SQL MATERIAL

Database: It is collection of meaningful data.

Ex:
SNO
SNAME
MARKS
101
MALLI
99
102
SREE
98
103
KRISH 97
104
VISH 96

Management System: It is a software it helps to manage the database management system should
able to
perform the following activities very easily.
1. Inserting the new data.
2. Updating the exiting data.
3. Deleting unnecessary data.
4. Retrieving the require data.

A database along with the software which helps to manage. The database is called database
management
system (DBMS).
A DBMS which is based on relational theory is called as relational database management system.
Examples of RDBMS:
1. ORACLE
2. SQL SERVER
3. DB2
4. MYSQL
5. SYBASE
6. TERA DATA
7. MS ACCESS
SQL:
Structured query language pronounced as (SEQUEL). This language is used to communicate to
oracle database.
Features of SQL:
1. It is a command based language.
2. It is not case sensitive.
3. Every command should end with ;.
4. Every command starts with verb.
5. It is similar to English. This language is developed in the year 1972. Mr.CODD, by IBM
developed by IBM.
SUB LANGUAGE OF SQL:
1. DDL (Data Definition Language)
2. DML (Data Manipulation Language)
3. DRL/DQL (Retrieval/query)
4. TCL (Transaction Control Language)
5. DCL (Data Control Language)

*DDL: This language is used to manage database objects. It is collection of five commands.
CREATE, ALTER, DROP, TRUNCATE, RENAME
*DML: This language is used to manipulate the data you have stored. It is collection of fou
commands.
Page 1 of 36

INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE, MERGE

*DRL: This language is used to retrieve the data from the database. It is collection of only one
command.
SELECT
*TCL: It is used to maintain the transaction of Oracle database. It is collection of three commands.
COMMIT, ROLLBACK, SAVEPOINT

*DCL: This language is used to control the axis of the data to the users it is collection of two
commands.
GRANT, REVOKE

TABLE: Table is an object which is used to store some data. In general it is collection of Rows and
Columns.
Create command: This command is used to create a table.
Syntax:
CREATE TABLE<TABLE_NAME>(COL_NAME1 DATATYPE(SIZE),COL_NAME2 DATATYPE(SIZE),
COL_NAME3 DATATYPE(SIZE));
Ex:
Create table student (SNO number (3), SNAME varchar2(20), MARKS number(3));

*INSERT COMMENT:
Syntax:
INSERT INTO<TABLE_NAME>VALUES(VAL1,VAL2,VAL3,VALn);
EX:
Insert into student values(101,Arun,60);
Error: Arun
Correct: Arun
Insert into student values(101,Arun,60);
Note: for varchar to value we need enclose with single( ) codes.
Insert
Insert
Insert
Insert

into
into
into
into

student
student
student
student

values(102,kiran,86);
values(103,Ajay,50);
values(104,vijay);//this statement is wrong
values(105,vijay,null);

Note: Null is a keyword which is used to represent unavailable or undefined symbol.

Insert into student values(106,null,null);
*SELECT: This commend is used to return the data from the table.
Syntax1: SELECT * FROM <TABLE_NAME>;
Ex: select * from student; // * represent ALL
Page 2 of 36

Note: where we use * all the information (ALL the columns and the rows are display).
Syntax2: for insert command:
INSERT INTO <TABLE_NAME> (COL1,COL2,..COLn) VALUES (VAL1,VAL2,.VALn);
Ex: insert into student (SNO,SNAME) values (106,Amit);
*insert the values at runtime using & operator:
Ex: INSERT INTO STUDENT VALUES (&SNO,&SNAME,&MARKS);
*SELECTING SPECIFIC COLUMNS:
Ex:
Select SNO, MARKS from student;
SNOMARKSMARKSSNO
101
60
102
85
------------108
98

Select MARKS, SNO from student;

60
85
------98

101
102
----------

Select SNO, SNO, SNAME from student;

Select * from student;
Select * From student;
// not case sensitive
Create table employee(ENO number(2),ENAME varchar2(20),SALARY number(5),JOB varchar2(20));
Insert into employee values(101,vijay,10000,HR);
Insert into employee values(102,ABC,33000,GM);
*write the one column to be display in the student?
Select SNAME from student;
Select EMPNO,ENAME,SAL,JOB FROM EMP;
We can perform some calculation using Arithmetic operations to desired output.
Ex:
Select EMPNO,ENAME,SAL,SAL*12,DEPTNO from EMP;
EMPNOENAMESALSAL*12DEPTNO
101
Mallikarjuna 50000
102
------103
-------

600000
-------

GM
-------

*Columns ALIAS: Column ALIAS user defined column heading given to the required column.
Ex:
Select EMPNO,ENAME,SAL,SAL*12 ANNUAL_SAL,DEPTNO from EMP;
Select EMPNO ROLL_NO,ENAME,SAL from EMP;
Note:
1. Column Alias can be provides for any column.
2. Column Aliases are temporary.
3. The scope of column Alias is to respect to the same query.
Page 3 of 36

*DATA TYPES:
1. CHAR: The data type is used to store alpha numeric values.
It can be also store special symbols like -,:,/,* and etc.
This data type of fixed size. The Maximum size is 255 bytes.
Note: Memory is not used efficiently.
2.VARCHAR2: This data type it can store alphanumeric values special symbols like -,:,_
and etc. This data type is of variable size. Maximum size 4000 bytes.
Note: Memory is efficiently used.
3.NUMBER(P,S): p-precision/s-scale
This data type used to store numeric values maximum size 38 digits.
4.DATE: This data type is used to store date values it will not have size.
Range 01-JAN-4712 BC TO 31-DEC-9999 AD
Default Date format is DD-MM-YY.
Ex:
Create table student1(SNO number(2),
SNAME varchar2(20),
MARKS number(3),
DOJ Date);
Insert into student1 values(101,Ravi,99,SYSDATE);
5.LONG: Similar to varchar2 data type. Maximum size 2 GB.
6.RAW: used to store Images,logos,digital signatures etc. Maximum size 255 bytes.
7.LONG RAW: Similar to RAW data type. Maximum size 2 GB.
8.CLOB:(character large object) used to store characters. Maximum size 4 GB.
9.BLO:(binary large object) used to store binary data. Maximum size 4 GB.
10.BFILE:(binary file)

*Describe command: This command is used to see the structure of the table.
Ex:
DESCRIBE Student //(not use ;)
NAMENULLTYPE
SNO
SNAME
MARKS

NUMBER(2)
VARCHAR2(20)
NUMBER(3)

NOTE:
It is SQL*PLUS command
Short form is DESC
Page 4 of 36

EXIT
CONN
ARE SQL*PLUS
CL SCR
COMMANDS

ALL

*where clause: class is used to select specific rows basing on a condition.

Ex:
Select * from emp where sal>2000;
SAL
2975
2875
3000
Select * from emp where deptno = 10;
Select * from student where sno < = 103;
Select eno,ename,sal,deptno from emp where dept = 20;
Note: Data which is stored the inside the table is case sensitive.
Ex:
Select * from emp where job = clerk;
Select * from student where comm is NULL;
Note: is NULL is operator which is use to retrieve the rows based on NULL values.
Ex:
Select * from student where marks is NULL;
Select * from student where sname is NULL;
Distinct Keyword: it is display distinct values (unique values).
Duplicates of suppressed.
Ex: select distinct deptno from emp;
DEPTNO
30
20
10
Select distinct job from emp;
*update: The command is used to change data present in the table.
Syntax:
Update<TABLE_NAME> set <COL_NAME> = <VALUE> where <CONDITION>;
Ex:
Update student set marks = 30 where sno = 102;
Update emp set sal = 1000 where ename = scott;
Update emp set ename = Arun where eno = 7369;
Update emp set comm = 500 where eno = 7698;
NOTE: when where clunse is not use, all the rows are updated.
Ex:
Update emp set sal = 5000;
Update emp set sal = 3500 where comm is NULL;
Page 5 of 36

Update student set marks = NULL where sname = kiran;

Update emp set sal = NULL where comm is NULL;
Update emp set job = HR, sal = 5000 where ename = Alen;
*DELETE: This command is used to remove the complete row from the table.
SYSTAX: Delete from <table_name> where <condition>;
*write a query delete command?
EX:
Delete from student where sno = 101;
Update student set sname = null, marks = null where sno = 101;
Note: when where clause is not use all the rows delete.
Ex:
Delete from student1;
*LOGICAL OPERATORS: There are three logical operators. They are
1. AND
2. OR
3. NOT
1. AND( T AND T = T):
Systax: select * from EMP where SAL > 2000 AND JOB = MANAGER;
Note: AND operator will return the rows when all the conditions are satisfied.
Select * from emp where SAL >2000 AND JOB = MANAGER AND deptno = 30;
Select * from emp where DEPTNO = 10 OR DEPTNO = 20;
Select * from emp where SAL >2000 AND SAL < 4000;
Write a query to delete first and last rows?
Ex:
Select * from empno = 7499 OR 7521 OR 7566;
Select * from empno =7499 OR empno = 7521 OR empno = 7566;
Note: query to display the rows who are not managers?
Select * from emp where NOT job = MANAGER;
Select * from emp where NOT deptno = 30;
BETWEEN: between operator is used to display the rows which is following in the range of values.
Select * from EMP where SAL BETWEEN 2000 AND 3000;
Note: Extreme values are included
Always specify first lower limit first and then higher limit.
*IN OPERATOR:
1. IN operator will be return the rows when the values are matching in the list.
2. IN operator can be use as a replacement of OR operator.
Ex: Select * from EMP where EMPNO IN(7369,7499,7521);
Select * from EMP where DEPTNO IN(10,20);
Select * from EMP where DEPTNO IN(10,20,30);
Page 6 of 36

*PATTERN MATCHING OPERATOR: They are two pattern matching operator.

1. Percentage (%)
2. Under score (_)
1. Percentage (%): This command is used to select the letters.
Ex: Select * from emp where ename like S%; //starts with letter S
Select * from emp where ename like R%; //ends with letter R
Select * from emp where ename like J%S; // first letter J and last letter S
Select * from emp where ename like %A%; //middle letter A
Select * from emp where NOT ename like %A%; //not middle letter A
2. Under Score: This command is also select the letters.
Ex: Select * from emp where ename like _A%;
Select * from emp where ename like __A%;
Can we display the rows whos emp name ends with last position E.
Select * from emp where ename like %E_;
Select * from emp where ename like ____;
Note: Like keyword is used with pattern matching operator.
Select * from emp where deptno NOT IN(10,20);

*DDL (DATA DEFINITION LANGUAGE):

1. CREATE
2. ALTER
3. DROP
4. TRUNCATE
5. RENAME
2) ALTER: By using ALTER command we can perform the following task.
2.1. ADDING A NEW COLUMN
2.2. DROPING AN EXISTING COLUMN
2.3. MODIFYING A COLUMN 1
2.4. RENAMING A COLUMN
i.

ADDING A NEW COLUMN:

Syntax: ALTER TABLE <TABLE_NAME> ADD (COL1_NAME DATA TYPE(SIZE),
(COL2_NAME DATA TYPE(SIZE));
Ex: ALTER table student ADD(city varchar2(10));
ALTER table student ADD(state varchar2(10), pincode number(6));

Note:New column can be added only at last.

The new column will have null values.
Update student set city = Hyderabad where sno = 101;
Update student set state = Andra pradesh where sno = 101;
Update student set pincode = 500082 where sno = 101;
ii.

DROPING AN EXISTING COLUMN:

Syntax: ALTER TABLE <TABLE_NAME> DROP(COL1_NAME,COL2_NAME);
Ex: ALTER table student drop(state);
ALTER table student drop(city,pincode);
Page 7 of 36

iii.

MODIFYING A COLUMN: (increasing/decreasing the size of columns)

Syntax: ALTER TABLE <TABLE_NAME> MODIFY(COL1_NAME DATA TYPE(SIZE));
Ex:
ALTER table student modify(Sname varchar2(10));
ALTER table student modify(Sname varchar2(8));
Note: .we can increase and decrease as well as the size of the column.
.We can decrease the column size only when existing column values can
fit into new size.
.By using modify keyword we can change the data type of a column.
.Column should be empty to change its data type.

iv.

RENAMING A COLUMN:
Syntax: ALTER TABLE <TABLE_NAME> RENAME COLUMN<OLD_COL_NAME>
TO <NEW_COL_NAME>;
Ex:
ALTER table emp rename column SAL TO WAGES;
3) DROP: This command is used to rename the table from the database.
Syntax: DROP TABLE <TABLE_NAME>;
Ex:
DROP table student;
DROP table emp;
4) TRUNCATE: This command is used to remove all the rows from the table.
Syntax: TRUNCATE TABLE <TABLE_NAME>;
Ex: TRUNCATE table student;
Select * from TAB; // ALL TABLE NAMES ARE DISPLAYED

*Difference between TRUNCATE and DELETE?

DELETETRUNCATE
We can Roll Back the data.
* We cannot Roll Back the data.
Rows are deleting temporally.
* Rows are deleting permanently.
Where clause can be used.
* Where clause cannot be used.
Delete is sub language DML.
* Delete is sub language DDL.
5) Rename: This command is used to change the table name.
Syntax: RENAME <OLD_TABLE_NAME> TO <NEW_TABLE_NAME>;
Ex: Rename student To student1;
Rename SALGRADE To GRADE;
NOTE: When we use a Truncate command the table gets dropped and re-created. As the structure is
effected is
called as a DDL command.
All DDL command are permanent.
All DML command are Temporary.
*To see list of all the tables of a user: Select * from TAB;
*Creating duplicate tables or backup tables: By using the combination of create and select. We
can create copy
of a table.
Ex:
Page 8 of 36

Create table emp1 AS select * from emp; //total table copy

Create table emp2 AS select * from emp where deptno = 30; // only deptno = 30
Create table emp3 AS select * from emp where 10; // only deptno =10 is copy
Create table emp4 AS select empno, ename, wages, deptno from emp where
deptno = 20; //empno,ename,wages,deptno is coped by emp4 table
Create table emp5 AS select *from emp where 1=2; //This mean total table copy
Select * from emp where 1 = 1;
Select * from malli from emp;
***Right click

properties

options and select quick edit modifier and ok.

/
Run the same query
ED
Open the Buffer command
SET NUM
5
SCOTT is a new user

***Creating a new user:

Connect in the database AS DBA.
*user_name: /AS SYSDBA
*create user: create user malli Identified by malli123; //user and password created
*giving permissions to the user;
*GRANT CONNECT, RESOURCE TO malli; //Grant Succeeded
*SHOW user
To connect the current user.
**FUNCTIONS: Functions will manuplate the data items and gives the result. They are two types of
functions.
1. Group functions or multiple row functions
2. Scalar functions or single row function
1) Group functions or multiple row functions: This functions act on group of rows.
i. AVG: select AVG(sal) from emp;
ii. SUM: select SUM(sal) from emp;
iii.MAX: select MAX(sal) from emp;
iv.MIN: select MIN(sal) from emp;
v.COUNT(*): select COUNT(*) from emp; //Return total no.of rows in the table
vi.COUNT(EXPR): Return no.of values present in the column.
Ex: Select COUNT(sal) from emp;
Select COUNT(empno) from emp;
Select COUNT(comm) from emp;
Dual table: It is a dummy table which is generally used to perform some calculation is seeing to the
system date
and etc. Dual table is collection of one row and one column with X in it.
Ex: Select SYSDATE from dual;
Select 10+20 from dual;
Select 20+40, 50+60 from dual;
2) Scalar functions or single row functions: Scalar function are decided into four types. They
are given that.
Page 9 of 36

i.

i. Character functions
ii. Number functions
iii.
Data functions
iv.
Conversion functions
Character functions:
a. Upper: converts into lower case to upper case.
Ex: Select upper(oracle) from dual; //ORACLE
b. Lower: This function is convert to the upper to lower case.
Ex: Select lower(ORACLE) from dual; //oracle
Select ENO, lower(ENAME), SAL from emp;
c. INITCAP: First letter is capital and reaming letters are small letters.
Ex: Select INITCAP(oracle training) from dual; //Oracle
Select INITCAP(ORACLE TRAINING) from dual; //Oracle
d. LENGTH: Returns length of the string.
Ex: Select LENGTH(oracle) from dual; //length 6
Select LENGTH(MALLIKHARJUNA) from dual; //length 13
Select * from emp where length(ename) = 4;
e. LPAD: pads the character towards the left side.
Ex: select LPAD(oracle,10,z) from dual; //zzzzoracle
f. RPAD: Rpad the character towards the right side.
Ex: Select RPAD(ORACLE,10,X) from dual; //ORACLEzzzz
Select LPAD(RPAD(ORACLE,8,Z,10,Z) from dual; //Nesting function
g. LTRIM:
Ex: Select LTRIM(zzoracle,z) from dual;
h. RTRIM:
Ex: Select RTRIM(ZORACLEZZZ,Z) from dual; //ZORACLE
Select RTRIM(oracle) from dual; // oracle
Select RTRIM(ORACLE
) from dual; // ORACLE
Select LENGTH(RTRIM(ORACLE )) from dual; // length is 6
i. TRIM: Removes the specified characters from both sides.
Ex: Select TRIM(z from zzoraclezz ) from dual;
Select TRIM(
ORACLE
) from dual;
j. INSTR: Returns the passion of the string
Ex: Select INSTR(ORACLE,A) from dual; //3
Select INSTR(oracle,H) from dual;
Select INSTR(DATABASE,A) from dual; //2
k. SUBSTR: Returns the part of the string.
Ex: Select SUBSTR(ORACLE,2,3) from dual; //RAC
Select SUBSTR(ORACLE,2,4) from dual; //RACLE
Select SUBSTR(ORACLE,2,1) from dual; //R
Select SUBSTR(ORACLE,3,2) from dual; //AC
Select SUBSTR(ORACLE,3,10) from dual; //ACLE
Select SUBSTR(ORACLE,3) from dual; //ACLE
l. CONCAT: To join the two words. It will accept only two character.
Ex: Select concat(MAGA,STAR) from dual; //MAGASTAR
Select concat(concat(MAGA,STAR),CHIRU) from dual;
Page 10 of 36

Select * from test1;

SNO
SNAME
MARKS
101
ARUN
80
102
ARUN
80
103
VIJAY
80
Select * from test1 where SNAME = ARUN; //101 ARUN 80
Select SNO, SNAME, LENGTH(SNAME) from test1;
SNO
101
102
103

SNAME
ARUN
ARUN
VIJAY

LENGTH(SNAME)
4
5
5

Select * from test1 where RTRIM(SNAME) = ARUN;

Select * from test1 where TRIM(SNAME) = ARUN;
Update test1 set SNAME = TRIM(SNAME);
Select SNO, SNAME, LENGTH(SNAME) from test1;
ii.

Number functions:
a. ABS: Returns absolute values
Ex: Select ABS(-40) from dual; // 40
Select ABS(40) from dual; //40
b. SQRT: Returns the squawroot values.
Ex: Select SQRT(25) from dual; // 5
Select SQRT(26) from dual; //5.09901951
c. MOD(A,B): Returns the MOD vaues.
Ex: select MOD(10,3) from dual; // 1
d. POWER(A,B):
Ex: Select POWER(2,5) from dual; // 32
e. CEIL:
Ex: Select CEIL(40.9) from dual; //41
Select CEIL(40.2) from dual; //41
Select CEIL(40.5) from dual; //41
f.

FLOOR:
Ex: Select FLOOR(40.9) from dual; //40
Select FLOOR(40.2) from dual; //40
Select FLOOR(40.5) from dual; //40

g. TRUNC:(TRUNCATE) Remove the decimal points.

Ex: Select TRUNC(40.9) from dual; // 40
Select TRUNC(40.2) from dual; // 40
Select TRUNC(40.5) from dual; // 40
Select TRUNC(40.1234,2) from dual; // 40.12
Select TRUNC(685.195364,3) from dual; // 685.195
Select TRUNC(6854,-1) from dual; // 6850
Select TRUNC(6854,-2) from dual; // 6800
Select TRUNC(7777,-3) from dual; // 7000
Page 11 of 36

h. ROUND: Rounds of the nearest value.

Ex: Select ROUND(40.9) from dual; //41
Select ROUND(40.2) from dual; //40
Select ROUND(40.5) from dual; //41
Select ROUND(123.863,2) from dual; //123.86
Select ROUND(123.868,2) from dual; //123.87
Select ROUND(856.81766,3) from dual; //856.818
Select ROUND(123,-1) from dual; //120
Select ROUND(140,-2) from dual; //100
Select ROUND(127,-3) from dual; //130
Select ROUND(17763,-3) from dual; //18000
i.

iii.

GREATEST:
Ex: Select GREATEST(100,200,300) from dual; // 300
j. LEAST:
Ex: Select LEAST(100,200,300) from dual; // 100
Datafunctions: They are four data functions.
A. ADD_MONTHS
B. MONTHS_BETWEEN
C. NEXT_DAY
D. LAST_DAY
A.ADD_MONTHS: ADD_MONTHS of months to the given date.
Ex: Select ADD_MONTHS(SYSDATE,12) from dual; // 16-JUN-13
Select ADD_MONTHS(11-APR-05,3) from dual; // 11-APR-05
B.MONTH_BETWEEN: Returns number of months b/w given the two months.
Ex: Select MONTHS_BETWEEN(11-JAN-05,11-JAN-04) from dual; // 12
Select MONTHS_BETWEEN(11-JAN-04,11-JAN-05) from dual; // -12
Select EMPNO, ENAME, SAL, HIREDATE from emp; //display emp table
Select EMPNO, ENAME, SAL,MONTHS_BETWEEN(SYSDATE,HIREDATE) from emp;
Select EMPNO, ENAME, SAL MONTHS_BETWEEN(SYSDATE,HIREDATE)/12 from emp;
Select EMPNO, ENAME, SAL, ROUND(MONTHS_BETWEEN(SYSDATE,
HIREDATE)/12) from emp;
Select EMPNO, ENAME, SAL, ROUND(MONTHS_BETWEEN(SYSDATE,
HIREDATE)/12) EXP from emp;
C.NEXT_DAY: Returns date of the specified date.
Ex: Select NEXT_DAY(SYSDATE,MONDAY) from dual; // 18-JUN-12
Select NEXT_DAY(11-JAN-05,MONDAY) from dual; // 17-JAN-05
D. LAST_DAY: Returns the last day of the month.
Ex: Select LAST_DAY(SYSDATE) from dual; // 30-JUN-12
Select LAST_DAY(11-FEB-05) from dual; // 28-FEB-05

iv.

Conversion functions:
Conversion functions are one data type to another data type conversion. They are three
conversion
functions.
TO_CHAR
TO_NUMBER
TO_DATE

1.TO_CHAR: This functions is having two functionalities.

Page 12 of 36

a. Number to_char: This function is used only $ or u-rows and number is used 9.
Ex: Select eno,ename, TO_CHAR(sal,9,999) from emp;
Select eno,ename, TO_CHAR(sal,99,99) from emp;
Select eno,ename, TO_CHAR(sal,$9,999) from emp;
Select eno,ename, TO_CHAR(sal,8,888) from emp; // invalid number format
b.Date to_char:
Ex: Select eno,ename,hiredate from emp;
Select eno,ename, TO_CHAR(HIREDATE,DD-MM-YY) from emp;
Select eno,ename, TO_CHAR(HIREDATE,DD-MM-YYYY) from emp;
Select SYSDATE from dual; // 18-JUN-12
Select TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,DD-MONTH-YY) from dual; // 18-JUN-12
Select TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,DAY) from dual; // Monday
Select TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,YYYY) from dual; // 2012
Select TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,MM) from dual; // 06
Select TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,DDD) from dual; // 170
Select TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,DD) from dual; // 18
Select TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,MON) from dual; // MONDAY
Select TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,DY) from dual; // mon
Select TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,DD-MM-YY HH:MI:SS) from dual; //18-06-12 12:40:44
Select * from emp where TO_CHAR(HIREDATE,YYYY) = 1981;
Select * from emp where TO_CHAR(HIREDATE,YYYY) = 1980;
Select * from emp where TO_CHAR(HIREDATE,MON) = DEC;
2.TO_NUMBER:
Ex: Select TO_NUMBER(LTRIM($1400,$)) + 10 from dual; // 1410
3.TO_DATE: This function is used to convert character values to data value.
Ex: ADD_MONTHS
Select ADD_MONTH(11-JAN-05,2) from dual;
Select ADD_MONTH(11-JANUARY-2005 11:45 A.M.,DD-MONTH-YYYY
HH:MI A.M),2) from dual;
Select ADD_MOONTHS(TO_DATE(11-01-2005 11:45 A.M.,
DD-MM-YYYY HH:MI A.M.),2) from dual; //11-MAR-2005
*implicit convertion:
Ex: Select * from emp where DEPTNO = 10;
Select sum(sal) from emp where deptno = 10; //8750
Select sum(sal) from emp where deptno = 20; //10875
Select sum(sal) from emp where deptno = 30; // 9400

*Group By clause: Group By clause is used to divided rows into several group. So that we can apply
group function
on each group.
Ex: Select deptno, sum(sal) from emp Group By deptno;
Page 13 of 36

Deptno
30
20
10

Sal
9400
10875
8750

Select deptno,min(sal),max(sal) from emp Group By deptno;

Deptno
Min Max
30
950 2850
20
800 3000
10
1300 5000
Select job, avg(sal) from emp Group By job;
Select job,count(*) from emp Group By job;
Select job,count(job) from emp Group By job;
Select Deptno, sum(Sal), min(Sal), max(Sal), avg(Sal), count(*) from emp
Group By deptno;
Not
in
<>

equal
oracle

We can use the combination of where clause and Group By clause.

First where clause is executed on the result of where clause Group By clause is apply.
Select deptno, sum(sal) from emp where deptno <> 10 Group By deptno;
Select deptno, job, sum(sal) from emp Group By deptno, job;

*Rule of group by clause: All the column in the select of list should use group functions or should
by included
in group by clause.
Select deptno, sum(sal), ename from emp Group By deptno;
Error: Not a Group By Expression
*Having clause: (to use Group By clause)
Having clause is used to filter the output from Group By clause.
Ex: Select deptno, sum(sal) from emp Group By deptno having sum(sal) > 9000;
Deptno Sum(sal)
30
9400
20
10875
*Order By clause:
Order By clause is used to arrange the rows in the table.
By default order by clause ascending order.
Null values are arranged in the last.
Ex: Select * from emp Order By sal;
Select * from emp Order By ename;
Select * from emp Order By HIREDATE; //Chronological order
1980..1985
Select * from emp Order By eno;
Select * from emp Order By job,sal;
Select * from emp Order By sal DESC; //descending order by depending the query
Page 14 of 36

Note: Order by clause should be the last change of the query.

Select deptno, sum(sal) from emp Group By deptno Having sum(sal)
Order By sum(sal) DESC;
Select deptno, sum(sal) from emp where ename <> King Group By
Select deptno, sum(sal) from emp where ename <> King Group By
Having sum(sal) > 9000;
Select deptno, sum(sal) from emp where ename <> King Group By
Having sum(sal) > 9000 Order By sum(sal) DESC;

> 9000
deptno;
deptno
deptno

*INTEGRITY CONSTRAINS:
Constrains are rules which are applied on tables.
Constrains helps in improving the accurency and quality of the data base.
They are five types of constrains.
1. NOT NULL
2. UNIQUE
3. PRIMARY KEY
4. FOREIGN KEY or REFERENTIAL INTEGRITY CONSTRAINS
5. CHECK
Constrains can be created at two levels
a. Column level
b. Table level
1.NOT NULL: This constrains will not accept null values.
NOT NULL constrains can be created only at column level.
Ex:
*Create table student1(Sno number(3) NOT NULL,
Sname varchar2(10),
Marks number(3));
Insert into student1 values(101,Arun,50);
Insert into student1 values(101,Arun,NULL);
Insert into student1 values(101,NULL,50);
Insert into student1 values(NULL,Arun,50);
Error: cannot insert into null to scott, student1, sno.
*Create table student2(Sno number(3) NOT NULL,
Sname varchar2(10),
Marks number(3) NOT NULL);
Insert
Insert
Insert
Insert

into
into
into
into

student2
student2
student2
student2

values(101,Arun,50);
values(101,Arun,NULL);
values(101,NULL,50);
values(NULL,Arun,50);

2.UNIQUE CONSTRAINS: This constrains will not accept duplicate values.

This constrains can be created at column level as well as table level.
Ex: Creating unique constraint at column level.
* Create table student3(Sno number(3) UNIQUE,
Sname varchar2(10),
Marks number(3));
Page 15 of 36

Insert
Insert
Insert
Insert
Insert

into
into
into
into
into

student3
student3
student3
student3
student3

values(101,Arun,50);
values(102,Arun,NULL);
values(101,NULL,50);
values(NULL,Arun,50);
values(NULL,Arun,50);

Note: UNIQUE constraint will accept multiple will values.

*Create table student4(Sno number(3) UNIQUE,
Sname varchar2(10),
Marks number(3) UNIQUE);
Insert into student4 values(101,Arun,50);
Insert into student4 values(102,Arun,50);
Creating unique constraint at table level:
Ex:
* Create table student5(Sno number(3),
Sname varchar2(10),
Marks number(3),
UNIQUE(Sno));
Insert
Insert
Insert
Insert
Insert

into
into
into
into
into

student5
student5
student5
student5
student5

values(101,Arun,50);
values(102,Arun,NULL);
values(101,NULL,50);
values(NULL,Arun,50);
values(NULL,Arun,50);

Note: There is no different when a constrain at column level or table level.

**3. PRIMARY KEY CONSTRIANS:
A primary key constrains of a combination of NOT NULL and UNIQUE.
A primary key constrains will not accept null values as well as duplicate values.
Primary key column is used to uniquely every row in a table.
A table can have only one primary key.
Primary key constrains can be created at column level or table level.
Create primary key constraint at column level:
Ex:
* Create table student6(Sno number(3) PRIMARY KEY,
Sname varchar2(10),
Marks number(3));
Insert into student6 values(101,Arun,50);
Insert into student6 values(102,Arun,50);
Insert into student6 values(101,Arun,50);
Insert into student6 values(NULL,Arun,50);
Insert into student6 values(103,Arun,50);
Page 16 of 36

Create Primary key constraint at table level:

Ex:
* Create table student7(Sno number(3),
Sname varchar2(10),
Marks number(3)
PRIMARY KEY(Sno));
***3.1.COMPOSITE PRIMARY KEY:
When primary key is applied a multiple columns it is called composite primary key.
Composite primary key can be applied only at table level.
*Creating composite primary key constraint at table level:
Ex:
Create table student9(Surname varchar2(10),
Firstname varchar2(10),
Marks number(3),
PRIMARY KEY(Surname,Firstname));
Insert
Insert
Insert
Insert
Insert
Insert

into
into
into
into
into
into

student9
student9
student9
student9
student9
student9

values(xyz,Arun,40);
values(xyz,Kiran,40);
values(mno,Arun,40);
values(xyz,Kiran,40);
values(NULL,Arun,40);
values(abc,NULL,40);

***4.FOREIGN KEY CONSTRAINS or REFERENTIAL INTEGRITY:

These constraints establish relationship between tables.

This relationship is called as parent and child relationship. It is also called master detail relationship.
A foreign key column in the child table will only accept values which are their the primary key column
or unique
column of parent table.

*Check constraint: Check constraint is used to define domain of a column. Domain of column mean
values a column can store.
Create table student4(sno number(3),
Sname varchar2(10),
Marks number(3));
Insert into student4 values(101,ARUN,66);
Insert into student4 values(102,ARUN,80);
Insert into student4 values(103,ARUN,166);
*Check constraint at table level:
Create table student8(sno number(3),
Sname varchar2(10),
Page 17 of 36

Marks number(3),
Check (sname = upper(Sname)));
Note: Every constraint will have a constraint name in the format of SYS_Cn(where N is number).
Ex: SYS_c004525, SYS_c004526
*ALTER:
*Adding Constraints: Alter command is used to add a constraint to an Existing table.
Ex:
Create table Student10(sno number(3),
Sname varchar2(10),
Marks number(3));
Insert into student10 values(101,Arun,60);
Insert into student10 values(102,Arun,80);
Insert into student10 values(103,Arun,90);
ALTER table student10 ADD(Primary key(Sno));
*Dropping a constraint:
Alter command is used to drop a constraint to an existing table.
Ex:
Alter table student10 DROP Primary key;
*Unique Constraint:
Ex:
Create table Student11(sno number(3),Sname varchar2(10), Marks number(3));
Insert into student11 values(101,Arun,60);
Insert into student11 values(102,Arun,80);
Insert into student11 values(103,Arun,90);
ALTER table student11 ADD(Unique(sno));
ALTER table student11 DROP Unique(Sno);
***JOINS: joins are used to retrieve the data from multiple tables.
Types of Joins:
1. EQUI_JOIN
2. NON EQUI_JOIN
3. SELF JOIN
4. OUTER JOIN
4.1 Right outer join
4.2 Left outer join
4.3 Full outer join
1.EQUI_JOIN: when tables are joined basing on a common column it is called EQUI_JOIN.
Ex: select empno, ename, dname from emp, dept where emp.deptno = dept.deptno;
output: EMPNO
7369
7499
7521

ENAMEDNAME
SMITH
RESEARCH
ALLEN
SALES
WARD
SALES
Page 18 of 36

Note:
We need to mention join conditions in the where clause.
In EQUI_JOINS we along use to equal to operator in join condition.
Ex:
Selete empno, ename, sal, job, dname, loc
from emp, dept
where emp.deptno = dept.deptno;
Selete empno, ename, sal, deptno, dname, loc
from emp, dept
where emp.deptno = dept.deptno;// error
Selete empno, ename, sal, emp.deptno, dname, loc
from emp, dept
where emp.deptno = dept.deptno; //valid

Note: we need to mention table name dot column(emp.deptno) name for the common column to
resolve the any table.
The common column can be retrieved from any of the table.
We can filter the data from the result of join.
Ex:
Select empno, ename, sal, emp.deptno, dname, loc
from emp, dept
where emp.deptno = dept.deptno AND sal > 2000;
To improve the performance of the join we need mention table name dot column name for all th
columns.
Ex:
Select emp.empno, emp.ename, emp.sal,emp.deptno, dept.dname, dept.loc
from emp,dept
where emp.deptno = dept.deptno AND sal > 2000;
*Table alias:
Table alias is an alternate name given to a table.
By using a table alias length of the table reduces and at the same time performance is maintains.
Table alias are create in same clause can be used in select clause as well as where clause.
Table alias is temporary once the query is executed the table alias are losed.
Ex:
Select E.Empno, E.Ename, E.sal, E.deptno, D.Dname, D.loc
from emp E, Dept D
where E.deptno = D.deptno;
*Join the multiple tables(3 tables):
Select * from Areas;
City
State
Newyork AP
Dallas
Mh
Ex: Select E.empno, E.ename, E.sal,D.dname,A.state from emp E, dept D, Areas A
where E.deptno = D.deptno AND D.loc = A.city;
Note: To join n tables we need n-1 conditions.
Page 19 of 36

*NON EQUI JOIN: When we do not use NON EQUI JOIN to operator in the join condition is NON EQU
JOIN.
Ex:
Select * from SALGRADE;
GRADE LOSALHISAL
1
700
1200
2
1201
1400
3
1401
2000
4
2001
3000
5
3001
9999
Select e.empno, e.ename, e.sal, s.grade from emp e, salgrade s
where e.sal BETWEEN s.losal AND hisal;
EMPNO ENAMEGRADE
7369
SMITH
7876
ADAMS
7900
JAMES

1
1
2

Select e.empno, e.ename, s.grade from emp e, salgrade s

where e.sal BETWEEN s.losal AND s.hisal AND s.grade = 4;

*SELF JOIN: When a table is joining to it self it is called self join. In self joins we need to create two
table aliases for
the same table.
Select empno, ename, job, mgr, from emp;
Select e.empno, e.ename, e.job, m.ename from emp e, emp m
where e.mgr = m.empno;

Empno
7902
7869
7900

EnameJobEname
FORD
ANALYST
JONES
SCOTT
CLERK
JONES
JAMES
SALESMAN BLAKE

*CARTESIAN PRODUCT:
When tables are joined without any join condition it is called Cartesian product. In the result we get a
possible
combination.
Select e.empno, e.ename, e.sal, e.deptno, d.dname, d.loc
from emp e, dept d; //14*4=56 rows are selected
*ANSI JOINS: They are the three types.
1. Inner joins: It is same as Equi join.
Ex:
Select e.empno, e.ename, e.sal, e.deptno, d.dname, d.loc
from emp e INNER JOIN dept d ON(e.deptno = d.deptno);
Page 20 of 36

2.NATURAL JOIN: It is same as Equi join.

Ex:
Select empno, ename, sal, deptno, dname,loc from NATURAL JOIN dept;
3.CROSS PRODUCT/CROSS JOIN: It is same as Cartesian product.
Ex:
Select e.empno, e.ename, e.sal, e.deptno, d.dname, d.loc
from emp e CROSS JOIN dept d; //14*4 = 56 rows are displayed.
*DEFAULT:
Ex:
Create table stu1(sno number(3), Sname varchar2(10),
Marks number(3) default 100,
Doj Date DEFAULT sysdate);

Insert into stu1(sno, sname) values(101,malli);

Insert into stu1 values(102,ARUN,40,11-JAN-09);
Insert into stu1 values (103,KIRAN,NULL,12-FEB-10);
SNO
SNAME MARKSDOJ
101
malli
100
26-JUN-12
102
ARUN
40
11-JAN-09
103
KIRAN
12-FEB-10
*SUPER KEY: Combination of columns which can be used unique key identify every row is called a
super key.
Table
object
Column
Attributes
Row
Tuple/Record
*OUTER JOINS: It is extension of EQUI JOINS.
In outer joins we get match as well as non matching rows.
(+) This called as outer join operator.
1. RIGHT OUTER JOIN:
SQL Syntax:
Select e.empno, e.ename, e.sal, e.deptno, d.dname, d.loc
from emp e, dept d
where e.deptno(+) = d.deptno; //14 + 1 = 15 rows
empno
7900
8963
6798

enamesaldeptnodnameloc
james
950
30
adams
1400
20
adams
2000
10
anaylist

sales
clerk
sales
ap

chicago
newyork
india

*ANSI SYNTAX OF RIGHT OUTER JOIN:

ANSI SYSTAX:
Select e.empno, e.ename, e.sal, e.deptno, d.dname, d.loc
from emp e RIGHT OUTER JOIN dept d ON(e.deptno = d.deptno);
2. LEFT OUTER JOIN:
SQL Syntax:
Select e.empno, e.ename, e.sal, e.deptno, d.dname, d.loc
from emp e, dept d
where e.deptno = d.deptno(+); //14+3 = 17 row displayed
Page 21 of 36

ANSI SYNTAX OF LEFT OUTER JOIN:

ANSI SYNTAX:
Select e.empno, e.ename, e.sal, e.deptno, d.dname, d.loc
from emp e LEFT OUTER JOIN dept d ON(e.deptno = d.deptno);
3. FULL OUTER JOIN:
ANSI SYNTAX:
Select e.empno, e.ename, e.sal, e.deptno, d.dname, d.loc
from emp e FULL OUTER JOIN dept d ON(e.deptno = d.deptno);
//14 + 2 + 3 = 19 rows are displayed.
*SET OPERATORS: Set operators are used to retrieve the data from multiple tables.
They are different types.
1. UNION:
Select * form student10;
Snosnamemarks
101
Arun
40
102
Arun
50
103
Arun
69
Select * from student20;
Snosnamemarks
103
Arun
90
104
Arun
60
Union Syntax: (no duplicates)
Select sno from student 10
Union
Select sno from student 20;

//0/p sno: 101 102 103 104

2. UNION ALL:
Union All Syntax: (All rows)
Select sno from student 10
Union All
// o/p sno: 101 102 103 103 104
Select sno from student 20;
3. INSERT SECT:
Insert Sect Syntax: (common rows)
Select sno from student 10
Insert Sect
Select sno from student 20;

// o/p sno: 103

4. MINUS:
Select sno from student 10
Minus
Select sno from student 20;
Select sno from student 20
Minus
Select sno from student10;

//o/p sno: 101,102

// o/p sno: 104

RULES OF SET OPERATORS:

1. Number of columns used in the query should match.
2. Column data type should match for the queries in set operators.
Select empno from emp
Page 22 of 36

Union
Select sno from student10
Union
Select deptno from dept;

// valid

**TCL (Transaction Control Language): It is collection of three commands. They are

1. COMMIT
2. ROLLBACK
3. SAVE POINT
*Commit: This command is used to make changes permanent to the data base.
Syntax: COMMIT;
Ex:
Create table student(sno number(3),
Name varchar2(10),
Marks number(3));
Insert into student values(300,Arun,69);
Insert into student values(301,Kiran,69);
Insert into student values(302,Naga,69);
Select * from student300;
Create table student1(sno number(3),
Name varchar2(10),
Marks number(3));
Insert into student1 values(300,Arun,69);
Insert into student1 values(301,Kiran,69);
Insert into student1 values(302,Naga,69);
COMMIT;
In three ways we can make changes permanent to the data base.
1. By using command COMMIT
2. By using DDL command
3. By using the environment using EXIT command
*ROLLBACK: The rollback will undo the changes which are not permanent.
Syntax:
ROLLBACK;
Ex:
Create table student2(sno number(3),
Name varchar2(10),
Marks number(3));
Insert into student2 values(300,Arun,69);
Insert into student2 values(301,Kiran,69);
Insert into student2 values(302,Naga,69);
COMMIT;
Insert into student2 values(304,Arun,69);
Insert into student2 values(305,Kiran,69);
Page 23 of 36

Select * from student2; //display 5 rows

ROLLBACK;
Select * from student2; //display 3 rows there are permanently
*SAVE POINT: Save points are logical marking given for series of transaction.
Instead of complete rollback we can rollback to a save point.
Syntax: SAVEPOINT<SAVEPOINT_NAME>;
Ex:
Create table student3(sno number(3),
Name varchar2(10),
Marks number(3));
Insert into student3 values(300,Arun,69);
Insert into student3 values(301,Kiran,69);
Insert into student3 values(302,Naga,69);
Insert into student3 values(303,Arun,69);
Insert into student3 values(304,Kiran,69);
SAVEPOINT A;
Insert into student3 values(305,Naga,69);
Insert into student3 values(306,Kiran,69);
Insert into student3 values(307,Naga,69);
Select * from student3;

//8 rows displayed

ROLLBACK;
Select * from student3;

//5 rows are displayed

Create table student4(sno number(3),

Name varchar2(10),
Marks number(3));
Insert into student4 values(300,Arun,69);
Insert into student4 values(301,Kiran,69);
SAVEPOINT P;
Insert into student4 values(302,Naga,69);
Insert into student4 values(303,Naga,69);
SAVEPOINT Q;
Insert into student4 values(304,Naga,69);
Insert into student4 values(305,Naga,69);
Select * from student4;
ROLLBACK;
Select * from student4;

// 6 rows
//0 rows

Note: All the save points are lost when the DB is permanent.
***DCL (Data Control Language):
Page 24 of 36

They are two Data Control Languages.

1. GRANT
2. REVOKE
Schema: Schema is a memory location which is associated to a user.
It is collection of objects.
Privilege: privileges are permissions (rights given to a user)
They are two types of privileges.
1. System Privileges
2. Object Privileges
*System Privileges: These privileges are given by DBA to user.
*Object Privileges: These Privileges are given by one user to another user.
*GRANT: Grant command is used to Grant the privileges to the user.
Syntax:
GRANT <PRIVILEGE_NAME1>,<PRIVILEGE_NAME2> TO <USER_NAME>;
Ex:
Create user kiran IDENTIFIED by kiran123;
Create user naga IDENTIFIED by naga123;
DBA> GRANT CONNECT, RESOURCE to kiran;
*Object Privileges: These privileges are given by one user to another user.

KIRAN

DBA

AJAY

KIRAN> create table student(Sno number(3),

Name varchar2(10),
Marks number(3));
KIRAN> insert into student values(101,Arun,99);
KIRAN> insert into student values(101,Anil,97);
KIRAN> insert into student values(101,Anitha,95);
COMMIT;
Select * from student;
AJAY> select * from student; //There is no response
KIRAN> GRANT select ON student TO AJAY; // KIRAN given privileges to AJAY
Examples of object privileges are select, insert, update, drop and alter etc.
Page 25 of 36

KIRAN> GRANT insert, update ON student TO AJAY;

AJAY> insert into KIRAN.student values(104,Nandini,89);
AJAY> update KIRAN.student set sno = 102 where ename = Arun;
KIRAN> GRANT ALL ON student TO AJAY,ANIL;
KIRAN> GRANT select ON student TO public;
**REVOKE: This command is used to get back the privileges which are granted.
Syntax: REVOKE<privilege_name><privilege_name> ON <table_name> from <user_name>;
Ex:
KIRAN> REVOKE select, insert ON student from AJAY;
KIRAN> REVOKE ALL ON student from AJAY_ANIL;
KIRAN> REVOKE select ON student from public;
**DML (data manipulation language)
MERGE: MERGE command is used as a combination of insert and update.
Select * from student10; // 3 rows are displayed
SNO
SNAME MARKS
101
Arun
30
102
Anil
40
103
Kiran
50
Select * from student20; // 2 rows are selected
SNO
SNAME MARKS
101
James
90
105
Smith
50
KIRAN>
2>
3>
4>
5>
6>
7>

merge into student10 s1

using student20 s2
on(s1.sno = s2.sno)
when matched
then updated set sname = s2, sname, marks = s2, marks
when not matched
then insert(sno, sname, marks) values(s2.sno, s2.sname, s2.marks);

o/p: 2 rows merge

SNO
SNAME
101
James
102
Anil
103
Kiran
105
Smith

MARKS
90
40
50
50

Note: There will be no changes student20 table.

Delete from emp where ename = null;
Select * from emp where eno = 7369 or eno = 7499 or eno = 7521;
Select * from emp where eno IN(7369,7499,7521);
**PSEUDO COLUMNS:
1. ROWNUM: It is ROWNUM is a pseudo column which starts with one and increment by 1. (1 and
1+1)
Ex:
Select Rownum, empno, ename, sal, deptno from emp;
Page 26 of 36

Rownum values are temporary.

Rownum values are generated when query is executed.
Rownum values generation always starts with one and increment by one.
*Query to display first three rows from emp table?
Select * from emp where Rownum <=3;
Select * from emp where Rownum <=10;
*write a query to display 5th row of emp table?
Select * from emp where Rownum <=5
Minus
Select * from emp where Rownum <=4; //5th row is display
*write a query to display 3rd row to 7th row?
Select * from emp where Rownum <=7
Minus
Select * from emp where Rownum <=2; //3rd to 7th row display
**ROWID:
ROWID is pseudo column which contains hexadecimal values.
ROWID value indicates the address where the row is store in the database.
ROWID values are permanent.
Ex:
Select ROWID, empno, ename, sal, deptno from emp;
*Difference between ROWNUM and ROWID?
ROWNUMROWID
1.Rownum values starts with 1 and
increment by one.
2.Rownum values are temporary.
3.Rownum values are generated
when query is exiecuted.

1. Rowids are hexadecimal values.

2. Rowid values are permanent.
3. The Rowid values are generated when
Row is created or inserted.

Create table student(Sno number(3),

Sname varchar2(10),
Marks number(3));
Insert into student values(101,Arun60);
Insert into student values(101,Arun60);
Insert into student values(101,Arun60);
Insert into student values(102,Arun70);
Insert into student values(102,Arun70);
Select * from student;
Delete from student where Rownum IN(1,2,3); // this is not right query
Select Rowid, sno, sname, marks from student;
Select min(Rowid) from student;
Select min(Rowid) from student group by sno;
Page 27 of 36

*Subqueries:
Subqueries are used to get the result based on unknown values. They are different type.
1. Single Row subquery
2. Multiple Row subquery
3. Multiple column subquery
4. Co-related subquery
5. Scalar subquery
6. Inline view
*Single Row Subquery:
When subquery returns one row (1 value). It is called Single RowSubquery.
Ex: write a query to display details are having salary > ALLENS sal ?
Select * from emp where sal > (select sal from emp where ename = ALLEN);
o/p: 1600
Note: Sub queries should always place in the inside.
Sub queries are executed first and then parent query is executed by using the result of sub query.
Level Two query:
Select * from emp where job = (select job from emp where ename = ALLEN)
AND job = (select job from emp where ename = BLAKE);
Level Three query:
Select * from emp where sal > (select sal from emp
Where ename = (select ename from emp
Where empno = 7499));
Note: The above query is three level query.
Sub query can be nested upto 32 levels.

**Multiple Row Subquery:

When subquery returns multiple rows. It is called multiple row salary.
Note: we should multiple row operators with multiple row subqueries. They are three multiple row
operators.
1. IN
2. ANY
3. ALL
*ALL: Select * from emp
Where sal > ALL(Select sal from emp
Where deptno = 30);
Empno ename
7369
SMITH
7860
ALLEAN

job
salesman
ANALYST

sal
2975
3000

Ex: Select * from emp where sal < ALL(1600,2500,1250,3000,950);

*ANY: Select * from emp where sal > ANY(select sal from emp
where deptno = 30);
Select * from emp where sal < Any(select sal from emp where deptno = 30);
Page 28 of 36

*IN: Select * from emp where ename IN(ALLEN, KING,FORD);

Select * from emp where sal IN(select sal from emp where deptno = 30);
*MULTIPLE COLUMN SUBQUERY:
When subquery return more then one column. It is called multiple column subquery.
We should use in operator with multiple column subqueries.
Ex:
Select * from emp where(job,sal) IN(select job, sal from emp where deptno = 30);
o/p:

Job
salesman
manager
salesman

sal
1600
1250
2850

Note: In the o/p we get the rows when both the values are matching.
Delete some valuesu:
Select * from student;
Select min(rowid) from student group by sno;
Select max(rowid) from student group by sno;
Delete from student
where rowid not
IN(select min(rowid) from
student group by sno);
*write a query to display the row from emp table who is having the highest salary?
Select * from emp where sal = (select max(sal) from emp);
*write a query to display all the rows who are having salary grater than AVG salary of emp table?
Select * from emp where sal >(select AVG(sal) from emp);
*write a query to display all deptno AVG salary?
Select deptno, AVG(sal) from emp group by deptno;
*Co-RELATED SUBQUERY:
When subquery is executed in relation to parent query, it is called co-related subquery.
*write a query to display all the rows who are having salary grater than AVG salary his department?
Select AVG(sal) from emp;
Select * from emp where sal > (select AVG(sal) from emp group by deptno); //invalid
Select * from emp where sal > (select AVG(sal) from emp where deptno = 10);

***Select * from emp e

where sal > (select AVG(sal) from emp where deptno = e.deptno);
o/p:

sal
1600

deptno
30
Page 29 of 36

2975
2850
3000
5000
3000

20
30
20
10
20

The above example is a co-related subquery.

In co-related subquery, parent query is executed first and then subquery is executed in relation to
result of parent query.
*SCALAR subquery: when we use subquery in the select clause. It is called as Scalar subquery.
*write a query to display following output?
Deptno Dname
loc
sumsal
10
Accounting
New York
8750
20
Research
Dallas
10875
30
Sales
Chicago
9400
40
Operations
Boston
-----Select deptno, dname, loc, (Select sum(sal) from emp where deptno = d.deptno)
Sum_sal from dept d;
Scalar subquery are also called sub select.
*INLINE VIEW:
When a subquery is used in from clause. It is called INLINE view.
Select
Select
Select
Select

Rownum, empno, ename, sal, deptno from emp;

* from emp where Rownum <=5;
* from emp;
* from emp ORDER BY sal desc;

*write a query to display details of employees who are having top 5 salaries?
Select * from emp where Rownum <=5 ORDER BY sal desc;
Select * from (select * from emp ORDER BY sal desc) where rownum <=5;
*write a query to display details of 5th highest salary?
Select * from (select * from emp ORDER BY sal desc)
where rownum <=5)
minus
Select * from (select * from emp ORDER BY sal desc)
where rownum <=4;

clause
select yes
from
yes
where yes
group by no
having yes
order by no

subcaluse
scalar
inline

Page 30 of 36

*views: view is a logical representation of data from one or more then one table.
They are different types
Simple views
Complex views
Read only views
With check option views
Materialized views
*Single views: when view is created using one base table it is called as Single view.
Sybtax:
Create view<view_name> as <select STMT>;
Ex:
Create view v1 as select empno, ename, sal from emp;
View does not contain any data.
View does not consume memory location.
When we write select statement on view, we get the data from the table.
Ex: Select * from v1;
Empno
7369
7499
-------------

Ename
Smith
Allen
-----------

Sal
800
1600
-----------

Tables which are used for creating the view are called as above tables.
Select * from TAB; will gives list of all the tables and view which are the data base tables.
Ex:
Create view emp_V10 AS select empno, ename, sal, deptno, from emp
where deptno = 10;
Create view emp_V10 AS select empno, ename, sal, deptno, from emp
where deptno = 20;
Create view emp_V10 AS select empno, ename, sal, deptno, from emp
where deptno = 30;
Select * from V10;
Select * from V20;
Select * from V30;
We can perform DML operations on simple views.
Any DML operation performed on simple view will be reflected on base table.
To see the structure of the table.
Ex:
DESC V1
Name Null
Type
Empno Notnull
number(4)
Ename
varchar2(10)
Sal
number(7,2)
Page 31 of 36

*Query to see only view tables?

Select view_name from user_views;
Outputs: V1, emp_v10, emp_20, emp_30, V5
user_views is an example of data dictionary table.
Create view test_v6 as select empno, ename, sal, deptno from emp where deptno = 30;
Select * from Test_v6;
// 6 rows are selected
Insert into Test_v6 values(6868, Anil,2000,10);
Select * from Test_v6;
// 6 rows are selected
Select empno, ename, sal, deptno from emp where deptno = 30;
View_name
Text
Test_v6
select empno, ename, sal, deptno
from emp where deptno = 30;

In user_view from the database we get list of all the view and corresponding select statement used fo
the view.
Select view_name, Text from user_views;
*Complex view:
When a view is created using multiple base tables it is called Complex view.
Ex:
Create view Test_v7
As select e.empno, e.ename, e.sal, e.deptno,
d.dname, d.loc from emp e, dept d where e.deptno = d.deptno;
insert into Test_v7 values(7878,ravi,9000,40,HR,HYD); // Error
msg: DML operations are not allowed in complex views.
Create view Test_v8
As select empno, ename, sal, sal*12 from emp; // Error
Create view Test_v8
As select empno, ename, sal, sal*12 Annual_sal from emp;
Select * from Test_v8;
Insert into Test_v8 values(1212,GMR,1000,12000); // Error
Create view Test_v9
As select empno, ename, Lower(ename) Name from emp;
A view is called as complex view when we use arithmetic operations an functions are group by
clauses.
Create view Test_v10
As select deptno, sum(sal) sum_sal from emp group by deptno;
***Different between simple and complex views?
Simple view
Complex view
1. Created by using only one table.1. Created by using multiple tables.
2. DML operations are allowed.
2. DML operations are not allowed.
3. Should not be created using
3. Can be created using arithmetic
arithmetic operations or functions
operations or functions or group by
or group by clauses.
clauses.
Page 32 of 36

*Read Only View:

We can restrict DML operation views by creating read only view.
Ex:
Create view v3
As select empno, ename, sal, deptno from emp with read only;
Select * from v3;
Insert into v3 values(3131,ABC,10000,60); // Error
Create or replace clause is used to change definition of the view.
Create or replace view v4
As select empno, ename, sal, deptno, job from emp;
*With Check Option View:
These views will allow DML operation only when where condition is satisfied.
Create view Test_V12
As select empno, ename, sal, deptno from emp
Where deptno = 30
With check option;
Insert into Test_V12 values(666,AAA,4000,30);
Insert into Test_V12 values(888,AAA,4000,10);

// valid
// error (invalid)

Create view Test_V13

As select empno, ename, sal, deptno from emp
Where sal > 2000
With check option;
Select * from Test_V13;
Insert into Test_V13 values(6969,AAA,3100,10);
// valid
Insert into Test_V13 values(6955,AAA1510,10);
// Invalid
Update Test_V13 set sal = 4000 where empno = 7566;
Update Test_V13 set sal = 1100 where empno = 7902;

//valid
// invalid

*materialized view:
Materialized views will help improving the performance of select statement on view.
To create materialized view, the based table should have primary key.
Changes to base table will not reflect on materialized view.
Materialized view or previously called as snap short.
Ex:
Create view Test_V14
As select empno, ename, sal, deptno from emp;
Create view Test_V15
As select e.empno, e.ename, e.sal, e.deptno,d.dname,d.loc
from emp e, dept d where e.deptno = d.deptno;
select * from Test_V14;

//performance fast
Page 33 of 36

select * from Test_V15;

//performance fast two tables

Syntax:
Create MATERIALIZED view <VIEW_NAME> AS <select STMT>;
Ex:
Create materialized view MV1
As select empno, ename, sal, deptno from emp;
Select * from MV1;
*To Refresh materialized View:
Sql> exec DBMS_SNAPSHOT.REFRESH(MV1);
Select * from MV1;
DBMS_SNAPSHOT-PACKAGE NAME
REFRESH ---procedures
Select view_name from user_views;

//

All view tables are display

*To Drop a view:

Syntax:
Drop view <view_name>;
Ex:
Drop view Test_V14;
When base tables are drop, the view becomes invalid.
When base tables are re_created view will become valid.

***INDEX:
Index is an object which is used to improve the performance of select statements.
Types of Indexes: They are two types of Indexes.
1. Simple Index
2. Composite Index

1.Simple Index:
When index is created on one column it is called as simple index.
Syntax:
CREATE INDEX <INDEX_NAME> ON <TABLE_NAME> (COL_NAME);
Ex:
Create index IDX1 on emp(sal);
Index should be created on columns which we regularly use in the where clause.
When a index is created a separate structure is created with first column is ROWID and second
column as indexed column.
Page 34 of 36

The Rows in the index will be arranged in the ascending order of indexed column.
IDX1

ROWID

SAL
800
950
1100
1250
1600

Using algorithm is identifies the back of ROWIDs

5000
Using which rows are displayed.

*Composite Index: when Index is created multiple columns it is called composite index.
Ex: create index IDX2 on emp(sal,job);
The above index IDX2 is used only when both the columns are used in the where clause.
Disadvantages of index:
Index will consume memory.
The performance of DML command will be decreased.

Index can also be categorized two types:

1. Unique index
2. Non-unique index
*Unique Index:
If the indexed column contains unique value it is called unique index.
A unique index is automatically created. When we create a table with primary key constraint or
unique constraint.
*Non-unique index:
If an index column contains duplicated values they are called as non-unique index.
Ex: Create index IDX1 on emp(sal);
See to index tables:
Select index_name, from user_indexes;
*Query to see list of all the indexes.
Select index_name, table_name from user_indexes;
*Query to see list of all the indexes along with column name.
Select index_name, table_name, column_name from user_ind_columns;
Desc user_indexes
Desc user_ind_columns
Page 35 of 36

*function based index:

When index is created by using functions it is called as function based index.
Ex: Create index indexs on emp (lower(ename));
The index is used only when use the appropriate function in the where clause function.
Select * from emp where lower(ename) = king;
To drop on index:
Ex: Drop INDEX IDX1;
*Sequences: sequence is an object which is used to generate numbers.
Syn:
Create sequence <SEQUENCE_NAME> start with <value> increment by <value>;
Ex: Create sequence SE1 start with 1 increment by 1;
Ex: Create sequence SE4 start with 1000 increment by 1 maxvalue 5000 cycle;
*Using the Sequence: There are two pseudo to sequence.
1. NEXTVAL
2. CURRVAL
*NEXTVAL: Nextval is used to generate a number.
*CURRVAL: Currval is used to know the latest number generated.
Create sequence SE5 start with 101 increment by 1;
Insert into student7 values(SE5.NEXTVAL,Arun,60);
Insert into student7 values(SE5.NEXTVAL,Amit61);
Sequence is a sharable object.
When sequence is shared we get gaps in numbers.
Example of CURRVAL: To know the latest value generated.
Ex: Select SE5.CURRVAL from dual;
Sequence with cache option will help in generating the numbers faster.
Ex: Create sequence SE6 start with 1000 increment by 1 maxvalue 10000 cycle cache 40;
Cache option will help in improving the performance of sequence.
*Synonym: it is an alternate name given to an object.
Syntax: create synonym <Synonym_name> for <Table_name);
Ex:
Create synonym E1 for emp;
Synonym helps in reducing the length of the query.
Synonym is used instead of table names for all the commands.
Ex: Select * from E1;

Page 36 of 36