datadictionary is stored in a few tables owned by SYS
(the so called dictionary base tables. Their content is exposed
through the static dictionary views. These views and tables should
not be written to, only selected. The base tables are stored in the
system tablespace (which is always available when the database is
open).
The data dictionary is updated when a DDL statement is
executed. The following views are part of the data dictionary.
Find all views along with a comment in dict:
select * from dict;
13.8 OVERLOADING SUBPROGRAMS IN PL/SQL:
2 or more procedures or functions are called overloaded

when
a) They have the same names
b) Different no of formal parameters defined
c) Formal parameters differ in their datatypes/Subtypes and
not in the same family
d) They belong to same subprogram/package/PL SQL Block
They are not overloaded when
a) Any of the above points are not satisfied
b) RETURN datatype alone differs and not the formal
parameters
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The main purpose of overloading procedures is that, when a
PL SQL block is found to do a same operation with different inputs,
we names them same and feed different parameters
Example :
SQL> create or replace package pkg_demo1
2 as
3
procedure pOvr(a in int, b in int);
4
procedure pOvr (str1 VARCHAR2 :='hello',
5
6
str3 VARCHAR2 :='!' );
7 end;
8 /
Package created.
SQL> create or replace package body pkg_demo1
2
as
3
procedure pOvr(a in int, b in int)
4
is
5
c int;
6
begin
7
c := a + b;
8
dbms_output.put_line(c);
9
end;
10
procedure pOvr(str1 VARCHAR2 :='hello',
11
12
str3 VARCHAR2 :='!' )
13
is
14
begin
15
dbms_output.put_line(str1||','||str2||str3);
16
end;
17 end;
18 /
SQL> call pkg_demo1.pOvr();
hello,world!
Call completed.
SQL> call pkg_demo1.pOvr(2,3);
5
Call completed
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13.9 THE STANDARD PACKAGE:

How Package STANDARD Defines the PL/SQL Environment?
The package STANDARED provides some predefined
functions, procedures in the PL/SQL that are handy when
developing the PL/ASQL applications. It defines the PL/SQL
environment. The package spec globally declares types,
exceptions, and subprograms, which are available automatically to
PL/SQL programs. This package can be utilized with bunch of
PLSQL subprograms to perform the specific task. The best thing
about it is that it can be used n number of times. For example,
package STANDARD declares function ABS, which returns the
absolute value of its argument, as follows:
FUNCTION ABS (t NUMBER) RETURN NUMBER;
The contents of the package STANDARD are directly visible
to applications. We do not need to write references to its contents
by prefixing the package name. For example, we might call ABS
from a database trigger, stored subprogram, Oracle tool, as follows:
abs_diff := ABS(x - y);
If we redeclare ABS in a PL/SQL program, our local
declaration overrides the global declaration. However, we can still
call the built-in function by qualifying the reference to ABS, as
follows:
abs_diff := STANDARD.ABS(x - y);
Most built-in functions are overloaded. For example,
package STANDARD contains the following declarations:
FUNCTION TO_CHAR (right DATE) RETURN VARCHAR2;
FUNCTION TO_CHAR (left NUMBER) RETURN VARCHAR2;
FUNCTION TO_CHAR (left DATE, right VARCHAR2) RETURN
VARCHAR2;
FUNCTION TO_CHAR (left NUMBER, right VARCHAR2)
RETURN VARCHAR2;
PL/SQL resolves a call to TO_CHAR by matching the
number and datatypes of the formal and actual parameters.
13.10 PRODUCT-SPECIFIC PACKAGES:

The product specific packages helps programmer to use
them at specific programming condition. Oracle and various Oracle
tools are supplied with product-specific packages that help we build
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PL/SQL-based applications. For example, Oracle is supplied with
many utility packages, a few of which are highlighted below.
DBMS_ALERT Package :
Package DBMS_ALERT allows us to use database triggers
to alert an application when specific database values change. The
alerts are transaction based and asynchronous (that is, they
operate independently of any timing mechanism). For example, a
company might use this package to update the value of its
investment portfolio as new stock and bond quotes arrive.
We can also use DBS package in the exception handling
mechanism to show the error message.
DBMS_OUTPUT Package :
Package DBMS_OUTPUT enables us to display output from
PL/SQL blocks and subprograms, which makes it easier to test and
debug them. The procedure put_line outputs information to a buffer
in the SGA. We display the information by calling the procedure
get_line or by setting SERVEROUTPUT ON in Oracle. For
example, suppose we create the following stored procedure:
CREATE PROCEDURE Salary_Statement (payroll OUT
NUMBER) AS
CURSOR c1 IS SELECT salary, empage FROM emp;
BEGIN
payroll := 0;
FOR t1rec IN c1 LOOP
t1rec.empage := NVL(t1rec.empage, 0);
payroll := payroll + t1rec.salary + t1rec.empage;
END LOOP;
/* Display debug info. */
dbms_output.put_line('Value of payroll: ' ||
TO_CHAR(payroll));
END;
/
When we issue the following commands, Oracle displays the
value assigned by the procedure to parameter payroll:
SQL> SET SERVEROUTPUT ON
SQL> VARIABLE num NUMBER
SQL> CALL Salary_Statement (:num);
Value of payroll: 4523
DBMS_PIPE Package :
Package DBMS_PIPE allows different sessions to
communicate over named pipes. (A pipe is an area of memory
used by one process to pass information to another.) We can use
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the procedures pack_message and send_message to pack a
message into a pipe, send it to another session in the same
instance.
At the other end of the pipe, we can use the procedures
receive_message and unpack_message to receive and unpack
(read) the message. Named pipes are useful in many ways. For
example, we can write routines in C that allow external programs to
collect information, then send it through pipes to procedures stored
in an Oracle database.
UTL_FILE Package :
Package UTL_FILE allows our PL/SQL programs to read
and write operating system (OS) text files. It provides a restricted
version of standard OS stream file I/O, including open, put, get, and
close operations.
When we want to read or write a text file, we call the function
fopen, which returns a file handle for use in subsequent procedure
calls. For example, the procedure put_line writes a text string and
line terminator to an open file, and the procedure get_line reads a
line of text from an open file into an output buffer.
UTL_HTTP Package :
Package UTL_HTTP allows our PL/SQL programs to make
hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP) callouts. It can retrieve data from
the Internet or call Oracle Web Server cartridges. The package has
two entry points, each of which accepts a URL (uniform resource
locator) string, contacts the specified site and returns the requested
data, which is usually in hypertext markup language (HTML) format.
13.11
POINTS TO
PACKAGES:
PONDER
FOR
WRITING
When we are writing the packages; we have to keep them as

general as possible so they can be reused in future applications.
We have to avoid writing packages that duplicate some feature
already provided by Oracle. Package specs reflect the design of
our application. So, we have to define them before the package
bodies. Place in a spec only the types, items, and subprograms that
must be visible to users of the package. By this, other developers
cannot misuse the package by basing their code on irrelevant
implementation details.
To reduce the need for recompiling when code is changed,
place as few items as possible in a package spec. Changes to a
package body do not require Oracle to recompile dependent
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procedures. However, changes to a package spec require Oracle to
recompile every stored subprogram that references the package.
Separating Cursor Specs and Bodies with Packages:
We can separate a cursor specification from its body for
placement in a package. That way, we can change the cursor body
without having to change the cursor spec. We code the cursor spec
in the package spec by using this syntax:
CURSOR cursor_name [(param1 [, param2]...)] RETURN
return_type;
In the following example, we use the %ROWTYPE attribute to
provide a record type that represents a row in the database table
employee
CREATE or replace PACKAGE emp_salary AS
CURSOR t1 RETURN employee%ROWTYPE; -- declare
cursor spec
END emp_salary;
/
CREATE or replace PACKAGE BODY emp_salary AS

CURSOR t1 RETURN employee%ROWTYPE IS
SELECT * FROM employee WHERE emp_sal > 43000;
-- define cursor body
END emp_ salary;
/
The cursor spec has no SELECT statement because the
RETURN clause specifies the data type of the return value.
However, the cursor body must have a SELECT statement and the
same RETURN clause as the cursor spec. Also, the number and
data types of items in the SELECT list and the RETURN clause
must match.
Packaged cursors increase flexibility. For example, we can
change the cursor body in the last example, without having to
change the cursor spec.
From a PL/SQL block or subprogram, we use dot notation to
reference a packaged cursor, as the following example shows:
DECLARE
emp_rec employee%ROWTYPE;
BEGIN
OPEN emp_salary.t1;
LOOP
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FETCH emp_salary.t1 INTO emp_rec; /* Do more
processing here... */
EXIT WHEN emp_salary.t1%NOTFOUND;
END LOOP;
CLOSE emp_salary.t1;
END;
/
The scope of a packaged cursor is not limited to a PL/SQL
block. When we open a packaged cursor, it remains open until we
close or disconnect it from the session.
13.12 QUESTIONS:
1. What are packages in PL/SQL? What are the advantages of
Packages?
2. Explain the Components and specification of PL/SQL packages.
3. Give simple example of package specification and body
element.
4. Write short note on Data Dictionary and PL/SQL Source Code.
5. How to overload Subprograms in PL/SQL
6. Explain the PL/SQL package BODY with the example.
7. Explain some package features with example.
8. Explain STANDARD package in PL/SQL.
9. Elaborate use of following product specific packages.
DBMS_ALERT
DBMS_OUTPUT
DBMS_PIPE
UTL_FILE
UTL_HTTP
10. What points should be taken in consideration for writing PL/SQL

packages?
11. How to separating Cursor Specs and Bodies from Packages?
Practice Questions:
12. Create a function that accepts emp_id and check if the emp_id
exits in dept table display a message employee present and if
not then display the message employee absent.
13. Create a package named myPack that will hold the function
created in above exercise. Write the package specification and
package body for the package myPack.
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14. Write a PL/SQL block of code for a function which calculates
square of a number. Use IN OUT parameter.
15. Write a PL/SQL block of code for a procedure which displays
the information of a Student table. (Create Student table with
proper fields.)
16. Write a PL/SQL block of code for a procedure which displays
the message HELLO WORLD.

Associates.
9780070702264,
Fifth
Edition
By
Steven

TATAMCGRAW-HILL
(PHI) EEE edition
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Unit - VI
14
DYNAMIC SQL
Unit Structure
14.1 Objectives
14.2 The Execution Flow of SQL
14.3 Execution Flow of SQL in PL/SQL Subprograms
14.4 Dynamic SQL
14.5 Dynamic Queries Execution :
14.6 Dynamically Executing a PL/SQL Block
14.7 Dynamic SQL Using Native Dynamic SQL
14.8 Using DBMS_SQL Package
14.9 Advantages of Native Dynamic SQL
14.10 Native Dynamic SQL is faster than DBMS_SQL
14.11 Advantages of the DBMS_SQL Package
14.12 Performing DML Using Dynamic SQL:
14.13 Use of Dynamic SQL in Different Languages:
14.14 Questions
14.1 OBJECTIVES
Understand the Execution Flow of SQL with PL SQL
Understand Dynamically Executing a PL/SQL Block
Understand to use DBMS_SQL Package
Manage and use Advantages of Native Dynamic SQL
Understand Performing DML Using Dynamic SQL
14.2 THE EXECUTION FLOW OF SQL

All SQL statements in the database go through various
stages. These stages are called as Execution flow of SQL:
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Parse: This stage is called as pre-execution. In this stage

the code is checked for is this possible? possibility
including syntax, object existence, privileges and so on.
Bind: In this stage we are able to get the actual values of
any variables referenced in the statement
Execute: In this stage we execute the statements in the SQL
code.
Fetch: In this stage the obtained results are returned to the
user.
Some of the stages may not be relevant for all statements
for example; the fetch phase is applicable to queries but not
DML. These stages can be appearing one by one or with
one another. Every time the statement is parsed. Binding of
values depends upon whether we are using the variables or
not. Every time it is necessary to use the variables in SQL
block. Execution stage happens every time. Fetch is also
depend of the code of block, not necessary execute every
time.
14.3
EXECUTION FLOW
SUBPROGRAMS
OF
SQL
IN
PL/SQL
When a SQL statement is included in a PL/SQL subprogram,

the parse and bind phases are normally done at compile time,
i.e. when the procedure, function or package body is
CREATED.
What if the text of the SQL statement is not known when the
procedure is created? How could the Oracle server parse it?
It couldnt.
For example, suppose we want to DROP a table, but the
user will enter the table name at execution time:
CREATE PROCEDURE drop_tabl (tbl_nam VARCHAR2)
IS BEGIN
DROP TABLE tbl_nam; - - cannot be parsed
END;
/
14.4 DYNAMIC SQL:

In programming world the word Dynamic refers for runtime
execution. The Dynamic SQL is used to write programs that
mention SQL statements whose full text is not known until runtime.
The complete query or the procedure is evaluated only at the run
time, which gives results depending on the code. In this code some
the code may refer the code which is precompiled or may refer
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some code which is not part of current code. Instead the static
SQL statements do not change from execution to execution. The
full code of static SQL statements is known at compilation, which
gives the following benefits:
The total compilation checks that the necessary privileges
are already given to access the database objects.
The total compilation verifies that the SQL statements
reference valid database objects.
The Static SQL execution is very much straight forward and
self explanatory. The result and performance of static SQL is
always good than dynamic SQL. Due to these advantages, we
should use dynamic SQL only when we cannot use static SQL to
achieve our results. The static SQL has limitations that can be
avoided with dynamic SQL. Sometimes we may not know the
complete code of the SQL statements that must be executed in a
PL/SQL procedure. Our program may accept user input that
defines the SQL statements to execute, or our program may need
to complete some processing to determine the correct course of
action. In such situation, use dynamic SQL.
For example, a duration calculating application in a data
warehouse environment may not know the exact table name until
runtime. These tables might be named according to the starting
month and year of the quarter, for example INV_01_1997,
INV_04_1997, INV_07_1997, INV_10_1997, INV_01_1998, and so
on. We can use dynamic SQL in our duration calculating application
to specify the table name at runtime.
When we want to run a complex query with a user-selectable
sort order then we can use Dynamic SQL. Instead of coding the
query twice, with different ORDER BY clauses, we can construct
the query dynamically to include a specified ORDER BY clause.
14.5 DYNAMIC QUERIES EXECUTION:

While dealing with traditional database management system,
there are several situations occur when we need to use dynamic
SQL. We can use dynamic SQL to create applications that execute
dynamic queries, whose full code is not known until runtime. Many
types of programs need to use dynamic queries, including:
The Code or Programs that allow users to input or choose

query search or sorting criteria at runtime.
The Code or Programs that allow users to input or choose

optimizer hints at run time.
The Code or Programs that query a database where the data

definitions of tables are constantly changing.
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The Code or Programs that query a database where new

tables are often created.
14.6 DYNAMICALLY EXECUTING A PL/SQL BLOCK :

There are multiple ways of executing normal PLSQL block.
We can use the EXECUTE IMMEDIATE statement to execute
anonymous PL/SQL blocks. We can add flexibility by constructing
the block contents at runtime.
For example, suppose we want to write a program that takes
an emp number and sends to a handler for the event. The name of
the handler is in the form MY_EVENT_HANDLER_emp_number,
where emp_number is the number of the employee. One approach
is to implement the sender as a switch statement, where the code
handles each event by making a static call to its appropriate
handler. This code is not very extensible because the dispatcher
code must be updated whenever a handler for a new employee is
added.
CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE my_emp_handler_1(e
number) AS BEGIN
-- Code to process the event
RETURN;
END;
/
number) AS BEGIN
RETURN;
END;
/
number) AS BEGIN
RETURN;
END;
/
SQL> CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE
my_emp_adder (emp number, e number)
IS
2 BEGIN
3 IF (emp = 1) THEN
4
my_emp_handler_1 (e);
5 ELSIF (emp = 2) THEN
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6
7
8
9
10
11
my_emp_handler_2(e);
ELSIF (emp = 3) THEN
my_emp_handler_3(e);
END IF;
END;
/
Otherwise using native dynamic SQL, we can write a

smaller, more flexible event dispatcher similar to the following:
SQL> CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE my_emp_adder (emp
NUMBER, e NUMBER)
2
IS BEGIN
3 EXECUTE IMMEDIATE
4
'BEGIN
5
my_emp_handler_' || to_char(e) || '(:1);
6
END;'
7 USING e;
8 END;
9 /
Procedure created.
14.7 DYNAMIC SQL USING NATIVE DYNAMIC SQL

In this situation we are able to decide how to perform the
following operations using native dynamic SQL:
How and when to Execute DDL and DML operations.

How and when to Execute single row and multiple row
queries.
The database in this scenario is a company's human

resources database (named emp) with the following data model:
A master table named offices contains the list of all company
locations. The offices table has the following definition:
Column Name
LOCATION
Null?
NOT_NULL
Type
VARCHAR2(200)
Multiple emp_location tables contain the employee

information, where location is the name of city where the office is
located. For example, a table named emp_delhi contains employee
information for the company's Delhi office, while a table named
emp_nagpur contains employee information for the company's
Nagpur office.
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Each emp_location table has the following definition:
Column Name
EMP_NO
E_NAME
JOB
SAL
DEPT_NO
Null?
NOT_NULL
NOT_NULL
NOT_NULL
NOT_NULL
NOT_NULL
Type
NUMBER(4)
VARCHAR2(10)
VARCHAR2(9)
NUMBER(7,2)
NUMBER(2)
The following sections describe various native dynamic SQL

operations that can be performed on the data in the employee
database.
Note: To execute following examples we need to create the proper
database and table structure in advance otherwise the code will
give compilation error.
DML Operation Using Native Dynamic SQL
The following native dynamic SQL procedure gives an increment to

all employees with a particular job title:
SQL> CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE
salary_incr (incr_percent NUMBER, job VARCHAR2)
IS
2
TYPE loc_array_type IS
3 TABLE OF VARCHAR2(40) INDEX BY binary_integer;

4
dml_str VARCHAR2(200);
loc_array
6 BEGIN
7
8
loc_array_type;
-- fetch the list of office locations
SELECT location BULK COLLECT INTO loc_array

FROM offices;
-- for each location, give a raise to
employees with the given 'job'
FOR i IN loc_array.first..loc_array.last LOOP
10
dml_str := 'UPDATE emp_' || loc_array(i)

* (1+(:incr_percent/100))'
11
|| ' SET sal = sal
|| ' WHERE job = :job_title';
12
EXECUTE IMMEDIATE dml_str USING incr_percent, job;
13
END LOOP
14 END;
15 /
SHOW ERRORS;
-- To view the syntax error if any
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DDL Operation Using Native Dynamic SQL
The EXECUTE IMMEDIATE statement can perform DDL
operations. For example, the following procedure adds an office
location.
SQL> CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE add_loc (loc
VARCHAR2) IS
2 BEGIN
3
-- insert new location in master table
4
INSERT INTO offices VALUES (loc);
-- create an
employee information table
5
EXECUTE IMMEDIATE
6
'CREATE TABLE ' || 'emp_' || loc ||
7
'(
8
empno NUMBER(4) NOT NULL,
9
ename VARCHAR2(10),
10
job VARCHAR2(9),
11
sal NUMBER(7,2),
12
deptno NUMBER(2)
13
)';
14 END;
15 /
The following procedure deletes an office location:

SQL> CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE drop_loc (loc VARCHAR2)
IS
2 BEGIN
3
-- delete the employee table for location 'loc'
4
EXECUTE IMMEDIATE 'DROP TABLE ' || 'emp_' || loc; -- remove
location from master table
5
DELETE FROM offices WHERE location = loc;
6 END;
7 /
Single-Row Query Using Native Dynamic SQL

The EXECUTE IMMEDIATE statement can perform dynamic
single-row queries. We can specify bind variables in the USING
clause and fetch the resulting row into the target specified in the
INTO clause of the statement.
The following function retrieves the number of employees at a
particular location performing a specified job:
SQL> CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION get_num_of_emp (loc
VARCHAR2, job VARCHAR2)
2
RETURN NUMBER IS
3
query_str VARCHAR2(1000);
4
num_of_emp NUMBER;
5 BEGIN
6
query_str := 'SELECT COUNT(*) FROM '
7
|| ' emp_' || loc
8
|| ' WHERE job = :job_title';
9
EXECUTE IMMEDIATE query_str
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10
INTO num_of_emp
11
USING job;
12
RETURN num_of_emp;
13 END;
14 /
Multiple-Row Query Using Native Dynamic SQL
The OPEN-FOR, FETCH, and CLOSE statements can

perform dynamic multiple-row queries. For example, the following
procedure lists all of the employees with a particular job at a
specified location
SQL> CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE list_emp(loc VARCHAR2,
job VARCHAR2) IS
2
TYPE cur_typ IS REF CURSOR;
3
c cur_typ;
4
query_str VARCHAR2(1000);
5
emp_name VARCHAR2(20);
6
emp_num NUMBER;
7 BEGIN
8
query_str := 'SELECT ename, empno FROM emp_' || loc
9
|| ' WHERE job = :job_title'; -- find employees who perform the
specified job
10
OPEN c FOR query_str USING job;
11
LOOP
12
FETCH c INTO emp_name, emp_num;
13
EXIT WHEN c%NOTFOUND;
-- processing goes here
14
END LOOP;
15
CLOSE c;
16 END;
17 /
14.8 USING DBMS_SQL PACKAGE

This is the standard SQL package provided by the oracle to
Database programmer to bring flexibility in the coding. The
DBMS_SQL package gives access to dynamic SQL and dynamic
PL/SQL from within PL/SQL programs. "Dynamic" means that the
SQL statements we execute with this package are not prewritten
into our programs. They are, constructed at runtime as character
strings and then passed to the SQL engine for execution.
The DBMS_SQL package provides an entity called a SQL
cursor number. Because the SQL cursor number is a PL/SQL
integer, we can pass it across call boundaries and store it. We can
also use the SQL cursor number to obtain information about the
SQL statement that we are executing.
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We must use the DBMS_SQL package to execute a dynamic
SQL statement when we don't know either of the following until runtime:
SELECT list
What placeholders in a SELECT or DML statement must be
bound
In the following situations, we must use native dynamic SQL
instead of the DBMS_SQL package:
The dynamic SQL statement retrieves rows into records.
We want to use the SQL cursor attribute %FOUND, %ISOPEN,
%NOTFOUND, or %ROWCOUNT after issuing a dynamic SQL
statement that is an INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE, or single-row SELECT
statement.
When we need both the DBMS_SQL package and native dynamic
SQL, we can switch between them, using the following:
DBMS_SQL.TO_REFCURSOR Function
DBMS_SQL.TO_CURSOR_NUMBER Function
Note:
We can invoke DBMS_SQL subprograms remotely which improves

ease of coding and realization of the result from any location.
When to use Native Dynamic SQL and the

DBMS_SQL Package:
The Oracle provides two methods for using dynamic SQL
within PL/SQL: native dynamic SQL and the DBMS_SQL package.
Native dynamic SQL allows us to place dynamic SQL statements
directly into PL/SQL code. These dynamic statements include DML
statements (including queries), PL/SQL anonymous blocks, DDL
statements, transaction control statements, and session control
statements.
To process most native dynamic SQL statements, we use
the EXECUTE IMMEDIATE statement. To process a SELECT
statement, use OPEN-FOR, FETCH, and CLOSE statements.
The DBMS_SQL package is a PL/SQL library that offers an
API (Application programming Interface) to execute SQL
statements dynamically. It has procedures to open a cursor, parse
a cursor; supply binds, and so on. Programs that use the
DBMS_SQL package make calls to this package to perform
dynamic SQL operations.
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14.9 ADVANTAGES OF NATIVE DYNAMIC SQL

Native dynamic SQL
DBMS_SQL package:
has
following
advantages
over
the
Very easy to Use
Because native dynamic SQL is integrated with SQL, we can

use it in the same way that we use static SQL within PL/SQL code.
Native dynamic SQL code is typically more compact and readable
than equivalent code that uses the DBMS_SQL package.
With the DBMS_SQL package we must call many
procedures and functions in a strict sequence, making even simple
operations require a lot of code. We can avoid this complexity by
using native dynamic SQL instead.
Following table demonstrates the difference in the amount of
code required to perform the same operation using the DBMS_SQL
package and native dynamic SQL.
Example of Code Comparison of DBMS_SQL Package and Native
Dynamic SQL
1 Code of DBMS_SQL Package
SQL> CREATE PROCEDURE insertion ( tname VARCHAR2,
dno NUMBER, dname VARCHAR2,
2
location VARCHAR2) IS
3 mycur
INTEGER; stmt_str
VARCHAR2(200);
4 rows_processed BINARY_INTEGER;
5
6 BEGIN
7 stmt_str := 'INSERT INTO ' || tname || ' VALUES (:deptno,
:dname, :loc)';
8
9 mycur := dbms_sql.open_cursor; -- opening cursor
10 -- parse cursor
11 dbms_sql.parse(mycur, stmt_str, dbms_sql.native);
12 -- supply binds
13 dbms_sql.bind_variable (mycur, ':deptno', dno);
14 dbms_sql.bind_variable
(mycur, ':dname', dname);
15 dbms_sql.bind_variable
(mycur, ':loc', location);
16 -- execute cursor
17
rows_processed := dbms_sql.execute(mycur);
18
-- close cursor
19
dbms_sql.close_cursor(mycur);
20 END;
21 /
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2. Code of Native Dynamic SQL
SQL> CREATE PROCEDURE insertion1
( tname VARCHAR2, dno NUMBER, dname VARCHAR2,
2
location VARCHAR2) IS
3 stmt_str VARCHAR2(200);
4
5 BEGIN
6 stmt_str := 'INSERT INTO ' || tname || ' values (:deptno,
:dname, :loc)';
7
8 EXECUTE IMMEDIATE stmt_str
9
USING
10
dno, dname, location;
11
12 END;
13 /
Procedure created.
SQL> SHOW ERRORS;
No errors.
14.10 EXECUTION SPEED OF NATIVE DYNAMIC SQL

IS FASTER THAN DBMS_SQL:
The Native dynamic SQL in PL/SQL performs comparably to
the performance of static SQL, because the PL/SQL interpreter has
built-in support for it. Programs that use native dynamic SQL are
much faster than programs that use the DBMS_SQL package.
Typically, native dynamic SQL statements perform 1.5 to 3 times
better than equivalent DBMS_SQL calls. Sometimes our
performance gains may vary depending on our application.
Native dynamic SQL bundles the statement preparation,
binding, and execution steps into a single operation, which
minimizes the data copying and procedure call overhead and
improves performance.
The DBMS_SQL package is based on a procedural API and
incurs high procedure call and data copy overhead. Each time we
bind a variable, the DBMS_SQL package copies the PL/SQL bind
variable into its space used during execution. Each time we
execute a fetch, the data is copied into the space managed by the
DBMS_SQL package and then the fetched data is copied, one
column at a time, into the appropriate PL/SQL variables, resulting in
substantial overhead.
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14.11 ADVANTAGES OF THE DBMS_SQL PACKAGE

The DBMS_SQL package provides the following advantages over
native dynamic SQL:
1. We can Reuse SQL Statements using DBMS_SQL
The PARSE procedure in the DBMS_SQL package parses a
SQL statement once. After the initial parsing, we can use the
statement multiple times with different sets of bind arguments.
Native dynamic SQL prepares a SQL statement each time
the statement is used, which typically involves parsing,
optimization, and plan generation. Although the extra prepare
operations incur a small performance penalty, the slowdown is
typically outweighed by the performance benefits of native dynamic
SQL.
2. Client-Side Program supports DBMS_SQL Package:
The DBMS_SQL package is supported in client-side
programs, but native dynamic SQL is not. Every call to the
DBMS_SQL package from the client-side program translates to a
PL/SQL remote procedure call (RPC); these calls occur when we
need to bind a variable, define a variable, or execute a statement.
3. Supports Multiple Row Updates and Deletes with a
RETURNING Clause
The DBMS_SQL package supports statements with a
RETURNING clause that update or delete multiple rows. Native
dynamic SQL only supports a RETURNING clause if a single row is
returned.
4. It Supports DESCRIBE
The DESCRIBE_COLUMNS procedure in the DBMS_SQL
package can be used to describe the columns for a cursor opened
and parsed through DBMS_SQL. This feature is similar to the
DESCRIBE command in SQL*Plus. Native dynamic SQL does not
have a DESCRIBE facility.
5. Supports SQL Statements Larger than 32KB
The DBMS_SQL package supports SQL statements larger
than 32KB; native dynamic SQL does not.
14.12 PERFORMING DML USING DYNAMIC SQL:

The following example includes a dynamic INSERT statement for a
table with three columns:
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query := 'INSERT INTO dept_new VALUES (:dept_no,
:dept_name, :loc)';
This example inserts a new row for which the column values
are in the PL/SQL variables dept_no, dept_name, and location.
Table shows sample code that accomplishes this DML operation
using the DBMS_SQL package and native dynamic SQL.
Table DML Operation Using the DBMS_SQL Package and Native
Dynamic SQL
1. Code of DBMS_SQL DML Operation
SQL> DECLARE
2 stmt_str VARCHAR2(350); my_cur NUMBER;
3 deptid NUMBER := 101; deptname VARCHAR2(20);
4 location VARCHAR2(20);myresources VARCHAR2(20);
rows_processed NUMBER;
5 BEGIN
6 stmt_str := 'INSERT INTO departments VALUES(:did,
:dname,
:location,:resources)';
7 my_cur := DBMS_SQL.OPEN_CURSOR;
8 DBMS_SQL.PARSE(my_cur, stmt_str,
DBMS_SQL.NATIVE);
9
-- supply binds
10 DBMS_SQL.BIND_VARIABLE (my_cur, ':did',
deptid);
11 DBMS_SQL.BIND_VARIABLE (my_cur, ':dname',
deptname);
12 DBMS_SQL.BIND_VARIABLE (my_cur, ':location',
location);
13 DBMS_SQL.BIND_VARIABLE (my_cur, ':resources',
myresources);
14
15
rows_processed := dbms_sql.execute(my_cur);
16
-- execute
17 DBMS_SQL.CLOSE_CURSOR(my_cur); -- close
18 END;
19 /
2. Code of Native Dynamic SQL DML Operation:
SQL> DECLARE
2 stmt_str VARCHAR2(350); deptid NUMBER := 102;
3 deptname VARCHAR2(20); location VARCHAR2(20);
4 myresource VARCHAR2(20);
5 BEGIN
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6 stmt_str := 'INSERT INTO departments VALUES
7
(:did, :dname, :location,:resources)';
8 EXECUTE IMMEDIATE stmt_str
9
USING deptid, deptname, location ,myresource;
10 END;
11 /
14.13 USE OF
LANGUAGES:
DYNAMIC
SQL
DIFFERENT
The dynamic SQL is also supported in various database

languages with their language specifications. We can call dynamic
SQL from other languages as:
If we use C/C++, we can call dynamic SQL with the Oracle
Call Interface (OCI), or we can use the Pro*C/C++ precompiler to add dynamic SQL extensions to our C code.
If we use COBOL, we can use the Pro*COBOL pre-compiler
to add dynamic SQL extensions to our COBOL code.
If we use Java, we can develop applications that use
dynamic SQL with JDBC.
If we have an application that uses OCI, Pro*C/C++, or
Pro*COBOL to execute dynamic SQL, we should consider
switching to native dynamic SQL inside PL/SQL stored procedures
and functions. The network round-trips required to perform dynamic
SQL operations from client-side applications might decrease
performance. Stored procedures can reside on the server,
eliminating the network overhead. We can call the PL/SQL stored
procedures and stored functions from the OCI, Pro*C/C++, or
Pro*COBOL application.
14.14 QUESTIONS
1. State the execution flow of SQL in PL/SQL Subprograms.
2. How to execute PL/SQL Block Dynamically?
3. Write short note on Dynamic SQL.
4. How to execute Dynamic queries?
5. What is Native Dynamic SQL?
6. Write short note on DBMS_SQL Package.
7. State the Advantages of Native Dynamic SQL.
8. State the Advantages of DBMS_SQL Package.
9. Where we can use Dynamic SQL other than PLSQL?
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Practice Questions:
10. Write a Simple example for DML Operation Using Native
Dynamic SQL.
11. Write a Simple example for DDL Operation Using Native
Dynamic SQL.
12. Write a Simple example for Multiple-Row Query Using Native
Dynamic SQL.
13. Use the DBMS_SQL package in the above examples.

Associates.
9780070702264,
Fifth
Edition
By
Steven

TATAMCGRAW-HILL
(PHI) EEE edition
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15
TRIGGERS
Unit Structure
15.1 Objectives
15.2 Defining a Trigger :
15.3 Inside the Triggers
15.4 The Database Triggers & Application Triggers
15.5 Classification of PL/SQL Triggers:
15.6 Difference between BEFORE &. AFTER Triggers
15.7 Execution Sequence of PL/SQL Trigger
15.8 Difference between Statement Level and Row Level triggers
15.9 Building a DML Row Level Trigger
15.10 DDL Trigger creation:
15.11 Calling a Procedure in a Trigger Body:
15.12 Building a Database Event Trigger:
15.13 Creation of a SCHEMA Trigger:
15.14 Identifiers (OLD and NEW):
15.15 INSTEAD OF Triggers (View Triggers):
15.16 Listing of Trigger Information:
15.17 Altering a Trigger:
15.18 Knowing Information about Triggers:
15.19 CYCLIC CASCADING in a TRIGGER
15.20 Boundaries on Trigger Conditions:
15.21 Trigger Exceptions:
15.22 Privileges Required to Use Triggers
15.23 Questions
15.1 OBJECTIVES
Understand the Fundamentals of Triggers
Create and use Triggers
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Understand the types of Triggers
Understand the Execution Hierarchy of PL/SQL Trigger
Creating DML and DDL Triggers
View , Alter and Drop the Triggers
Understand the Cyclic Cascading in a Triggers
Understand the Privileges Required to Use Triggers
15.2 DEFINING A TRIGGER:

The triggers play an important role while validating the SQL
and PLSQL queries on automatic basis depending on the particular
condition. It executes or fired like a definite event every time. A
trigger can be defined as automatic code execution on a particular
event of a database. A trigger is a PL/SQL block structure or a
subprogram which is fired or executed when a DML statements like
Insert, Delete, Update is executed on a database table. A trigger is
triggered automatically at predefined timing and event, when an
associated DML statement is executed. Triggers are physically
stored in database.
A trigger stored in the database can include SQL and
PL/SQL or Java statements to run as a unit and can invoke stored
procedures. However, procedures and triggers differ in the way that
they are invoked. A procedure is explicitly run by a user,
application, or trigger. Triggers are implicitly fired by Oracle when a
triggering event occurs, no matter which user is connected or which
application is being used. Triggers are useful in achieving security
and auditing. It also maintains data integrity and referential integrity.
15.3 INSIDE THE TRIGGERS

The triggers give the dynamic approach to our SQL script.
Before we create and use the trigger, the user SYS must run a SQL
script commonly called DBMSSTDX.SQL. The proper name and
location of this script depend on our operating system. Before
starting with the triggers we must consider following points.
We must have the CREATE TRIGGER system privilege, to
create a trigger in our own schema on a table.
To create a trigger in any schema on a table in any schema,
or on another user's schema (schema. SCHEMA), we must
have the CREATE ANY TRIGGER system privilege.
To create a trigger on DATABASE, we must have the
ADMINISTER DATABASE TRIGGER system privilege.
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If the trigger issues SQL statements or calls procedures or
functions, then the owner of the trigger must have the privileges
necessary to perform these operations. These privileges must be
granted directly to the owner rather than acquired through roles.
In short we must have maximum privileges to deal with the triggers.
15.4 THE DATABASE TRIGGERS & APPLICATION

TRIGGERS:
There are various types of triggers. Triggers can be
categorized as Database triggers and Application triggers on the
basis of scope of usage of triggers. The Database triggers are
activated on any event occurring in the database, while application
trigger are restricted to an application. Database triggers can be
created on top of table, view, schema or database. Timings for
table or view can be before and after a DML operation, while those
on schema and database
can be logging in and log off.
A. Triggers with DML:
The following are the three criteria which must be kept in mind
before creating and using the DML trigger.
1. There can be three possible DML actions on data i.e. INSERT,
UPDATE or DELETE. These are events for the DML triggers.
2. A simultaneous action can be performed either before or after
an event. This serves as timing for DML triggers.
3. Whether the trigger action must be at DML statement level or at
affected row level, decides the level of a trigger.
After the timing, event and level are set, trigger body must be
created to implement the triggering logic.
Important Note: The size of a trigger cannot be greater than 32
KB.
Syntax of Triggers:
The Syntax for creating a trigger is:
CREATE [OR REPLACE] TRIGGER trigger_name

{BEFORE | AFTER | INSTEAD OF}
{INSERT [OR] | UPDATE [OR] | DELETE}
[OF column_name]
ON table_name
[REFERENCING OLD AS o NEW AS n]
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[FOR EACH ROW]
WHEN (condition)
BEGIN
--- The SQL Code // application logic goes here
END;
/
Understanding the Syntax:
CREATE [OR REPLACE ] TRIGGER trigger_name :- This line
creates a trigger with the given name or overwrites an existing
trigger with the same name. It is a compulsory part of syntax.
{BEFORE | AFTER | INSTEAD OF } - This line indicates at
what time the trigger should get fired. i.e. For example: before or
after updating a table. INSTEAD OF is used to create a trigger
on a view. Before and After cannot be used to create a trigger
on a view.
{INSERT [OR] | UPDATE [OR] | DELETE} - This line
determines the triggering event. More than one triggering events
can be used together separated by OR keyword. The trigger
gets fired at all the specified triggering event.
[OF col_name] - This statement is used with update triggers.
This statement is used when we want to trigger an event only
when a specific column is updated.
[ON table_name] - This statement identifies the name of the
table or view to which the trigger is associated.
[REFERENCING OLD AS o NEW AS n] - This statement is
used to reference the old and new values of the data being
changed. By default, we reference the values as
:old.column_name or :new.column_name. The reference names
can also be changed from old (or new) to any other user-defined
name. We cannot reference old values when inserting a record,
or new values when deleting a record, because they do not
exist.
[FOR EACH ROW] - This statement is used to determine
whether a trigger must fire when each row gets affected ( i.e. a
Row Level Trigger) or just once when the entire SQL statement
is executed(i.e.statement level Trigger).
WHEN (condition) - This statement is valid only for row level
triggers. The trigger is fired only for rows that satisfy the
condition specified.
For Example: If we want to avoid the duplicate entry of the field
other than primary field then we can create trigger to check that
particular entry. The price of a product changes constantly. It is
important to maintain the history of the prices of the products. We
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can create a trigger to update the 'price_trace' table when the price
of the product is updated in the 'product' table.
1) Create the 'product' table and 'price_trace ' table
SQL> CREATE TABLE price_trace
16 (product_id number(5), product_name varchar2(32),
17 supplier_name varchar2(32),
4 unit_price number(7,2) );
Table created.
SQL> CREATE TABLE product (product_id number(5),
product_name varchar2(32),
supplier_name varchar2(32), unit_price number(7,2)
);
Table created.
SQL> insert into product values(1312,'Wooden_Door','Galaxy',950);
1 row created.
SQL> insert into product values(1313,'Plastic_Door','Tanmay',1950);
1 row created.
SQL> insert into product values(1314,'Metal_Door','Sun',11450);
1 row created.
2) Create the my_price_trace trigger and execute it.

SQL> CREATE or REPLACE TRIGGER my_price_trace
2 BEFORE UPDATE OF unit_price
3 ON product
4 FOR EACH ROW
5 BEGIN
6 INSERT INTO price_trace
7
VALUES
(:old.product_id,
:old.product_name,
:old.supplier_name, :old.unit_price);
8 END;
9 /
Trigger created.
3) Lets update the price of a product.
SQL> UPDATE product SET unit_price = 900 WHERE
product_id = 1312;
1 row updated.
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Once the above update query is executed, the trigger fires
and updates the 'price_trace' table. We can view the result using
following statements.
SQL> select * from price_trace;
PRODUCT_ID
-------------------1312
PRODUCT_NAME
SUPPLIER_NAME UNIT_PRICE
-------------------------- ------------------------ -----------------Wooden_Door
Galaxy
950
4) If we ROLLBACK the transaction before committing to the

database, the data inserted to the table is also rolled back.
15.5 CLASSIFICATION OF PL/SQL TRIGGERS:

There are two types of triggers based on the level it is triggered.
1) Trigger on Row level: - The Row level trigger fires automatically
when any other query makes any change in the any single table
row. The row level trigger is fired each time the table is affected by
the triggering statement. For example, if an UPDATE statement
updates multiple rows of a table, a row trigger is fired once for each
row affected by the UPDATE statement. If a triggering statement
affects no rows, a row trigger is not executed at all. Row triggers
are useful if the code in the trigger action depends on data provided
by the triggering statement or rows that are affected.
2) Trigger on Statement level: - The statement trigger is fired
once on behalf of the triggering Statement, regardless of the
number of rows in the table that the triggering statement affects
(even if no rows are affected). For example, if a DELETE statement
deletes several rows from a table, a statement-level DELETE
trigger is fired only once, regardless of how many rows are deleted
from the table.
Statement triggers are useful if the code in the trigger action
does not depend on the data provided by the triggering statement
or the rows affected. For example, if a trigger makes a complex
security check on the current time or user, or if a trigger generates
a single audit record based on the type of triggering statement, a
statement trigger is used.
15.6 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BEFORE & AFTER

TRIGGERS:
The Before and After triggers are related with the timing of
firing them or we can say that when to execute them. When
defining a trigger, we can specify the trigger timing. Means, we can
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specify whether the trigger action is to be executed before or after
the triggering statement. BEFORE and AFTER apply to both
statement and row triggers.
1) BEFORE Triggers: The BEFORE triggers executes the

trigger action before the triggering statement. The BEFORE triggers
are used when the trigger action should determine whether the
triggering statement should be allowed to complete. By using a
BEFORE trigger for this purpose, we can eliminate unnecessary
processing of the triggering statement and its ultimate rollback in
cases where an exception is raised in the trigger action. BEFORE
triggers are also used to derive specific column values before
completing a triggering INSERT or UPDATE statement.
2) AFTER Triggers: The AFTER triggers execute the trigger

action after the triggering statement is executed. The AFTER
triggers are used when we want the triggering statement to
complete before executing the trigger action. If a BEFORE trigger is
already present, an AFTER trigger can perform different actions on
the same triggering statement.
We can have multiple triggers of the same type for the same
statement for any given table. For example we may have two
BEFORE STATEMENT triggers for UPDATE statements on the
EMPLOYEE table. Multiple triggers of the same type permit
modular installation of applications that have triggers on the same
tables. We can design our own AFTER ROW trigger in addition to
the Oracle-defined AFTER ROW trigger.
We can create as many triggers of the preceding different
types as we need for each type of DML statement (INSERT,
UPDATE, or DELETE). For example, suppose we have a table
Payment, and we want to know when the table is being accessed
and the types of queries being issued.
15.7 EXECUTION SEQUENCE OF PL/SQL TRIGGER:

There are some rules of execution of triggers. The following
sequence
is
followed
when
a
trigger
is
fired.
1) The BEFORE statement trigger executes / fires first.
2) Next BEFORE row level trigger fires, once for each row affected.
3) Then AFTER row level trigger fires once for each affected row.
These events will alternates between BEFORE and AFTER row
level triggers.
4) Finally the AFTER statement level trigger fires.
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For example lets create a table 'product_chk' which we can use to
store messages when triggers are fired.
SQL> CREATE TABLE product_chk (Message varchar2(50),
Current_Date date );
Table created.
Let's create a BEFORE and AFTER statement and row level
triggers for the product table.
1) BEFORE UPDATE, Statement Level: This trigger will insert a
record into the table 'product_chk' before a SQL update statement
is executed, at the statement level.
SQL>
CREATE
or
REPLACE
TRIGGER
Before_Update_product
2 BEFORE
3 UPDATE ON product
4 Begin
5 INSERT INTO product_chk
6 Values('Before update, statement level trigger', sysdate);
7 END;
8 /
Trigger created.
2) BEFORE UPDATE, Row Level: This trigger will insert a record
into the table 'product_chk' before each row is updated.
SQL>
CREATE
or
REPLACE
TRIGGER
Before_Upddate_Row_product
2 BEFORE
3 UPDATE ON product
4 FOR EACH ROW
5 BEGIN
7 Values('Before update row level trigger',sysdate);
8 END;
9 /
Trigger created.
3) AFTER UPDATE, Statement Level: This trigger will insert a
record into the table 'product_chk' after a SQL update statement is
executed, at the statement level.
SQL> CREATE or REPLACE TRIGGER
After_Update_product
2 AFTER
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3
4
5
6
7
8
UPDATE ON product
BEGIN
INSERT INTO product_chk
Values('After update, statement level trigger', sysdate);
End;
/
Trigger created.
4) AFTER UPDATE, Row Level: This trigger will insert a record
into the table 'product_chk' after each row is updated.
SQL> CREATE or REPLACE TRIGGER
After_Update_Row_product
2 AFTER
3 insert On product
4 FOR EACH ROW
5 BEGIN
7 Values('After update, Row level trigger',sysdate);
8 END;
9 /
Trigger created.
Now lets execute a update statement on table item.
SQL> UPDATE product SET unit_price = 850
2 WHERE product_id in (1312,1314);
2 rows updated.
We can check the data in 'product_chk' table to see the order in
which the trigger is fired.
SQL> SELECT * FROM product_chk;
Output:
MESSAGE
CURRENT_DATE
-------------------------------------------------- ---------------------Before update, statement level
29-AUG-12
Before update row level trigger
29- AUG -12
Before update row level trigger
29- AUG -12
After update, statement level triggers
29- AUG -12
The above result shows 'before update' and 'after update'
row level events have occurred twice, since two records were
updated. But 'before update' and 'after update' statement level
events are fired only once per SQL statement.
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The above rules apply similarly for INSERT and DELETE
statements.
15.8 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN STATEMENT LEVEL

AND ROW LEVEL TRIGGERS :
A) Statement-Level Triggers: These are the default triggers.
These are fired only once when the triggering event occurs. These
triggers does not have any effect that any row affected or not by the
update or insert statement.
B) Row-Level Triggers: To fire these types of triggers FOR EACH
ROW specification is required. These triggers are fired only when
the rows affected by an event. If no rows are affected, it will not fire.
(IMG Ref www.club-oracle.com)

Creating a DML Statement Trigger
we can create a statement level trigger as below. The trigger
fires before the INSERT action on EMPLOYEE table. As per the
trigger action, it inserts a record in Employee Log table, with current
date, action and remarks.
SQL> create table employee(empid int,empname char(20),
2
empsal number(7,2), jobtitle char(100));
Table created.
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SQL> create table trace_emp(empid int,status char(2),
2
actdate date,act char(20),remark char(100));
Table created.
SQL> CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER trace_employee
2 BEFORE INSERT ON employee
3 BEGIN
4 INSERT INTO trace_emp(empid, status, actdate, act, remark)
5 VALUES(2, 'P', SYSDATE, 'CREATE', 'you are with the
triggers');
6 END;
7 /
Trigger created.
SQL> INSERT INTO EMPLOYEE (empid, empname, empsal,
jobtitle)
2 VALUES(4, 'SONALI', 34500, 'manager');
1 row created.
SQL> SELECT * FROM trace_emp;
EMPID
---------2
ST
-----P
ACTDATE
ACT
REMARK
----------------------------------------------------------------29-AUG-12
CREATE you are with the triggers
Conditional Predicates to Detect the Trigger DML operation:

We can use conditional predicate with the DML trigger
operations. For a specific timing, if all the events have to be tested
instead of creating three different DML triggers, oracle provides
DML predicates to be used in trigger body. The available predicates
can be INSERTING, UPDATING or DELETING. For example,
below trigger body shows the usage of DML predicates. Note the
event specification and handling.
CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER my_trigg_trace_ emp
BEFORE INSERT OR UPDATE OR DELETE ON employee
BEGIN
IF INSERTING THEN
ELSIF UPDATING THEN
ELSIF DELETING
END IF;
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END;
/
Output>>TRIGGER created.
15.9 BUILDING A DML ROW LEVEL TRIGGER

The DML row level trigger EMPLOYEE_MEMBERSHIP deletes the
membership record for every employee record which gets deleted.
SQL>
CREATE
OR
REPLACE
EMPLOYEE_MEMBERSHIP
2 BEFORE DELETE ON EMPLOYEE
3 BEGIN
4 FOR EACH ROW
5 DELETE FROM EMP_MEMBERSHIP
6 WHERE EMPID=:OLD.EMPID;
7 END;
8 /
TRIGGER
Output>>TRIGGER created.
15.10 DDL TRIGGER CREATION:

Following example creates an AFTER statement trigger on any
DDL statement CREATE. Such a trigger can be used to audit the
creation of new data dictionary objects in our schema.
CREATE TRIGGER audit_db_field AFTER CREATE
ON SCHEMA pl/sql_block
15.11 CALLING A PROCEDURE IN A TRIGGER BODY:

In following example we could create the check_salary
trigger described in the preceding example by calling a procedure
instead of providing the trigger body in a PL/SQL block. Assume we
have defined a procedure check_salary in the hr schema, which
verifies that an employee's salary is in an appropriate range. Then
we could create the trigger check_salary as follows:
CREATE TRIGGER check_salary
BEFORE INSERT OR UPDATE OF empsal, jobtitle ON
employees
FOR EACH ROW
WHEN (new. jobtitle <> 'DEVELOPER')
CALL
check_salary(:new.jobtitle,
:new.empsal,
:new.empname)
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The procedure check_salary could be implemented in
PL/SQL, C, or Java. Also, we can specify: OLD values in the CALL
clause instead of: NEW values.
15.12 BUILDING A DATABASE EVENT TRIGGER:

Following example demonstrates the basic syntax for a
trigger to log all errors. The hypothetical PL/SQL block does some
special processing for a particular error (invalid logon, error number
1017). This trigger is an AFTER statement trigger, so it is fired after
an unsuccessful statement execution, such as unsuccessful logon.
CREATE TRIGGER errlog AFTER SERVERERROR ON
DATABASE
BEGIN
IF (IS_SERVERERROR (1017)) THEN
<special processing of logon error>
ELSE
<log error number>
END IF;
END;
/
15.13 CREATION OF A SCHEMA TRIGGER:

Following example creates a BEFORE statement trigger on the sample
schema hr. When a user connected as hr attempts to drop a database
object, the database fires the trigger before dropping the object.
CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER drop_resist_trigger
BEFORE DROP ON hr.SCHEMA
BEGIN
RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR ( num => -20000,
'not able to drop object');
END;
/
msg =>
15.14 IDENTIFIERS (OLD AND NEW)

The OLD and NEW are identifiers which carry a record value
before and after the DML event. The record values can be referred
by prefixing a column value with the corresponding identifier.
Below table shows the OLD and NEW values within each triggering
event.
Event
OLD value
INSERT NULL
NEW value
Current value
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UPDATE Old value of record
Record
value
before
DELETE
operation
New value of record

delete
NULL
Example:
The trigger below archives an employee record if salary is
incremented by more than 2000. Note that the increment is
checked by the WHEN clause condition.
SQL> CREATE OR REPLACE sal_incr
2 BEFORE UPDATE OF empsal ON employee
3 FOR EACH ROW
4 WHEN(OLD.empsal - NEW.empsal > 2000)
5 BEGIN
6 INSERT INTO EMP_ARCHIVE (id, empid, OLD_SAL,
NEW_SAL, REVISED_DT)
VALUES
7 (SQ_ARC.NEXTVAL, :OLD.EMPID,:OLD.SALARY,
:NEW.SALARY, SYSDATE);
8 END;
9/
15.15 INSTEAD OF TRIGGERS (VIEW TRIGGERS):

While database programming sometimes there may be
situation that the triggers has two options and it must fired with
alternate options. The INSTEAD OF trigger satisfy the condition.
Triggers on views are known as INSTEAD OF triggers. They are
known by their name because they skip the current triggering event
action and perform alternate one. Other reason could be that only
timing mode available in such triggers is INSTEAD OF. It is
required for the complex view because it is based on more than
one table. Any DML on complex view would be successful only if all
key columns, not null columns are selected in the view definition.
Alternatively, INSTEAD OF trigger can be created to synchronize
the effect of DML across all the tables.
Instead of trigger is a row level trigger and can be used only
with a view, and not with tables. For
Example, following view ORD_VU is created on top of ORDERS
and WAREHOUSE tables. If
RET_LIMIT is attempted for update in the view, a record must be
added to WAREHOUSE_HISTORY table and new value must be
updated in the WAREHOUSE table.
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SELECT O.ID, O.QTY, O.ORD_DATE, P.SITE_ID,
P.RET_LIMIT
FROM ORDERS O, WAREHOUSE P
WHERE O.SITE_ID=P.SITE_ID
CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER T_UPD_ORDERVIEW
INSTEAD OF UPDATE ON ORD_VU
BEGIN
INSERT INTO WAREHOUSE_HISTORY
(SITE_ID, OLD_RET_LIMIT, NEW_RET_LIMIT,
UPD_DATE, UPD_USER)
VALUES
(:OLD.SITE_ID, :OLD_RET_LIMIT, :NEW.RET_LIMIT,
SYSDATE, USER);
UPDATE WAREHOUSE
SET RET_LIMIT = :NEW.RET_LIMIT
WHERE SITE_ID = :OLD.SITE_ID;
END;
/
15.16 LISTING OF TRIGGERS INFORMATION:

We can see all our user defined triggers by doing a select
statement on USER_TRIGGERS. This will gives us clear idea
about the trigger and its structure.
For example:
SELECT TRIGGER_NAME FROM USER_TRIGGERS;
Above statement produces the names of all triggers. We can
also select more columns to get more detailed trigger information.
We can do that at our own relaxation, and explore it on our own.
15.17 ALTERING A TRIGGER:

There is facility to change the trigger code and conditions. If
a trigger seems to be getting in the way, and we dont want to drop
it, just disable it for a little while, we can alter it to disable it. Note
that this is not the same as dropping a trigger; after we drop a
trigger, it is gone.
The general format of an alter would be something like this:

ALTER TRIGGER trigger_name [ENABLE|DISABLE];
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For example, lets say that with all our troubles, we still need to
modify the DOB of SONALI SAMBARE . We cannot do this since
we have a trigger on that table that prevents just that. So, we can
disable it...
ALTER TRIGGER PERSON_DOB DISABLE;
Now, we can go ahead and modify the DOB :-)
UPDATE PERSON SET DOB = SYSDATE WHERE NAME =
YASHASHREE SAMBARE;
We can then re-ENABLE the trigger.
ALTER TRIGGER PERSON_DOB ENABLE;
If we then try to do the same type of modification, the trigger kicks
and prevents us from modifying the DOB.
Syntax for removing Triggers:

For removing the trigger we have to use following syntax.
DROP TRIGGER trigger_name;
15.18 KNOWING INFORMATION ABOUT TRIGGERS:

We can use the data dictionary view 'USER_TRIGGERS' to obtain
information about any trigger. The below statement shows the
structure of the view 'USER_TRIGGERS.
DESC USER_TRIGGERS;
NAME
Type
-------------------------------------------------------TRIGGER_NAME
VARCHAR2(30)
TRIGGER_TYPE
VARCHAR2(16)
TRIGGER_EVENT
VARCHAR2(75)
TABLE_OWNER
VARCHAR2(30)
BASE_OBJECT_TYPE
VARCHAR2(16)
TABLE_NAME
VARCHAR2(30)
COLUMN_NAME
VARCHAR2(4000)
REFERENCING_NAMES
VARCHAR2(128)
WHEN_CLAUSE
VARCHAR2(4000)
STATUS
VARCHAR2(8)
DESCRIPTION
VARCHAR2(4000)
ACTION_TYPE
VARCHAR2(11)
TRIGGER_BODY
LONG
This view stores information about header and body of the trigger.
SELECT * FROM user_triggers
'Before_Update_product';
WHERE
trigger_name
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The above SQL query provides the header and body of the trigger
'Before_Update_Stat_product'.
We can drop a trigger using the following command.
DROP TRIGGER trigger_name;
15.19 CYCLIC CASCADING in a TRIGGER:

Sometimes the triggers may create some critical situation. This is
an undesirable situation where more than one trigger enters into an
infinite loop. While creating a trigger we should ensure the situation
does not exist.
Let's consider we have two tables 'inv' and 'product'. Two triggers
are created.
1) The INSERT Trigger, triggerA on table 'inv' issues an UPDATE

on table 'product'.
2) The UPDATE Trigger, triggerB on table 'product' issues an
INSERT on table 'inv'.
In such a situation, when there is a row inserted in table 'inv',
triggerA fires and will update table 'product'. When the table
'product' is updated, triggerB fires and will insert a row in table 'inv'.
This cyclic situation continues and will enter into a infinite loop,
which will crash the database.
15.20 BOUNDARIES ON TRIGGER CONDITIONS:

Trigger conditions are subject to the following restrictions:
1) If we specify this clause for a DML event trigger, then we must
also specify FOR EACH ROW. Oracle Database evaluates this
condition for each row affected by the triggering statement.
2) We cannot specify trigger conditions for INSTEAD OF trigger
statements.
3) We can reference object columns or their attributes, or varray,
nested table, or LOB columns. We cannot invoke PL/SQL functions
or methods in the trigger condition.
15.21 TRIGGER EXCEPTIONS:
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Triggers become part of the transaction of a statement,
which implies that it causes (or raises) any exceptions, the whole
statement is rolled back.
Think of an exception as a flag that is raised when an error
occurs. Sometimes, an error or exception is raised for a valid
reason. For example, to prevent some action that improperly
modifies the database. Lets say that our database should not allow
anyone to modify their DOB (after the person is in the database,
their DOB is assumed to be static). Anyway, we can create a trigger
that would prevent us from updating the DOB:
CREATE OR REPLACE
TRIGGER change_resist_id
BEFORE UPDATE OF empid ON employee
FOR EACH ROW
BEGIN
RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR (-20000,CANNOT
CHANGE DATE OF BIRTH);
END;
/
Notice the format of the trigger declaration. We explicitly
specify that it will be called BEFORE UPDATE OF DOB ON
PERSON. The next thing we should notice is the procedure call
RAISE APPLICATION ERROR, which accepts an error code, and
an explanation string. This effectively halts our trigger execution,
and raises an error, preventing our DOB from being modified. An
error (exception) in a trigger stops the code from updating the DOB.
When we do the actual update for example
UPDATE PERSON SET DOB = SYSDATE;
We end up with an error, which says we CANNOT CHANGE DATE
OF BIRTH.
UPDATE PERSON SET DOB = SYSDATE;
UPDATE PERSON SET DOB = SYSDATE
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-20000: CANNOT CHANGE DATE OF BIRTH
ORA-06512: at "PARTICLE.PERSON_DOB", line 2
ORA-04088: error during execution of trigger
PARTICLE.PERSON_DOB
We should also notice the error code of ORA-20000. This is our 20000 parameter to RAISE APPLICATION ERROR.
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15.22 PRIVILEGES REQUIRED TO USE TRIGGERS:

To work with triggers we have to satisfy some conditions. To create
a trigger in our schema:
We must have the CREATE TRIGGER system privilege

One of the following must be true:
o We own the table specified in the triggering statement
o We have the ALTER privilege for the table specified in
the triggering statement
o We have the ALTER ANY TABLE system privilege
To create a trigger in another schema, or to reference a

table in another schema from a trigger in our schema:
We must have the CREATE ANY TRIGGER system privilege.

We must have the EXECUTE privilege on the referenced
subprograms or packages.
To create a trigger on the database, we must have the

privilege. If this privilege is later
revoked, we can drop the trigger but not alter it.
ADMINISTER DATABASE TRIGGER
The object privileges to the schema objects referenced in the

trigger body must be granted to the trigger owner explicitly (not
through a role). The statements in the trigger body operate under
the privilege domain of the trigger owner, not the privilege domain
of the user issuing the triggering statement (this is similar to the
privilege model for stored subprograms).
15.23 QUESTIONS:
1. Define Triggers. Explain the syntax of creating triggers in
PL/SQL.
2. Explain the types of triggers.
3. Distinguish between BEFORE and AFTER Triggers.
4. Write the execution hierarchy of Triggers.
5. Distinguish between Statement Level and Row Level Triggers.
6. How to create DML statement Triggers.
7. Explain the conditional predicate to detect the Trigger DML
operation.
8. Explain the creation of DML Row Level Trigger with example.
9. How to call procedure in Trigger body.
10. Explain the creation of Database Event Trigger with example.
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11. Explain the creation of SCHEMA Trigger with example.
12. Explain Triggers on view.
13. How to View, Alter and Remove Triggers? Explain with
examples.
14. Explain Cyclic Cascading in Triggers.
15. List and Explain the Restrictions on Trigger Conditions.
16. Write short note on Trigger Exceptions.
17. List and Explain Privileges Required to Use Triggers. Create a
student view for students personal information.
18. Create a view for Teacher and change it to select all teachers
having subject I.T...

Associates.
9780070702264,
Fifth
Edition
By
Steven

TATAMCGRAW-HILL
(PHI) EEE edition
MissionMCA.com

Advanced SQL

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Advanced SQL

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1

Structured Query Language :

What SQL can do?

Classify SQL elements

Classify SQL Commands

Understand common data types in SQL

Create and Manage Tables

Apply Constraints to Tables

1.2 What is RDBMS?

1.3 INTRODUCTION TO SQL

1.4 WHAT CAN SQL DO?

SQL can retrieve data from a database

1.5 SQL LANGUAGE ELEMENTS

Holds numeric data of any precision. The precision

Holds fixed length alphanumeric data up to w

Holds variable length alphanumeric data up to w

DATE is a data type used to store date and time

Raw binary data of varying length(size) bytes.

Timestamp is an extension of the Date data type

1.6 CLASSIFICATION OF SQL COMMANDS

1.6.1 Data Query Language (DQL)

1.7 CREATING AND MANAGING TABLES

For example to create a STUDENT table, the command will be as

1.8 APPLYING DATA CONSTRAINTS

1.8.1 Classification of Constraints

An example of Composite key constraint:

date_of_birth date NOT NULL,

date_of_birth date NOT NULL,

date_of_birth date NOT NULL,

marks number(3)CHECK (marks >= 0 AND marks <= 100)

phone_no number(3) UNIQUE NOT NULL,

CREATE TABLE stud_detail

phone_no number(3) UNIQUE NOT NULL,

The above table has been created without any constraints. An

ALTER TABLE student

1.10 REVIEW QUESTIONS

1.11 LAB ASSIGNMENT

UNIQUE + NOT NULL

UNIQUE + NOT NULL

2. Create table EMPLOYEE with the following columns and

'M' OR 'F' ONLY

FOREIGN KEY REFERRING

3. Insert 5 records in both the tables.

1.12 BIBLIOGRAPHY, REFERENCES AND FURTHER

Database Management Systems,

Database System Concepts, Fifth Edition by Silberschatz,

Murach's Oracle SQL and PL/SQL by Joel Murach. Shroff

Oracle Database 11g by Satish Asnani. PHI Learning Private

Oracle 11g: PL/SQL Reference Oracle Press.

Expert Oracle PL/SQL, By:

SQL, PL/SQL The programming language of Oracle,

Fundamentals of Database Systems, Elmasri Ramez and

1.13 ONLINE REFERENCES

Retreive data using SELECT statement

2.2 BASIC DATA RETREIVAL

Thakur City, Kandivali

Aarey Colony, Goregaon

We need to execute the following queries

2.3 RESTRICTING AND SORTING DATA

The WHERE clause MUST appear after the FROM clause.

It matches any sequence of zero or more characters.

The under score matches any single character.

Any single character within the specified range ([a-f]).

Any single character not within the specified range ([^a-f]).

2.3.1 Ordering Data

2.4 DUAL TABLE

2.5 SINGLE ROW FUNCTIONS

Single row functions, as the name suggests, operates on

UPPER: The UPPER function converts all alphabetic characters in

CONCAT: CONCAT returns char1 concatenated with char2. Both

Joins can be classified as shown in the figure.

2.6.1 INNER EQUI JOIN

FROM student, course

FROM student INNER JOIN course

2.6.3 Joining a Table to itself using Self Join

Thakur City, Kandivali